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Lecture 04 PT 1

Pauli's exclusion principle states that two electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state, explaining why only two electrons are found in the innermost orbit of atoms with atomic number greater than 2. Dirac's relativistic wave equation for electrons predicted the existence of antimatter by allowing for both positive and negative energy solutions, with the negative energy states corresponding to the positive energy states of antimatter particles like positrons. The first experimental confirmation of antimatter came in 1932 when Carl Anderson observed positrons produced in cosmic ray interactions using a cloud chamber and applying a magnetic field to determine particle charge and momentum.

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Lecture 04 PT 1

Pauli's exclusion principle states that two electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state, explaining why only two electrons are found in the innermost orbit of atoms with atomic number greater than 2. Dirac's relativistic wave equation for electrons predicted the existence of antimatter by allowing for both positive and negative energy solutions, with the negative energy states corresponding to the positive energy states of antimatter particles like positrons. The first experimental confirmation of antimatter came in 1932 when Carl Anderson observed positrons produced in cosmic ray interactions using a cloud chamber and applying a magnetic field to determine particle charge and momentum.

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bgiangre8372
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Paulis exclusion principle

In Quantum Mechanics the electron orbits around the nucleus are quantized:
only some specific orbits (characterized by integer quantum numbers) are possible.

4SH0! 2 n 2
Example: allowed orbit radii and energies for the Hydrogen atom

Rn | 0 .53 u 10 10 2
n [m]
n = , , ......
2 m = memp/(me + mp)
me
 |  2 [eV]
me 4 13.6
2(4SH0 ) ! n
En 2 2 2
n
In atoms with Z >  only two electrons are found in the innermost orbit WHY?
ANSWER (Pauli, ): two electrons (spin = ) can never be
in the same physical state
Hydrogen (Z = ) Helium (Z = ) Lithium (Z = ) .....

Lowest Wolfgang Pauli


energy
state

Paulis exclusion principle applies to all particles with half-integer spin


(collectively named Fermions)
ANTIMATTER
Discovered theoretically by P.A.M. Dirac ()
Diracs equation: a relativistic wave equation for the electron
Two surprising results:
Motion of an electron in an electromagnetic field:
P.A.M. Dirac

presence of a term describing (for slow electrons) the

existence of an intrinsic electron magnetic dipole moment opposite to spin


potential energy of a magnetic dipole moment in a magnetic field

electron spin

Pe | 5.79 u 105 [eV/T]


e!
2me
electron
moment Pe
magnetic dipole

For each solution of Diracs equation with electron energy E !


there is another solution with E 
What is the physical meaning of these negative energy solutions ?
Generic solutions of Diracs equation: complex wave functions <( r , t)

the complex conjugate wave function <* is a positive-energy solution of


In the presence of an electromagnetic field, for each negative-energy solution

Diracs equation for an electron with opposite electric charge (+e)


Diracs assumptions:
nearly all electron negative-energy states are occupied and are not observable.
electron transitions from a positive-energy to an occupied negative-energy state
are forbidden by Paulis exclusion principle.
electron transitions from a positive-energy state to an empty negative-energy
state are allowed electron disappearance. To conserve electric charge,
a positive electron (positron) must disappear e+e annihilation.
electron transitions from a negative-energy state to an empty positive-energy
state are also allowed electron appearance. To conserve electric charge,
a positron must appear creation of an e+e pair.
empty electron negativeenergy states describe
positive energy states of the positron
Diracs perfect vacuum: a region where all positive-energy states are empty
and all negative-energy states are full.
Positron magnetic dipole moment = Pe but oriented parallel to positron spin
(C.D. Anderson, )
Experimental confirmation of antimatter

Detector: a Wilson cloud chamber (visual detector based on a gas


volume containing vapour close to saturation) in a magnetic field,
exposed to cosmic rays Carl D. Anderson

Measure particle momentum and sign of electric charge from

ev u B
magnetic curvature
& & &
Lorentz force f projection of the particle trajectory in a plane
perpendicular to B is a circle

Circle radius for electric charge _e_:


10 pA [GeV/c]
R [m]
3B [T]
pA: momentum component perpendicular
to magnetic field direction

e
NOTE: impossible to distinguish between
positively and negatively charged
particles going in opposite directions +e
need an independent determination of
the particle direction of motion
 MeV positron
First experimental observation
of a positron

 mm thick Pb plate

 MeV positron
direction of
high-energy photon

Production of an Cosmic-ray shower


electron-positron pair
by a high-energy photon containing several e+ e pairs
in a Pb plate

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