GEOTECHNICAL

Index and Classification Properties of Soils

W
Unit weight : =
V
Gs w
Dry unit weight : d =
1+ e
DRY H1
Moist unit weight : = dry ( 1 + )
(Gs + e) w
Saturated unit weight: sat =
1+ e
Zero air void unit weight: MOIST H2
Gs w
zav = G.W.T.
1+ e
Moisture content (water content)
Ww
= SATURATED
Ws H3

G s
Degree of saturation : s =
e
e
Porosity : n = Phases of Soil
1+ e
Air void ratio = n (1 s)
G.W.T. = ground water table
where : W = total weight
V = volume
Gs = specific gravity
e = void ratio
w = unit weight of water
= 9.81 kN/m3 ( 1gram/cm3 )
 GEOTECHNICAL
Relative density ( Density index ) Soil Characteristic Liquidity Index
brittle solid <0
emax - e plastic <1
Dr = or
emax - emin liquid >1
1 / d min - 1 / d
Dr =
1 / d min - 1 / d max Shrinkage Ratio : S.R.

m2
e = in-situ void ratio S.R. =
V2 w
emax = void ratio in loosest condition
emin = void ratio in densest condition Specific Gravity: Gs
d = dry unit weight in the field
1
d(max) = dry unit weight in densest condition Gs =
1 SL
d(min) = dry unit weight in loosest condition -
SR 100
Shrinkage limit : S.L.
(m1 - m2 ) (V1 - V2 )
S.L. = - w in %
m2 m2
m1 = initial mass in saturated state SOIL CLASSIFICATION
m2 = final mass in dry state
V1 = initial volume in saturated state U.S. Dept of Agriculture (USDA Method)
V2 = final volume in dry state Gravel Sand Silt Clay
> 2 mm 2 to 0.05mm 0.05 to 0.002mm < 0.002 mm

Plasticity Index : P.I.

P.I. = L.L. - P.L. AASHTO Method
L.L. = liquid limit Gravel Sand Silt Clay
P.L. = plastic limit 76.2 to 2mm 2 to 0.075mm 0.075 to 0.002mm < 0.002 mm

Liquidity Index : L.I.

Unified Soil Classification System
- P.L. Gravel Sand Fines (Silt & Clay)
L.I. =
P.I. 76.2 to 4.75 mm 4.75 to 0.075 mm < 0.075 mm
= in-situ moisture content
P.L. = plastic limit
P.I. = plasticity index

Consistency Index : C.I.

L.L. -
C.I. =
L.L. - P.I.
 GEOTECHNICAL
Particle Size Distribution SOIL COMPACTION

Effective Size, D10

Compaction is the densification of soils by
- is the diameter in the particle size
the application of mechanical energy. It may
distirbution curve corresponding to 10%
also involve a modification of the water
finer.
content as well as gradation of the soil.

Uniformity coefficient, Cu
Some methods for determining density of
D
Cu = 60 soil in the field:
D10

1. Sand Cone Method

Coefficient of gradation or curvature, Cc
2. Balloon Method
(D30 ) 2
Cc = 3. Oil Method
D60 D10
D30 = particle diameter corresponding to 30% finer To determine the dry unit weight of
D60 = particle diameter corresponding to 60% finer compaction in the field:
dry unit weight excavated from the hole
Sorting Coefficient, So d =
volume of the hole
D75
So =
D25 W - Wc
Volume of hole, V = s
D75 = particle diameter corresponding to 75% finer d( sand )
D25 = particle diameter corresponding to 25% finer W = weight of sand to fill the hole and cone
s
Wc = weight of sand to fill the cone only
AASHTO Classification System

Group Index, G.I. Relative Compaction, R

= (F 35)[ 0.2 + 0.005(LL 40)] + 0.01(F 15)(PI 10) d( field)
R=
d(max -lab)
Partial Group Index d(field) = compacted field dry unit weight
= 0.01(F 15)(PI 10) d(max-lab) = maximum dry unit weight
determined in the laboratory by Proctor
F = % passing sieve # 200 Test
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index

Group index must be whole and positive, if the

computed value is negative use zero. If the group
classification is A-2-6 & A-2-7 attached Partial
Group Index only.
 GEOTECHNICAL
PERMEABILITY, SEEPAGE of WATER
Absolute Permeability, K
in SOIL
k
K=
Coefficient of Permeability, k w
( Laboratory Test) k = coefficient of permeability
QL = viscosity of water
Constant Head Test : k =
Ah t w = unit weight of water
Q = volume of water collected
A = area of cross section of soil specimen Transmissibilty of Soil Stratum, T
t = duration of water collection T=Kb
h K = average coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient = b = thickness of aquifer
L

a L h1 Equivalent Coefficient of Permeability in

Falling Head Test: k = ln
A t h2 Layered Soil:
a = cross-sectional area of the stand pipe
A = cross-sectional area of soil specimen
t = duration of water collection k1 H1
h1 = initial head when t1 = 0
h2 = final head when t2 = t
k2 H2
L = length of soil specimen
h h2
i = hydraulic gradient = 1
L

Rate of water flow in soil, Q Equivalent Horizontal Coeffient, KH(eq)

1
KH (eq) = (k1H1 + k2H2 + + knHn)
H
Q=kiA

Equivalent Vertical Coefficient, KV(eq)

k = coefficient of permeability
H
i = hydraulic gradient KV(eq) =
H1 H2 H
A = cross-sectinal area of soil sample + + ... + n
k k2 kn

Discharge velocity, V
V=ki

Seepage velocity, Vs
V
Vs =
n
n = porosity
 GEOTECHNICAL
Vertical Stresses in Soil Compressibility of Soil

A Settlement the total vertical deformation at

the surface resulting from the load. When a soil
h1
Dry, d deposit is loaded (by a structure or a man-made
B G.W.T. fill) deformation will occur. The movement may be
downward with an increase in load or upward
h2 Saturated, sat (called swelling) with a decrease in load.

1. Total stress at C : c = d h1 + sat h2

2. Pore water pressure at C : uc = w h2 S
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress Pore pressure
c = c uc
A

h1
Dry, d
B G.W.T.
h Components of Settlement:
h2 Saturated, sat
S = S1 + S2 + S3
C

S = total settlement
1. Total stress at C : c = d h1 + sat h2
S1 = immediate or distortion settlement
2. Pore water pressure at C : uc = w h
S2 = primary consolidation settlement
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress Pore pressure
c = c uc S3 = secondary consolidation settlement

A Primary Consolidation Settlement, S2

Normally Consolidated Clays
h1
Dry, d CcH P + P
B
S2 = log o
1 + e0 Po
Cc = compression index
Moist,
h2 zone of capillary rise eo = in-situ void ratio
Degree of saturation, S
C G.W.T. Po = effective overburden pressure at the
middle of the clay layer
1. Total stress at C : c = d h1 + h2 P = average increase of stress on clay layer
B = d h1 H = thickness of clay layer
2. Pore water pressure at C : uB = -S w h2
uc = 0
3. Effective stress at C = Total stress Pore pressure
c = c uc
B = B (uB)
 GEOTECHNICAL
Over Consolidated Clays Compression Index, Cc
1. when Po + P < Pc Cc = 0.009 (LL -10) remolded clays
C sH P + P e1 - e 2
S2 = log o Cc =
1 + e0 Po P
log 2
Cs = swell index P1
= ranges from 1/5 to 1/10 of Cc Coefficient of Compressibility, av
Pc = preconsolidation pressure e1 - e 2
av =
P2 - P1
2. when Po + P > Pc Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv
C sH P CH P + P av
S2 = log c + c log o mv =
1 + e0 Po 1 + e 0 Pc 1 + e ave

Secondary Consolidation Settlement, S3

Time Rate of Consolidation, t

t2 open open
S3 = Ca H log
t1 Hdr
Ca H Hdr
Ca =
1 + ep
e
Ca = open closed
t
log 2
t1 Cv t
Tv =
Ca = secondary compression index H 2 dr
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation Cv = coefficient of consolidation
= eo - e Tv = time factor
Po + P Hdr = drainage distance of water
e = Cc log
Po
Preconsolidation Pressure, Pc
t1 = time for completion of primary consolidation
t2 = time after completion of primary
Pc
consolidation OCR =
Po
Immediate Settlement, S1 OCR = overconsolidation ratio
Pc = preconsolidation pressure
(1 - 2 ) Po = soil overburden pressure
S1 = Cs q B
Es
Cs = shape and foundation rigidity factor
q = pressure due to load
B = width of foundation or diameter of circular
foundation
= Poissons ratio of soil
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
 GEOTECHNICAL
Bearing Capacity of Foundations Case 2: the water table is located at the bottom
of the foundation

Terzaghis Bearing-Capacity

Ultimate Bearing Capacity, qult

A. General Shear Failure (Dense sand and Stiffclay)
1. Square Footing
qult = 1.3c Nc + q Nq + 0.4 B N G.W.T.
B
2. Circular Footing
qult = 1.3c Nc + q Nq + 0.3 B N = sat - w
c = cohesion Case 3: the water table is located so that d < B
q = effective pressure at the bottom of the
footing
B = width of footing or diameter of footing
Nc Nq N = bearing capacity factors

Bearing Capacity Factors

1. see Tables
B
2. If no table available
d<B
Nc = (Nq 1) cot
G.W.T.
tan 2
Nq = e tan (45 + )

2
N = (Nq + 1) tan 1.4 =
1
[ + (B - d)
B dry
]
Modification of value in the 3rd term of the
= sat - w
ultimate bearing capacity equation:
Case 4: the water table is located so that d > B

Case 1: the water table is located above the

bottom of the foundation

G.W.T.

B
d>B
G.W.T.
B

= dry
= sat - w
 GEOTECHNICAL
Shear Strength of Soil
Unconfined Compression Test Method
Normal Force
Direct Shear Test Method
1
Shear Force

1
c

= angle of internal friction

c = cohesion c
= 0 if normally consolidated clay

= normal stress
= shearing stress

Tri-Axial Test Method 3
deviator stress
1

Unconsolidated - Undrained Test Method

cu

c

3 deviator stress
3 deviator stress 1
1

cu = undrained shear strength

3 = chamber confining pressure, cell pressure
= minor principal stress
1 = major principal stress
= deviator stress
 GEOTECHNICAL
Lateral Earth Pressure Pressure diagram due to water:

v s = unit weight of soil

z

h = k v

v = vertical pressure at depth z

h = lateral pressure at depth z
k = coefficient of lateral earth pressure
Pressure diagram due to surcharge:

Lateral Earth Pressure on Retaining Wall with

Horizontal Backfill

At rest earth pressure coefficient, ko

(normally consolidated soil)
ko = 1 sin = angle of internal friction

Rankine active earth pressure, ka

1 - sin
ka =
1 + sin

Rankine passive earth pressure, kp

1 + sin Pressure diagram due to cohesion of soil:
kp =
1 - sin

Pressure diagram due to effective unit weight of

soil:
 GEOTECHNICAL
Braced Sheetings Piles on Clay
Qall
Cuts in Sand method

End bearing capacity

Qb = C Nc Atip
assumed
hinge Frictional capcity
H
Qf = CPL
Qf
C = cohesion of soil
Nc = bearing capacity factor
Pa= 0.65 ka H
Atip = area of plie at the tip
= adhesion factor
Qb
Cuts in Clay when >4 P = perimeter of pile
C
L = length of pile
0.25 H
Qb + Qf
assumed Design Load : Qall =
hinge F.S.
H
method Qall

End bearing capacity

Pa= H 4C Qb = C Nc Atip

Frictional capcity
Cuts in Clay when <4
C Qf = PL (Qv + 2C )

0.25 H area of Pv diagram Qf

Qv = L
assumed L
hinge
H

0.25 H Qb Pv diagram

Pa= 0.3 H
Qb + Qf
Design Load : Qall =
ka = Rankine active pressure coefficient F.S.
C = cohesion of clay
= unit weight of soil
H = depth of cut
 GEOTECHNICAL
Piles on Sand Qall Drilled Piles on Clay
Qall

Ds

Dc 1.5 m

Qf L1 L
Qf

Ds

L2
Qb Pv diagram

Db
End bearing capacity Qb
Qb = Pv Nq Atip End bearing capacity
Qb = qp Atip
Frictional capcity
Qf = P ( area of Pv diagram ) K L1 + L2
qp = 6C [ 1 + 0.2 ] but not greater than CNc
Db
Qb + Qf
Design Load : Qall = Db = bell diameter
F.S.
Ds = shaft diameter

Pv = vertical soil pressure at the tip Frictional capcity

Nq = bearing capacity factor Qf = C P L
K = coef of lateral bet pile and sand earth
pressure factor = adhesion factor
= tan P = perimeter of pile
= angle of friction bet pile and sand L = effective length of pile that resist friction

Critical Depth, Dc Qb + Qf
i. Dc = 20 x diameter of pile for dense sand Design Load : Qall =
F.S.
ii. Dc = 10 x diameter of pile for loose sand

Note : The pressure below the critical depth, Dc

is assumed to be uniform.
 GEOTECHNICAL
Drilled Piles on Sand Group of Piles
Qall Efficiency of Group of Piles, Eg

L Qf

Converse Labarre Equation:

[(n - 1) m + (m - 1) n]
Eg = 1 -
90 m n
Qb
End bearing capacity Bowles :
Qb = qp Atip 2 ( m + n - 2) S + 4D
Eg =
D m n
a. Nvalue < 50 m = number of rows of piles
qp = 57.5 Nvalue < 2900 kPa n = number of piles in a row
b. Nvalue > 50 D
tan =
P S
qp = 0.59[ Nvalue ( a )]0.8
Pvb D = diameter of pile
Pa = 100 kPa S = spacing of piles center to center
Pvb = effective vertical pressure at base elevation
Settlement of Piles
Frictional capcity : Qf = Pv P L
a. Nvalue 15 Se = Se1 + Se2 + Se3
= 1.5 n (z)0.5
b. Nvalue < 15 Elastic Settlement of Pile, Se1
N (Qwp + Qws ) L
= value [ 1.5 n (z)0.5 ] Se1 =
15 Ap Ep
Pv = effective vertical overburden pressure at
Qwp = load carried at the pile point under working
depth z.
load condition
z = height from ground surface to mid-height of a
Qws = load carried by frictional resistance under
given layer
working load condition
n = 0.245
Ap = cross sectional area of pile
P = perimeter of pile
L = length of pile
L = length of pile
 GEOTECHNICAL
Settlement of Pile caused by the Load at the Pile Settlement of Group of Piles
Tip , Se2

qwp D
Se2 = (1 - s2 ) Iwp
Es
Qwp
qwp =
Ap
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
s = Poissons ratio of soil
Iwp = influence factor

Settlement of Pile caused by the Load

transmitted along of the pile shaft , Se3

Qws D
Se3 = (1 - s2 ) Iws
PLEs
L
Iws = 2 + 0.35
D

P = perimeter of pile
Cc H P + P
L = length of pile S= log o
1 + eo Po
Iws = influence factor
D = diameter of pile
Cc = compression index
H = thickness of clay layer
eo = initial void ratio
P = average increase in pressure on clay
Po = effective overburden pressure at the mid-
height of the clay layer