T. E.

(E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Introduction:

An antenna is defined by Websters Dictionary as a usually metallic device (as a rod

or wire) for radiating or receiving radio waves. The IEEE Standard Definitions of
Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 1451983) defines the antenna or aerial as a means
for radiating or receiving radio waves. In other words the antenna is the transitional
structure between free-space and a guiding device, as shown in Figure 1

Figure 1: Antenna as a transition device.

Near and Far Field Regions:

The field patterns, associated with an antenna, change with distance and are asso-
ciated with two types of energy: radiating energy and reactive energy. Hence,
the space surrounding an antenna can be divided into three regions, as shown in
Figure 2.

Reactive near-field region:

In this region, the reactive field dominates. The reactive energy oscillates towards
and away from the antenna, thus appearing as reactance. In this region, energy is
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

only stored and no energy is dissipated. The outermost boundary for this region is
p
at a distance R1 = 0.62 D3 /
Where R1 is the distance from the center of the antenna surface, D is the largest
dimension of the antenna and is the wavelength.

Figure 2: Field regions of an antenna.

Radiating Near Field:

Radiating near-field region (also called Fresnel zone): This is the region which lies
between the reactive near-field region and the far field region. Reactive fields are
smaller in this field as compared to the reactive near-field region and the radiation
fields dominate. In this region, the angular field distribution is a function of the
distance from the antenna. The outermost boundary for this region is at a distance
R2 = 2D2/ .
Where R2 is the distance from the center of the antenna surface.

Far-field region (also called Fraunhofer Zone):

The region beyond 2D2 / is the far field region. In this region, the reactive fields are
absent and only the radiation fields exist. The angular field distribution is nearly
planar and not dependent on the distance from the antenna. In this region the
power density in free space varies as the inverse square of the radial distance. In
this region only the wave from the antenna can be considered as TEM wave.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Radiation Pattern:

An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as a mathematical

function or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as
a function of space coordinates. In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined
in the far field region and is represented as a function of the directional coordinates.
Radiation properties include power flux density, radiation intensity, field strength,
directivity, phase or polarization. The radiation property of most concern is the
two- or three dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of the
observers position along a path or surface of constant radius. A convenient set of
coordinates is shown in Figure 3 For an antenna, the

Figure 3: Coordinate system for antenna analysis.

1. field pattern( in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude of

the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.

2. power pattern( in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square of the
magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.

3. power pattern( in dB ) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic

field, indecibels, as a functionof the angular space.

To demonstrate this, the two-dimensional normalized field pattern (plotted in linear

scale), power pattern( plotted in linear scale), and power pattern (plotted on a
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

logarithmic dBscale ) of a 10-element linear antenna array of isotropic sources, with

a spacing of d = 0.25 between the elements, are shown in Figure 4. In this and
subsequent patterns, the plus (+) and minus (-) signs in the lobes indicate the
relative polarization of the amplitude between the various lobes, which changes
(alternates) as the nulls are crossed. To find the points where the pattern achieves
its half-power (-3 dB points), relative to the maximum value of the pattern, you set
the value of the

field pattern at 0.707 value of its maximum, as shown in Figure 4(a)

power pattern (linear scale) at its 0.5 value of maximum, as shown in Figure
4(b)

power pattern (in dB) at -3 dB value of its maximum, as shown in Figure 4(c).

Radiation Pattern Lobes:

Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may be subclas-
sified into major or main, minor, side, and back lobes. A radiation lobe is a portion
of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.
Figure 5(a) demonstrates a symmetrical three dimensional polar pattern with a
number of radiation lobes. Some are of greater radiation intensity than others, but
all are classified as lobes. Figure 5(b) illustrates a linear two-dimensional pattern
[one plane of Figure 5(a)] where the same pattern characteristics are indicated.

Principal Patterns:

For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often described in terms of its

principal E- and H-plane patterns. The E-plane is defined as the plane containing
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 4: Two-dimensional normalized field pattern( linear scale), power pattern( linear
scale), and power pattern( in dB) of a 10-element linear array with a spacing of d = 0.25.

the electric field vector and the direction of maximum radiation, and the H-plane
as the plane containing the magnetic-field vector and the direction of maximum
radiation. Although it is very difficult to illustrate the principal patterns without
considering a specific example, it is the usual practice to orient most antennas so
that at least one of the principal plane patterns coincide with one of the geometrical
principal planes. An illustration is shown in Figure 6. For this example, the x-z
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 5: (a) Radiation lobes and beamwidths of an antenna pattern.(b)Linear plot of

power pattern and its associated lobes and beamwidths.

plane (elevation plane; = 0) is the principal E-plane and the x-y plane (azimuthal
plane; = /2) is the principal H-plane. Other coordinate orientations can be
selected.
The omnidirectional pattern of Figure 6 has an infinite number of principal E-planes
(elevation planes; = c ) and one principal H-plane (azimuthal plane; = 90 ).

Figure 6: Omnidirectional antenna pattern.

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Beamwidth:

Associated with the pattern of an antenna is a parameter designated as beamwidth.

The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two iden-
tical points on opposite side of the pattern maximum. In an antenna pattern, there
are a number of beamwidths. One of the most widely used beamwidths is the Half-
Power Beamwidth (HPBW ), which is defined by IEEE as: In a plane containing
the direction of the maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in
which the radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam. This is demonstrated
in Figure 4. Another important beamwidth is the angular separation between the
first nulls of the pattern, and it is referred to as the First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW
). Both the HPBW and FNBW are demonstrated for the pattern in Figure 7.
Other beamwidths are those where the pattern is -10 dB from the maximum, or any
other value. However, in practice, the term beamwidth, with no other identification,
usually refers to HPBW.
The beamwidth of an antenna is a very important figure of merit and often is used
as a trade-off between it and the side lobe level; that is, as the beamwidth decreases,
the side lobe increases and vice versa. In addition, the beamwidth of the antenna
is also used to describe the resolution capabilities of the antenna to distinguish be-
tween two adjacent radiating sources or radar targets. The most common resolution
criterion states that the resolution capability of an antenna to distinguish between
two sources is equal to half the first-null beamwidth (FNBW/2), which is usually
used to approximate the halfpower beamwidth (HPBW). That is, two sources sepa-
rated by angular distances equal or greater than F N BW/2 HP BW of an antenna
with a uniform distribution can be resolved. If the separation is smaller, then the
antenna will tend to smooth the angular separation distance.

Directivity:

The directivity of an antenna has been defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity
in a given direction (usually maximum direction) from the antenna to the radiation
intensity averaged over all directions. In other words, the directivity of a non-
isotropic source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a given (maximum)
direction, over that of an isotropic source.

Dmax = Umax /Ui

Where Dmax is the maximum directivity,
Umax is the maximum radiation intensity.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 7: Two-dimensional power pattern (in linear scale)

Figure 8: Directivity of isotropic and dipole antanna.

Directivity is a dimensionless quantity, since it is the ratio of two radiation intensi-

ties. Hence, it is generally expressed in dBi. The directivity of an antenna can be
easily estimated from the radiation pattern of the antenna. An antenna that has
a narrow main lobe would have better directivity, then the one which has a broad
main lobe, hence it is more directive.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Antenna Gain:

Antenna gain is a parameter which is closely related to the directivity of the antenna.
We know that the directivity is how much an antenna concentrates energy in one
direction in preference to radiation in other directions. Hence, if the antenna is
lossless (100% efficient), than the directivity would be equal to the antenna gain.
Since most of the antennas will radiate more in some direction than in the others,
the gain is the amount of power that can be achieved in one direction at the expense
of the power lost in the others. It is given as:

G(, ) = .D(, ) [dBi]

Polarization:

The polarization of a radiated wave is defined as that property of an electromagnetic

wave describing the time varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric field
vector. The polarization of an antenna refers to the polarization of the electric field
vector of the radiated wave. In other words, the position and direction of the electric
field with reference to the earths surface or ground determines the wave polarization.

Figure 9: Vertical linear polarization of dipole antenna.

The most common types of polarization include the linear (horizontal or vertical)
and circular (right hand polarization or the left hand polarization). If the path of the
electric field vector is back and forth along a line, it is said to be linearly polarized.
Figure 10 shows a linearly polarized wave. In a circularly polarized wave, the electric
field vector remains constant in length but rotates around in a circular path. A left
hand circular polarized wave is one in which the wave rotates counterclockwise,
whereas right hand circular polarized wave exhibits clockwise motion as shown in
Figure 10.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 10: Commonly used polarization schemes.

Return Loss:

Return loss is a measure of the effectiveness of power delivery from a transmission

line to a load such as an antenna. If the power incident on the antenna-under-test
(AUT) is in Pin and the power reflected back to the source is Pref , the degree of
mismatch between the incident and reflected power in the travel ling waves is given
by the ratio Pin /Pref . The higher this power ratio is, the better the load and line
are matched. Expressed in dB, return loss is defined

Return Loss = 10 log10 ( PPref

in
)

which is a positive quantity if Pref < Pin . Stated another way, RL is the difference
in dB between the power sent towards the AUT and the power reflected. It is a
positive non-dissipative term representing the reduction in amplitude of the reflected
wave in comparison with the incident one. This is the situation for a passive AUT.
A negative return loss is possible with active devices
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 1 Date :

Dipole Antenna

Objective

To Measure Radiation pattern, Return Loss, Impedance, Gain and Beam width of
Dipole antenna

Theory:
The half wave dipole is perhaps the simplest and most fundamental antenna design
possible. Hertz used a dipole antenna during his initial radio experimentation. This
is why a dipole is often referred to as the hertz dipole antenna. The dipole is so
practical that it is utilized (in some form) in at least half of all antenna systems
used today. Here are some key principles of the dipole antenna:

1. A dipole antenna is a wire or conducting element whose length is

half the transmitting wavelength.To calculate the length of a half wave
dipole in free space, one may use the following equation:

length (ft) = 492 / Frequency (MHz)

2. A dipole antenna is fed in the center.

3. The dipole antenna has a unique radiation pattern.

The radiation pattern of a dipole antenna in free space is strongest at right
angles to the wire. This pattern, when the antenna is positioned horizontally
over the ground, resembles a figure eight. Also, it is important to note that for
a signal to be received effectively, the receiving antenna must be in the same
plane as the transmitting antenna. If these are mismatched, a large portion
of the signal will be lost or distorted.

4. The dipole antenna is extremely flexible.

What changes can one make to a dipole to subsequently alter its radiation
pattern? There are limitless modifications that can be made. For instance:
Instead of keeping the 1/2 wavelength elements perpendicular to the transmis-
sion line, lets bend them or slope them by 45 degrees. This simple change
will modify the radiation pattern. What happens when we stack two dipoles
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

on top of each other, separated by one full wavelength of space, and feed them
in phase? This is known as a stackable phased array. This focuses more of
the radiated power towards the horizon, where it is most useful. Stacking
antennas for this purpose produces gain. Gain is useful because it improves
the strength of the signal that is transmitting or receiving. For instance: if
a signal is fed into an antenna with 3db (decibels) of gain. The transmitted
signal will appear on the receiving end twice as strong as it would have been if
the transmitting antenna had no gain. This can be quite beneficial to a com-
munications engineer. It is very costly to produce high powered transmitters.
Gain offers a good compromise.

Figure 1: Idealized dipole radiation pattern.

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Procedure:
For Beam Width Calculations

1. Connect the trainer kit with Dipole antenna as the receiver and a Dipole
antenna as the transmitter.

2. Set the frequency of operation in the transmitter and receiver.

3. Set the receiver to automatic mode.

4. Mount the receiver on the tripod.

5. Observe that the receiver power should be more than 40dB and less than
72dB.

6. Rotate the receiver antenna through a step size of 5 upto 360 .

7. Connect the receiver to plot software and see the log plot.

8. Calculate the Beam-width of the antenna and print the radiation pattern.

For Impedance Measurement

1. Connect the IN terminal of directional coupler to the transmitter output.

2. Connect the OUT terminal of directional coupler to an antenna under test.

3. Connect the COUPLED terminal to the receiver section.

4. Note down the forward power seen on the receiver screen.

5. Reverse the connections for IN and OUT terminals.

6. Note down the reverse power seen on the receiver screen.

7. Calculate return loss and impedance of antenna using formulae.

Formulae:

1. c = f

2. Return Loss = 20 log10 (where, = Reflection Coefficient)

3. Return Loss = Pf orward Preverse

1+
4. VSWR = 1

5. Impedance(ZL ) = V SW R Zo
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 2: RF Transmitter.

Figure 3: RF RECEIVER.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Observation Table:

Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output
0 120 240
5 125 245
10 130 250
15 135 255
20 140 260
25 145 265
30 150 270
35 155 275
40 160 280
45 165 285
50 170 290
55 175 295
60 180 300
65 185 305
70 190 310
75 195 315
80 200 320
85 205 325
90 210 330
95 215 335
100 220 340
105 225 345
110 230 350
115 235 355
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Calculations:

1. Reflection coefficient ():

2. Gain:

3. Return Loss:

4. Impedance:

Observations:

Type of Antenna :
Frequency :
Beam-width (HPBW) :
Forward Power :
Reverse Power :
VSWR :
Reflection coefficient() :
Impedance :
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 2 Date :

YagiUda Antenna

Objective

To Measure Radiation pattern, Return Loss, Impedance, Gain and Beam width of
YagiUda antenna

Theory:

A Yagi-Uda array, commonly known simply as a Yagi antenna, is a directional

antenna consisting of a driven element (typically a dipole or folded dipole) and
additional parasitic elements (usually a so-called directors and one or more reflector).
The name stems from its inventors, as the Yagi-Uda array was invented in 1926 by
Shintaro Uda of Tohoku Imperial University, Japan, with a lesser role played by his
colleague Hidetsugu Yagi. However the Yagi name has become more familiar with
the name of Uda often omitted. The reflector element is slightly longer (typically 5%
longer) than the driven dipole, whereas the so-called directors are a little shorter.
This design achieves a very substantial increase in the antennas directionality and
gain compared to a simple dipole.
Yagi-Uda antennas are directional along the axis perpendicular to the dipole in
the plane of the elements, from the reflector toward the driven element and the
director(s). Typical spacings between elements vary from about 1/10 to 1/4 of
a wavelength, depending on the specific design. The lengths of the directors are
smaller than that of the driven element, which is smaller than that of the reflector(s)
according to an elaborate design procedure. These elements are usually parallel in
one plane, supported on a single crossbar known as a boom.
The bandwidth of a Yagi-Uda antenna refers to the frequency range over which its
directional gain and impedance match are preserved to within a stated criterion.
The Yagi-Uda array in its basic form is very narrowband, with its performance
already compromised at frequencies just a few percent above or below its design
frequency. However using larger diameter conductors, among other techniques, the
bandwidth can be substantially extended.

Theory of Operation:
Consider a Yagi-Uda consisting of a reflector, driven element and a single director
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 1: Yagi-Uda Antenna.

as shown here. The driven element is typically a /2 dipole or folded dipole and
is the only member of the structure that is directly excited (electrically connected
to the feedline). All the other elements are considered parasitic. That is, they
reradiate power which they receive from the driven element (they also interact with
each other).
One way of thinking about the operation of such an antenna is to consider a parasitic
element to be a normal dipole element with a gap at its center, the feedpoint. Now
instead of attaching the antenna to a load (such as a receiver) we connect it to a
short circuit. As is well known in transmission line theory, a short circuit reflects
all of the incident power 180 degrees out of phase. So one could as well model the
operation of the parasitic element as the superposition of a dipole element receiving
power and sending it down a transmission line to a matched load, and a transmitter
sending the same amount of power down the transmission line back toward the
antenna element. If the wave from the transmitter were 180 degrees out of phase
with the received wave at that point, it would be equivalent to just shorting out
that dipole at the feedpoint (making it a solid element, as it is).

Figure 2: Radiation pattern of Yagi-Uda Antenna.

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

The fact that the parasitic element involved isnt exactly resonant but is somewhat
shorter (or longer) than /2 modifies the phase of the elements current with respect
to its excitation from the driven element. The so-called reflector element, being
longer than /2, has an inductive reactance which means the phase of its current
lags the phase of the open-circuit voltage that would be induced by the received field.
The director element, on the other hand, being shorter than /2 has a capacitive
reactance with the voltage phase lagging that of the current. If the parasitic elements
were broken in the center and driven with the same voltage applied to the center
element, then such a phase difference in the currents would implement an end-fire
phased array, enhancing the radiation in one direction and decreasing it in the
opposite direction. Thus one can appreciate the mechanism by which parasitic
elements of unequal length can lead to a unidirectional radiation pattern.

Design:
The design of a Yagi-Uda antenna is actually quite simple. Because Yagi antennas
have been extensively analyzed and experimentally tested, the process basically fol-
lows this outline:

Look up a table of design parameters for Yagi-Uda antennas

Build the Yagi (or model it numerically), and tweak it till the performance is
acceptable

As an example, consider the table published in Yagi Antenna Design by P Viezbicke

from the National Bureau of Standards, 1968, given in Table below. Note that the
boom is the long element that the directors, reflectors and feed elements are phys-
ically attached to, and dictates the lenght of the antenna.

Feed impedance of Yagi driven element:

It is possible to vary the feed impedance of a Yagi antenna over a wide range.
Although the impedance of the dipole itself would be 73 ohms in free space, this is
altered considerably by the proximity of the parasitic elements. The spacing, their
length and a variety of other factors all affect the feed impedance presented by the
dipole to the feeder. In fact altering the element spacing has a greater effect on the
impedance than it does the gain, and accordingly setting the required spacing can be
used as one design technique to fine tune the required feed impedance. Nevertheless
the proximity of the parasitic elements usually reduces the impedance below the 50
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

ohm level normally required. It is found that for element spacing distances less than
0.2 wavelengths the impedance falls rapidly away.

Yagi matching techniques:

Balun: A balun is an impedance matching transformer and can be used to match

a great variety of impedance ratios, provided the impedance is known when
the balun is designed.

Folded dipole: One method which can effectively be implemented to increase the
feed impedance is to use a folder dipole. In its basic form it raises the
impedance four fold, although by changing various parameters it is possible
to raise the impedance by different factors.

Delta match: This method of Yagi impedance matching involves fanning out
the feed connection to the driven element.

Gamma match: The gamma match solution to Yagi matching involves connecting
the out of the coax braid to the centre of the driven element, and the centre via
a capacitor to a point away from the centre, dependent upon the impedance
increase required.

Advantages:

1. Antenna has gain allowing lower strength signals to be received.

2. Yagi antenna has directivity enabling interference levels to be minimised.

3. Straightforward construction - the Yagi antenna allows all constructional ele-

ments to be made from rods simplifying construction.

4. The construction enables the antenna to be mounted easily on vertical and

other poles with standard mechanical fixings

Disadvantages:

1. For high gain levels the antenna becomes very long

2. Gain limited to around 20dB or so for a single antenna

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Procedure:
For Beam Width Calculations

1. Connect the trainer kit with YagiUda antenna as the receiver and a Dipole
antenna as the transmitter.

2. Set the frequency of operation in the transmitter and receiver.

3. Set the receiver to automatic mode.

4. Mount the receiver on the tripod.

5. Observe that the receiver power should be more than 40dB and less than
72dB.

6. Rotate the receiver antenna through a step size of 5 upto 360 .

7. Connect the receiver to plot software and see the log plot.

8. Calculate the Beam-width of the antenna and print the radiation pattern.

For Impedance Measurement

1. Connect the IN terminal of directional coupler to the transmitter output.

2. Connect the OUT terminal of directional coupler to an antenna under test.

3. Connect the COUPLED terminal to the receiver section.

4. Note down the forward power seen on the receiver screen.

5. Reverse the connections for IN and OUT terminals.

6. Note down the reverse power seen on the receiver screen.

7. Calculate return loss and impedance of antenna using formulae.

Formulae:

1. c = f

2. Return Loss = 20 log10 (where, = Reflection Coefficient)

3. Return Loss = Pf orward Preverse

1+
4. VSWR = 1

5. Impedance(ZL ) = V SW R Zo
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 3: RF Transmitter

Figure 4: RF Receiver
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Observation Table:

Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output
0 120 240
5 125 245
10 130 250
15 135 255
20 140 260
25 145 265
30 150 270
35 155 275
40 160 280
45 165 285
50 170 290
55 175 295
60 180 300
65 185 305
70 190 310
75 195 315
80 200 320
85 205 325
90 210 330
95 215 335
100 220 340
105 225 345
110 230 350
115 235 355
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Calculations:

1. Reflection coefficient ():

2. Gain:

3. Return Loss:

4. Impedance:

Observations:

Type of Antenna :
Frequency :
Beam-width (HPBW) :
Forward Power :
Reverse Power :
VSWR :
Reflection coefficient() :
Impedance :
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 3 Date :

Microstrip Antenna

Objective

To Measure Radiation pattern, Return Loss, Impedance, Gain and Beam width of
Microstrip antenna

Theory:

Microstrip antennas received considerable attention starting in the 1970s, although

the idea of a microstrip antenna can be traced to 1953 and a patent in 1955. Mi-
crostrip antennas, as shown in Figure 1, consist of a very thin (t  0 , where
0 is the free-space wavelength) metallic strip (patch) placed a small fraction of a
wavelength (h  0 , usually 0.0030 h 0.050 ) above a ground plane. The mi-
crostrip patch is designed so its pattern maximum is normal to the patch (broadside
radiator). This is accomplished by properly choosing the mode (field configuration)
of excitation beneath the patch. End-fire radiation can also be accomplished by
judicious mode selection. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the element is
usually 0 /3 < L < 0 /2. The strip (patch) and the ground plane are separated by
a dielectric sheet (referred to as the substrate), as shown in Figure 1 .
There are numerous substrates that can be used for the design of microstrip an-
tennas, and their dielectric constants are usually in the range of 2.2 r 12.
The ones that are most desirable for good antenna performance are thick substrates
whose dielectric constant is in the lower end of the range because they provide better
efficiency, larger bandwidth, loosely bound fields for radiation into space, but at the
expense of larger element size. Thin substrates with higher dielectric constants are
desirable for microwave circuitry because they require tightly bound fields to mini-
mize undesired radiation and coupling, and lead to smaller element sizes; however,
because of their greater losses, they are less efficient and have relatively smaller
bandwidths. Since microstrip antennas are often integrated with other microwave
circuitry, a compromise has to be reached between good antenna performance and
circuit design.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 1: Microstrip antenna.

Often microstrip antennas are also referred to as patch antennas. The radiating el-
ements and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate. The
radiating patch may be square, rectangular, thin strip (dipole), circular, elliptical,
triangular, or any other configuration. These and others are illustrated in Figure 2.
Square, rectangular, dipole (strip), and circular are the most common because of
ease of analysis and fabrication, and their attractive radiation characteristics, es-
pecially low cross-polarization radiation. Microstrip dipoles are attractive because
they inherently possess a large bandwidth and occupy less space, which makes them
attractive for arrays. Linear and circular polarizations can be achieved with either
single elements or arrays of microstrip antennas. Arrays of microstrip elements,
with single or multiple feeds, may also be used to introduce scanning capabilities
and achieve greater directivities.

Properties:
These antennas are low profile, conformable to planar and non planar surfaces,
simple and inexpensive to manufacture using modern printed-circuit technology,
mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces, compatible with MMIC de-
signs, and when the particular patch shape and mode are selected, they are very
versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern, and impedance. In
addition, by adding loads between the patch and the ground plane, such as pins and
varactor diodes, adaptive elements with variable resonant frequency, impedance,
polarization, and pattern can be designed.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 2: Representative shapes of microstrip patch elements.

Applications:
In high-performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, and missile applications, where
size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profile are
constraints, low-profile antennas may be required. Presently there are many other
government and commercial applications, such as mobile radio and wireless commu-
nications, that have similar specifications. To meet these requirements, microstrip
antennas can be used.

Disadvantages:
Major operational disadvantages of microstrip antennas are:

low efficiency

low power

high Q (sometimes in excess of 100)

poor polarization purity

poor scan performance

spurious feed radiation

very narrow frequency bandwidth

In some applications, such as in government security systems, narrow bandwidths

are desirable. However, there are methods, such as increasing the height of the sub-
strate, that can be used to extend the efficiency (to as large as 90 percent if surface
waves are not included) and bandwidth (up to about 35 percent). However, as the
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

height increases, surface waves are introduced which usually are not desirable be-
cause they extract power from the total available for direct radiation(space waves).
The surface waves travel within the substrate and they are scattered at bends and
surface discontinuities, such as the truncation of the dielectric and ground plane,
and degrade the antenna pattern and polarization characteristics. Surface waves
can be eliminated, while maintaining large bandwidths, by using cavities. Stack-
ing, as well as other methods, of microstrip elements can also be used to increase
the bandwidth. In addition, microstrip antennas also exhibit large electromagnetic
signatures at certain frequencies outside the operating band, are rather large physi-
cally at VHF and possibly UHF frequencies, and in large arrays there is a trade-off
between bandwidth and scan volume.

Figure 3: Normalized Radiation Pattern for Microstrip (Patch) Antenna.

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Feeding Methods:

Inset Feed: Previously, the patch antenna was fed at the end as shown in Figure 1.
Since this typically yields a high input impedance, we would like to modify
the feed. One method of doing this is by using an inset feed (a distance R
from the end) as shown in Figure 4. By feeding the patch antenna as shown,
the input impedance can be decreased. This method can be used to tune the
input impedance to the desired value.

Figure 4: Patch Antenna with an Inset feed.

Quarter-Wavelength Transmission Line Feed: The microstrip antenna can also

be matched to a transmission line of characteristic impedance Z0 by using a
quarter-wavelength transmission line of characteristic impedance Z1 as shown
in Figure 5. The goal is to match the input impedance (Zin) to the trans-

Figure 5: Patch Antenna with an Inset feed.

mission line (Z0). If the impedance of the antenna is ZA, then the input
impedance viewed from the beginning of the quarter-wavelength line becomes

Z12
Zin = Z0 =
ZA
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

The wider the strip is, the lower the characteristic impedance (Z0 ) is for that
section of line.

Coupled (Indirect) Feeds: The feeds above can be altered such that they do not
directly touch the antenna. The inset feed can also be stopped just before
the patch antenna, as shown in Figure 6. The advantage of the coupled feed
is that it adds an extra degree of freedom to the design. The gap introduces
a capacitance into the feed that can cancel out the inductance added by the
probe feed.

Figure 6: Coupled (indirect) inset feed.

Aperture Feeds: Another method of feeding microstrip antennas is the aperture

feed. In this technique, the feed circuitry (transmission line) is shielded from
the antenna by a conducting plane with a hole (aperture) to transmit energy
to the antenna, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Coupled (indirect) inset feed.

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Procedure:
For Beam Width Calculations

1. Connect the trainer kit with Microstrip (Inset Fed) antenna as the receiver
and a Dipole antenna as the transmitter.

2. Set the frequency of operation in the transmitter and receiver.

3. Set the receiver to automatic mode.

4. Mount the receiver on the tripod.

5. Observe that the receiver power should be more than 40dB and less than
72dB.

6. Rotate the receiver antenna through a step size of 5 upto 360 .

7. Connect the receiver to plot software and see the log plot.

8. Calculate the Beam-width of the antenna and print the radiation pattern.

For Impedance Measurement

1. Connect the IN terminal of directional coupler to the transmitter output.

2. Connect the OUT terminal of directional coupler to an antenna under test.

3. Connect the COUPLED terminal to the receiver section.

4. Note down the forward power seen on the receiver screen.

5. Reverse the connections for IN and OUT terminals.

6. Note down the reverse power seen on the receiver screen.

7. Calculate return loss and impedance of antenna using formulae.

Formulae:

1. c = f

2. Return Loss = 20 log10 (where, = Reflection Coefficient)

3. Return Loss = Pf orward Preverse

1+
4. VSWR = 1

5. Impedance(ZL ) = V SW R Zo
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 8: RF Transmitter

Figure 9: RF Receiver
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Observation Table:

Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output
0 120 240
5 125 245
10 130 250
15 135 255
20 140 260
25 145 265
30 150 270
35 155 275
40 160 280
45 165 285
50 170 290
55 175 295
60 180 300
65 185 305
70 190 310
75 195 315
80 200 320
85 205 325
90 210 330
95 215 335
100 220 340
105 225 345
110 230 350
115 235 355
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Calculations:

1. Reflection coefficient ():

2. Gain:

3. Return Loss:

4. Impedance:

Observations:

Type of Antenna :
Frequency :
Beam-width (HPBW) :
Forward Power :
Reverse Power :
VSWR :
Reflection coefficient() :
Impedance :
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 4 Date :

Logperiodic Antenna

Objective

To Measure Radiation pattern, Return Loss, Impedance, Gain and Beam width of
Logperiodic antenna

Theory:

In telecommunication, a log-periodic antenna (LP, also known as a log-periodic ar-

ray or log periodic beam antenna/aerial) is a broadband, multi-element, directional,
narrow-beam antenna that has impedance and radiation characteristics that are
regularly repetitive as a logarithmic function of the excitation frequency. The in-
dividual components are often dipoles, as in a log-periodic dipole array (LPDA).
Log-periodic antennas are designed to be self-similar and are thus also fractal an-
tenna arrays.
The log-periodic dipole array (LPDA) consists of a system of driven elements, but
not all elements in the system are active on a single frequency of operation. De-
pending upon its design parameters, the LPDA can be operated over a range of
frequencies having a ratio of 2:1 or higher, and over this range its electrical charac-
teristics gain, feed-point impedance, front-to-back ratio, etc. - will remain more or
less constant. This is not true of any Multi-element Directive Array Antenna, for
either the gain factor or the front-to-back ratio, or both, deteriorate rapidly as the
frequency of operation departs from the design frequency of the array.
As may be seen in Fig 2, the log-periodic array consists of several dipole elements
which each are of different lengths and different relative spacings. A distributive type
of feeder system is used to excite the individual elements. The element lengths and
relative spacings, beginning from the feed point for the array, are seen to increase
smoothly in dimension, being greater for each element than for the previous element
in the array. It is this feature upon which the design of the LPDA is based, and
which permits changes in frequency to be made without greatly affecting the elec-
trical operation. With changes in operating frequency, there is a smooth transition
along the array of the elements which comprise the active region.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 1: A Log Periodic Structure.

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of log-periodic dipole array, with some of the design
parameters indicated.

A good LPDA may be designed for any band, HF to UHF, and can be built to meet
the amateurs requirements at nominal cost: high forward gain, good front-to-back
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

ratio, low VSWR, and a boom length equivalent to a full sized three-element Yagi.
The LPDA exhibits a relatively low SWR (usually not greater than 2 to 1) over a
wide band of frequencies. A well-designed LPDA can yield a 1.3-to-l SWR over a
1.8-to-1 frequency range with a typical directivity of 9.5 dB. (Directivity is the ratio
of maximum radiation intensity in the forward direction to the average radiation
intensity from the array. Assuming no resistive losses in the antenna system, 9.5 dB
directivity equates to 9.5 dB gain over an isotropic radiator or approximately 7.4
dB gain over a half-wave dipole.

Basic Theory:
The LPDA is frequency independent in that the electrical properties such as the
mean resistance level, Ro , characteristic impedance of the feed line Zo , and driving-
point admittance Yo , vary periodically with the logarithm of the frequency. As the
frequency f1 is shifted to another frequency f2 within the passband of the antenna,
the relationship is f1 = f2 / , where
= a design parameter, a constant; < 1.0. Also
f3 = f1/ 2
f4 = f1/ 3
.
.
.
ln = /(n 1)
where ln = shortest element length, and
d23 = d12
d34 = d23
.
.
.
d(n1)n = d(n2)(n1)
where d23 = spacing between elements 2 and 3.
ln dn,n1
= ln1 = dn2,n1
dn,ni
= 2ln1
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

ln
hn = 2 , where
l = element length
h = element half length
d = element spacing
= design constant
= relative spacing constant
S = feeder spacing
Zo = characteristic impedance of antenna feeder
Each element is driven with a phase shift of 180 by switching or alternating el-
ement connections, as shown in Fig 2. The dipoles near the input, being nearly
out of phase and close together nearly cancel each others radiation. As the element
spacing, d, expands there comes a point along the array where the phase delay in
the transmission line combined with the 180 switch gives a total of 360 . This puts
the radiated fields from the two dipoles in phase in a direction toward the apex.
Hence a lobe coming off the apex results. This phase relationship exists in a set of
dipoles known as the active region. If we assume that an LPDA is designed for a
given frequency range, then that design must include an active region of dipoles for
the highest and lowest design frequency.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Procedure:
For Beam Width Calculations

1. Connect the trainer kit with LPDA antenna as the receiver and a Dipole
antenna as the transmitter.

2. Set the frequency of operation in the transmitter and receiver.

3. Set the receiver to automatic mode.

4. Mount the receiver on the tripod.

5. Observe that the receiver power should be more than 40dB and less than
72dB.

6. Rotate the receiver antenna through a step size of 5 upto 360 .

7. Connect the receiver to plot software and see the log plot.

8. Calculate the Beam-width of the antenna and print the radiation pattern.

For Impedance Measurement

1. Connect the IN terminal of directional coupler to the transmitter output.

2. Connect the OUT terminal of directional coupler to an antenna under test.

3. Connect the COUPLED terminal to the receiver section.

4. Note down the forward power seen on the receiver screen.

5. Reverse the connections for IN and OUT terminals.

6. Note down the reverse power seen on the receiver screen.

7. Calculate return loss and impedance of antenna using formulae.

Formulae:

1. c = f

2. Return Loss = 20 log10 (where, = Reflection Coefficient)

3. Return Loss = Pf orward Preverse

1+
4. VSWR = 1

5. Impedance(ZL ) = V SW R Zo
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 3: RF Transmitter

Figure 4: RF Receiver
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Observation Table:

Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output
0 120 240
5 125 245
10 130 250
15 135 255
20 140 260
25 145 265
30 150 270
35 155 275
40 160 280
45 165 285
50 170 290
55 175 295
60 180 300
65 185 305
70 190 310
75 195 315
80 200 320
85 205 325
90 210 330
95 215 335
100 220 340
105 225 345
110 230 350
115 235 355
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Calculations:

1. Reflection coefficient ():

2. Gain:

3. Return Loss:

4. Impedance:

Observations:

Type of Antenna :
Frequency :
Beam-width (HPBW) :
Forward Power :
Reverse Power :
VSWR :
Reflection coefficient() :
Impedance :
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 5 Date :

Parabolic Reflector Antenna

Objective

To Measure Radiation pattern, Return Loss, Impedance, Gain and Beam width of
Parabolic reflector antenna

Theory:

A parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic reflector, a curved sur-

face with the cross-sectional shape of a parabola, to direct the radio waves. The
most common form is shaped like a dish and is popularly called a dish antenna or
parabolic dish. The main advantage of a parabolic antenna is that it has high direc-
tivity. It functions similarly to a searchlight or flashlight reflector to direct the radio
waves in a narrow beam, or receive radio waves from one particular direction only.
Parabolic antennas have some of the highest gains, that is they can produce the nar-
rowest beamwidths, of any antenna type. In order to achieve narrow beamwidths,
the parabolic reflector must be much larger than the wavelength of the radio waves
used, so parabolic antennas are used in the high frequency part of the radio spec-
trum, at UHF and microwave (SHF) frequencies, at which the wavelengths are small
enough that conveniently-sized reflectors can be used.
Parabolic antennas are used as high-gain antennas for point-to-point communica-
tions, in applications such as microwave relay links that carry telephone and tele-
vision signals between nearby cities, wireless WAN/LAN links for data communica-
tions, satellite communications and spacecraft communication antennas. They are
also used in radio telescopes.
The other large use of parabolic antennas is for radar antennas, in which there is a
need to transmit a narrow beam of radio waves to locate objects like ships, airplanes,
and guided missiles. With the advent of home satellite television dishes, parabolic
antennas have become a common feature of the landscapes of modern countries.
Design:
The operating principle of a parabolic antenna is that a point source of radio waves
at the focal point in front of a paraboloidal reflector of conductive material will be
reflected into a collimated plane wave beam along the axis of the reflector. Con-
versely, an incoming plane wave parallel to the axis will be focused to a point at the
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

focal point.
A typical parabolic antenna consists of a metal parabolic reflector with a small feed
antenna suspended in front of the reflector at its focus, pointed back toward the
reflector. The reflector is a metallic surface formed into a paraboloid of revolution
and usually truncated in a circular rim that forms the diameter of the antenna.
In a transmitting antenna, radio frequency current from a transmitter is supplied
through a transmission line cable to the feed antenna, which converts it into radio
waves. The radio waves are emitted back toward the dish by the feed antenna and
reflect off the dish into a parallel beam. In a receiving antenna the incoming radio
waves bounce off the dish and are focused to a point at the feed antenna, which
converts them to electric currents which travel through a transmission line to the
radio receiver.

Feed antenna:
The feed antenna at the reflectors focus is typically a low-gain type such as a half-
wave dipole or more often a small horn antenna called a feed horn. In more complex
designs, such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian, a secondary reflector is used to direct
the energy into the parabolic reflector from a feed antenna located away from the
primary focal point. The feed antenna is connected to the associated radio-frequency
(RF) transmitting or receiving equipment by means of a coaxial cable transmission
line or waveguide.
An advantage of parabolic antennas is that most of the structure of the antenna
(all of it except the feed antenna) is nonresonant, so it can function over a wide
range of frequencies, that is a wide bandwidth. All that is necessary to change the
frequency of operation is to replace the feed antenna with one that works at the new
frequency. Some parabolic antennas transmit or receive at multiple frequencies by
having several feed antennas mounted at the focal point, close together.
Types:
Parabolic antennas are also classified by the type of feed, that is, how the radio
waves are supplied to the antenna:

Axial or front feed - This is the most common type of feed, with the feed
antenna located in front of the dish at the focus, on the beam axis. A disad-
vantage of this type is that the feed and its supports block some of the beam,
which limits the aperture efficiency to only 55 - 60%.

Off-axis or offset feed - The reflector is an asymmetrical segment of a

paraboloid, so the focus, and the feed antenna, are located to one side of the
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

dish. The purpose of this design is to move the feed structure out of the beam
path, so it doesnt block the beam. It is widely used in home satellite television
dishes, which are small enough that the feed structure would otherwise block a
significant percentage of the signal. Offset feed is also used in multiple reflector
designs such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian, below.

Cassegrain - In a Cassegrain antenna the feed is located on or behind the

dish, and radiates forward, illuminating a convex hyperboloidal secondary
reflector at the focus of the dish. The radio waves from the feed reflect back
off the secondary reflector to the dish, which forms the outgoing beam. An
advantage of this configuration is that the feed, with its waveguides and front
end electronics does not have to be suspended in front of the dish, so it is
used for antennas with complicated or bulky feeds, such as large satellite
communication antennas and radio telescopes. Aperture efficiency is on the
order of 65 - 70%

Gregorian - Similar to the Cassegrain design except that the secondary re-
flector is concave, (ellipsoidal) in shape. Aperture efficiency over 70% can be
achieved.

Feed pattern:
The radiation pattern of the feed antenna has to be tailored to the shape of the dish,
because it has a strong influence on the aperture efficiency, which determines the
antenna gain (see Gain section below). Radiation from the feed that falls outside the
edge of the dish is called spillover and is wasted, reducing the gain and increasing
the back lobes, possibly causing interference or (in receiving antennas) increasing
susceptibility to ground noise. However, maximum gain is only achieved when the
dish is uniformly illuminated with a constant field strength to its edges. So
the ideal radiation pattern of a feed antenna would be a constant field strength
throughout the solid angle of the dish, dropping abruptly to zero at the edges.
However, practical feed antennas have radiation patterns that drop off gradually at
the edges, so the feed antenna is a compromise between acceptably low spillover and
adequate illumination. For most front feed horns, optimum illumination is achieved
when the power radiated by the feed horn is 10 dB less at the dish edge than its
maximum value at the center of the dish.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 1: Types of Parabolic feeds.

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Procedure:
For Beam Width Calculations

1. Connect the trainer kit with Parabolic Reflector antenna as the receiver and
a LPDA antenna as the transmitter.

2. Set the frequency of operation in the transmitter and receiver.

3. Set the receiver to automatic mode.

4. Mount the receiver on the tripod.

5. Observe that the receiver power should be more than 40dB and less than
72dB.

6. Rotate the receiver antenna through a step size of 5 upto 360 .

7. Connect the receiver to plot software and see the log plot.

8. Calculate the Beam-width of the antenna and print the radiation pattern.

For Impedance Measurement

1. Connect the IN terminal of directional coupler to the transmitter output.

2. Connect the OUT terminal of directional coupler to an antenna under test.

3. Connect the COUPLED terminal to the receiver section.

4. Note down the forward power seen on the receiver screen.

5. Reverse the connections for IN and OUT terminals.

6. Note down the reverse power seen on the receiver screen.

7. Calculate return loss and impedance of antenna using formulae.

Formulae:

1. c = f

2. Return Loss = 20 log10 (where, = Reflection Coefficient)

3. Return Loss = Pf orward Preverse

1+
4. VSWR = 1

5. Impedance(ZL ) = V SW R Zo
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 2: RF Transmitter

Figure 3: RF Receiver
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Observation Table:

Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output Angle (in Deg) Output
0 120 240
5 125 245
10 130 250
15 135 255
20 140 260
25 145 265
30 150 270
35 155 275
40 160 280
45 165 285
50 170 290
55 175 295
60 180 300
65 185 305
70 190 310
75 195 315
80 200 320
85 205 325
90 210 330
95 215 335
100 220 340
105 225 345
110 230 350
115 235 355
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Calculations:

1. Reflection coefficient ():

2. Gain:

3. Return Loss:

4. Impedance:

Observations:

Type of Antenna :
Frequency :
Beam-width (HPBW) :
Forward Power :
Reverse Power :
VSWR :
Reflection coefficient() :
Impedance :
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 6 Date :

Study of Standing Wave pattern and SWR of

slotted line

Objective

To Plot Standing Wave pattern and Measure SWR for open, short and matched
termination

Theory:

Whenever there is a mismatch of impedance between transmission line and load,

reflections will occur. If the incident signal is a continuous AC waveform, these
reflections will mix with more of the oncoming incident waveform to produce sta-
tionary waveforms called standing waves. Standing waves are waves of voltage and
current which do not propagate (i.e. they are stationary), but are the result of
interference between incident and reflected waves along a transmission line. A node
is a point on a standing wave of minimum amplitude and an antinode is a point
on a standing wave of maximum amplitude. Standing waves can only exist in a
transmission line when the terminating impedance does not match the lines char-
acteristic impedance. In a perfectly terminated line, there are no reflected waves,
and therefore no standing waves at all.At certain frequencies, the nodes and antin-
odes of standing waves will correlate with the ends of a transmission line, resulting
in resonance.The lowest-frequency resonant point on a transmission line is where
the line is one quarter-wavelength long. Resonant points exist at every harmonic
(integer-multiple) frequency of the fundamental (quarter-wavelength).
Standing wave ratio, or SWR, is the ratio of maximum standing wave amplitude
to minimum standing wave amplitude. It may also be calculated by dividing ter-
mination impedance by characteristic impedance, or vice versa, which ever yields
the greatest quotient. A perfectly terminated transmission line (perfectly matched:
Zload toZ0 ) will have an SWR of 1, since voltage at any location along the lines
length will be the same, and likewise for current. Again, this is usually consid-
ered ideal, not only because reflected waves constitute energy not delivered to the
load, but because the high values of voltage and current created by the antinodes of
standing waves may over-stress the transmission lines insulation (high voltage) and
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

conductors (high current), respectively. Transmission lines may be damaged by the

high maximum amplitudes of standing waves. Voltage antinodes may break down
insulation between conductors, and current antinodes may overheat conductors. In
industry, VSWR is sometimes pronounced viz-wer.
Emaximum Imaximum
SWR =
Eminimum = Iminimum
Zload
SWR =
Zo
Physical Meaning of VSWR:
VSWR is determined from the voltage measured along a transmission line leading
to an antenna. VSWR is the ratio of the peak amplitude of a standing wave to the
minimum amplitude of a standing wave, as seen in the following Figure below:

Figure 1: Voltage Measured Along a Transmission Line.

VSWR, Reflected Power, and s11:

Is a VSWR of 3 bad? How bad is a VSWR of 12? Well, there are no hard rules. In
this section, well try to put the VSWR number in context. Below is a table showing
the relationship between VSWR, total reflected power, and (also known as s11),
and total reflected power. Note that the reflected power is simply the reflection
coefficient () squared.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

VSWR (s11) Reflected Power Reflected Power

(%) (dB)
1 0 0 -Infinity
1.5 0.2 4 -14
2 0.333 11.1 -9.55
2.5 0.429 18.4 -7.36
3 0.5 25 -6
3.5 0.556 30.9 -5.1
4 0.6 36 -4.44
5 0.667 44 -3.52
6 0.714 51 -2.92
7 0.75 56.3 -2.5
8 0.778 60.5 -2.18
9 0.8 64 -1.94
10 0.818 66.9 -1.74
15 0.875 76.6 -1.16
20 0.905 81.9 -0.87
50 0.961 92.3 -0.35

In the above table, a VSWR of 4 has 36% of power delivered by the receiver re-
flected from the antenna (64% of the power is delivered to the antenna). Note that
a reflected power of 0 dB indicates all of the power is reflected (100%), whereas -10
dB indicates 10% of the power is reflected. If all the power is reflected, the VSWR
would be infinite.
Note that VSWR is a highly non-linear function of the reflection coefficient . That
is, there is very little difference in reflected power when the VSWR increases from 9
to 10; however there is an 11% change in reflected power when the VSWR changes
from 1 to 2.
In general, if the VSWR is under 2 the antenna match is considered very good and
little would be gained by impedance matching. As the VSWR increases, there are 2
main negatives. The first is obvious: more power is reflected from the antenna and
therefore not transmitted. However, another problem arises. As VSWR increases,
more power is reflected to the radio, which is transmitting. Large amounts of re-
flected power can damage the radio. In addition, radios have trouble transmitting
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

the correct information bits when the antenna is poorly matched (this is numerically
defined in terms of another metric, EVM - Error Vector Magnitude).

Practical implications of SWR:

The most common case for measuring and examining SWR is when installing and
tuning transmitting antennas. When a transmitter is connected to an antenna by
a feed line, the impedance of the antenna and feed line must match exactly for
maximum energy transfer from the feed line to the antenna to be possible. The
impedance of the antenna varies based on many factors including: the antennas
natural resonance at the frequency being transmitted, the antennas height above
the ground, and the size of the conductors used to construct the antenna.
When an antenna and feedline do not have matching impedances, some of the elec-
trical energy cannot be transferred from the feedline to the antenna. Energy not
transferred to the antenna is reflected back towards the transmitter. It is the in-
teraction of these reflected waves with forward waves which causes standing wave
patterns. Reflected power has three main implications in radio transmitters: Radio
Frequency (RF) energy losses increase, distortion on transmitter due to reflected
power from load and damage to the transmitter can occur.
Matching the impedance of the antenna to the impedance of the feed line is typically
done using an antenna tuner. The tuner can be installed between the transmitter
and the feed line, or between the feed line and the antenna. Both installation meth-
ods will allow the transmitter to operate at a low SWR, however if the tuner is
installed at the transmitter, the feed line between the tuner and the antenna will
still operate with a high SWR, causing additional RF energy to be lost through the
feedline.
Note that VSWR is a measure of how much power is delivered to an antenna. This
does not mean that the antenna radiates all the power it receives. Hence, VSWR
measures the potential to radiate. A low VSWR means the antenna is well-matched,
but does not necessarily mean the power delivered is also radiated. An anechoic
chamber or other radiated antenna test is required to determine the radiated power.
VSWR alone is not sufficient to determine an antenna is functioning properly.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Procedure:

1. Connect the generator at opposite end of a load point of Slotted line.

2. Now, connect receiver (Rx) at movable upper part (probe) of slotted line.

3. Set the frequency of source and receiver to 1500MHz. Hence, = 200mm, in

free-space. In the slotted line lambda slotted = * velocity factor. Where

velocity factor = 1/ r = 0.606 in our case.

4. Connect short/open/matched termination at 200mm end of slotted Line.

5. Move the probe, from 0mm to 200mm.

6. Record the readings from the receiver display while moving the probe in suit-
able steps

7. Plot the graph of distance(mm) along x-axis and amplitude(dBV) along y-axis.

8. Determine the VSWR

9. Also verify that the minima are spaced apart by a distance of lambda slotted/2

Note:

At least 3 voltage minima should be accurately measured

(Lambda slotted)/2= average of (Minima2-Minima1) and (Minima3-Minima2)

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Figure 2: Typical Slotted Line

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Observation Table: (Open Termination)

Sr.No. Distance Voltage Sr.No. Distance Voltage

(mm) from (dBuV) (mm) from (dBuV)
Load end Load end
1 28
2 29
3 30
4 31
5 32
6 33
7 34
8 35
9 36
10 37
11 38
12 39
13 40
14 41
15 42
16 43
17 44
18 45
19 46
20 47
21 48
22 49
23 50
24 51
25 52
26 53
27 54
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Observation Table: (Short Termination)

Sr.No. Distance Voltage Sr.No. Distance Voltage

(mm) from (dBuV) (mm) from (dBuV)
Load end Load end
1 28
2 29
3 30
4 31
5 32
6 33
7 34
8 35
9 36
10 37
11 38
12 39
13 40
14 41
15 42
16 43
17 44
18 45
19 46
20 47
21 48
22 49
23 50
24 51
25 52
26 53
27 54
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Observation Table: (Match Termination)

Sr.No. Distance Voltage Sr.No. Distance Voltage

(mm) from (dBuV) (mm) from (dBuV)
Load end Load end
1 28
2 29
3 30
4 31
5 32
6 33
7 34
8 35
9 36
10 37
11 38
12 39
13 40
14 41
15 42
16 43
17 44
18 45
19 46
20 47
21 48
22 49
23 50
24 51
25 52
26 53
27 54
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Calculations:

1. Open Termination:

2. Short Termination:

3. Match Termination:

Result:

Open Short Matched

SWR
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 7 Date :

Study of Broadside linear array

Objective

To Plot radiation pattern of Broadside array using MATLAB and NEC2

Theory

Usually the radiation pattern of a single element is relatively wide, and each ele-
ment provides low values of directivity (gain). In many applications it is necessary
to design antennas with very directive characteristics (very high gains) to meet the
demands of long distance communication. This can only be accomplished by in-
creasing the electrical size of the antenna.
Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often leads to more directive character-
istics. Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without necessarily
increasing the size of the individual elements, is to form an assembly of radiating
elements in an electrical and geometrical configuration. This new antenna, formed
by multi elements, is referred to as an array. In most cases, the elements of an array
are identical. This is not necessary, but it is often convenient, simpler, and more
practical. The individual elements of an array may be of any form (wires, apertures,
etc.).
The total field of the array is determined by the vector addition of the fields radiated
by the individual elements. This assumes that the current in each element is the
same as that of the isolated element (neglecting coupling). This is usually not the
case and depends on the separation between the elements. To provide very directive
patterns, it is necessary that the fields from the elements of the array interfere con-
structively (add) in the desired directions and interfere destructively (cancel each
other) in the remaining space. Ideally this can be accomplished, but practically it
is only approached. In an array of identical elements, there are at least five controls
that can be used to shape the overall pattern of the antenna. These are:

1. the geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular, rectangular,

spherical, etc.)

2. the relative displacement between the elements

T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

3. the excitation amplitude of the individual elements

4. the excitation phase of the individual elements

5. the relative pattern of the individual elements

Array Factor :
The array factor is a function of the geometry of the array and the excitation phase.
By varying the separation d and/or the phase between the elements, the charac-
teristics of the array factor and of the total field of the array can be controlled.
Each array has its own array factor. The array factor, in general, is a function of
the number of elements, their geometrical arrangement, their relative magnitudes,
their relative phases, and their spacings. The array factor will be of simpler form if
the elements have identical amplitudes, phases, and spacings. Since the array factor
does not depend on the directional characteristics of the radiating elements them-
selves, it can be formulated by replacing the actual elements with isotropic (point)
sources. Once the array factor has been derived using the point-source array, the
total field of the actual array is obtained by the use of pattern multiplication the-
orem. Each point-source is assumed to have the amplitude, phase, and location of
the corresponding element it is replacing.
Given an antenna array of identical elements, the radiation pattern of the antenna
array may be found according to the pattern multiplication theorem.

Array pattern = Array element pattern Array factor (AF)

where, Array element pattern - the pattern of the individual array element.
Array factor - a function dependent only on the geometry of the array and
the excitation (amplitude, phase) of the elements.
Using the pattern multiplication theorem, the overall array pattern is obtained by
multiplying the element pattern by the array factor. As an example, consider an
broadside array ( = 0o ) of seven short vertical dipoles figure 1 spaced 0.5 apart
along the z-axis.

N -Element Linear Array: Uniform Amplitude and Spacing

Referring to the geometry of Figure, let us assume that all the elements have iden-
tical amplitudes but each succeeding element has a progressive phase lead current
excitation relative to the preceding one ( represents the phase by which the current
in each element leads the current of the preceding element). An array of identical
elements all of identical magnitude and each with a progressive phase is referred to
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

as a uniform array. The array factor can be obtained by considering the elements
to be point sources. If the actual elements are not isotropic sources, the total field
can be formed by multiplying the array factor of the isotropic sources by the field
of a single element. This is the pattern multiplication rule, and it applies only for
arrays of identical elements.
The array factor is given by
AF = 1 + e+j(kdcos+) + e+j2(kdcos+) + ..... + ej(N 1)(kdcos+)
AF = N j(n1)(kdcos+)
P
n=1 e
which can be written as
AF = N j(n1)
P
n=1 e
where = kdcos +
Since the total array factor for the uniform array is a summation of exponentials,it
can be represented by the vector sum of N phasors each of unit amplitude and
progressive phase relative to the previous one. It is apparent from the phasor

Figure 1: Far-field geometry and phasor diagram of N-element array of isotropic

sources positioned along the z-axis.

diagram that the amplitude and phase of the AF can be controlled in uniform ar-
rays by properly selecting the relative phase between the elements; in nonuniform
arrays, the amplitude as well as the phase can be used to control the formation and
distribution of the total array factor.
If the reference point is the physical center of the array, the array factor reduces to
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

sin( N )
AF = [ sin( 21 ) ]
2

Broadside Array:
In many applications it is desirable to have the maximum radiation of an array di-
rected normal to the axis of the array [broadside; 0 = 90 ]. To optimize the design,
the maxima of the single element and of the array factor should both be directed
toward 0 = 90 . The requirements of the single elements can be accomplished by
the judicious choice of the radiators, and those of the array factor by the proper sep-
aration and excitation of the individual radiators. In this section, the requirements
that allow the array factor to radiate efficiently broadside will be developed.
The first maximum of the array factor occurs when

= kdcos + = 0

Since it is desired to have the first maximum directed toward 0 = 90 , then

= kdcos + |0 =90 = = 0
Thus to have the maximum of the array factor of a uniform linear array directed

Figure 2: Typical Broadside array

broadside to the axis of the array, it is necessary that all the elements have the
same phase excitation(in addition to the same amplitude excitation). The separa-
tion between the elements can be of any value. To ensure that there are no principal
maxima in other directions, which are referred to as grating lobes, the separation
between the elements should not be equal to multiples of a wavelength when = 0.

Gain and Directivity: The physical disposition of dipoles operated broadside

to each allows for much greater coupling between them than can occur between
collinear elements. Moving the parallel antenna elements closer together or farther
apart affects the actual impedance of the entire array and the overall radiation
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

resistance as well. As the spacing between broadside elements increases, the effect on
the radiation pattern is a sharpening of the major lobes. When the array consists of
only two dipoles spaced exactly 1/2 wavelength apart, no minor lobes are generated
at all. Increasing the distance between the elements beyond that point, however,
tends to throw off the phase relationship between the original current in one element
and the current induced in it by the other element. The result is that, although
the major lobes are sharpened, minor lobes are introduced, even with two elements.
These, however, are not large enough to be of concern.

Figure 3: Array factor patterns of a 10-element uniform amplitude broadside array

(N = 10, = 0).
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Flowchart:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusion:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 8 Date :

Study of Endfire array

Objective

To Plot radiation pattern of Endfire array using MATLAB and NEC2

Theory:

An end-fire array looks similar to a broadside array. The ladder-like appearance is

characteristic of both. The currents in the elements of the end-fire array, however,
are usually 180 degrees out of phase with each other as indicated by the arrows. The
construction of the end-fire array is like that of a ladder lying on its side (elements
horizontal). The dipoles in an end-fire array are closer together (1/8-wavelength to
1/4-wavelength spacing) than they are for a broadside array.Instead of having the
maximum radiation broadside to the axis of the array, it may be desirable to direct
it along the axis of the array (end-fire). As a matter of fact, it may be necessary
that it radiates toward only one direction (either 0 = 0 or180 ).
To direct the first maximum toward 0 = 0
= kdcos + |0 =0 = kd + = 0 = kd
If the first maximum is desired toward 0 = 180 , then
= kdcos + |0 =180 = kd + = 0 = kd
Thus end-fire radiation is accomplished when = kd(f oro = 0o )or = kd(f oro =
180o ) The major lobe or lobes occur along the axis of the array. The pattern is

Figure 1: Typical end-fire array.

sharper in the plane that is at right angles to the plane containing the elements. If
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

the elements are not exact half-wave dipoles, operation is not significantly affected.
However, because of the required balance of phase relationships and critical feeding,
the array must be symmetrical.

Figure 2: Array factor patterns of a 10-element uniform amplitude end-fire array

(N = 10, d = /4).

Gain and Directivity: In an end-fire array, directivity increases with the addition
of more elements and with spacings approaching the optimum. With a 90-degree
phase difference in the energy fed to a pair of end-fire elements spaced approximately
1/4 wavelength apart, unidirectional radiation can be obtained.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Flowchart:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 9 Date :

Study of Binomial array

Objective

To Plot radiation pattern of Binomial array using MATLAB and NEC2

Theory:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Flowchart:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Expt. No. 10 Date :

Study of Dolph Chebyshev array

Objective

To Plot radiation pattern of Dolph Chebyshev array using MATLAB and NEC2

Theory:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Flowchart:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Conclusions:
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Appendix
Decibel:
A decibel (dB) is one tenth of a bel (B), i.e., 1B = 10dB. The bel represents a ratio
between two power quantities of 10 : 1, and a ratio between two field quantities of

10 : 1. A field quantity is a quantity such as voltage, current, sound pressure,

electric field strength, velocity and charge density, the square of which in linear sys-
tems is proportional to power. A power quantity is a power or a quantity directly
proportional to power, e.g., energy density, acoustic intensity and luminous intensity.

Power Quantities:
When referring to measurements of power or intensity, a ratio can be expressed in
decibels by evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured
quantity to the reference level. Thus, the ratio of a power value P1 to another power
value P0 is represented by LdB, that ratio expressed in decibels, which is calculated
using the formula:

P1
LdB = 10log10 ( )
P0

Properties of decibel:

The decibels logarithmic nature means that a very large range of ratios can be
represented by a convenient number, in a similar manner to scientific notation.
This allows one to clearly visualize huge changes of some quantity

The overall gain of a multi-component system (such as consecutive amplifiers)

can be calculated by summing the decibel gains of the individual components,
rather than multiply the amplification factors; that is, log(ABC) = log(A) +
log(B) + log(C).

The human perception of the intensity of, for example, sound or light, is more
nearly linearly related to the logarithm of intensity than to the intensity itself,
per the Weber-Fechner law, so the dB scale can be useful to describe perceptual
levels or level differences.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Disadvantages:

The decibel creates confusion.

The logarithmic form obscures reasoning.

Decibels are more related to the era of slide rules than that of modern digital
processing.

They are cumbersome and difficult to interpret.

Uses:
In electronics, the decibel is often used to express power or amplitude ratios (gains),
in preference to arithmetic ratios or percentages. One advantage is that the total
decibel gain of a series of components (such as amplifiers and attenuators) can be
calculated simply by summing the decibel gains of the individual components. Sim-
ilarly, in telecommunications, decibels denote signal gain or loss from a transmitter
to a receiver through some medium (free space, waveguide, coax, fiber optics, etc.)
using a link budget.
The decibel unit can also be combined with a suffix to create an absolute unit of
electric power. For example, it can be combined with m for milliwatt to pro-
duce the dBm. Zero dBm is the level corresponding to one milliwatt, and 1 dBm
is one decibel greater (about 1.259 mW).
In professional audio, a popular unit is the dBu (see below for all the units). The
u stands for unloaded, and was probably chosen to be similar to lowercase v,
as dBv was the older name for the same thing. It was changed to avoid confusion
with dBV. This unit (dBu) is an RMS measurement of voltage which uses as its
reference approximately 0.775 VRM S . Chosen for historical reasons, the reference
value is the voltage level which delivers 1 mW of power in a 600 ohm resistor, which
used to be the standard reference impedance in telephone audio circuits.
Suffixes and Reference levels:

dBV: dB(VRM S ) voltage relative to 1 volt, regardless of impedance.

dBu or dBv: RMS voltage relative to 0.6V 0.7746V 2.218dBV .
Originally dBv, it was changed to dBu to avoid confusion with dBV. The v
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

comes from volt, while u comes from unloaded. dBu can be used regard-
less of impedance, but is derived from a 600 load dissipating 0 dBm (1 mW).

The reference voltage comes from the computation V = 600 0.001W .

dBmV: dB(mVRMS) voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 . Widely used

in cable television networks, where the nominal strength of a single TV signal
at the receiver terminals is about 0 dBmV. Cable TV uses 75 coaxial cable,
so 0 dBmV corresponds to 78.75 dBW (48.75 dBm) or 13 nW

dBV: dB( VRMS) voltage relative to 1 microvolt. Widely used in television

and aerial amplifier specifications. 60 dBV = 0 dBmV.

dBm: dB(mW) power relative to 1 milliwatt. In audio and telephony, dBm is

typically referenced relative to a 600 ohm impedance, while in radio frequency
work dBm is typically referenced relative to a 50 ohm impedance.

dBr: dB(relative) simply a relative difference from something else, which

is made apparent in context. The difference of a filters response to nominal
levels, for instance.
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Return Loss dB VSWR Return Loss dB VSWR Return Loss dB VSWR

46.1 1.01 17.9 1.29 13.1 1.57
40.1 1.02 17.7 1.30 13.0 1.58
36.6 1.03 17.4 1.31 12.8 1.59
34.1 1.04 17.2 1.32 12.7 1.60
32.3 1.05 17.0 1.33 12.6 1.61
30.7 1.06 16.7 1.34 12.5 1.62
29.4 1.07 16.5 1.35 12.4 1.63
28.3 1.08 16.3 1.36 12.3 1.64
27.3 1.09 16.1 1.37 12.2 1.65
26.4 1.10 15.9 1.38 12.1 1.66
25.7 1.11 15.7 1.39 12.0 1.67
24.9 1.12 15.6 1.40 11.9 1.68
24.3 1.13 15.4 1.41 11.8 1.69
23.7 1.14 15.2 1.42 11.7 1.70
23.1 1.15 15.0 1.43 11.6 1.71
22.6 1.16 14.9 1.44 11.5 1.72
22.1 1.17 14.7 1.45 11.4 1.74
21.7 1.18 14.6 1.46 11.3 1.75
21.2 1.19 14.4 1.47 11.2 1.76
20.8 1.20 14.3 1.48 11.1 1.77
20.4 1.21 14.1 1.49 11.0 1.78
20.1 1.22 14.0 1.50 10.9 1.80
19.7 1.23 13.8 1.51 10.8 1.81
19.4 1.24 13.7 1.52 10.7 1.82
19.1 1.25 13.6 1.53 10.6 1.84
18.8 1.26 13.4 1.54 10.5 1.85
18.5 1.27 13.3 1.55 10.4 1.87
18.2 1.28 13.2 1.56 10.3 1.88
10.2 1.90 7.3 2.52 4.4 4.0
10.1 1.91 7.2 2.55 4.3 4.1
10.0 1.93 7.1 2.58 4.2 4.2
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

Return Loss dB VSWR Return Loss dB VSWR Return Loss dB VSWR

9.9 1.94 7.0 2.61 4.1 4.3
9.8 1.96 6.9 2.65 4.0 4.4
9.7 1.98 6.8 2.69 3.9 4.5
9.6 1.99 6.7 2.72 3.8 4.6
9.5 2.01 6.6 2.76 3.7 4.7
9.4 2.03 6.5 2.79 3.6 4.9
9.3 2.05 6.4 2.83 3.5 5.0
9.2 2.06 6.3 2.88 3.4 5.2
9.1 2.08 6.2 2.92 3.3 5.3
9.0 2.10 6.1 2.96 3.2 5.4
8.9 2.12 6.0 3.01 3.1 5.7
8.8 2.14 5.9 3.06 3.0 5.8
8.7 2.16 5.8 3.10 2.9 6.0
8.6 2.18 5.7 3.16 2.8 6.3
8.5 2.20 5.6 3.21 2.7 6.4
8.4 2.22 5.5 2.26 2.6 6.7
8.3 2.25 5.4 3.32 2.5 7.0
8.2 2.28 5.3 3.38 2.4 7.3
8.1 2.30 5.2 3.44 2.3 7.6
8.0 2.33 5.1 3.50 2.2 7.9
7.9 2.35 5.0 3.57 2.1 8.3
7.8 2.38 4.9 3.64 2.0 8.7
7.7 2.40 4.8 3.7 1.9 9.0
7.6 2.43 4.7 3.78 1.8 9.5
7.5 2.46 4.6 3.86 1.7 10.1
7.4 2.49 4.5 3.9 1.6 10.8
1.5 11.5 1.0 17.4 .5 34.7
1.4 12.3 .9 19.4 .4 43.4
1.3 13.3 .8 21.7 .3 57.9
1.2 14.4 .7 24.8 .2 86.9
1.1 15.7 .6 29.3 .1 180.8
T. E. (E&TC) : 201617 Antenna and Wave Propagation : AWP

dBm mW dBmV mV(RMS) mVp mVpp uV(RMS) dBuV

-130 1.00E-13 -83.01 7.07E-05 1.00E-04 2.00E-04 7.07E- 02 -23. 01
-129 1.26E-13 -82.01 7.93E-05 1.12E-04 2.24E-04 7.93E- 02 -22. 01
-128 1.58E-13 -81.01 8.90E-05 1.26E-04 2.52E-04 8.90E- 02 -21. 01
-127 2.00E-13 -80.01 9.99E-05 1.41E-04 2.83E-04 9.99E- 02 -20. 01
-125 3.16E-13 -78.01 1.26E-04 1.78E-04 3.56E-04 1.26E- 01 -18. 01
-124 3.98E-13 -77.01 1.41E-04 2.00E-04 3.99E-04 1.41E- 01 -17. 01
-123 5.01E-13 -76.01 1.58E-04 2.24E-04 4.48E-04 1.58E- 01 -16. 01
-122 6.31E-13 -75.01 1.78E-04 2.51E-04 5.02E-04 1.78E- 01 -15. 01
-121 7.94E-13 -74.01 1.99E-04 2.82E-04 5.64E-04 1.99E- 01 -14. 01
-120 1.00E-12 -73.01 2.24E-04 3.16E-04 6.32E-04 2.24E- 01 -13. 01
-119 1.26E-12 -72.01 2.51E-04 3.55E-04 7.10E-04 2.51E- 01 -12. 01
-118 1.58E-12 -71.01 2.82E-04 3.98E-04 7.96E-04 2.82E- 01 -11. 01
-117 2.00E-12 -70.01 3.16E-04 4.47E-04 8.93E-04 3.16E- 01 -10. 01
-116 2.51E-12 -69.01 3.54E-04 5.01E-04 1.00E-03 3.54E- 01 -9.01
-115 3.16E-12 -68.01 3.98E-04 5.62E-04 1.12E-03 3.98E- 01 -8.01
-114 3.98E-12 -67.01 4.46E-04 6.31E-04 1.26E-03 4.46E- 01 -7.01
-113 5.01E-12 -66.01 5.01E-04 7.08E-04 1.42E-03 5.01E- 01 -6.01
-112 6.31E-12 -65.01 5.62E-04 7.94E-04 1.59E-03 5.62E- 01 -5.01
-111 7.94E-12 -64.01 6.30E-04 8.91E-04 1.78E-03 6.30E- 01 -4.01
-110 1.00E-11 -63.01 7.07E-04 1.00E-03 2.00E-03 7.07E- 01 -3.01
-109 1.26E-11 -62.01 7.93E-04 1.12E-03 2.24E-03 7.93E- 01 -2.01
-108 1.58E-11 -61.01 8.90E-04 1.26E-03 2.52E-03 8.90E- 01 -1.01
-107 2.00E-11 -60.01 9.99E-04 1.41E-03 2.83E-03 9.99E- 01 -0.01