Title Council, Chaos, and Creation in the Book of Abraham

Author(s) Stephen O. Smoot

Reference Journal of the Book of Mormon and Other Restoration

Scripture 22/2 (2013): 2839.

ISSN 1948-7487 (print), 2167-7565 (online)

Abstract The Book of Abraham in the Pearl of Great Price

depicts the creation, including the motifs of the divine
council, primeval chaos, and creation from preexisting
matter. This depiction fits nicely in an ancient Near
Eastern cultural background and has strong affinities
with the depiction of the cosmos found in the Hebrew
Bible and other ancient Near Eastern texts (especially
Egyptian and Mesopotamian).
 COUNCIL, CHAOS, & CREATION
IN THE BOOK OF ABRAHAM
STEPHEN O. SMOOT

Nun, the god of the primeval waters (though the waters are not represented in this
colorful depiction), lifts a ship bearing the scarab beetle, who is pushing the rising
sun, symbolic of birth and transition. Book of the Dead of Anhai (ca. 1050 b c).

28 VOLUME 22 NUMBER 2 2013

 Joseph the Seer saw these Record[s] and by the reve
lation of Jesus Christ could translate these records . . . Abraham and other Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and
6
which when all translated will be a pleasing history even pagan traditions about the life of Abraham.
and of great value to the saints.1 The chapters in the Book of Abraham (Abra-
ham 35) focusing on the premortal council and the
I, Abraham: Introduction creation offer especially intriguing details that link

T
he Book of Abraham has an intriguing his- the Book of Abraham with the ancient world. A few
tory and serves as a repository for many of scholars have dissected these chapters, usually in dis-
7
the more unique doctrines of the Church of cussing the depiction of the cosmos in Abraham 3.
2
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. For instance, al- Given the many details that confirm the Book of
though the doctrine of the premortal existence of Abrahams ancient cosmology, an additional look at
mankind is spoken of elsewhere in Mormon scrip- these chapters is warranted. Specifically, upon close
ture (Alma 13:3; Doctrine and Covenants 138:5355; inspection, the Book of Abraham reveals a grand
Moses 3:5; 4:13; 6:51), it is in the Book of Abraham cosmological vision involving a council of gods, pri-
that this teaching is more fully elucidated (Abraham mordial chaos, and creation out of preexisting matter.
3:1828). Furthermore, important teachings about
the relationship between the priesthood and the The Gods Took Counsel among
Abrahamic covenant (Abraham 2:611), mans rela- Themselves: The Divine Council
tionship to God (Abraham 3:2228), and the creation Although this important motif is often missed by
(Abraham 45) are vividly detailed within the pages modern readers whose theological lenses frequently
of this book. predispose them to see only strict monotheism in
Hugh Nibley has articulated a very fruitful meth- the Bible, the scriptural depiction of God dwelling
odology in studying the Book of Abraham. Nibley in the midst of an assembly of other divine beings
has argued that while studying the Joseph Smith is essential to recognize in order to have a proper,
Papyri and the method of the translation of the nuanced, and complete understanding of the nature
Book of Abraham is indeed important, of equal of deity. When read with the proper hermeneutical
if not greater importance is to judge the Book of tools, it becomes clear that this teaching not only ap-
Abrahams contents against ancient Near Eastern tra- pears in multiple places in the Hebrew Bible, but also
ditions about the life of Abraham and thus discern in other Latter-day Saint scriptural works, including
whether we can find confirmatory evidence for its the Book of Abraham.
3
antiquity. Although Latter-day Saint commentators The biblical depiction of the divine council, as
on the Book of Abraham have focused primarily on summarized succinctly by Stephen A. Geller, por-
4
the doctrinal richness found therein, a few have trays God seated among the assembly of divine
also paid attention to the details of the text that be- beings, who are sometimes . . . called bene el(im) (the
speak its ancient origin. Following Nibleys lead, sons of gods) [and] kedoshim (holy ones), among
8
several scholars have offered analyses of the narra- other terms. The Prophet Joseph Smith defini-
tive of the Book of Abraham that demonstrate many tively taught this concept in 1844.
convergences between the text and the ancient Near
5 The head God called together the Gods and sat in
East. In addition, scholars have also drawn atten-
grand council to bring forth the world. The grand
tion to the many parallels between the Book of

FROM THE EDITOR:

Traditionally, though not uniformly, Christianity and Judaism have relegated all references to gods other than
the One God to pagan idolatry. Stephen Smoot, using more recent scholarship on the scriptural anomalies that
do seem to assume other divine beings, compares this vast body of material to the statements in the Book of
Abraham accounts of the creation. Thereby, he places the Abrahamic creation story squarely within its ancient
(read: theologically nontraditional) Near Eastern context.

JOURNAL OF THE BOOK OF MORMON AND OTHER RESTORATION SCRIPTURE 29

 plural suffix on both lm and dmt, which are the
equivalent of the English first person plural pronoun
us and the first person plural possessive determiner
our, respectively.
The use of the plural in these verses may leave
some modern readers perplexed. After all, such seems
to indicate a pluralistic depiction of God contrary to
modern Judeo-Christian theological sensitivities.
Christians therefore routinely read the Trinity into
these verses, or, along with Jewish readers, suggest a
plurality of majesty to account for the presence of
12
the plural.
Contrary to these common readings of the plu-
rals in Genesis 1:2627, scholars have recognized the
Vision of St. John the Evangelist by an unknown German
artist (ca. 1450, Cologne), in which the council of twenty- presence of the divine council in this text. According
four elders encircles the throne of God. to David M. Carr, the plural in these verses probably
refers to the divine beings who compose Gods heav-
councilors sat at the head in yonder heavens and 13
enly court. Everett Fox mentions in passing that
contemplated the creation of the worlds which were some take [Genesis 1:26] to refer to the heavenly
created at the time. . . . In the beginning, the head of 14
court. Jon D. Levenson, providing commentary in
the Gods called a council of the Gods; and they came
together and concocted [prepared] a plan to create an authoritative study Bible, writes, The plural con-
the world and people it.9 struction (Let us . . .) most likely reflects a setting in
the divine council. . . . God the King announces the
Many passages from the Hebrew Bible demon- proposed course of action to His cabinet of subordi-
15
strate the presence of a divine plurality. The textbook nate deities. Robert Hendel similarly notes, The
example from the Hebrew Bible is Psalm 82, which plural seems to refer to the lesser deities of the divine
16
Michael S. Heiser uses as his primary text to assert assembly described in other biblical texts. Marc
that it is not difficult to demonstrate that the He- Zvi Brettler informs us, [Genesis 1:2627] is implic-
brew Bible assumes and affirms the existence of other itly portraying God in terms of a human king: God
10
gods. This psalm vividly depicts God (lhm) is talking to his royal counselors or cabinet. . . . The
in his place in the divine council [ba-dat l]; in creation of people is so significant that this crea
the midst of the gods [b-qereb lhm] he holds tive act alone demands God consult his cabinet,
11 17
judgment (Psalm 82:1 NRSV). After reprimand- [composed] of angels or other divine figures. Fi-
ing these gods for neglecting their duty to protect nally, Gerald Cooke acknowledges at least a strong
the vulnerable of humanity, God affirms the divine possibility that [Genesis 1:2627] represent[s] a con-
18
nature of the members of the council while simul- ception of a plurality of divine beings.
taneously issuing a dire threat should they persist Examples of Gods heavenly court in the He-
in their malfeasance. I say, You are gods [lhm], brew Bible could be multiplied (e.g., Genesis 3:22;
19
children of the most high [bn elyn], all of you; Deuteronomy 32:89, 43; 1 Kings 22:1923; Isaiah
nevertheless, you shall die like mortals, and fall like 6:14; 40:15; Job 1:612; 2:16). The divine council is
any prince (Psalm 82:67 NRSV). likewise present, with some conceptual differences,
Most important for our present investigation is in the religious systems of Israels neighboring cul-
the depiction of the divine council in Genesis 1:26 tures, including Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is a
27 (NRSV), where, shortly before completing the thoroughly ancient Near Eastern concept that is
creation, God declares to an unspecified audience, usually only reluctantly or begrudgingly admitted
Let us make [nah] humankind in our image by traditional Jewish and Christian exegetes as also
[balmn], according to our likeness [kidmtn]. being biblical.
The Hebrew uses the first person common plural On the other hand, the presence of the divine
prefix on ah, as well as the first person common council in the Book of Abraham could not be more
30 VOLUME 22 NUMBER 2 2013
explicit. Abraham, according to Abraham 3, was in other scriptural creation accounts. This descrip-
granted a vision that included viewing the assembled tion of the Gods taking counsel among themselves
spirits that composed the premortal council. during their creative deliberations is crucial in identi-
fying the presence of the divine council in Abraham
Now the Lord had shown unto me, Abraham, the 45.
intelligences that were organized before the world The explicit use of counsel to describe the ac-
was; and among all these there were many of the
tions of the Gods in Abraham 4 links it with the
noble and great ones; And God saw these souls that
they were good, and he stood in the midst of them, Hebrew noun sd, which can be defined as both
and he said: These I will make my rulers; for he council as well as counsel. It conveys the sense
stood among those that were spirits, and he saw that of friends holding a private conversation in an inti-
they were good. (Abraham 3:2223)20 mate assembly or circle, as well as secrets that God
24
imparts to his prophets (Amos 3:7), and is used in
As David E. Bokovoy has explained, the detail the Hebrew Bible to refer both to the divine council
that God stood in the midst of the council may itself (cf. Psalm 89:67) as well as to the counseling
25
seem trivial at first glance, but in fact contains im- that the gods do among themselves in the council.
portant ramifications for the depiction of God as I hasten to clarify what I am not claiming. I am
21
the head of the council. Whats more, the Book not claiming that the Book of Abraham employs the
of Abrahams identification of these preexistent in- word sd in describing the premortal council. Be-
telligences of the council with the stars of heaven cause we presently possess only an English rendering
appears to be using language that is part of the cul- of the text, there remains, of course, the question of
tural and religious environment of the ancient Near whether the Book of Abraham was originally writ-
22
East (compare Abraham 3:1618). ten in Hebrew, Egyptian, or another ancient Near
26
Notwithstanding the somewhat unfortunately Eastern language. What I am claiming, however,
misplaced chapter division, the premortal council
scene of Abraham 3 actually extends into Abraham One important aspect of a number of Egyptian
45. Instead of being a break in the narrative, the ac-
count of the creation in Abraham 45 should be read creation myths is the motif of primordial water
as an extension and continuation of the narrative in from which the earth, or, more properly, a
Abraham 3. That is to say, the divine council is intro-
duced in Abraham 3 because it is the divine council primeval hill or landmass, springs out of.
that will carry out the creation in Abraham 45. The
narrative informs us, And then [i.e., immediately is that narrative details in the Book of Abraham
after the conflict in Abraham 3:2728 is resolved and grant us confidence to conclude that the text shares
a course of action is selected] the Lord said: Let us a conceptualization of Gods sd similar to that of
go down. And they went down at the beginning, the Hebrew Bibles. As weve just seen, the Book of
and they, that is the Gods, organized and formed the Abraham presents a depiction of the divine council
heavens and the earth (Abraham 4:1). that includes assemblage of its members (Abraham
The text proceeds to use the plural Gods as the 3:2223), deliberation or conflict (Abraham 3:2728),
subject carrying out the creation. There can be no a decree from the chief (Abraham 3:27), and an ulti-
doubt that these Gods include those from Abraham mate enactment of the decree (Abraham 4:1). This is
3 whom the Lord in verse 1 instructed to accompany the same pattern we see in divine council narratives
27
him and go down to carry forth the creation, in in the Hebrew Bible and elsewhere.
terminology perfectly suited for divine council ima
23
gery (compare Abraham 4:2627; 5:4). But perhaps Empty and Desolate: The Primordial Chaos
the most glaring detail in Abraham 45 that indicates Genesis 1:2 informs us that at the creation the
the presence of the divine council is that the Gods earth was a formless void and that darkness covered
are said to have taken counsel among themselves the face of the deep, while the Book of Abraham in-
as they carried forth their creative acts (Abraham dicates that the earth, after it was formed, was empty
4:26; compare 5:15), a detail not explicitly described and desolate and that darkness reigned upon the

JOURNAL OF THE BOOK OF MORMON AND OTHER RESTORATION SCRIPTURE 31

 face of the deep (Abraham 4:2). The Hebrew of Gene
sis 1:2 uses highly technical vocabulary to describe
this formless void. The earth at the time of creation,
according to the Hebrew text, was th w-bh. The
New Revised Standard Version quoted above offers a
perfectly acceptable translation, while E. A. Speiser
28
translates the phrase as a formless waste. Douglas
A. Knight and Amy-Jill Levine argue that a formless
29
void is an appropriate translation of this idiom,
and commentary provided by the New Interpreters
Bible speaks of th w-bh as something desolate
30
and unproductive. Finally, Gordon J. Wenham sug-
gests that unproductive and uninhabited is the un-
31
derlying meaning of th w-bh. Regardless of the
precise translation, th w-bh thus seems to be a
description of chaos.
But what are we to understand in Genesis 1:13
and Abraham 4:12 by the deep (thm) upon which
darkness (ek) covered? Bendt Alster identifies
thm as the primeval sea that denotes the cosmic
32
sea on which the world rests. Allen P. Ross con-
curs, noting that thm refers to the salty deep, the
ocean, and thereby figuratively to the abyss . . . the
33
primeval ocean. Fox simply designates thm as
the primeval waters, a common (and usually divine)
34
image in ancient Near Eastern mythology. This
identification of thm as primeval water is supported
later in the verse, where we read that the spirit, or
wind, of God (ra lhm) swept over the waters
[ha-mim] at the beginning of Gods creation.
To help us better understand the precise nature
of thm, we diverge briefly from the Hebrew Bible
to examine an important cognate of thm in the
celebrated Babylonian creation myth and temple lit-
urgy Enuma Elish. As Alster explains, thm is related
35
to the Akkadian Tiamat, who in the Enuma Elish is
an evil goddess conquered by the god Marduk and
whose spoiled carcass becomes the primordial cos-
36
mic ocean at the creation of the world (4.12546).
Since its discovery and translation in the late nine-
teenth century, scholars have recognized the shared
cosmological conceptions between Genesis 1 and the
Enuma Elish. Although a direct dependence between
the two creation mythologies cannot be maintained,
and several significantly different cosmological con-
37
ceptualizations exist between the two myths, it is
apparent that the Israelites and Babylonians (as well
The artists representation of nebulae (Nos. 1, 4, 2)swirling
clouds of gases and dust particlesthought by many to be as other surrounding ancient Near Eastern cultures,
star-forming regions. Sherrie Nielsen Nielsen Designs Inc. for that matter) shared many commonalities in their
32 VOLUME 22 NUMBER 2 2013
creation mythologies, including the depiction of
deity overcoming chaos by bringing it into order
38
through either a cosmic battle or divine fiat.
Also significant for Latter-day Saints is the Enuma
Elishs depiction of the primeval theomachy in the
council of the gods, wherein Tiamat and her evil
host of warrior gods battle against Marduk for reign
over the divine council and, ultimately, the cosmos
39
(34.129). The motif of a primeval theomachy in the
divine council likewise appears in the Book of Abra-
ham, in this instance between the premortal Jehovah
and Satan over the agency of mankind (Abraham
3:2228; compare Moses 4:14). Again, this is not to
say that the Book of Abraham and the Enuma Elish are
drawing directly on each other but rather to note the
common presence of this motif in ancient Near East-
40
ern creation mythology.
The Egyptians shared a similar cosmological out-
look with their Semitic neighbors. For example, one Amor Vincit Omnia. Courtesy of Wulf Barsch.
important aspect of a number of Egyptian creation
myths is the motif of primordial water from which formed out of chaotic primeval water are also found
the earth, or, more properly, a primeval hill or land- at Memphis and Hermopolis, both associated with
mass, springs out of. Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson, their respective deities.43
for example, write about the creator-god and solar But besides just conceptualizing creation from
deity Atum (later Atum-R), who, in the creation primordial matter, it is apparent that the Egyptians
mythology of Heliopolis, came into being by rising likewise conceived of creation as consisting of the es-
up from Nun, the waters of chaos, and thus became tablishment of order. James P. Allen writes about the
41
the primeval mound. Gnter Burkard identifies importance of Maat in Egyptian cosmology as a force
Nun as the primeval ocean, whom he describes of nature that was established at the creation. Allen
42
as being chaotic, unorganized and preexisting. explains that Maat is the natural order of the uni-
Similar creation myths that involve the earth being verse that on a cosmic level governed the proper
functioning of the universe. Maat should therefore
The Singhn. Courtesy of Wulf Barsch. be understood as order, justice; and truth. The
opposite of Maat is jzft, which represents chaos,
disorder, or disharmony and is generated by unruly
humans. These two forces are constantly at war with
each other in Egyptian cosmology. It is the duty, par-
ticularly of the pharaoh, to preserve Maat in Egyptian
society and thus keep chaos at bay. By doing so the
pharaoh is imitating the creator who established a
44
balanced universe.
What we therefore have in these mythologies is
a conception of creation in which a deity fashions
chaotic, watery mass into order. The conquering
of chaos depicts the deity as the rightful, mighty
king over his newly fashioned cosmos. This is true
also for the biblical depiction of creation (which
shouldnt come as a surprise, given, as explained ear-
lier, that Genesis shares cosmological conceptions

JOURNAL OF THE BOOK OF MORMON AND OTHER RESTORATION SCRIPTURE 33

 similar to those of other Near Eastern cultures).45 to be divided by placing an expanse in the midst of
Adele Berlin and Brettler, for example, have pointed them (Abraham 4:6).
out that Psalm 24:12, a hymn celebrating God, That the Gods in the Book of Abraham overcame
creator and victor, echoes the depiction in Gene a previously ruling chaos to establish their own do-
sis 1:13, wherein God tamed the primeval waters minion can be seen in the texts usage of the word
and founded the earth upon them (Ps. 136.6); He is reign to describe the position of the chaotic darkness
therefore to be acknowledged as the supreme sov- before the Gods fashioned the cosmos (Abraham 4:2).
46
ereign of the world. Robert A. Oden Jr. indicates What is more, the Book of Abrahams creation account
that the depiction of the formless void in Genesis 1 portrays the Gods in much more regal terms than
is that of watery and dark undifferentiated matter that of Genesis. Thus, we read of the Gods forcefully
that existed prior to the formation of a structured ordering this or that aspect of the cosmos, which
47
cosmos, and J. H. Hertz helpfully explains that obligingly obey when commanded (Abraham 4:7,
Genesis 1:13 describes the reduction of chaos to or- 912, 18, 21, 25). The language in the Book of Abraham
48
dered arrangement. Along these lines, J. R. Porter conjures the same imagery typical of the Near Eastern
comments that Genesis 1 follows the ancient Near creation mythology we have reviewednamely, that
Eastern depiction of a deitys victory over the forces of kingly dominion establishing order over a previ-
of chaos, represented by threatening waters, as a ously chaotic cosmos.
result of which the god is established as a supreme
49
king. We Will Take of These Materials:
Creation ex materia
In close conjunction with the concept of God
fashioning an ordered cosmos out of chaotic mat-
ter is the concept that God created the earth not ex
nihilo, or out of nothing, but rather ex materia, or
51
from preexisting matter. It is therefore not sur-
prising that creation ex materia is present in the
Genesis and Abraham accounts of creation. Unfail-
ingly throughout Abraham 4 and 5 the verbs organize
and form are used to describe the creative activity of
the Gods. The presence of preexistent matter that
the Gods form and organize is also apparent. We
will go down, says God in the prologue to the Book
of Abrahams creation account, for there is space
there, and we will take of these materials, and we
The god Shu, supported by two Heh gods, separates his mother Nut, god-
dess of the sky, from Geb, the earth god, who reclines beneath. Book of the will make an earth whereon these [speaking of the
Dead of Anhai (ca. 1050 bc). preexistent intelligences] may dwell (Abraham
3:24). Commenting on this verse, Richard D. Draper,
The Book of Abrahams portrait of creation from S. Kent Brown, and Michael D. Rhodes explain, The
primordial water is consistent with the Near East- earth and its solar system were not created ex nihilo,
ern myths we have seen above. The text speaks of out of nothing, as traditional Christianity teaches,
the deep upon which darkness reign[ed] as the but from existing matter. . . . The elements that are
Spirit of the Gods was brooding upon the face of the the building blocks of the Creation have always ex-
50 52
waters (Abraham 4:2). Eventually were informed isted. Indeed, Speiser argues that, despite the
that the Gods ordered, saying: Let the waters under theological and philosophical implications of Gene-
the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and sis 1 speaking of coexistent matter, the text should
53
let the earth come up dry out of them (Abraham be allowed to speak for itself.
4:9). These waters from which the earth arises out of Of crucial importance is the verb used by God in
are the primeval waters that the Gods commanded the first verse of Genesis. The verb in Hebrew is br;
it is highly unique, occurring only about fifty times
34 VOLUME 22 NUMBER 2 2013
and being used only by God in the Hebrew Bible.54
Although it is often rendered as create in various
translations, another meaning of the word could also
55
be to form or fashion. John H. Walton writes
that the verb br in Genesis 1:1 most likely means
giving the aforementioned (see above) primordial
chaos a function or a role within an ordered cos-
56
mos. Walter Brueggemann similarly clarifies that
the concept of creation in Genesis is that of an or-
57
dering out of an already existing chaos. As Walton
elaborates, concerning the concept of creation in the
Hebrew Bible and ancient Near Eastern thought,

something is brought into existence functionally,

not necessarily materially; rarely would the state-
ment concern the issue of matter. Indeed, the text
never uses bara in a context in which materials are
mentioned. Thus instead of suggesting manufacture Glory to God. 2012, Hilary Onyon.
of matter out of nothing (as many have inferred in
the past), that materials are not mentioned suggests Barney similarly concludes that the doctrine of
that manufacture is not the issue.58 creatio ex nihilo is . . . nowhere attested in the Hebrew
Bible, and the historical evidence strongly favors
Latter-day Saint scholar Kevin L. Barney ex- Joseph Smiths rejection of creation ex nihilo in his
64
plains that the verb [br] seems to be used in the reading of Genesis 1:1.
59
sense of shaping or fashioning. To illustrate, Wal- Thus, to read the concept of creation ex nihilo
ton compares Gods act of creating in Genesis 1:1 as into the text of Genesis 1:1 is to wrest this account
that of a human creating a painting. One can create out of its primary ideological and historical context.
a piece of art, but that expression does not sug- Although Jewish and Christian theologians have
60
gest manufacture of the canvas or paint. In his gone to great pains to try to demonstrate the pres-
monumental King Follett discourse, Joseph Smith ence of creation ex nihilo in the biblical text, it simply
65
insightfully compared the process of creation in does not exist. In this regard, as in the previous
Genesis 1:1 to that of building a ship. two, the Book of Abrahams description of creation
from primordial matter is right at home in the an-
Now, the word create came from the word baurau cient Near East.
[br] which does not mean to create out of noth-
ing; it means to organize; the same as a man would
To Possess Greater Knowledge: Conclusion
organize materials and build a ship. Hence, we infer
that God had materials to organize the world out The Book of Abraham invites its readers to
of chaoschaotic matter, which is element, and in drink deeply from its doctrinally rich pages. The
which dwells all the glory.61 narrative itself opens with Abraham expressing his
heartfelt longing to become a greater possessor of
Josephs views on this point are not far removed truth and righteousness (Abraham 1:13; cf. 2:1213).
from those of biblical scholars such as Brettler, who But besides having a doctrinal richness, the Book
indicates that the creation account in Genesis does of Abraham also has strong ties with ancient Near
not describe creation out of nothing. . . . Primeval Eastern, including particularly biblical, cosmology.
stuff already exists in [Genesis 1], and the text shows Although questions still remain regarding the pre-
no concern for how it originated. Rather, it is a myth cise manner in which Joseph produced the Book of
about how God alone structured primordial matter Abraham, including its relationship to the Egyptian
62 66
into a highly organized world. Fox straightfor- papyri he received in 1835, and although questions
wardly comments, Gen. 1 describes Gods bringing remain as to how precisely Josephs study of Hebrew
63 67
order out of chaos, not creation from nothingness. influenced his translation of the Book of Abraham,

JOURNAL OF THE BOOK OF MORMON AND OTHER RESTORATION SCRIPTURE 35

 there can be little doubt that the cosmological con-
cepts in the Book of Abraham of the divine council, Stephen O. Smoot is an under-
the conquering of chaos by the Gods, and creation graduate student at Brigham
Young University pursuing
from primordial matter fit nicely in the ancient
bachelors degrees in ancient
world. n Near Eastern studies and
German studies.

NOTES 23294; Richard D. Draper, S. Kent 2011), 13756; Nibley, Abraham in

Brown, and Michael D. Rhodes, The Egypt, passim.
Pearl of Great Price: A Verse-by-Verse 7. John Gee, William J. Hamblin, and
1. Karen Lynn Davidson, Richard L. Commentary (Salt Lake City: Deseret Daniel C. Peterson, And I Saw the
Jensen, and David J. Whittaker, eds., Book, 2005), 177236, 24682. Al Stars: The Book of Abraham and
The Joseph Smith Papers, Histories, though these commentaries also Ancient Geocentric Astronomy, in
Vol. 2: Assigned Histories, 18311847 cover historical and other aspects Astronomy, Papyrus, and Covenant,
(Salt Lake City: The Church Histo- of the Book of Abraham, the major ed. John Gee and Brian M. Hauglid
rians Press, 2012), 86. emphasis in each of these com- (Provo, UT: FARMS, 2005), 116;
2. On the history of the Book of mentaries is coverage of doctrinal Michael D. Rhodes and J. Ward
Abraham, see Jay M. Todd, The Saga themes. Moody, Astronomy and Creation
of the Book of Abraham (Salt Lake 5. Nibley, Abraham in Egypt, 163301; in the Book of Abraham, in Astro-
City: Deseret Book, 1969); H. Donl Hugh Nibley, An Approach to nomy, Papyrus, and Covenant, 1736;
Peterson, The Story of the Book of the Book of Abraham (Provo, UT: Kerry M. Muhlestein, Encircling
Abraham: Mummies, Manuscripts, and FARMS, 2009), 375468; Paul Y. Astronomy and the Egyptians: An
Mormonism (Salt Lake City: Deseret Hoskisson, Where Was Ur of the Approach to Abraham 3, Religious
Book, 1995); Kerry M. Muhlestein, Chaldees? in The Pearl of Great Educator 10/1 (2009): 3350.
Prelude to the Pearl: Sweeping Price: Revelations from God, ed. H. 8. Stephen A. Geller, The Religion of
Events Leading to the Discovery of Donl Peterson and Charles D. Tate the Bible, in The Jewish Study Bible,
the Book of Abraham, in Prelude Jr. (Provo, UT: BYU Religious Stud- ed. Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Bret-
to the Restoration: Apostasy to the Re- ies Center, 1989), 11936; John Gee tler (New York: Oxford University
stored Church, ed. Steven C. Harper and Stephen D. Ricks, Historical Press, 2004), 202728. For other
et al. (Provo, UT: BYU Religious Plausibility: The Historicity of the investigations into this subject, see
Studies Center, 2004), 14960; Brian Book of Abraham as a Case Study, generally Gerald Cooke, The Sons
M. Hauglid, A Textual History of the in Historicity and the Latter-day Saint of (the) God(s), Zeitschrift fr die
Book of Abraham: Manuscripts and Scriptures, ed. Paul Y. Hoskisson alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 35/1
Editions (Provo, UT: Neal A. Max- (Provo, UT: BYU Religious Studies (1964): 2247. For an important
well Institute for Religious Scholar- Center, 2001), 6398; John Gee and Latter-day Saint commentary on the
ship, 2010), esp. 120. Kerry Muhlestein, An Egyptian divine council, see Daniel C.
3. Hugh Nibley, Abraham in Egypt, Context for the Sacrifice of Abra- Peterson, Ye Are Gods: Psalm 82
2nd ed. (Salt Lake City: FARMS and ham, Journal of the Book of Mormon and John 10 as Witnesses to the
Deseret Book, 2000), 14. and Other Restoration Scripture 20/2 Divine Nature of Humankind, in
4. For a sampling of LDS doctrinal (2011): 7077; John Gee, Abraham The Disciple as Scholar: Essays on
commentaries on the Book of and Idrimi, Journal of the Book of Scripture and the Ancient World in
Abraham, see Milton R. Hunter, Mormon and Other Restoration Scrip- Honor of Richard Lloyd Anderson,
Pearl of Great Price Commentary (Salt ture 22/1 (2013): 3439. ed. Andrew H. Hedges, Donald W.
Lake City: Bookcraft, 1951), passim; 6. John A. Tvedtnes, Brian M. Hauglid, Parry, and Stephen D. Ricks (Provo,
George Reynolds and Janne M. and John Gee, eds., Traditions about UT: FARMS, 2000), 471594.
Sjodahl, Commentary on the Pearl of the Early Life of Abraham (Provo, 9. Joseph Smith, History of the Church
Great Price (Salt Lake City: Deseret UT: FARMS, 2001); John Gee, An of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,
Book, 1965), 238367; Hyrum L. Egyptian View of Abraham, in ed. B. H. Roberts (Salt Lake City:
Andrus, Doctrinal Commentary on Bountiful Harvest: Essays in Honor Deseret Book, 1950), 6:3078. See
the Pearl of Great Price (Salt Lake of S. Kent Brown, ed. Andrew C. also Andrew F. Ehat and Lyndon W.
City: Deseret Book, 1969), passim; Skinner, D. Morgan Davis, and Carl Cook, eds., The Words of Joseph
H. Donl Peterson, The Pearl of Great Griffin (Provo, UT: Neal A. Maxwell Smith: The Contemporary Accounts of
Price: A History and Commentary Institute for Religious Scholarship, the Nauvoo Discourses of the Prophet
(Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1987), Joseph Smith (Provo, UT: BYU Reli-

36 VOLUME 22 NUMBER 2 2013

 gious Studies Center, 1980), 341, 345, 16. Ronald Hendel, Genesis, in The 29, indicates, As in [Genesis] 1:26,
351, 358. HarperCollins Study Bible, ed. Harold the plural (let us) probably reflects
10. See Michael S. Heiser, Monothe- W. Attridge (New York: HarperOne, an address to the divine council.
ism, Polytheism, Monolatry, or 2006), 6. 24. F. Brown, S. Driver, and C. Briggs,
Henotheism? Bulletin for Biblical 17. Marc Zvi Brettler, How to Read the eds. and comps., The Brown-Driver-
Research 18/1 (2008): 24, and also Jewish Bible (New York: Oxford Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon,
1920. Heiser is not alone in recog- University Press, 2007), 4243. rep. ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrick-
nizing the divine council in Psalm 18. Gerald Cooke, The Sons of (the) son, 2010), s.v. sd. See also Lud-
82. Rebecca Lesses indicates, The God(s), Zeitschrift fr die alttesta- wig Koehler and Walter Baumgart-
divine council also appears in Ps. menliche Wissenschaft 76/1 (2009): ner, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon
82.1, where its members are called 2223. of the Old Testament (Leiden: Brill,
gods. See Rebecca Lesses, Divine 19. Although not present in the 1995), s.v. sd. For commentary,
Beings, in The Jewish Annotated Masoretic Text, due undoubtedly see David E. Bokovoy, Invoking
New Testament, ed. Amy-Jill Levine to scribal mangling, the Qumran the Council as Witnesses in Amos
j q
and Marc Zvi Brettler (New York: manuscripts 4QDeut and 4QDeut 3:13, Journal of Biblical Literature
Oxford University Press, 2011), 544. offer variant readings of these two 127/1 (2008): 3751.
11. It must be remembered that both passages in Deuteronomy 32 that 25. For an extensive discussion of sd,
lhm or l could be used as either unmistakably show the presence see Heinz-Josef Fabry, sd, in
a noun or an abstraction. This can, of the divine council. See Martin Theologisches Wrterbuch zum Alten
at times, confound readers as to Abegg Jr., Peter Flint, and Eugene Testament, ed. G. Johannes Botter-
which sense (nominal or abstract) Ulrich, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls weck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-
is being used in a given passage. Bible (San Francisco: HarperOne, Josef Fabry (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer,
When no grammatical clues are 1999), 19193. For commentary, see 1986), 5:775782. See also the discus-
present, the key is usually to rely Carmel McCarthy, Biblia Hebraica sion of sd in Bokovoy, Ye Really
on the context of the passage to Quinta: Deuteronomy (Stuttgart: Are Gods, 299303; S. B. Parker,
govern the translation. For reasons Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2007), Council, in Dictionary of Deities
too complex to relate here, I concur 14041, 15253. and Demons of the Bible, 39298.
with the NRSV that divine council 20. The Book of Abrahams noble and 26. There is also the theory that Joseph
is perhaps the most fitting transla- great ones call to mind the Anun- is the inspired author of a pseude-
tion of dat l. Still, regardless of naki of Mesopotamian religion, pigraphal Book of Abraham com-
whether one translates dat l as whom Jean Bottro identifies as the posed in English in the nineteenth
divine council or council of God, most powerful, the most eminent, century. See, for example, Karl C.
the meaning of the psalm is not and, in some ways, the upper class Sanberg, Knowing Brother Joseph
substantially altered. or chiefs of the other [gods]. Jean Again: The Book of Abraham and
12. J. R. Dummelows popular, though Bottro, Religion in Ancient Mesopo- Joseph Smith as Translator, Dia-
outdated, biblical commentary tamia, trans. Teresa Lavender Fagan logue 22/4 (1989): 1737. Sanbergs ar-
offers the plurality of majesty (Chicago: University of Chicago gument is essentially that the Book
or royal we explanation as one Press, 2001), 55. of Abrahams contents are derived
possibility for explaining the plurals 21. David E. Bokovoy, Ye Really Are from Josephs inspired, prophetic
of Genesis 1:1627. See A Com- Gods: A Response to Michael interaction with contemporary en-
mentary on the Holy Bible, ed. J. R. Heiser concerning the LDS Use of vironmental sources (e.g., his study
Dummelow (New York: Macmillan, Psalm 82 and the Gospel of John, of Hebrew with Joshua Seixas, and
1920), 5. Stated briefly, the idea is FARMS Review 19/1 (2007): 27273. his exposure to the writings of
that monarchs have been known in 22. Ulf Oldenburg, The Conflict between Flavius Josephus). It is not within
some instances to speak in the plu- El and Baal in Canaanite Religion the scope of this paper to scrutinize
ral when referring to themselves, as (Leiden: Brill, 1969), 1719; E.Theo- this or other theories of the Book of
a sign of excellence or nobility, and dore Mullen Jr., The Divine Council Abrahams translation.
that this can account for the plural in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Lit- 27. Bokovoy, Ye Really Are Gods,
in the text. This explanation has erature (Chino, CA: Scholars Press, 27679.
been popular for some time among 1980), 19496, 203, 238, 24243; F. 28. E. A. Speiser, Genesis (Garden City:
Christians and Jews, as well as Lelli, Stars, in Dictionary of Deities Doubleday, 1964), 5.
among Latter-day Saints. See James and Demons of the Bible, ed. K. van 29. Douglas A. Knight and Amy-Jill
E. Talmage, Jesus the Christ (Salt Lake der Toorn, Bob Becking, and Peter Levine, The Meaning of the Bible:
City: Deseret Book, 1915), 38. Willem van der Horst (Leiden: Brill, What the Jewish Scriptures and the
13. David M. Carr, Genesis, in The 1999), 153040; Muhlestein, Encir- Christian Old Testament Can Teach Us
New Oxford Annotated Bible, ed. cling Astronomy, 36. (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2011),
Michael D. Coogan, rev. ed. (New 23. The same language is used in 200.
York: Oxford University Press, Genesis 11:7, where, after seeing the 30. Neil M. Alexander, ed., The New
2010), 12. unfavorable conditions of humans Interpreters Bible (Nashville: Abing-
14. Everett Fox, The Five Books of Moses operating with one language, don, 1994), 1:342.
(New York: Schocken Books, 1995), 15. Yahweh instructs his host: Come, 31. Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis, in
15. Jon D. Levenson, Genesis, in Jew- let us go down, and confuse their Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible, ed.
ish Study Bible, 14. language. As Levenson, Genesis,

JOURNAL OF THE BOOK OF MORMON AND OTHER RESTORATION SCRIPTURE 37

 James D. G. Dunn (Grand Rapids, MI: 40. For a Latter-day Saint view on this Kosmos, 449, likewise points to the
Eerdmans, 2003), 38. subject, see Stephen D. Ricks, Lit- importance of the Egyptian temple
32. Bendt Alster, Tiamat, in Dictionary urgy and Cosmogony: The Ritual as a microcosm recapturing this
of Deities and Demons of the Bible, Use of Creation Accounts in the creation mythology. That Latter-
1634. Ancient Near East, in Temples of the day Saint temples also recapture
33. Allen P. Ross, Creation and Blessing: Ancient World, ed. Donald W. Parry cosmic mythology in both ritual
A Guide to the Study and Exploration (Provo, UT: FARMS, 1994), 11825; and architecture, drawn, in large
of the Book of Genesis (Grand Rapids, Jeffrey M. Bradshaw and Ronan part, from the Book of Abraham,
MI: Baker Book House, 1988), 107. J. Head, The Investiture Panel at is not surprising. See Nibley, The
34. Fox, Five Books of Moses, 13. Mari and Rituals of Divine Kingship Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri: An
35. Alster, Tiamat, 1634. Victor P. in the Ancient Near East, Studies in Egyptian Endowment, 2nd ed. (Provo,
Hamilton simply calls thm the the Bible and Antiquity 4 (2012): 1116. UT: FARMS, 2005), passim; Nibley,
Hebraized form of Tiamat. See 41. Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson, The The Meaning of the Temple,
Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Dictionary of Ancient Egypt (London: in Temple and Cosmos (Provo,
Genesis: Chapters 117 (Grand Rapids, The British Museum, 1995), 45. The UT: FARMS, 1992), 141; Nibley,
MI: Eerdmans, 1990), 110. Knight worship of Atum, the primeval god Abrahams Creation Drama, in
and Levine agree, observing that who evolved from Chaos, is very The Temple in Time and Eternity,
the Hebrew word for deep is te- old, as seen in three utterances in ed. Donald W. Parry and Stephen
hom, a linguistic cognate to Tiamat, the Pyramid Texts (Utterance 527, D. Ricks (Provo, UT: FARMS, 1999),
the Babylonian goddess of the salt 587, and 600) describing his virility 142; Matthew B. Brown and Paul
seas. She represents the great abyss, and creative power and invoking Thomas Smith, Symbols in Stone:
the endless seas around and under him, along with the other members Symbolism of the Early Temples of the
the earth. See Knight and Levine, of the Ennead of n (Heliopolis), to Restoration (American Fork, UT:
Meaning of the Bible, 201. See also protect the king and his pyramid. Covenant Communications, 1997),
the insightful comments by Michael In Utterance 587 Atum is praised 97102; Matthew B. Brown, The Gate
D. Coogan, The Old Testament: A as being high in this your name of Heaven: Insights on the Doctrines
Historical and Literary Introduction of Height, while in Utterance 600 and Symbols of the Temple (American
to the Hebrew Scriptures (New York: Atum is said to have [become] high Fork, UT: Covenant Communica-
Oxford University Press, 2006), 59, on the height, [and risen] up as the tions, 1999), esp. 155.
where he discusses both the divine bnbn-stone in the Mansion of the 43. Shaw and Nicholson, Dictionary of
council in Genesis as well as the Phoenix in n. See Raymond O. Ancient Egypt, 2067, 210, 229, 283.
relationship between thm and Faulkner, The Ancient Egyptian Pyra- 44. Allen, Middle Egyptian, 11921. See
Tiamat. mid Texts (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969), also Jan Assmann, Of God and Gods:
36. For a translation, see Benjamin R. 198, 238, 24647. The creation myth Egypt, Israel, and the Rise of Monothe-
Foster, Enuma Elish, in The Con- involving Atum is also recorded, ism (Madison: University of Wiscon-
text of Scripture, ed. William W. with some variation, in the Coffin sin Press, 2008), 1112. Assmann,
Hallo (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 1:398. Texts. See Raymond O. Faulkner, Of God and Gods, cites an Egyptian
37. For instance, thm is nowhere The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts: Vol- text that speaks of the sun god and
personified as being evil in Genesis ume 1, Spells 1354 (Warminster: Aris creator, Re, [who] has placed the
1, whereas Tiamat is consistently & Phillips, 1973), esp. 8087. On the king on earth for ever and ever, in
portrayed as such throughout the bnbn-stone as the primeval hillock, order that he may judge mankind
Enuma Elish. see Hans Bonnet, Reallexikon der and satisfy the gods, establish Maat
38. For some treatments on the rela- gyptischen Religionsgeschichte (Berlin: and annihilate Isfet.
tionship between Genesis 1 and the de Gruyter, 1952), 71, 594; Richard H. 45. There is no doubt that the text
Enuma Elish, see Speiser, Genesis, Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and [of Genesis] utilizes older materi-
911 (where he shows that creation Goddesses of Ancient Egypt (London: als. It reflects creation stories and
from preexisting matter takes place Thames and Hudson, 2003), 99, 212; cosmologies of Egypt and Meso-
in the same order in both Genesis Franoise Dunand and Christiane potamia. However, the text before
1 and Enuma Elish); Hamilton, Book Zivie-Coche, Gods and Men in Egypt: us transforms these older materi-
of Genesis, 10911; J. Edward Wright, 3000 BCE to 395 CE, trans. David als to serve a quite new purpose,
Cosmogony, Cosmology, in The Lorton (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univer- a purpose most intimately related
New Interpreters Dictionary of the sity Press, 2004), 5052. to Israels covenantal experience.
Bible, ed. Katharine D. Sakenfeld 42. Gnter Burkard, Vorstellungen Walter Brueggemann, Genesis: A
(Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 2006), vom KosmosDie Weltgebude, in Bible Commentary for Teaching and
1:756-60; W. G. Lambert, Enuma gypten: Die Welt der Pharaonen, ed. Preaching (Atlanta: John Knox, 1982),
Elish, in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Regine Schulz and Matthias Seidel 24, emphasis in original. J.J.M.
ed. David Noel Freedman (New (Germany: Knemann, 1997), 447, Roberts similarly observes, The
York: Doubleday, 1992), 2:526- translation mine. See also James P. closest parallels to the Israelite
28; Bruce Chilton et al., eds., The Allen, Middle Egyptian: An Intro- cosmogonic myth come from the
Cambridge Companion to the Bible, duction to Language and Culture of Baal Epic at Ugaritthough the
2nd. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge Hieroglyphs, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: preserved Ugaritic texts do not
University Press, 2008), 5657. Cambridge University Press, 2010), explicitly tie Baals defeat of the sea
39. Foster, Enuma Elish, 39598. 130. Burkard, Vorstellungen vom dragon to creationbut there are

38 VOLUME 22 NUMBER 2 2013

 also Egyptian and Hittite texts of a Koehler and Baumgartner, Hebrew Parry, Daniel C. Peterson, and
similar character. J. J. M. Roberts, Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, Stephen D. Ricks (Provo, UT:
The Bible and the Ancient Near East s.v. br. FARMS, 2002), 31937.
(Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 56. John H. Walton, Ancient Near East- 66. For some helpful sources on this
2002), 51. ern Thought and the Old Testament subject, see generally John Gee,
46. Berlin and Brettler, Psalms, in Jew- (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, A Guide to the Joseph Smith Papyri
ish Study Bible, 1308, also 1434. See 2006), 181. (Provo, UT: FARMS, 2000); Nibley,
also Psalm 24:12. 57. Brueggemman, Genesis, 29. Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri,
47. Robert A. Oden Jr., Cosmogony, 58. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern esp. 130, 5162; Kerry Muhlestein,
Cosmology, in Anchor Bible Diction- Thought, 183. Walton has elsewhere Egyptian Papyri and the Book of
ary, 1:1166. written: Ancient traditions do Abraham: A Faithful, Egyptologi-
48. J. H. Hertz, The Pentateuch and Haf- not typically begin with nothing. cal Point of View, in No Weapon
torahs, 2nd ed. (London: Soncino, Instead, they start with a condi- Shall Prosper: New Light on Sensitive
1981), 2. tion devoid of order, function or Issues, ed. Robert L. Millet (Provo,
49. J. R. Porter, Creation, in The purpose. Creation then takes place UT: BYU Religious Studies Center,
Oxford Companion to the Bible, ed. by giving things order, function, 2011), 217243; Brian M. Hauglid,
Bruce M. Metzger and Michael and purpose, which is synonymous Thoughts on the Book of Abra-
D. Coogan (New York: Oxford with giving them existence. . . . ham, in No Weapon Shall Prosper,
University Press, 1993), 140. Inci- Instead of suggesting manufacture 24558.
dentally, scholars have argued for of matter out of nothing (as many 67. I am aware of the discussion of how
this reading of the creation myth have inferred in the past) . . . br Josephs study of Hebrew influ-
in Genesis since at least the turn of concerns bringing heaven and enced the production of the Book of
the last century. Das irdische All earth into existence by focusing on Abraham and am currently conduct-
ist also aus einer chaotischen Urflut operation through organization and ing my own research on the subject.
hervorgegangen. Die Lehre vom assignment of roles and functions. That an influence exists is beyond
chaotischen Urwasser fanden wir . . . Perhaps an English verb that question. For reasons too complex
in smtlichen Kosmogonien des captures this idea less ambiguously to discuss here, I am, however,
altorientalischen Vlkerkreises. is to design. John H. Walton, Cre- hesitant to attribute too much of an
Alfred Jeremias, Das Alte Testament ation, in Dictionary of the Old Testa- influence to Josephs study of He-
im Lichte des alten Orients (Leipzig: ment: Pentateuch, ed. T. Desmond brew beyond the transliteration and
Hinrichs, 1916), 36. Alexander and David W. Baker translation of some select phrases
50. Given what Ive noted earlier (see (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, and words. I am highly doubtful
n. 11), perhaps we could understand 2003), 156, 162. that Josephs study of Hebrew alone
the Spirit of the Gods to mean 59. Kevin Barney, Examining Six would have vouchsafed the complex
divine spirit. Key Concepts in Joseph Smiths cosmological details discussed in
51. It should be remembered that the Understanding of Genesis 1:1, this paper. Of course, ones assump-
term preexist or preexistence (from BYU Studies 39/3 (2000): 108. Walter tions about the translation of the
the Latin ex out + sistere take a Brueggemann has investigated some Book of Abraham (i.e., whether
stand) means pre-placement, not of the creative verbs used in con- one believes Joseph translated an
necessarily pre-being. junction with br elsewhere. See actual ancient text or composed the
52. Draper, Brown, and Rhodes, Pearl of Walter Brueggemann, Theology of text by revelation) will in large part
Great Price Commentary, 17879, and the Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, determine how one assesses the
also 280. Advocacy (Minneapolis, MI: Fortress evidence.
53. Speiser, Genesis, 13. Press, 1997), 14653.
54. Although I take exception with the 60. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern
interpretation of the theological sig- Thought, 183.
nificance of br, a good discussion 61. History of the Church, 6:309. Com-
of this verb is found in G. Johannes pare Ehat and Cook, Words of Joseph
Botterweck and Helmer Ring- Smith, 341, 345, 351, 359, 361.
gren, Theologisches Wrterbuch zum 62. Brettler, How to Read the Jewish Bible,
Alten Testament, ed. G. Johannes 41.
Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren 63. Fox, Five Books of Moses, 13.
(Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1973), s.v. 64. Barney, Examining Six Key Con-
br. See also John Goldingay, Old cepts, 110, 112.
Testament Theology: Israels Gospel 65. See Blake T. Ostler, Out of Noth-
(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, ing: A History of Creation ex
2003), 1:7583, esp. 7779; John H. Nihilo in Early Christian Thought,
Walton, The Lost World of Genesis 1: FARMS Review 17/2 (2005): 253-320;
Ancient Cosmology and the Origins De- Stephen D. Ricks, Ancient Views
bate (Downers Grove, IL: InterVar- of Creation and the Doctrine of
sity Press, 2009), 3645, esp. 4041. Creation Ex Nihilo, in Revelation,
55. See Brown, Driver, and Briggs, He- Reason, and Faith: Essays in Honor of
brew and English Lexicon, s.v. br, Truman G. Madsen, ed. Donald W.

JOURNAL OF THE BOOK OF MORMON AND OTHER RESTORATION SCRIPTURE 39