PYP100

First Year B. Tech. Laboratory

Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Contents

1 Study of a power supply 23

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2 The Network Board-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3 Experiment A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4 Experiment B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5 Experiment C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.6 Experiment D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.7 Experiment E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.8 Experiment F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2 Phase Measurement By Superposition 41

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Principle of measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3 Network Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4 Experiment A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5 Experiment B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.6 Experiment C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.7 Experiment D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.8 Experiment E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.9 Experiment F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.10 Experiment G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.11 Experiment H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.12 Experiment I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3 Magnetic field inside Helmholtz coil arrangement 55

4 Study of Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors with an AC

Source 65
4 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

5 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 73

5.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 RC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 The Network Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4 Experiment A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.5 Experiment B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.6 Experiment C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.7 Experiment D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.8 Experiment E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.9 Experiment F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.10 Experiment E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6 BH curve tracing 99

7 Study of Electromagnetic Induction 125

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.2 The Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.3 Experiment A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.4 Experiment B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.5 Experiment C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

8 Determination of Cauchys Contants 141

8.1 Objective: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.2 Theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.3 Experiment: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.4 Observations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

9 Millikans oil drop experiment 149

10 To determine the wavelength of light from a Sodium Lamp

by Newtons rings method. 171
10.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

11 Determination of Planks constant 177

12 Diffraction grating 191

13 Brewster angle measurement 205

 Contents 5

14 (A). To determine the surface tension of water by Jeagers

method.
(B). To measure surface tension of water by capillary rise
method. 219
14.1 Object: (A). To determine the surface tension of water by
Jeagers method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
14.1.1 Apparatus: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
14.1.2 Theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
14.1.3 Procedure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
14.1.4 Observations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
14.2 Object: (B). To measure surface tension of water by capillary
rise method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.2.1 Apparatus: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.2.2 Theory: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.2.3 Procedure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14.2.4 Observations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

15 To determine the viscosity of water by Meyers oscillating

disk method 225
Guide to minimize errors

General:
1. Always write (and read!) the procedure for the experiment you are sup-
posed to do before you come to the laboratory. Draw a diagram/circuit
diagram of the apparatus as it will help you to set up the experiment.
If there is any data to be noted down only once, e.g., the least counts of
apparatus, room temperature, (note these down first). You are likely
to forget to do so at the end. Always record all observation with a pen,
not a pencil and do not overwrite. If you have taken down a wrong
reading, cross it out so that the original can still be seen and write the
correct reading next to it.

2. In every experiment if possible, first carry it out once without recording

anything. This gives you an idea of what are the difficulties you may
have when you actually record observations.

3. Always try to complete all the calculations before you leave the lab,
that way you will immediately know if you have forgotten to note down
some essential observations.

Tables:

1. On instruments like spectrometers which have two scales, always record

readings from both scales separately. Similarly when you measure tem-
perature difference with tow thermometers or any other difference with
two identical instruments interchange them and record a second set
8 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

in the same table.

2. When calculating differences from a table use the method given be-
low.Take an even number of readings and divide the table into two
halves. Take the difference of the first reading of the first half and the
first reading of the second half of the table. Then take the difference
of the second reading of the first half and the second reading of the
second half of the table. Proceed in this fashion down the table taking
the difference of the corresponding readings from the two halves of the
table.

Table 1: *
Example: To find the deflection/150 g.
S.No. Weight in g. Deflection in cm. Deflection/150g (cm/g)
1 w 65.2 -
2 w + 50 65.4 -
3 w + 100 65.6 -
4 w + 150 65.7 65.7 - 65.2 = 0.5
5 w+ 200 66.0 66.0 = 65.4 = 0.6
6 w + 250 66.2 66.2 - 65.6 = 0.6
7 w + 300 66.4 Ignored for even no. of readings

Never use any of the readings more than once, even if one of the values re-
mains unused as above. This way any errors you may have made in recording
a particular reading only affects one of the differences in the table.

Graphs:

1. As far is possible, choose the scale on the axis of any graph such that
the least count of the graph paper is equal to the least count of the
variable being plotted on that axis. Always write the proper units on
the labels for each axis, and the proper units for the slope if you find
it.

2. To calculate slopes there are two possibilities.

 Contents 9

(a) If the data falls on a straight line, make a table of differences as

shown above and calculate the slope from the table.

(b) If the data does not fall on a straight line, proceed as follows.

To calculate the slope at (x, y), take the data from three points on either
side of (x, y), and form a table as given below. The slope at x, y is then

x 2.5h y1
y2 y1 = dy1
x 1.5h y2 dy dy1 = d(dy1)
x 0.5h y3
y4 y3 = dy
x y
x + 0.5h y4
x + 1.5h y5
dy2 dy = d(dy2) y6 y5 = dy2
x + 2.5h y6

equal to,
Slope(x, y) = [dy + {dy1 + d(dy1)/2h} + {dy2 d(dy2)/2h}]/3h
The above formula follows from the usual definition of the derivative and
Taylor series expansions about (x, y).
If the data are not equally spaced about (x, y) then the two second deriva-
tive terms will not cancel but if h is comparable to the least count then no
appreciable error is made in using this simple formula even in such a case.
Though it might appear from the above that every calculation can be
done from a table. plotting a graph always shows you the general behavior
of the data and should be done. When doing so, the curve need not pass
through all the data points but (must be smooth and as close as possible a
fit) to all of them.
To draw such a curve, take a piece of transparent plastic tube, of the
type used in room coolers, or a strip of transparent plastic 1 12 of the
type used for covering books or making overhead transparencies. Bend this
strip on your graph paper (it must be stiff) so that it passes close to the data
points. Hold it in position and use it as a guide to draw the curve.
10 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Results:

Calculate and report the error in your results, as will be described in detail
below, the three most commonly used measures are,

1. Probable error

2. Maximum possible error or instrumental error.

3. Percentage error or deviation from the standard value.

The last need not be reported, as the conditions of your experiment are
not the same as those under which standard values are measured. You can
however mention the standard value if you know it.
If you have more than five independent observations always calculate the
probable error otherwise use the maximum possible error.
An example of how to report your results. If you measured the coefficient
of linear expansion of copper to be 0.00001856/K with a maximum possible
error of 0.000002365/K then write the answer as,
Coefficient of Linear expansion of Copper= (1.86 + 0.24) 10 5/K
the standard value at room temperature is= 1.66 10 5/K.
While calculating results, retain all the significant figure in the result is com-
parable to the most significant figure in the error.

Errors:

As mentioned above, errors can be of many kinds and a brief description fol-
lows. First of all there are the so called systematic errors, e.g. personal ones
like parallax in observing meter readings, or instrumental ones like backlash
or wrong marking of the scale. Please avoid these errors while taking down
your readings.
Apart from these however the fact that every instrument has finite ac-
curacy(a finite least count) means that if you take several observations very
carefully they will still not give you identical results,. If your observations
are good then the results of each set will be distributed randomly about a
mean value which is the true result.
 Contents 11

To characterize this spread in the results due to the finite least count of
the apparatus we use two kinds of error measurements:
1. Maximum Possible Error

2. Probable error.

Maximum Possible Error:

Consider the measurement of the density of a solid cube of Mass M and side
L. Then the density is,
M
= ( 3) (1)
L
However any measurement of mass M or weight can only be performed to an
accuracy dM, the least count of the balance used. Similarly, lengths L can
be measured to within the accuracy dL of the measuring rod used. Then
the inherent (instrumental error) due to the least counts of the measuring
instruments used is,
d(D) = (dM )D/M + (dL)D/L (dM << M, dL << L) (2)
As the errors is general can be positive or negative, to find the maximum er-
ror, we must take the absolute magnitudes of all the derivatives involved and
add them. The corresponding fractional error is referred to as the (maximum
possible error or instrumental error). In this case it is,
dD/D = (dM )|[Ln(D)]/M | = 3(dL)|[Ln(D)]/L| (3)
because of this last formula, its is also sometimes referred to as the log error.
This error must always be calculated and the result written down as,
Density = D dD (4)
Note that in this method, if the difference or sum of two experimental quan-
tities appears in a formula, then the error doubles. For example, the heat
transferred per unit time Q across a sample by conduction is proportional to
the temperature difference T T across it. Q = S(T T ). The maximum
possible error in this case is,
dQ dS 2dT
= + (5)
Q S (T Ta )
12 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Apart from such inherent instrumental errors, there are the random individ-
ual errors that you make in taking down each reading. To deal with these,
we use the concept of probable error.

Probable error:
You are probably aware from courses on probability theory that under very
general assumptions, any long sequence of independent observations of a
variable x will be found to follow a Gaussian or normal distribution,

p(x)dx = (1/2S)exp[{x x}/2S]dx. (6)

Here p(x) is the probability that the observation lies in an interval dx about
the value x. Then as can be easily seen,
Z
T hemean = x = xp(x)dx (7)
Z
andstandarddeviation = S = { (x x)2 xp(x)dx}1/2 (8)

The quantity S is a measure of how spread out your observations are about x
and thus a measure of goodness or otherwise of the readings. It is referred
to as the (probable error).
The formula as given above is impractical as it requires an infinite number
of observations to evaluate the integrations. When only a finite number, n
of observations is made, we replace the integrals by summations to obtain,

x = (1/n)x, (9)

S = (1/n)[(x x)]. (10)

This quantity must always be calculated and reported when the number of
observations is large(> 4). The result then is reported as,

Result = x dx (S) (11)

instrumental error probable error

Note that the two errors are not to be summed.
 Contents 13

Problems:
1. Assuming all quantities on the r.h.s. of the formula given below to
be experimental variables, apart from natural constants like 2 or find an
expression for the maximum possible error.

2. Student in a class get the following marks out of 50,

36.5, 30, 20, 32, 29, 36.5, 26.5, 22, 32.5, 22, 29.5, 18.
Find the mean mark and the standard deviation after normalizing the total
to 100. Plot a gaussian with the same mean and deviation along with the
data given above on a graph.

Parallax Removing:
For optics experiments (in this lab for the Fresnels Biprism experiment)
another important error introducing factor is parallax- so for such experi-
ments, we have to learn how to remove parallax.
In all cases of optical measurements where an accurate determination of
the position of an image is sought for, we take recourse to the method of
parallax.
Let P1 represent a line drawn on transparent screen and P2 , the image of a
linear object. Both P1 and P2 stand perpendicular to the plane of paper. An
eye placed in the position E behind the screen sees both the line coincident.
As the observer moves his eyes to the position E1 and E2 , a relative motion
occurs between P1 and P2 . The same relative motion takes place when the
image is formed between P1 and the eye. this relative motion ceases only
when P1 and P2 coincide. This method of finding the position of an image
by making it coincide with a reference line and point is known as the method
of parallax.
In order to ascertain, during adjustment, whether the image is formed
in front of or behind the screen, move your eyes across the line joining P1
and P2 . If the image moves in the same direction as the eye (with respect of
P1 the reference line), then the image is further away from the eye than the
screen. If the image moves in the opposite direction, then it is nearer to the
eye than the screen.
To avoid parallax, either the screen or the lens or the mirror forming
the image or the object itself is slowly displaced until there is no parallax
between the image and the reference line.
14 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Using the balance:

1. Look at the plumb-line and make sure, that the balance is level. If
necessary, level it by turning the leveling screw at the base or ask for
help.

2. Determine the zero point, i.e. the equilibrium position of the pointer
when passed are empty.

3. Place body to be weighed on left-hand pan and weights systematically

, only when the beam is in the arrested position and then release the
beam and check.

4. By trial put enough weight on right pan so that the new position of the
pointer appears to lie within 5 pointer to the right of zero point. Allow
the beam to oscillate and take readings of 3 to 5 successive turning
points. Call it Q.

5. Add 10 mgm weight to right-hand pan and find corresponding rest-

position call it R. Record the data as follows:

Load on Load on Turning points Mean Zero Rest

left-pan right pan Left Right Left Right point positions
Nil Nil a) 4.9 a) 15.1 5.2 15.0 10.2
b) 5.3 b) 14.8 (P)
c) 5.6
Body 15.23 g a) 10.1 a) 20.4 10.5 20.3 15.4(Q)
b) 10.5 b) 20.1
c) 10.8
Body a) 3.8 a) 9.6 3.4 9.7 6.6(R)
b) 3.4 b) 9.5
c) 3.1

Mass of body:
W = 15.23 is smaller than that of body by an amount which causes displace-
ment of pointer = 15.4 10.2 = 5.2 div. Now, causes displacement of 5.2
 Contents 15

div would be caused by5.2/8.8 10mgm = 5.9mgm = 0.0059gm. Therefore

mass of body= 15.23 + 0.0059 = 15.2359.
Some notes on Group 1 experi-
ments (Electrical)
 PYP100 INSTRUCTIONS AND SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENTS (GROUP A)

EXPT 1: STUDY OF POWER SOURCES

Take R2/R1 = X where X has a value of 2 to 2.5. Now choose values of R2 and R1 in a way that 5
values of RS are distributed in the range of 50 ohm to 800 ohm, say 50, 150, 350, 550, 800 ohms.
Take Vo = 15 V. For each set measure (1) VS, and (2) PL for a RL range of 10 to 1600 ohm. Now
for two sets, say RS = 50 ohm and 350 ohm, interchange R2 and R1 and then repeat (1) and (2) as
above. Now
A. Compare the 5 sources with same X for their (1) power delivery to load, by drawing PL
vs RL curves on same graph and (2) IL vs VL on same graph and obtain VS and RS.
B. Compare the 4 sources, 2 with same X and the other two with same 1/X as above.

Draw conclusions about the behavior of various sources (1) what happens to power delivery to
the load, as RS increases, X remaining same. The obvious conclusion is that maximum power is
delivered when RL = Rs. Do you observe shift in peak power point and value of the PL. If yes,
why. Discuss it. (2) What happens to power delivery to the load when X is changed to 1/X. Why
same RS brings changes in the load characteristics?
Also observe the change in the shape of the PL curve as RS increases. Give reasons for it.
Do the last part of reflected load resistance as in the Lab. Manual.

EXPT 4: STUDY OF PHASE BY SUPERPOSITION

We will use the principle of superposition of two vectorial voltages to obtain the phase
difference between them. Each vactorial voltage has magnitude and direction (phase angle).
Each measured value will have to be compared with the value of phase angle obtained by
drawing the corresponding voltage vector diagram.
In the series resistance circuit, there is no phase difference between the voltages across two
resistances, and therefore voltages can be added algebraically. Zero phase difference is also true
for voltage across a resistor in a pure resistive circuit and voltage of the ac source. We first make
the magnitudes of the reference voltage equal (using voltage divider) to voltage signal (across
resistor). Thus in this case addition (V+) leads to double the magnitude and subtraction (V)
means (nearly) zero magnitude. But if we have C and/or L element also in the circuit this will not
be true due to finite phase angle that can have any value >0 to <180. In fact V+ can be smaller
in magnitude than V. Therefore, due to the above fact, experiment requires that we clearly
identify the connections (using pure resistive circuit) that give V+ and V; and then should
follow the same throughout the other parts of the experiment. If in doubt redo the pure R circuit
part. Understand the use of the voltage divider circuit.

Now we have to obtain the phase difference in the cases of (1) pure C circuit; (2) R-C circuit; (3)
complex R-C circuit; (4) L-R circuit; and (5) L-C-R circuit. Compare the values of calculated
phase angles with the corresponding angles from the voltage vector diagram. In case of L-C-R
circuit, vary C to reach resonance and then go beyond resonance (in all 5 values of C to be used).
Identify condition(s) for resonance, other than the obvious one (ideal case) that VC = VL. Take
value of R reasonably small. In each case measure VLC. The vector diagram is now to be drawn
(which is a bit tricky as 4 voltages are involved now). Check what happens to (1) the phase of VR
and (2) the phase angle between VC and VL; as you go through resonance. Plot (L C) vs R.
EXPT 5: STUDY OF CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

We know theoretically the charging is exponential. Does it actually remain so as charging

proceeds and full charged condition is approached. OR does it deviate from exponential
behavior. If yes, is the observed deviation physically possible? Also when does deviation occur
from exp behavior and why? Is this deviation linked to the value of series resistance used with C.
To answer this, take a given C and make two RC combinations with time constant values of say
20 s and 120 s. Do charging using Vo = 18 V for a time of about 4 times RC in both cases.
Through log graph, try to observe the deviation from exponential nature. Only the log
graph (being a straight line) can conclusively prove exponential behavior.

To do the energy part and prove dependence of E on Vo, C and R; as well as E dissipated in
three step adiabatic charging; pre-decide the values of C, R and Vo necessary to complete all the
tasks in minimum number of sets (C,R,Vo). Calculate energy in J for each case using graph.

Learn how to get observations in the 1st time constant duration at intervals of 2 or 3 s. You may
realize that interval between two observations need not remain same throughout the charging
process. Do not forget to record current during charging at t=0 (what is its significance).

Explain physically why adiabatic charging dissipates lesser energy and why energy does
not depend on R.

EXPT 7: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND STUDY OF VARYING EMF

In this experiment we learn to use a RC circuit (A) as a voltmeter to measure short duration
voltage pulses, (B) as a counter of events (pulses) and (C) as an integrator (of charge delivered
during successive pulses). Also we see how em induction produces damping over and above the
mechanical damping. At the end of the experiment, just through your observing capability,
you should be able to draw the variation of the emf (as close to the reality as possible in
terms of time) during one oscillation of the magnet without making any measurement for
this. Simply base it on your observation and analytical capability of the happening.
A. Take the least possible value of C and make 5 RC combinations so that time constants are
about say 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1 and 5 s. These are your 5 voltmeters. Take a start value of the
angular displacement of 50, keeping it fixed try to measure the induced emf with each
voltmeter. In each case, also record the end value of the angular displacement and the
number of oscillations till the time you record the induced emf value. Based on these
observations conclude and state which voltmeter is the best one to measure the given
voltage pulse and why. Now using this voltmeter record induced emfs for different
angular displacements and plot Vind vs. vmax.
B. Again take 5 time constant values, say 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5 and 15 s using a given C. These are
your 5 counters. For each of them record Vind vs vs number of pulses for up to 25 pulses.
Plot all the curves on the same graph to compare these counters. Conclude which one is
best for counting job and why? 1/R part is automatically done. Just plot.
C. Do the Integration part for each case.
D. Do the em damping part as in lab manual. Conclude why em damping occurs and exactly
how does it physically happen. Use 100 & 1000 F capacitors for em damping. Compare
the em damping due to the two capacitors. Give reasons why C does em damping and
does this damping occur all the time.
EXPT 2: p-n Junction

Learning and analysis points from this experiment are: (1) What is reverse saturation current?
Why does it flow? What is its significance? (2) What is , the diode ideality factor and what is
its significance? (3) Why forward current starts only after some forward bias voltage is applied?
(4) Why there is junction capacitance and why does it vary with reverse bias?

All these points can be understood on the basis of (1) energy band diagram of the p-n homo-
junction, (2) presence of majority and minority carriers and control of their flow by built-in
junction field and applied bias, (3) Fermi level and its position with respect to band edges.

We know that under unbiased condition there is no current flowing through the p-n junction. If
there is charge carrier flow then how come there is no current? But does it mean no charge
carrier is transporting across the junction. Actually in this case minority carrier current is just
equal to majority carrier current across the junction. But in case of reverse bias only the minority
charge current flows, and its value saturates to IS (or I0) under large reverse bias. Does reverse
saturation current depend on band gap of the semiconductor and its temperature? If yes why?
Reverse saturation current density JS J0 = Jp + Jn = q Dn n p 0 Ln q Dp pn0 Lp , where D are
diffusion coefficient for n and p charge carriers, L are diffusion length for minority electrons on
p side and minority holes on n side respectively of the p-n junction, and np0 and pn0 are thermal
equilibrium charge carrier densities of minority electrons on p side and minority holes on n side.
Density of intrinsic charge carriers ni = pi = NC exp (EG/2kT) and depends on the bandgap EG of
semiconductor and its temperature. np0 pn0 = ni2.
For one-sided p+- n abrupt junction, JS = T(3+m) exp (EG/kT), where m is a constant.

Junction region is depleted of free charge carriers and thus has much higher resistivity than the
bulk p and n sides bounding the depletion region. Also the depletion region has ve fixed charge
on p-side and +ve fixed charge on n-side. Therefore p-n junction behaves as a capacitor. As we
change the applied bias, the width of depletion region changes, and hence the junction/depletion
capacitance.
For two-sided abrupt p-n junction,
1 1
2 (V V ) N A N D 2 q S N A ND 2
depletion layer width W = S d
N A N D
and depletion C =
q 2(Vd V ) N A N D
p n N N
Here built-in junction (barrier) potential is given by qVd = k T ln p 0 2 n 0 k T ln A 2 D .
ni ni
When bias V is applied, there is a decrease in junction potential for forward bias, which becomes
Vd V, and in case of reverse bias junction potential increases to Vd + V.
1 1
2 (V V ) 2 q N 2
For one-sided abrupt p+-n junction, W= S d and C = S D
q ND 2(Vd V )
NA and ND are acceptor and donor impurity concentrations in p and n sides; and S is the
dielectric constant of the semiconductor (for silicon its value is 12 o).
p p 0 refers to thermal equilibrium hole concentration in p side. These holes are majority carriers.
n p 0 refers to equilibrium electron concentration in p side. These electrons are minority carriers.
EXPT 3: MAGNETIC FIELD IN THE SPACE BETWEEN HELMHOLTZ COILS

Helmholtz coils is a pair of two identical coils separated by a distance equal to their radius.
This is the simplest system that provides a constant/uniform field, though in a limited way. This
arrangement results in a constant magnetic field along their common axis at points in between
the coils. This is understood by superposition of the magnetic field patterns of the single coils
(that you know well and you have derived formula for it). This specific arrangement of coils has
many applications, like in a Tangent Galvanometer or confinement of plasma discharge. Since
any object that is placed between the two coils is finite in size, it is not only essential but
interesting to know the magnetic field configuration (magnitude and direction) in the space
between the coils. This needs a study/measurement of the longitudinal and radial components of
the magnetic field.

EXPT 6: HYSTERESIS (B-H) LOOP OF MAGNETIC MATERIAL

We know that the magnetization M vs. applied field H curve of a diamagnet is straight line (with
negative slope) passing through origin and for a paramagnet PM this line has positive slope. It is
not so for a ferromagnet FM. A freshly prepared sample of FM has zero magnetization. When
subjected to external magnetic field, the magnetization M increases in a non-linear fashion with
H, and finally saturate at some high value of magnetic field called Hsat. If we now decrease H,
M-H curve does not retrace its path. Rather at H=0 there is a finite magnetization remaining,
called remanence Mr or remanent magnetization. This happens because magnetic domains of FM
have been forced to align in the direction of applied field during the initial field ramping from
H=0 to Hsat. This is how a permanent magnet is formed. So we need to apply magnetic field in
the reverse direction to turn around the magnetization. The (negative) applied field that reduces
magnetization to zero is called coercive field HC or simply the Coercivity. To do this we need to
do work and hence energy is dissipated. If we continue to increase the negative field the
magnetization will grow in negative direction to eventually saturate at Hsat. If now field is
increased in positive direction, M will start turning back slowly first till we zero applied field, at
which M equals Mr. Thereafter, M(H) will change rapidly, will pass through zero at +HC, and
then will reach saturation again at Hsat. The M-H curve between Hsat and + Hsat is reproducible
and is called Hysteresis loop. The area within the loop represents the energy spent in turning the
magnetization. Hard and soft FM materials are characterized by their values of Mr, HC and Hsat.
If a given magnetic material possess say FM and PM constituents, than we will observe M-H
loop but without saturation.
It is also common to indicate the magnetization behavior of the pure ferromagnetic material by a
B-H loop, instead of M-H loop. The correspondence between the shapes of the two can be

understood by recalling that (in SI units) B 0 ( H M ) , here B=magnetic flux density,
H=applied magnetic field strength (by varying the current in an electromagnet/solenoid, and
M=magnetization induced in the material along the direction of applied field.

Clearly, for free space, M=0 gives B 0 H .
1.

Study of a power supply

1.1 Introduction
A car battery can supply 12 volts. So can 8 dry cells in series. But no
one would consider using the dry cells to start a car. Why not? Obviously,
the dry cells cannot supply the large current required to start the car. The
point is that the resistance of the source for the car battery( 0.1 ohm)
is considerably smaller than that for the 8 dry cells( 5 to 70 ohms) in
series .A power supply which happens to be another commonly used source
in the laboratory has a widely varying resistance; for a regulated power supply
it may be as small as 0.1 ohm. A source of emf figure 1.1(a) ,therefore, must
be represented not just by its voltage Vs but by its source resistance Rs as well
figure 1.1(b). It is convenient to think of the source Vs and its resistance Rs
as enclosed in an imaginary box(indicated by the dotted line in figure 1.1(b)
with terminals A and B, which we can put to any use we like. Electrical
networks may be complicated but it is often very useful to think of parts of
it as a box with certain parameters associated with it-in the above case the
parameters being Vs and Rs .
* There are, of course, many other factors that dictate practical use of a power source.
Consideration of cost, convenience of use, rechargeability, available power and energy etc.
are some of these. For example, a dry cell may give only a few watt-hours of energy and
cannot be recharged whereas a car battery can give 500 watt-hours and, with care, can
be recharged any number of times. A power supply, on the other hand, derives its power
continuously from the a.c. mains and hence needs no charging and can deliver any amount
of energy. We shall however, not discuss these factors here, important as they are.
24 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 1.1:

Suppose we are given such a box with terminals A and B and we have to
determine Rs and Vs . First let us see how to do this in principle, We connect a
voltmeter of very high resistance(ideally infinite) so that it draws no current.
It will measure Vs directly. We can now connect an ammeter(ideally zero
resistance) and measure the current which will be

i = Vs /Rs (1.1)

Thus, we may define the source resistance as the open circuit voltage
between A and B divided by the current when A and B are short-circuited.
In practice, we may have to exercise caution since the short circuit current
may be very large and damage the instrument or the source itself.
We may now adopt the following attitude. The terminals A and B provide
a certain source of voltage Vs with a source resistance Rs . Actually, Rs may
include other circuit elements as well. For example, think of the arrangements
 Power supply characteristics 25

Figure 1.2:
26 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

in figure 1.1(a) and figure 1.1(b). For these too we can represent the source
by a certain output voltage Vs and source resistance Rs as shown in figure
1.1(b). For the case of figure1.1(a) Ohms law gives us

Rs R1 R2
Vs = Vo , Rs = (1.2)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
We can now say that we have a source of output voltage Vs across the termi-
nals AB, with an effective resistance Rs . This effective source resistance Rs
is often called the output resistance of the device as seen from AB. We shall
develop the above ideas with a few simple experiments.

Figure 1.3: The network board

 Power supply characteristics 27

1.2 The Network Board-1

The network board for our experiment is shown in Plate 1. It contains three
groups of resisters R1 ,R2 ,R3 , each group having several different resistors to
choose from. It has a d-c milliammeter and a d-c voltmeter. Figure 1.3
shows the details of connections provided underneath the board. It will be
seen that one could choose any one resistor from group R1 and any one from
group R2 to make up a source like that in figure 1.1(a). The third set of
resistors R3 are all connected in series and can be used as load. One could
plug-in at any pair of points and get the desired value of the load.

1.3 Experiment A
To obtain the output voltage and output resistance of a given
source.

Figure 1.4:

Let the dotted box in the figure 1.4 with AB for its output terminals be
our source. As can be seen from the figure, in fact it consists of a power
supply of voltage Vo and a potential divider arrangement made of resistors R1
and R2 . We have to measure its output voltage across AB and then calculate
its output resistance Rs .
28 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Vs is measured by connecting the voltmeter directly across AB. Of course,

it is implied here that the resistance of the voltmeter is so large that the
current flowing through it can be neglected.
Now connect a resistor RL called load resistor along with a milliammeter.
The current i drawn from the source is measures by the millimammeter and
the new voltmeter reading VL would be lower than Vs . If Rs be the output
resistance of the source then

Vs iRs = VL (1.3)

Thus the output resistance Rs is given by

Drop in output voltage Vs VL
Rs = = (1.4)
Load current i
If we take several different values of RL , we shall be drawing different currents
i. The voltage drop Vs VL will also correspondingly change. You may
tabulate these values, compute Rs each time from eq(1.4), and obtain the
mean Rs . Alternatively, you may draw a graph between VL and i as shown
in figure 1.5, see if it is a straight line, and obtain Rs from its slope and Vs
from its intercept on the VL axis (since i=0 for this intercept Vs would be the
same as VL ) Can you appreciate why it is much better to calculate Rs from
the graph rather than directly from your observations ?
Represent your results V s,R s with a diagram like that in figure
1.1(b). This would be the equivalent circuit for the actual source in fig 1.4.

1.4 Experiment B
To study the variation of the output resistance Rs with changes in
values of R1 and R2 , the ratio R1 /R2 remaining constant.

In the arrangement of figure 1.4, if the power supply is of voltage Vo and

resistance zero, then by ohms law the output voltage across AB should be
R2
Vs = Vo (1.5)
R1 + R2
You may check the measured Vs against the value calculated from eq(1.5).
The dependence of the value of the output resistance Rs on R1 and R2 is
 Power supply characteristics 29

Figure 1.5:

obvious. Eq(1.5) shows that if both R1 and R2 are changed by the same
factor, Vs does not change. The value of Rs should, however, change. Let us
examine this by experiment.
With one set of R1 and R2 measure Rs as in Expt A. Now change the
resistors xR1 and xR2 where x is some common factor. Measure R2 again.
Repeat this with different values of x and examine how Rs varies with x.
The behavior of Rs with x can be discussed as below. Figure 1.6(a) and
figure 1.6(b) are equivalent. One can now see from the latter that if the
power supply itself has a negligible resistance, then inside the source R1
and R2 are in parallel, so that the output resistance of the source as seen at
AB should be
R1 R2
Rs0 = (1.6)
R1 + R2
By changing both R1 and R2 by a factor x, the new output resistance Rs0 will
30 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

be given by
xR1 .xR2 xR1 R2
Rs0 = = = xRs (1.7)
xR1 + xR2 R1 + R2
Thus for a given ratio of R1 /R2 i.e. for a given ratio of Vs /V0 , the output
resistance comes out to be proportional to x.
Using Ohms law, deduce an expression for the current i drawn by a load
RL connected across AB in figure 1.6(a). Use this result to obtain expressions
for Vs and Rs .

1.5 Experiment C
To study the power delivered by a source at different loads

A load resistor, connected across the terminals of a source, draw some

current from it and thus consumes the power delivered to it by the source.
It is interesting to study how the latter varies with the load. If, for a certain
load RL , the current is i, the voltage across the load is VL , then the power P
delivered by the source is given by

P = VL i (1.8)

Connect different resistors RL and measure current i and voltage VL each

time figure 1.7. Tabulate these data and compute the power P using eq(1.8).
Also plot against RL and draw a smooth curve through the observation points
figure 1.8.
The curve has a broad maximum for some value of RL . What is so special
about this particular load? If you measure the output resistance Rs of the
source(Expt. A) you will find that the power delivered is maximum when
the load RL has the same value as Rs .

1.6 Experiment D
To learn more about load matching and power dissipation in a
circuit

We have already seen in Expt B how for a given ratio of R1 /R2 , the
output voltage Vs does not depend on the individual values of R1 and R2
 Power supply characteristics 31

whereas the output resistance Rs does. Using this knowledge try different
arrangements of R1 and R2 . Measure the output resistance Rs in each case
(Expt A). Also measure the variation of the power P delivered to the load
RL for each value of Rs .
Plot the following quantities as a function of the load; (a) the load cur-
rent i (b) the voltage VL across the load (c) the power dissipated in the load
(d) the fraction of power dissipated in the load upon power expended by the
source. You will see that maximum power is delivered when the load RL is
equal to the output resistance Rs . This disarmingly simple result is of great
importance and you will come across it again and again in various forms.
The idea is that the load resistance should match the output resistance for
maximum power transf er . You will also notice that the current i is maxi-
mum when RL is zero, the voltage VL across the load is maximum when RL is
infinite but the power iVL dissipated in the load is maximum when RL = Rs
and is equal to Vs2 /4Rs . Remember, this is not the power expended by the
source which is Vs2 /2Rs .

A source of output voltage Vs and output resistance Rs when connected across

a load RL gives a current i = RsV+R
s
L
and delivers power to the load directly
2
given by P = i RL Show, using differential calculus, that P is maximum when
RL = Rs .

1.7 Experiment E
To study the reflected load resistance in a network**
Consider figure 1.9(a). When RL is not connected, let the current through
the circuit be i. On connecting RL , this current increases to some value io
which means that the load RL connected across AB increases the current
from i to io .
We can achieve the same result if we connect a suitable load RL0 across
*This statement is true for alternating current circuits also. There we talk of output
impedance instead of output resistance and the principle assumes its general name-the
principle of impedance matching.
**For doing this experiment, you will need a resistance box in addition to the Network
Board as shown in figure 1.3. Also note that in experiment on reflected load resistance
measurement a power supply with an output voltage Vo and negligible output resistance
is used as the source.
32 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

CD(which means directly across the power supply). This load RL0 seen by
the source is called as the reflected load resistance.
For the simple circuit shown in figure 1.9 you can also calculate the re-
flected load resistance RL by applying Ohms law but in more complex net-
works such calculations may not be all that simple. Nevertheless, the fact
remains that for a load RL across any two points(AB) in a network, simple
or complex, you can always determine the reflected load RL0 as seen by the
power supply(across CD). In this sense therefore, the network acts as a trans-
former. It is usually called an impedance transformer when the network has
components other than pure resistance also.
More generally, we can replace the actual load RL by a load RL0 in an-
other part of the circuit such that the current drawn from the source is the
same. One then calls RL0 as the transfer load (transfer resistance or transfer
impedance as the case may be). An example of this is shown in figure1.10.
Deduce an expression for the current in figure 1.9(a) when RL is con-
nected. Deduce a similar expression for the case of figure 1.9(b) when RL0
is connected. Hence, obtain an expression for the reflected load resistance.
Draw conclusions for the limiting cases of RL and RL0
In the study of complicated circuits impedance transformations lead to
considerable simplicity of analysis and are widely resorted to. We should,
therefore, try to see this atleast in a simple circuit like the one shown in
figure 1.11.
Use a resistance box for RL along with the network board for this experi-
ment. First keep RL0 = (plug off) and read the current in the milliammeter
when RL = and when RL has a given value. Let these readings be i and
io . Now set RL = , plug-in RL0 and adjust its value such that the current
has a value of io . Read the value of RL0 at this stage.
Keeping R1 ,R2 and R unchanged, take different values of load RL and for
each case experimentally obtain the transfer load. It may be worthwhile to
plot RL0 against RL and see how it varies with RL .
In the circuit of figure 1.9(a), the load RL , on being connected across the
output terminals AB, increases current from i to io . Show that the transfer
load(reflected resistance) RL0 as seen at CD is given by RL0 = ioVis
where Vs is
0
the output voltage at AB. (Thus RL can be deduced from measurements i,io
unlike the method of direct substitution suggested in Expt E)
 Power supply characteristics 33

1.8 Experiment F
To make a simple equivalent circuit for a power source ***
In Experiment A, you took a simple source figure 1.4 of output voltage
Vs and output resistance Rs . Now you may take a far more complicated
arrangement, like the one shown in figure 1.12(a) and measure its V s
and the series resistance is adjusted to be RS . This is an equivalent circuit
corresponding to the circuit of figure 1.12(a). We may check this equivalence
directly by experiment.
Make any network and choose any two points AB in that network as the
output terminals. Apply different loads RL at these terminals and each
time measure the current i drawn and the voltage VL across AB. From these
calculate Vs and Rs as in Expt A. Now take a power-supply and adjust its
voltage to the value Vs . Connect a resistor of value Rs in series with it Figure
1.12(b). Then apply the same loads RL across its output terminals AB and
each time measure i and VL . Compare these results with those obtained with
the complicated network and see if the equivalence is complete.
Even when there is more than one source of emf in the network, the
equivalence holds. In a-c circuits, with inductors and capacitors also present,
the equivalence involves some more details, but is still a very useful concept.

*** This could be done immediately after Expt A as an exercise to see how any
source(with whatever complicated details) can be replaced by an equivalent circuit of an
emf Vs and a series resistance Rs . You would need some extra resistors in addition to your
Network Board for doing this experiment
34 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

APPENDIX
Carbon Resistors
Carbon, either alone or in combination with other materials, is used in mak-

ing a class of resistors which are commonly used in radio and other com-
munication circuits. After the advent of transistors and integrated circuits
where one seldom handles large power, their use has gone up phenomenally.
The commonest form of mass-produced resistors is the composition resistor,
in which the conducting material, graphite or some other form of carbon,
is mixed with fillers that serve as diluents and combined with an organic
binder. Two general types of composition resistors are the solid body, which
is moulded or extruded, and the filament type, in which carbon is baked on
a glass or a ceraminc rod and sealed in a ceramic or bakelite tube.
Composition resistors of the usual type are, however, notoriously unstable
in resistance values. If they are used only at a low power level, the change
in resistance results principally from the effect of humidity on the unit. If
operated near the rated load, the changes in resistance result primarily from
decomposition of the organic binder.
Much better stability is found in a special film type of resistor known as a
pyrolitic or cracked carbon resistor. Such resistors are made by depositing
crystalline carbon at a high temperature on a ceramic rod by cracking
an appropriate hydrocarbon. In one process for making these film resistors,
carbon is deposited from methane gas in a nitrogen atmosphere from which
water vapour and oxygen are carefully excluded. No binder is used, and the
carbon deposits consist of a hard gray crystalline form from which graphite
and carbon black are completely absent. After the deposit is formed, the
resistor is adjusted to its required value by cutting a helical groove around
the cylinder with a diamond impregnated copper wheel. This removes part of
the deposit and leaves a helical conductor of a suitable length and width for
the desired resistance. After terminals are applied by a suitable process, the
surface of a resistor is lacquered with some silicon type of varnish to provide
insulation, moisture resistance and mechanical protection. These are then
sorted out by measurement with a bridge in series having a tolerance of 10%
or 5% or less.
For 1 watt 10k resistors of this type, a typical temperature coefficient is
-0.02% per C (minus sign indicates a decrease of resistance with increase in
temperature unlike the wire-wound resistors) and for a 5megaohm resistor
 Power supply characteristics 35

this figure is -0.04% per C.

There are some other advantages in using these film resistors. Their
compactness of shape and size renders them easier to handle and suitable to
fit in a small space. They are avilable over a wide range of resistance(from
1 ohm to 1000megaohms or more). The 10% series are available in values
starting from 1 ohm in a geometric progression of about 1.5 namely, 1, 1.5,
2.2, 3.3, 4.9... ... .... Similarly the values in the 5% series are in a geometric
progression of 1.2 namely, 1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2... ... ... The resistance values
are sometimes marked with colour bands. The colour code is-
Black 0, Brown 1, Red 2, Orange 3, Yellow 4, Green 5, Blue 6, Violet 7,
Gray 8.
A simple way to remember this is the mnemonic - B.B. Roy Goes to
Bombay Via Gateway [Perhaps you could make a better one].
You will notice four coloured bands, three narrow and one broad, on such
resistors. The first two narrow ones, represent the first two numbers, and the
third represents the number of zeroes after two numbers. The three narrow
bands thus give the value of the resistance. the (fourth) broad one represent-
ing the tolerance is either a silver or a gold band, the former for 10% and the
latter for 5%. Suppose on a resistor the colour bands are like this. Brown,
Gray, Red and Gold. This would mean a value of 1800 i.e. 1.8k with 5%
tolerance.

REFERENCE

1.Blackburn, Components Handbook, Vol. 17

2.M.I.T Radiation Laboratory, Mc Graw Hill, 1949.
36 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 1.6:
 Power supply characteristics 37

Figure 1.7:

Figure 1.8:
38 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 1.9:
 Power supply characteristics 39

Figure 1.10:

Figure 1.11:
40 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 1.12:
2.

Phase Measurement By Super-

position

2.1 Introduction
The method of vector diagrams for determining the magnitudes and relative
phases of voltages and currents in a-c networks is not easy in many cases.
Consider, for example, the following circuit.

Figure 2.1:

If you want to know the phase difference between the voltages VA and VB
42 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

it would not at all be a simple matter to infer this from a vector diagram.(Try
it). For this reason, we introduce a method by which you can determine phase
differences directly and study phase relationships in various networks.

2.2 Principle of measurement

The principal we shall employ is superposition of the voltage to be measured
and a fixed standard voltage so that the phase is determined relative to that
of the standard voltage. We shall refer to this superposition as mixing.
The fixed(standard) voltage may be derived from any coherent source*; in
this board it is the output of a transformer. Suppose we wish to measure the
phase of a signal Vi different, say higher, from the voltage Vs of the standard
signal; this is connected to a potential divider** P( with a variable pot) and
the output adjusted to give exactly the same magnitude as the standard
voltage.
We can now mix the two voltages so that we get either V + VS or V VS .
This can be easily done by first mixing the voltages in one way as in figure
2.2(b) and then reversing the polarity of one of the two voltages for mixing
figure 2.2(c). On vector diagrams the two cases are illustrated below:
We can measure the magnitude of the resultant in the two cases. From
figure 2.3 it can be seen(derive these results yourself) that

V = 2V sin (2.1)
2
and

V + = 2V cos (2.2)
2
so that
V
= tan (2.3)
V+ 2
This immediately gives the phase difference . In this way, all phases are
determined relative to the coherent standard.
*i.e, the standard source and the voltage to be measured have a phase difference that
does not change with time. See Appendix I for this.
**The resistance of the potential divider should be sufficiently high( it is about 100k
in the network designed by us) so that it does not disturb the phase or magnitude of the
voltage measured
 Phase measurement by superposition 43

There may be cases when the voltage to be measured is smaller than the
standard voltage. In this case, we drop the standard voltage across the po-
tential divider until it has the same magnitude as the voltage to be measured
and then the mixing is carried out.

2.3 Network Board

A schematic diagram of the lay out of the board is given below:
The board provides the coherent standard voltage from a transformer
output(about 20volts). There is a switch for reversing its polarity, i.e. for
changing its phase by .
There is a set of four resistors of equal value(20k) in series connected to a
variable pot(20k) so that a continuous adjustment of voltage is possible from
the voltage divider.
You are also provided a whole range of L, C and R values and a voltmeter.
There is another transformer which provides different voltages for applying
to any network you may construct and study.

2.4 Experiment A
To study the relative phases of voltages across resistors and capac-
itors in series

A supply of about 100volts is connected to as series of resistors. Choose

a voltage across one of the resistors (conveniently about 30volts) and mea-
sure its phase in the manner suggested; i.e. by dropping to the standard
voltage and mixing it. Repeat this for the other resistors. What informa-
tion do you get about the phase relationships amongst the voltages across
the various resistors?
Now do the same for a number of capacitors in series. Interpret your
results.

2.5 Experiment B
To measure the phase difference between VR and VC in a simple
RC circuit. Connect a resistor and a capacitor in series to a source Vo .
44 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Measure the phase difference between VR and VS (i.e between VR and Vo . If

the outputs of the two transformers are in phase, the phase of VR relative
to VS and Vo would be identical). Similarly, determine the phase difference
between VC and VS . See if the phase difference between VR and VC inferred
from this is as should be. Here some confusion may arise in the calculation
of R ,C and RC (shown in figure 2.5). What you actually measure are the
V + and V values in each case. Now you may find yourself in a dilemma,
whether to divide V + by V or V by V + to calculate R (or C ) and whether
R and C are to be added or subtracted(from each other) to obtain R C.
The following vector diagram will help you to sort out this.
From the figure it can be easily seen that

R V C V
tan = 1+ ; tan = 2+ (2.4)
2 V1 2 V2

and
RC = R + C (2.5)
Thus, in both cases divide V (the resultant of smaller magnitude) by V + (the
resultant of larger magnitude) to obtain R and C . Now add the two to get
RC . Similar vector diagrams can help resolving this tangle in any other case
as well. Try this for a variety of values for R and C.
The phase difference between Vo and VR is given by tan1 CR.
Verify this.

2.6 Experiment C
To study more about phase relationships in an RC network

With a capacitor and a set of resistors in series measure the phases(relative

to the standard) of VC , VCR1 ,VCR2 etc.
Represent them by vectors starting from the same point. See also if
you can construct a polygon with the vectors. You can take a number of
capacitors in series with a resistor and repeat this experiment. Now you can
make measurements on capacitors and resistors connected in different ways.
For instance, measure the phase difference Vin and Vout in the circuit given
below.
Interpret your results.
 Phase measurement by superposition 45

The RC combination is sometimes used for shifting the phase of a signal.

In the RC network [Figure 2.7] it can be shown that a phase shift of 180
1
occurs for frequency f = 2RC 6
. For 50hz,the value of RC turns out to
be about 1.3msec. Choose 1f capacitors and a value of R around 1.3k and
make up such a circuit. Now measure directly the phase difference between
Vin and Vout . In addition to the phase shift there is also attenuation of the
signal so that if Vin is 220volts, Vout will turn out to be only 7volts.
You may also measure the phase differences between Vin and the voltages
after the first pair CR(i.e. across the first resistor) and after the second pair
CR. See if the phase changes by 60 each time. (It should not!)
If you measure the phase difference between VC and VR , say the first pair
following the input, you will find that it is not 90 as you may imagine at
first glance. Can you explain this?

2.7 Experiment D
To study the phase relationships in an LR circuit

Connect an inductor and a resistor in series to a source Vo . Measure the

phase difference between Vo and VL , Vo and VR . You can determine, from
this, the phase difference between VL and VR . This will not be /2 since
there is power loss in the inductor. You can easily show(try this) that is
given by
r
tan ( ) = (2.6)
2 L
where r is the effective power loss resistance of L. Compare the value r you
obtain this way to the value obtained by triangulation. An agreement within
a factor of two is to be considered satisfactory.
The phase difference between Vo and VR is given by tan1 ( R+r
L
)
Verify this for a large number of combinations.

2.8 Experiment E
To study the phase of VR in an LCR circuit

Connect an LCR circuit in series. Measure the phase difference between

46 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

2
VR and Vo . This phase difference is given by tan1 ( C(R+r)
LC1

and will be zero at resonance. Verify this by varying C and then study how
OR changes as you pass through resonance, i.e. as you go from
LC < 12 to LC > 12

2.9 Experiment F
To study the phase relationships amongst various voltages in an
LCR circuit

In an LCR circuit, measure the phase differences (Vo , VLr ) and (Vo , VC )
and hence determine (VC , VLr ). Measure these phase differences directly for
various values of C and calculate (VC , VLr ) in each case. It ought to be
independent of C. You may also infer the phase difference between VL and
Vo . This will be given by tan1 ( R+r
L
).
The phase of VLr relative to that Vo is given by

R/L
tan1 ( r(R+r)
) (2.7)
1+ 2 L2

(Establish the relation). Check this from your results.

2.10 Experiment G
To design equivalent circuits for hybrid RC networks.

Construct a network as follows:

Measure the phases of the currents in different branches of the circuit.
This is done by measuring the phases of VR1 , VR2 and Vr where r is a small
resistance that you may add in the C branch to measure the phase of the
current in that branch.
From the data you have, reconstruct an equivalent RC series circuit. Wire
up an actual circuit with these components, measure the magnitude of Z(the
impedance), the current and its phase. Verify the equivalence.
You may try other circuit combinations yourself and establish equivalent
circuits.
 Phase measurement by superposition 47

2.11 Experiment H
To measure the phase of the voltage across any two points in a
complex network
Measure the phase difference between VA and VB in the network shown in
figure 2.1. You may try other networks where it is very difficult to measure
the phase of the voltage across any two points in the network by the method
of vector diagrams. In all such cases you will be able to measure it by this
method directly.

2.12 Experiment I
To study the phase relationships amongst various voltages in an
LCR circuit

In an LCR circuit measure the phase differences (Vo , VLr ) and (Vo , VC ).
Hence determine (VC , VLr ). Do this for various values of C. Check if (VC , VLr )
is independent of C. You may infer also the phase difference (Vo , VL ) though
its not directly measurable(because of r).
Figure 2.9 gives the full line triangle for voltages Vo , VR and VLCr , while
the phase angles measured are (Vo , VLr ) = and (Vo , VC ) = . The deduced
angle is (VC , VLr ) = = . From figure 2.9 we note that

Io (R + r) R+r
tan (Vo , VC ) = tan = 1 = 1 (2.8)
Io (L C ) L C

and
Io r r
tan = = (2.9)
Io L L
From these expressions one can deduce the expression for (VC , VLr ) = ,
since = .
48 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

APPENDIX-I
Need For Coherent Sources In this board we have used a coherent

standard voltage for mixing with the voltage whose phase is to be determined.
Now the phase difference between these two voltages ought to stay constant
over the time you take to make these measurements. In general, phases of line
voltages hardly maintain constancy over such long periods of time and it is of
no use to compare phases of two a-c voltages which are entirely independent
of each other. It is for this reason that in the board, the standard voltage,
namely the output of a transformer, is deprived from the line which also
feeds the network of the board so that in spite of line fluctuations, phase
differences in your experiment remains constant.
This idea, namely that coherent sources have to be derived from the
same origin, is akin to the one you come across in interference experiments
in physical optics such as, for example, Fresnels biprism. In the case of light,
phase changes of a source occur in about 108 sec. Since the frequency of
visible light is about 6x1011 hz, this means phase fluctuations occur in some
106 cycles. Despite this, the stability is poor since our eye is unable to follow
variations in such a short time which is the reason why you do not observe
interference patterns with independent sources.
The a-c line supply normally achieves a stability of about 1% in frequency.
Thus if you spend 10minutes in taking your readings, your observations last
some 30000 cycles and the uncertainty in phase is many times a full cy-
cle. needless to say, two such sources can hardly be coherent over period of
measurement.
If you can manage it, try to get two separate audio oscillators tuned to
the same frequency and convince yourself that they are not coherent.
 Phase measurement by superposition 49

Figure 2.2: (a) An arrangement to achieve |V | |VS | and mix the two
voltages. (b) and (c) Voltage measurements after superposition and reversal
of polarity of one of the voltages
50 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 2.3:
 Phase measurement by superposition 51

Figure 2.4:

Figure 2.5: You can see that (a)Phase of VR (or VC ) is same relative to Vs
and VC (b) RC =R + C
52 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 2.6:

Figure 2.7:

Figure 2.8:
 Phase measurement by superposition 53

Figure 2.9:
3.

Magnetic field inside Helmholtz

coil arrangement
 TEP
Magnetic field of paired coils
4.3.03
in Helmholtz arrangement
-01

Related Topics
Maxwells equations, wire loop, flat coils, Biot-Savarts law, Hall effect.

Principle
The spatial distribution of the field strength between a pair of coils in the Helmholtz arrangement is
measured. The spacing at which a uniform magnetic field is produced is investigated and the superposi-
tion of the two individual fields to form the combined field of the pair of coils is demonstrated.

Equipment
1 Pair of Helmholtz coils 06960.00
1 Power supply, universal 13500.93
1 Digital multimeter 07134.00
1 Teslameter, digital 13610.93
1 Hall probe, axial 13610.01
2 Meter scale, demo, l = 1000 mm 03001.00
1 Barrel base -PASS- 02006.55
1 Support rod -PASS-, square, l = 250 mm 02025.55
1 Right angle clamp -PASS- 02040.55
3 G-clamp 02014.00
1 Connecting cord, l = 750 mm, blue 07362.04
3 Connecting cord, l = 750 mm, red 07362.01

Fig. 1: Set-up of experiment P2430301

www.phywe.com
P2430301 PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG All rights reserved 1
 TEP
Magnetic field of paired coils
4.3.03
in Helmholtz arrangement
-01

Tasks
1. Measure
easure the magnetic flux density along the z-
axis of the flat coils when the distance between
them a = R (R = radius of the coils) and when it is
greater and less than this.
2. Measure
easure the spatial distribution of the magnetic
flux density when the distance between
be coils
a = R, using the rotational symmetry of the set-up:
set
a. measurement of the axial component Bz
b. measurement of radial component Br
3. Measure the radial components Br and Br of the
two individual coils in the plane midway between Fig. 2: Wiring diagram for Helmholtz coils.
them and to demonstrate the overlapping of the
two fields at Br = 0.

Set-up and Procedure

Connect the coils in series and in the same direction,
see Fig. 2; the current must not exceed 3.5 A (operate
the power supply as a constant current source).
Measure the flux density with the axial Hall probe
(measures the component in the direction of the probe
stem).
The magnetic field of the coil arrangement is rotation-
ally symmetrical about the axis of the coils, which is
chosen as the z-axis of a system of cylindrical coordi-
coord
nates (, , ). The origin is at the centre of the sys-
sy
tem. The magnetic flux ux density does not depend on
the angle ,, so only the components Bz (z, r) and Br
(z, r) are measured.

Fig. 5: Measuring Br (z, r).

Clamp the Hall probe on to a support rod with barrel
base, level with the axis of the coils. Secure two rules
to the bench (parallel or perpendicular to one another,
see Figs. 35).
5). The spatial distribution of the magnetic field can be measured by pushing the barrel base
along one of the rules or the coils along the other one.

Fig. 3: Measuring B (z, r = 0) at different distances a be-

Fig. 4: Measuring Bz (z, r).
tween the coils.

2 PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG All rights reserved P2430301

 TEP
Magnetic field of paired coils
4.3.03
in Helmholtz arrangement
-01

Notes
Always push the barrel base bearing the Hall probe along the rule in the same direction.
1. Along the z-axis, for reasons of symmetry, the magnetic flux density has only the axial compo-
nent Bz. Fig. 3 shows how to set up the coils, probe and rules. (The edge of the bench can be
used instead of the lower rule if required.) Measure the relationship B (z, r = 0) when the distance
between the coils a = R and, for example, for a = R/2 and a = 2R.
2. When distance a = R the coils can be joined together with the spacers. a) Measure Bz (z, r) as
shown in Fig. 4. Set the r-coordinate by moving the probe and the z-coordinate by moving the
coils. Check: the flux density must have its maximum value at point (z = 0, r = 0). b) Turn the pair
of coils through 90 (Fig. 5). Check the probe: in the plane z = 0, Bz must = 0.
3. Short-circuit first one coil, then the other. Measure the radial components of the individual fields
at z = 0.

Theory and evaluation

From Maxwells equation

 ds =  +   Dddt
 (1)
 

where K is a closed curve around area F, we obtain for direct currents (= 0), the magnetic flux law

 ds = 
 (2)


which is often written for practical purposes in the form of Biot-Savarts law:

 ! 
 =
!
4# $
(3)

where  is the vector from the conductor ele-

ment d to the measurement point and d  is per-
pendicular to both these vectors.
The field strength along the axis of a circular
conductor can be calculated using equation (3).
(Fig. 6).
The vector d is perpendicular to, and  and d 
lie in, theplane of the sketch, so that

  !
! = ! = ' Fig. 6: Sketch to aid calculation of the field strength
4# $ 4# & +  '
(4)
along the axis of a wire loop.

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P2430301 PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG All rights reserved 3
 TEP
Magnetic field of paired coils
4.3.03
in Helmholtz arrangement
-01

d  can be resolved into a radial dHr and an axial dHz component. The dHz components have the same
direction for all conductor elements and the quantities are added; the dHr components cancel one
another out, in pairs. Therefore,

* = 0 (5)

and
 &'
= C = '
2 4& +  ' )$/' (6)

along the axis of the wire loop, while the magnetic flux density

67  1
34) =
2&  '
$/'
A1 + 9& ; B
(7)

The magnetic field of a flat coil is obtained by multiplying (6) by the number of turns N. Therefore, the
magnetic flux density along the axis of two identical coils at a distance apart is

67  8 1 1
34,  = 0) = ? + F
2& $/' $/'
(8)
@@1 + , ' E
- @1 + , ' E '

where

 + ./2  1 ./2
2
,- = , ,' =
& &

When z = 0, flux density has a maximum value when < R and a minimum value when > R. The
curves plotted from our measurements also show this (Fig. 7); when = R, the field is virtually uniform in
the range

& &
1 22+
2 2

point when = R:
Magnetic flux density at the mid-point

67  2 
340.0) = 8 = 0.716
716 67 8
2& $ &
5 '
94;

4 PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG All rights reserved P2430301

 TEP
Magnetic field of paired coils
4.3.03
in Helmholtz arrangement
-01

Fig. 7: B (r = 0) as a function of z with the parameter .

when N = 154, R = 0.20 m and I = 3.5 A this gives:

B (0.0) = 2.42 mT.

Our measurements gave B (0.0) = 2.49 mT.

Figs. 8 and 9 shows the curves Bz (z) and Br (z) measured using r as the parameter; Fig. 10 shows the
super-position of the fields of the two coils at Br = 0 in the centre plane z = 0.

Fig. 8: Bz (z), parameter r (positive quadrant only). Fig. 9: Br (z), parameter r (positive quadrant only).

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P2430301 PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG All rights reserved 5
 TEP
Magnetic field of paired coils
4.3.03
in Helmholtz arrangement
-01

Fig. 10: Radial components Br (r) and Br (r) of the two coils when z = 0.

6 PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG All rights reserved P2430301

 Teslameter, digital 13610-9099
Hall probe, axial 13610-01
Hall probe, tangential 13610-02

PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG

Robert-Bosch-Breite 10
D-37079 Gttingen

Telefon +49 (0) 551 604-0

Fax +49 (0) 551 604-107
E-mail [email protected]

4
6
3

2 7

1
Operating instructions

The unit complies with

the corresponding EC
guidelines.
Fig. 1: 13610-9099
13610 Front view of the Teslameter, digital

TABLE OF CONTENTS Check that your mains supply voltage corresponds to

that given on the type plate fixed to the instrument.
1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS Install
nstall the instrument so that the on/off switch and the
mains connecting plug are easily accessible.
2 PURPOSE AND CHARACTERISTICS
RISTICS Do not cover the ventilation slits.
Only use the instrument in dry rooms in which there is
3 FUNCTIONAL AND OPERATING
TING ELEMENTS no risk of explosion.
Only use the instrument
strument for the purpose for which it was
designed.
4 HANDLING

5 NOTES ON OPERATION 2 PURPOSE AND CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTE
The teslameter
eslameter is suitable for measuring magnetic flux densi-
6 TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL
CAL FOR 25C) ty (induction) B accurately. Two hall probes are supplied for
use as sensors. One of them is specially designed for meas-
7 EXPERIMENTAL LITERATURE
URE uring fields oriented axially in relation to its rod-shaped
rod stem
(axial probe, order no. 13610-01).
13610 It is suitable for measuring
8 NOTES ON THE GUARANTEE fields inside coils for instance. The stem is 30 cm long to al-
low measurements to be taken easily even in the middle of
long coils. The second probe measures fields perpendicular
9 WASTE DISPOSAL to its stem (tangential probe, order no. 13610-02), which is
extremely thin and flat for measurements in narrow air gaps
down to about 1 mm.
The meter has 3 switchable measuring ranges:

1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 0 to20 mT (accuracy 0.01 mT)

0 to200
200 mT (accuracy 0.1 mT)
0 to1000
1000 mT (accuracy 1 mT)
Caution!

Carefully read these operating instructions before operat-

ing this instrument. This is necessary to avoid damage
to it, as well as for user-safety.

1
www.phywe.com, All rights reserved 13610-90...99 / 3113
3 FUNCTIONAL AND OPERATING ELEMENTS
The plugs for connecting the mains lead supplied with the
meter and the power switch are to be found on the back of 4.2 Zeroing
the meter. This procedure as described below is only necessary when
Fig. 1 showss the teslameter with the controls and functional direct fields are to be measured. In the case of alternating
elements on the front panel: fields the meter is zeroed automatically within a few seconds,
5
although
hough a display of 1 digit (10 T) is unavoidable in the 20
1 Input mT range.
socket for connecting the hall probes 13610-01
13610 and The mode switch (4)) is to be brought into the DIRECT
13610-02. FIELD (Gleichfeld) position. Once the hall probe selected for
2 Adjusting screw the measurement has been connected to input (1), ( but before
for rough zeroing. any field is applied to it, the display is set on zero with the
3 Stepping switch adjusting knob (6). ). Should this prove impossible the knob is
for selecting the measuring range. turned to the middle position and the value displayed mini-
4 Changeover switch mised by turning the adjusting screw (2) ( with a screwdriver;
for selecting the ALTERNATING FIELD and DIRECT fine adjustment is then repeated
epeated with the adjusting knob (6).
FIELD measurement modes. We recommend zeroing in the most sensitive range (20 mT)
5 Digital display to avoid the need for re-adjustment
adjustment when higher ranges are
for displaying the values measured. 3 digit display with subsequently selected.
sign for the direction of the field and decimal point. It should be noted that the earths magnetic field alone can
6 Adjusting knob for fine zeroing produce a reading of 4 digits (40 ) in this range. If no
7 Output compensation for this field is to be made during zeroing the
for connecting an external measuring instrument, e.g. a zero adjustment knob is to be set so that turning the probe
recorder. Output voltage: 1 mV per digit. through 180 only results in the sign, and not the absolute
value of the field strength displayed, changing.
When the fields of conductors carring a current are to be
4 HANDLING measured, before zeroing we recommend positioning the
The teslameter is connected to the AC mains with the lead probe at the measuring point to be used with the magnetic
supplied and switched on with the power switch on the back field current switched off; this eliminates any an interference
of the case. Changing the primary safety fuse: The fuse from static stray fields at the same time.
holder is in the upper part of the mains socket of the instru- When measuring in the he 20 mT range zeroing is to be
ment, and so is only accessible when the connecting cord is checked in the first few minutes after the meter is switched
not plugged in. Unplug the connecting cord, open the fuse on and corrected if necessary. We recommend switching it
holder using a screwdriver, take out the defect fuse and re- on about ten minutes before starting
s to take measurements,
place it with a new one (first check the specification of this by which stage zero drift is insignificant.
against the data on the type plate), then fit the fuse holder
back in the mains socket. 4.3 Measuring direct fields
Should this fuse blow when the instrument is switched on, Once the meter has been zeroed it is ready to take meas-
never replace it with
h a more resistant fuse! A defect is indi- urements. The mode switch (4) ( must be in the DIRECT
cated and the instrument must be returned to the Phywe ser- FIELD position. The value 1 displayed without leading ze-
vice department for repair. ros indicates overranging and hence the need to switch to a
higher range. The direction of the field is also indicated in this
4.1 Using the probes case.
The component of the magnetic induction in the direction of
the axis of the probe is measured with the axial probe. The 4.4 Measuring alternating fields
measuring point is right at the end of the stem. The direction The mode switch (4)) is moved to the ALTERNATING FIELD
of direct fields can also be detected: if the field is directed to- (Wechselfeld) position. The display returns to zero within a
wards the handle of the probe (e.g. in front of the north pole few seconds when there is no field acting on the probe. The
of a bar magnet) the value displayed is positive,
positiv whereas it is meter is then ready for use immediately. It should be noted
negative when the field is in the opposite direction. that in this mode the meter responds to changes in the field
The tangential probe is provided with a protective tube that strength within about 3 s. Thehe rms value of the value of the
has to be removed before any measurements are taken. The magnetic induction, which is assumed to be sinusoidal, is
Hall sensor is embedded in a flat plastic stem about 1 mm displayed. The meter is calibrated for an alternating field fre-
thick. Its position (measuring point) in the stem is clearly visi- quency of 50 Hz. However extremely accurate measure-
ble. In this case the component of the magnetic induction ments are possible at frequencies of up to 500 Hz (limit fre-
perpendicular to the face of the probe is measured. The di- quency 5 kHz). The value 1 displayed without leading zeros
rection of the field can also be detected when direct fields are indicates overranging and hence the need to switch to a
being measured: a positive reading indicates that the field higher range. Positive values are always displayed in this
enters the probe from the direction of the surface of the han- mode. Turning the probe through 180 at a fixed measuring
dle that carries the nameplate, whereas a negative value in- point does not affect the value displayed.
dicates that the field has the opposite direction.
The probes generally have to be positioned accurately for 4.5 Using the analog output
precise measurement. They are easily held using a stand. External measuring instruments can be connected to the pair
The bosshead order no. 02040-55 55 is ideal. To avoid damag- of 4 mm sockets (7).). In addition to yt and xyt recorders pos-
ing them the probes should always be held by the metal tube sibilities include computer-aided
aided measuring systems (e.g.
provided for the purpose at the end of the handle rather than COBRA3 Basic-Unit 12150-50 50).
clamping the stem. The output voltage corresponds to the digital display. It is 1
mV per digit; the limits of the indicating range correspond to

2
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the output voltage of 1.999 V (positive polarity only with al- 8 NOTES ON THE GUARANTEE
ternating field measurements). The measuring instrument We guarantee the instrument supplied by us for a period of
connected should have an internal resistance of at least 20 24 months within the EU, or for 12 months outside of the EU.
k. Excepted from the guarantee are damages that result from
5 NOTES ON OPERATION disregarding the Operating Instructions, from improper han-
h
This high-quality
quality instrument fulfills all of the technical re- dling of the instrument or from natural wear.
quirements that are compiled in current EC guidelines. The The manufacturer can only be held responsible for the func-
fun
characteristics of this product qualify it for the CE mark. tion and technical safety characteristics of the instrument,
This instrument is only to be put into operation under special- when maintenance, repairs and alterations to the instrument
ist supervision in a controlled electromagnetic environment in are only carried out by the manufacturer
m or by personnel who
research, educational and training facilities (schools, universi- have been explicitly authorized by him to do so.
ties, institutes and laboratories).
This means that in such h an environment, no mobile phones
etc. are to be used in the immediate vicinity. The individual 9 WASTE DISPOSAL
connecting leads are each not to be longer than 2 m. The packaging consists predominately of environmentally
The instrument can be so influenced by electrostatic charges compatible materials that can be passed on for disposal by
and other electromagnetic ic phenomena that it non longer func- the local recycling service.
tions within the given technical specifications. The following
measures reduce or do away with disturbances: Should you no longer require this product,
Avoid fitted carpets; ensure potential equalization; carry out do not dispose of it with the household re-
r
experiments on a conductive, earthed surface, use screened fuse.
cables, do not operate high-frequency
frequency emitters (radios, mo- Please return it to the address below for
bile phones) in the immediate vicinity. Following a blackout proper waste disposal.
failure, operate the on/off switch for a reset.

PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG

6 TECHNICAL DATA (TYPICAL FOR 25C) Abteilung Kundendienst (Customer Service)
Operating temperature range 5...40C Robert-Bosch-Breite 10
Relative humidity < 80% D-37079 Gttingen
Measuring range 10-5 to1 T
Indicating range 10-5 to 2 T Phone +49 (0) 551 604-274
274
Accuracy Fax +49 (0) 551 604-246
604
Direct field 2%
Alternating field 50 to 500 Hz 2%
Alternating field 500 to 1000 Hz 3%
Material of the Hallsensors GaAs,
monocrystalline
Temperature coefficient
(10 to 40C) 0.04%/K
Limit frequency
(measurement of alternating field) 5 kHz
Analog output
Voltage range 0 to 2 V
Calibration factor 1 mV/digit
Protection class I
Connecting voltage see type plate
(+6%/-10%)
Mains frequency 50/60 Hz
Power consumption 10 VA
Mains fuse see type plate
(5 mm x 20 mm)
Case dimensions 225 x 235 x 170 mm
Weight approx. 3.75 kg
Hall probe, axial
Probe length (without handle) 300 mm
Diameter of the stem 6 mm
Weight approx. 0.38 kg
Hall probe, tangential
Dimensions of the stem
(without handle) 75 x 5 x 1 mm
Weight approx. 0.20 kg

7 EXPERIMENTAL LITERATURE
URE
Handbook Laboratory
tory Experiments Physics 16502-32

3
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4.

Study of Resistors, Capacitors

and Inductors with an AC Source
5.

Charging and discharging of a

capacitor

5.1 Capacitors

Figure 5.1:

A system of charges, physically separated, has potential energy. The

simplest example is that of two metal plates of large area carrying opposite
74 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

charges so that the potential difference is V. The energy stores is 21 CV 2 where

C is the capacitance of the system. It is defined as the charge(on either plate)
per unit potential difference and depends essentially on the geometry of the
system. In the above case the capacitance is given by
A
C = o (5.1)
d
in mks units, where A is the area(in meter2 ), d is the separation(in meters),
0 is a constant (8.85 X 1012 in MKS units) and the unit of capacitance is
a farad.( Refer to any standard text for the derivation of this formula).
A system, such as the above one, is called a condenser or, in modern
parlance, simply a capacitor. We shall adopt the modern usage. It must not
be assumed that a capacitor is always a set of plane parallel plates. Many
other geometrical arrangements may be used and often are more practical(See
Appendix I).

5.2 RC Circuit
The energy may be delivered by a source to a capacitor or the stored energy
in a capacitor may be released in an electrical network and delivered to a
load. For example, look at the circuit in Figure 5.2. If you turn the switch

Figure 5.2:

S1 on, the capacitor gets charged and when you turn on the switch S2 (S1
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 75

off) the capacitor gets discharged through the load. The rate at which the
charge moves, i.e. the current; this, of course, will depend on the resistance
offered. It will be seen, therefore, that the rate of energy transfer will depend
on RC where C is the capacitance and R some effective resistance in the
circuit. It can be shown (Appendix II)that the charging of a capacitor can
be represented by the relation
q = qo (1 et/RC ) (5.2)
where q is the charge on the plates at time t; similarly, the discharge occurs
according to the relation
q = qo et/RC (5.3)
Thus, the rate at which the charge or discharge occurs depends on the RC of
the circuit. The exponential nature of the charging and discharging processes
of a capacitor is obvious from equation5.2 and 5.3. You would have ample
opportunity to learn more about it through the experiments that follow.
From equation 5.3 it can be seen that RC is the time during which the
charge on the capacitor drops to 1/e of the initial value. Further, since RC
has dimensions of time, it is called the time constant of the circuit.
In the following series of experiments, you will study the time variation
of charge, voltage and energy in an RC circuit.

5.3 The Network Board

The network board for these experiments consists of a number of resistors
and capacitors and two d-c meters. The centrally pivoted meters facilitate
measurements during both charging and discharging of a capacitor. Figure
5.3 shows the scheme of arrangement of these on the board and their connec-
tions underneath it. The capacitors are of electrolytic type(since you need
high values of capacitance). These are meant for use with d-c power and
great care must be taken to connect them with the right polarity.
In order to make the time constant RC of the circuit large the resistors also
need to have high values and are, therefore, of carbon film type. Remember,
the values marked on both R and C are not absolutely dependable, The
resistance values are given within 2% but the capacitance values have a
tolerance of 10% or more.
A regulated d-c power-supply and a stopwatch are also provided along
with the board. Use of 20 to 25 volts from this supply would enable you
76 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 5.3:

to reduce the unwanted discharge through the voltmeter and considerably

improve the performance of the experiments. This would be obvious from
the following discussion. If you look at Figure 5.4 relating to the discharging
of a capacitor, you would realize that on turning the switches S1 and S2 on,
the capacitor would discharge through both the load R and the voltmeter V.
If Rv be the resistance of the meter, the effective leakage resistance R would
be given by
Rv
R0 = R (5.4)
R + Rv
The unwanted discharge through the meter can, therefore, be reduced only
by making Rv much higher than R. This is accomplished in a simple way
by using a higher voltage source and employing a higher range of the meter
for detection. However, even this would not be adequate in case of smaller
C values where you should employ a sort of sampling method for voltage
measurements. This consists in turning on the switch S2 only at the instant
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 77

Figure 5.4:

when a measurement is to be made. You may find it difficult to read the

meter, say every 2 seconds or so. In that case, take one set of readings at
0.6.12.18...sec., then the next set of readings at 2,8,14,20,...sec. and so on
until you have a complete set of readings every 2 seconds.

5.4 Experiment A
To study the charging of a capacitor in an RC circuit

Take a resistor and a capacitor and complete the circuit as shown. Switch
on the stop watch and the circuit simultaneously. Read the voltmeter ev-
ery 2 second until the voltmeter indicates a maximum value Vo *. You may
find it difficult to read the meter, say every 2 seconds or so. In that case,
take one set of readings at 0.6.12.18...sec., then the next set of readings at
2,8,14,20,...sec. and so on until you have a complete set of readings every 2
seconds. Plot the voltage Vc across the capacitor as a function of time.Figure
5.6. To analyse the results, proceed as follows. The volage across a charging
*Theoretically speaking, in the case of a pure capacitor, the voltage across it should
become equal to the source voltage Vo when the capacitor is fully charged. In practise, it
is very seldom so. This is because there is always a leakage charge across the capacitor
78 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 5.5:

capacitor is given by (see Appendix II).

V = Vo (1 et/RC ) (5.5)

where Vo is the maximum voltage. Eq 5.5 means that the capacitor charges
exponentially. Let us verify these facts. Rewriting Eq 5.5, we get
Vo V
= et/RC (5.6)
Vo
If we now define a time T 1 at which the voltage is half the maximum i.e.
2
V = Vo /2, the above expression would reduce to

T 1 = RC loge 2 = 2.30RC (5.7)

2

This clearly shows that for a given RC the time T 1 should be constant.
2
Choosing values for (Vo V )/Vo in geometric progression in steps of 21 , the
time intervals T 1 can be easily shown to be equal. See Figure 5.6
2
Eq 5.7 could be examined in yet another way. Make some measurements
of T 1 for different RC combinations and plot these versus RC. In theory this
2
should be a straight line; but the rated values of the components( particularly
C may be as much as 10% off). Thus, the values as determined by you are
probably more reliable than the specified ones.
Alternatively, you may plot log(Vo V ) against t to verify the Eq. 5.5
and the exponential nature of charging of the capacitor. You ought to get a
straight line whose slope would give you the value of -1/RC.
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 79

Figure 5.6: Exponential charging of a capacitor

5.5 Experiment B
To study the discharging of a capacitor

As shown in Appendix II, the voltage across the capacitor during discharge
can be represented by
V = Vo et/RC (5.8)
You may study this case exactly in the same way as the charging in Expt
A. However, remember that for the case of discharge (Vo V )/Vo has to be
replaced by V /Vo and log(Vo V ) by log V.(why?) You would find that for
the same set of R and C the time T 1 and hence the interval T 1 have the
2 2
same value as in Expt A.
In the circuit shown figure 5.7, if the switch is turned on at time t=0
and turned off at t = t1 , the voltage across the input terminals AB ideally
behaves as in figure 5.8. Plot the output across PQ in the same manner. Once
80 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

again, you should train yourself to think of the RC combination as a box

with input terminals AB and output terminals PQ. Suppose the circuit in
the above question had been on for some time before the switch was suddenly
disconnected. Display both the input and the output(voltages) as a function
of time. Assume that the box is now wired as follows figure 5.9 Discuss the

Figure 5.7:

input and output when the switch is turned on and later, turned off.
Exercises pertaining to Expts A and B

1. Change the voltage Vo of the power supply and see if, for a given RC,
the time T 1 or the time interval T 1 remains the same. Do you expect it to
2 2
change?

2. For a known resistance, the time T 1 determines the capacitance. Use

2
this to determine first C1 , then C2 and finally the effective capacitance C
with both C1 and C2 in parallel figure 5.10.
Verify the law C = C1 + C2 where C is the effective capacitance of the
combination in parallel. Try this with various resistors R.

3. Use exactly the same method(by measuring T 1 ) to verify the law

2

1 1 1
= + + ......... (5.9)
C C1 C2
for a set of capacitors in series with a resistor R [Figure 5.11]. Try with
Charging and discharging of a capacitor 81

Figure 5.8:

Figure 5.9:
82 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 5.10:

Figure 5.11:

different values of R as well.

4. Charge a set of capacitors connected in series.( Roughly, about 5 times

T 1 will charge the capacitors to the maximum voltage). Measure the voltage
2
across each and establish the law.

C1 V1 = C2 V2 = C3 V3 ......... (5.10)

5. Connect a set of capacitors in parallel. Measure the current through

each of them** after a fixed interval of time either during the charging or
** You will have to use the terminals provided to the left of the capacitors for con-
necting the current meter in series with the capacitor individually
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 83

during the discharging operation and establish the relation:

C1 C2
= = ......... (5.11)
i1 i2
(in verifying such relations as 2-9,2-10 and 2-11, make sure to measure the
capacitance yourself and not just trust the rated values).

6. With an RC time of around 30sec.,measure the voltage across R as a

function of time while charging and discharging the capacitor. Pay partic-
ular attention to the polarity of the voltage across R in each case. It is for
this reason that the voltmeter provided is centrally pivoted one. You would
also notice that with the passage of time the voltage across the resistor goes
on falling until it becomes zero when the capacitor is fully charged or dis-
charged. If you use two voltmeters and measure the voltages across R and C
simultaneously you can also verify that at all instants of time

VR + VC = Vo (5.12)

This is the verification of kirchoffs law.

5.6 Experiment C
To study the current flow during charging and discharging of a ca-
pacitor

The current flowing through an RC circuit is given by (Appendix II)

I = Io et/RC (5.13)

for the charging circuit and

I = Io et/RC (5.14)

for the discharging circuit. Thus the current follows the same behaviour as
the voltage with time except that its direction is opposite in the two cases.
Connecting the milliammeter in series with the resistor and the capaci-
tor[Figure 5.12, study the behaviour of the current in the two cases [Figure
5.13]
84 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 5.12:

Pay particular attention to the reversing of the current in the circuit.

This is why a centrally pivoted current meter is provided.
Also, if you connect the voltmeter across R, in addition to the reversing
of polarity in the voltage across R, you would discover that the whole of the
voltage appears across it when you commence the charging or the discharging.
Also verify if the maximum current Io at the commencement of the charging
and the discharging is given by
Vo
Io = (5.15)
R
Further, you can see that at all instants of time
VR
I= (5.16)
R

5.7 Experiment D
To estimate the leakage resistance of a given capacitor

Capacitors, once charged, do not maintain their charges indefinitely even

when their terminals are left disconnected. (But, they often maintain it for
long times. Do not poke your fingers at these terminals. You are always ad-
vised to deliberately discharge the capacitor before leaving your experiment).
A capacitor loses its charge by leakage either through the dielectric between
or the insulators which holds the capacitor electrodes in place. Thus, strictly
speaking, any capacitor may be effectively represented as in figure 5.14 where
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 85

Figure 5.13: Behaviour of current in an RC circuit

RC representing the leakage resistance of the capacitor C, is of the order of

a few megaohms.
In the case of an ideal capacitor (RC = ) when fully charges, the voltage
VC across it should be equal to Vo figure 5.5 and the final value of the charging
current I in the circuit (figure 5.12) should be zero. In practice, as you would
discover during the course of these experiments, this is not the case. VC is
always less than Vo and the charging current never drops down to zero. It is
easy to understand these facts if you remember the true representation of a
capacitor (figure 5.14) Take a resistor R and a capacitor C so that the time
constant RC is of the order of 10sec. or more. Connect the in series with a
milliammeter [figure 5.15(a)] (note how the capacitor has been represented).
Turn on the switch and confine your attention to the current meter to observe
how the charging current drops with time. After a time (5RC or more) the
capacitor is expected to be fully charged and the current to be zero. On
86 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 5.14: Representation of an actual capacitor

your meter it may indeeed appear as if the current has become zero but
if you replace the milliammeter by a microammeter of movement 50A or
less[Figure 5.15(b)] you would find a small steady current flowing persistently
no matter how long you wait. Measure this leakage current IC . Assuming
the voltage across the capacitor to be the same as Vo , the supply voltage(
this is not quite correct), calculate the order of the leakage resistance RC by
Vo
RC = (5.17)
IC
You must learn to make approximations like these(VC ' Vo ) and under-
stand why such approximations do not matter when it is only the order of
magnitude of a quantity you are interested in.You should further, be able to
appreciate the difficulty in measurement of VC with a meter of finite resis-
tance and hence the importance of the approximation VC = Vo . However, if
you are interested in knowing the leakage resistance more precisely you may
calculate it as follows:
Vo
RC = R (5.18)
IC
Do you see how the approximation involved in Eq.5.17 is taken care of in
Eq.5.18 ?

If a capacitor of 50f and a leakage resistance of 2megaohms, in how much

time will the charged capacitor, left to itself, lose half its charge?
You may now connect the voltmeter across C[figure 5.15 and see how the
leakage resistance RC changes. Try to verify your result by calculation.
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 87

A capacitor of 100f has a leakage resistance of 5megaohms. A voltmeter

of resistance 500kilohms is connected across it to read the voltage. How
much time would it take for the voltage to fall to a value 1/e times the initial
value? Calculate first neglecting the leakage resistance and then taking it into
account.

5.8 Experiment E
To measure the energy dissipated in charging a capacitor

Some energy is spent by the source in charging a capacitor. A part of it

is dissipated in the circuit and the remaining energy is stored up in the
capacitor. In this experiment we shall try to measure these energies.
With fixed values of C and R measure the current I as a function of
time. The energy dissipated in time dt is given by I 2 Rdt. The total energy
dissipated is given by
Z Z
E = I Rdt = R I 2 dt
2
(5.19)

This integral can be evaluated very easily by graphical method as follows:

From the observed values of I plot I 2 versus t[figure 5.16]. The area under
the curve gives the value of the integral and R times this area is therefore a
measure of the energy dissipated in the circuit.
Does the energy dissipated depend on the value of the resistance? A
cursory glance at Eq5.19 would indicate that it should. You can test this as
follows:
Plot the I 2 , t curves for different values of the resistance R in the circuit
and measure the area in each case. You will discover an amazing result-
he energy dissipated thus would turn out to be independent of the charging
resistance.
In charging or discharging a capacitor through a resistor an energy equal
1
to 2 CV 2 is dissipated in the circuit and is independent of the resistance in
the circuit. Can you devise an experiment to measure it calorimetrically?
Try to work out the values of R and C that you would have to employ in this
experiment. Remember, capacitors having a high value of capacitance cannot
88 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

withstand voltages higher than 50 to 60 volts and those which can withstand
higher voltages have lower values for capacitance
Suppose the total resistance in the circuit including that of the connecting
wires is made zero, in what part of the circuit would the energy 21 CV 2 be
dissipated now? How will you modify your above calorimetric measurement
for this case?
Repeating this for the case of discharging, you will find that again an equal
amount of energy is dissipated in the circuit. Since this energy in the case of
discharging comes from the capacitor you can draw a simple conclusion from
these experiments. Of the total energy drawn from the source in charging a
capacitor, half is dissipated in the circuit and half is stored up in the capacitor
irrespective of the value of the resistance. In other words, of the total energy
spent in charging a capacitor you can recover only half of it.

5.9 Experiment F
To study the dependence of the energy dissipated on C and V

For a fixed voltage Vo , the energy dissipated is proportional to the value

of C i.e. if E1 , E2 etc. are the energies dissipated for capacitors C1 ,C2 etc.,
we shall have
E1 E2
= = ......... (5.20)
C1 C2
Measure the energies E1 ,E2 etc. graphically(Expt E) and check this.
For a fixed capacitance C, estimate similarly the energy dissipated for
different values of the supply voltage V1 ,V2 , etc. You may vary V from 5 to
20 volts or so. Establish the relation
E1 E2
2
= 2 = ......... (5.21)
V1 V2

In fact, the energy dissipated is 21 CV 2 (Appendix II); see, if you can verify
this in all the experiments discussed.
The result that the energy dissipated( 12 CV 2 ) in an RC circuit is inde-
pendent of R seems strange. Try and see if you can present an argument to
justify this. Discuss this in the limiting cases R0 and R also.
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 89

5.10 Experiment E
To study the adiabatic charging of a capacitor

Is there no way of eliminating or reducing the dissipation of energy 21 CV 2 in

charging of a capacitor? The answer is yes, there is a way. Instead of charg-
ing a capacitor to the maximum voltage V0 in a single step if you charge
it to this voltage in small steps the dissipation of energy can be reduced.
Theoretically speaking, if the successive steps are infinitesimally small the
dissipation can be entirely eliminated. This is called adiabatic charging of a
capacitor. You can verify this with the following experiment.
Suppose you want to charge a capacitor C to a voltage V0 . If you do that
in a single step you know(ExptE) that an energy 12 CV 2 would have to be
dissipated in the circuit. On the other hand, if you charge the capacitor to a
voltage V0 /2 tp V0 the total energy dissipated would be 41 CV 2 . (Why?) You
can check this experimentally. The trick is to first keep the charging voltage
to V0 /2, let the capacitor charge for a time much greater than RC of the
circuit, disconnect the power supply, increase its voltage to V0 , reconnect it
and let the capacitor charge to V0 . Plot I 2 , t curves for the two parts and
find out the total energy dissipated in the process. Compare this with the
area of the curve obtained when the capacitor is charged to V0 in a single step
and you would find the former to be roughly one-half the area in the latter
case. The charging voltage in the two cases can be represented as shown in
figure 5.17]. Now think how you can reduce this loss further. Check your
answer experimentally.
A capacitor of 1000f is connected in series with a resistor of 2kilohms.
Calculate the energy dissipated in charging it to 20volts in a single step. How
many equal steps will you have to employ to cut down this loss to one-tenth
its value? Show these steps graphically(as in figure ??) taking care to mark
the appropriate value of t.
Can you now think of the ideal charging method to reduce this loss to
zero? Would it be possible to accomplish this in practise?
90 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

APPENDIX-I
Capacitors 1.Paper and Other Capacitors
Commercially available capacitors come in various forms for use in simple
networks. A common one is the paper capacitor in which a pair of metal
foils sandwich a thin paper. The whole assembly is then rolled into a bundle,
dipped in wax and sealed against moisture. There may still be some leakage
of charge through the paper particularly if the applied voltage is large. A
practical consideration for a capacitor is always the voltage it can withstand
without breakdown.
The capacitance of the system is somewhat increased when there is a
dielectric( such as paper) between the electrodes. Other dielectrics commonly
used are mica, ceramics and sometimes plastic films.
It can be seen that by reducing the distance between the electrodes one
can increase the capacitance; but one cannot do this indefinitely. For a given
voltage, electrical breakdown(i.e. current through the dielectric) occurs if the
distance is too small. For example, if air is the dielectric and the capacitor
is to withstand 100volts, a separation of at least 1/10 mm is required. The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
A
C = o (5.22)
d
One can see from this relation( the reader is advised to do this arithmetic)
that no more than about 10pico-farad per sq.cm (1 pico-farad =1012 farad)
can be achieved.
2.Electrolytic Capacitors
Some metals like aluminium, when placed in a suitable electrolyte and
made the positive electrode( i.e. aluminium is the positive electrode) from
a thin film (about 106 cm) of oxide. This film has a very high resistance to
a flow of current in one direction(from aluminium towards electrode) and a
very low one in the reverse direction. Thus, provided we use the aluminium
side as the positive one, we can obtain fairly large capacitance, a micro-
farad per 10cm2 area with this kind of system when the aluminium and the
electrolyte form the two electrodes.
Even smaller film thicknesses can be made so that electrolytic capacitors
can achieve as high as 104 farad for 10cm2 . It is obvious that we cannot use
an electrolytic capacitor with a-c unless we ensure that its polarity would
not change.
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 91

Other limitations are that they have a larger leakage current than the
ordinary capacitors, their life is shorter, their capacitance may change some-
what after a few months( even the values marked on the new ones may vary
by as much as 20%) and the working voltages for these are lower.
In all the circuits wherein these capacitors have been used they are rep-
resented as in [figure 5.19], the curved line representing the negative can.
In using these electrolytic capacitors, remember to connect them with the
right polarity and always below the rated voltage of the capacitor.
92 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

APPENDIX-II
Analysis of an RC circuit with a source of constant EMF

When a resistor and a capacitor are connected in series to a source of

voltage Vo , we have
Vc + VR = Vo (5.23)
where Vc and VR are the voltages across C and R. Writing
Q
Vc = (5.24)
C
and
dq
VR = RI = R (5.25)
dt
where q is the charge on the capacitor and I the current, we have
dq q Vo
+ = (5.26)
dt RC R
This equation is readily integrated after multiplying by the integrating factor
et/RC , Z
Vo
qet/RC = et/RC dt (5.27)
R
qet/RC = CVo et/RC + A (5.28)
where A is a constant.
For charging, we assume the initial condition q=0 at t=0 which establishes
the equation
q = qo (1 et/RC ) (5.29)
where we have put qo = CVo
Similarly, for discharging, we set q = qo = CVo at t=0 to give

q = qo et/RC ) (5.30)

The potential across the capacitor(q/C) follows exactly the same depen-
dence on time as the charge.
The current is
dq qo t/RC
I= = e (5.31)
dt RC
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 93

or
I = Io et/RC (5.32)
for the charging circuit and

I = Io et/RC (5.33)

for the discharging circuit. Thus the current follows the same behaviour with
time except that the sign is reversed in the two cases.
When the source charges the capacitor, it does work. This work is simply
Z
W = Vo Idt (5.34)

since the rate of doing is Vo I. Using equation(2.32), we have

Z
W = Vo I = Vo Io et/RC (5.35)
0

since Vo = qCo and Io = RC

qo

This can be written in either of the following forms:

qo2
W = CVo2 = (5.36)
C
An interesting point to note is this: when the capacitor has been charged
to its full potential Vo , it has an energy 21 CVo2 stored in it. Thus an energy
1
2
CVo2 has been dissipated while charging in the resistive parts of the circuit.
94 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 5.15:
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor 95

Figure 5.16: R times the shaded area gives the energy dissipated

Figure 5.17: One step and two step charging voltage

96 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 5.18:

Figure 5.19:
Charging and discharging of a capacitor 97

Figure 5.20:
6.

BH curve tracing
7.

Study of Electromagnetic Induc-

tion

7.1 Introduction
The basic principle of generation of alternating emf is electromagnetic induc-
tion* discovered by Michael Faraday. This phenomenon is the production of
an induced emf in a circuit(conductor) caused by a change of the magnetic
flux linking the circuit. Faradays law of induction tells us that the induced
emf E is given by
d
E= (7.1)
dt
where d/dt represents the rate of change of flux linkng the circuit. If you
use mks units, E will be in volts, B~ in webers/meter2 , the flux in webers
and t in sec. If, on the other hand you use Gaussian units, B ~ in gauss, in
2
guass cm , then Eq.7.1 will read
1 d
E= (7.2)
c dt
where c is the speed of light in cm/sec and E will then be in ab volts.
*It is said that when Faraday was asked about the use of his discovery he replied
what is the use of a new born baby? Had faraday made the discovery in modern days,
he would have been probably asked What is the relevance of your discovery? indicating
the great progress we have made in the nuances of language; we are, however, not quite
sure what Faraday would have replied.
126 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

For a discussion of the concept of flux and Faradays law turn to Ap-
pendix I. The experiments described in this chapter will further help you to
understand the phenomenon.

7.2 The Apparatus

It consists of a permanent magnet mounted on an arc of a circle of radius
50cm. The arc is part of a rigid frame of aluminium and is suspended at the
centre of the arc so that the whole frame can oscillate freely in its plane[figure
7.1]. Weights have been provided, whose positions can be altered so that the
time period of oscillation can be varied from about 1.5 to 3 sec. Two coils of
about 10,000 turns of copper wire loop the arc so that the magnet can pass
freely through the coil.

Figure 7.1:

The two coils are independent and can be connected either in series or in
parallel. The amplitude of the swing can be read from the graduations on
 Study of Electromagnetic Induction 127

the arc. When the magnet moves through and out of the coil, the flux of the
magnetic field through the coil changes, inducing the emf.
In order to measure this emf, we resort to the now familiar trick of charg-
ing a capacitor through a diode and measuring the voltage developed across
the capacitor, at leisure.[figure 7.2].

Figure 7.2:

R represents the coil resistance( about 500ohms) plus the forward resis-
tance of the diode. (If you introduce an additional resistance, that will also
have to be included in R). The capacitors used are in range of 100f and the
charging time RC is of the order of 40msec. It will turn out that this time is
somewhat larger than the time during which the emf in the coil is generated
so that the capacitor does not charge up to the peak value in a single swing
and may take about 10oscillations to do so. This may be checked by the
current meter in the circuit which will tell you when the charging current
ceases to flow.
The peak value of the emf generated may also be measured by using null
method in which one compares the varying emf with a d-c voltage. The
arrangement is shown in figure 7.3. The voltmeter will record a kick if
the voltage across AB(potential divider) is smaller than the peak voltage
developed across the coil so that all that is required is to increase the d-c
voltage until the meter ceases to show any deflection. The part played by the
capacitor is purely nominal. See if there is any difference in the performance
without it.In the experiments, try to measure the induced emf by both the
methods suggested above.
128 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 7.3:

7.3 Experiment A
To study the emf induced as a function of the velocity of the mag-
net.

Figure 7.4: The magnetic field at the coil increases as the magnet approaches
the coil

The magnet is placed at the centre of the arc. As the magnet starts far
away from the coil, moves through it and recedes, the magnetic field through
the coil changes from a small value, increases to its maximum and becomes
small again thus inducing an emf( Appendix I).
 Study of Electromagnetic Induction 129

Actually, there is a substantial magnetic field at the coil only when it is

very near the magnet; moreover, the speed of the magnet is largest when
it approaches the coil since it is approximately in the mean position of the
oscillation. Thus the magnetic field changes quite slowly when the magnet
is far away and rapidly as it approaches the coil.Roughly, this is the way we
expect B ~ (at the coil) to change with time.

Figure 7.5: Variation of B at the coil with time

The flat portion at the top, in figure 7.5 corresponds to the finite length
of the magnet.Actually, the curve in figure 7.5 also tells us the way the flux
changes with time since, with a stationary coil, it behaves the same way as
~ The induced emf will be negative time derivative of and will look like
B.
this:

Figure 7.6: Variation of induced emf with time

130 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

The times t1 and t2 in figure 7.5 are the points of inflection of the curve
and in figure 7.6 are obviously a minimum and maximum, respectively.
Remember, this sequence of two pulses, one negative and one positive,
occurs during just half a cycle. On the return swing of the magnet, they will
be repeated. (Which one will be repeated first, the negative or the positive
pulse?)
Consider now the effect of these pulses on the charging circuit of figure
7.2. The diode will conduct only during the positive pulse; at the first half
swing, the capacitor charges up to a potential, say about 0.5Eo . During the
next half swing, the diode will be cut off until the positive pulse reaches
0.5Eo and then the capacitor will be allowed to charge up to a slightly higher
potential. Thus, in a few oscillations the capacitor will be charged up to the
peak value Eo .
The rate of change of flux through the coil is, essentially, proportional to
the velocity of the magnet as it passes through the coil. By choosing different
amplitudes of oscillation of the magnet, we can alter this velocity. Suppose
the angular velocity of the magnet at any point is and the moment of
inertia of the system about the axis of rotation is K. The kinetic energy of
the system is 12 K 2 and the potential energy(referred to the lowest position
of the magnet) is Mgr(1-cos ) where M is mass of the system and r the
distance of the centre of gravity from the point of suspension.

The maximum value max is given by

1 2
Kmax = M gr(1 coso ) (7.3)
2
or,
2 2M gr
max = (1 coso ) (7.4)
K
where 0 is the angular amplitude. In order to eliminate the constants
(Mgr/K) we note that the motion is approximately simple harmonic with
a time period.
Conservation of energy gives
1
2
K 2 + M gr(1 cos)=constant
where we have written for ; for small this gives
1 2 1 2
K + 2 M gr =constant
2
Differentiating this we obtain
 Study of Electromagnetic Induction 131

+ MKgr = 0
from which the time period given by eq7.5 is readily written.
s
K
T = 2 (7.5)
M gr

From eqs.(7.4) and (7.5) we obtain

4 o
max = sin (7.6)
T 2
The velocity of the magnet is given by
4 o
vmax = Rmax = R sin (7.7)
T 2
where R is the distance of the magnet from the point of suspension.
The angular amplitude o is determined by measuring the initial displace-
ment So of the centre of the magnet from the mid-point of its oscillation since
So
o = (7.8)
R
Measure the length R directly. Fix the amplitude So at a certain value
measured on a scale which is fixed on the arc housing the magnet and set the
magnet in oscillation. The velocity of the magnet through the coil is readily
commuted from Eqs.(7.7) and (7.8).
As the capacitor in figure 7.2 charges up, watch the ammeter and as soon
as it shows that there is no more charge current, connect the voltmeter and
measure the peak voltage V. (Alternatively, you may use the null method
discussed).
Vary the velocity of the magnet vmax by choosing different values for
So . For each velocity determine the peak voltage of the capacitor which is
obviously a measure of the induced emf. A graph of the peak voltage vs
vmax will yield a straight line in accordance with Faradays law. Try with a
number of values for So . You may also change the capacitor and observe the
difference in the charging rate. In figure 7.7, we display the typical results of
a measurement.
132 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 7.7:

7.4 Experiment B
To study the charge delivered due to induction

When the charging time (RC) of the capacitor is large, the charge collected
over a small interval of time tRC is given by

1 t 1 t d
Z Z
Q(t) = E(t)dt = dt (7.9)
R 0 R 0 dt
1
Q(t) = [(0) (t)] (7.10)
R
During each oscillation, the magnetic field at the coil changes from prac-
~ when the magnet passes through the
tically zero to its maximum value Bmax
coil. The change in flux is approximately Bmax~ Am where m is the number
 Study of Electromagnetic Induction 133

of turns and A the area of the coil, the charge Q is given by Q = CV where
V is the voltage acquired by the capacitor whose capacitance is C. Thus, Q
can be readily measured. Eq(7.10) then will enable you to make a rough
estimate of Bmax~ .
Try using different resistors R in charging circuit and see how far Eq(7.10)
is obeyed. The change in the flux ought to be the same so that the charge
collected should be smaller the larger the value of R. If you find that the
voltage of the capacitor is too small to be measured for a single swing, you
may average over a small number of oscillations(why only a small number of
oscillations?).

Figure 7.8:

As mentioned in Experiment A , the diode allows the capacitor to charge

only for positive pulse [Figure 7.6]. You may arrange two sets of charging
circuits as in [Figure 7.8] so that one capacitor charges up on the positive
pulse and the other on the negative pulse. Verify that the charges on the
capacitor are nearly the same. (What will the voltages on the capacitor
depend on?)
If you stop the oscillation (by hand) after a quarter oscillation (from the
extreme position of the magnet to its mean position), only one capacitor will
charge up. Try and find out if the sign of the emf induced is as should be
according to Faradays law.
134 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

7.5 Experiment C
To study electromagnetic damping

We have. so far, neglected damping of the oscillations of the magnet. Succes-

sive oscillation will not be of the same amplitude as you check from a rough
measurement of the amplitude after, say 10 oscillations.
There are many reasons for this damping. There is always some air
resistance; then again the system is not nearly free from friction at the point
of suspension. But the most important (and interesting!) source is that the
induced emf in the coil itself introduces a damping through a mechanism
which goes by the name of Lenzs law. This law states that the direction of
the induced emf is always such as to oppose the change that causes it. (See
Appendix II for a discussion)
The energy dissipation will not be same after each oscillation; in fact as
a rule in oscillatory systems, the fractional loss of energy turns out to be
roughly constant. That is to say, suppose the energy of the system is En
after n oscillations. Then
En
= (7.11)
En1
where is nearly independent of n. It is easy to see that this implies
En
= n (7.12)
Eo
where Eo is the energy at the beginning.
Since the energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude, Eq.(7.12)
gives r
Sn En
= = n/2 (7.13)
So Eo
Thus if you plot a graph of log Sn as a function of n you ought to get a
straight line. In practice, you will find that this is only approximately true.
First, keep the coil open circuited. Fix the amplitude of the magnet and
measure the amplitude S after a number of oscillations. You will find that
the amplitude is still considerable even after 200 oscillations, since in this
case there is no electromagnetic damping at all. Plot log S as a function of
n.
Next, try the same with a short circuited coil. This time the amplitude
diminishes rapidly and about 20 oscillations or so are all that give measurable
 Study of Electromagnetic Induction 135

amplitudes. Again plot log S vs n. You may also connect a finite load such
as a 500ohm resistor and make the same measurements. Finally, try also
a big capacitor, say 2000f, as a load. At each swing the capacitor keeps
charging up and energy has to be supplied to build up this energy as well as
the energy that will be lost through leakage. Try and interpret the graphs
that you obtain in these cases; the case of a capacitative load is somewhat
complicated. (Figure 7.9 shows these curves plotted from experimental data)
136 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

APPENDIX-I
Flux Of The Field And Faradays Law
As pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, the concept of flux of the
field is vital to the understanding of Faradays Law.
~ We assign a direction to this element
Consider a small element of area d.
taking it to be the normal to the plane of the area directed such that if it
is bounded by a curve as shown in [Figure 7.10], then the normal comes out
of the plane of the paper towards you, the reader. In other words, it is the
same direction as the movement of the axis of a right handed screw rotated
in the sense of the arrow on the curve.
~ Then
Suppose, now this element of area is situated in a magnetic field B.
the scalar quantity
d = B ~ =| B || d | cos()
~ d (7.14)
is called the flux of B ~ where is the angle between the
~ through the area d,
~
direction of the magnetic field and the direction assigned to the area d.
~
We can generalize this to define the flux over a finite area S. In doing
this, we must remember that the magnetic field B ~ will not, in general, be
the same at different points within the finite area. We therefore divide up
the area into small pieces, calculate the flux over each piece and integrate.
Thus, the flux is Z
= B ~
~ d (7.15)
s
where the symbol s signifies that we are to integrate over the entire area
~
S.[Figure ~ out of the integral in Eq.(3.15)
7.11] Obviously, you cannot take B
~
unless B is same everywhere in S.~
If the magnetic field at every point changes with time as well, then the
flux will also change with time.
Z
~ d
= (t) = B(t). ~ (7.16)
s

Faradays discovery was that the rate of change of flux d/dt is related to
the work done on taking a unit positive charge around the contour C[Figure
7.11] in reverse direction. This work done is just the emf. Accordingly, we
can state Faradays law in its usual form that the induced emf is given by
d
E= (7.17)
dt
 Study of Electromagnetic Induction 137

~ does not change with

If you look at Eq(3.16),you will see that even if B
time the flux may still vary if the surface S is somehow changing with time.
Consider, for example, a frame of wires ABCD, as drawn in figure 7.12,
situated in a constant magnetic field. If the side BC is moved out thus
increasing the area of the loop ABCD, the flux of B~ through the loop increase
with time. Here also Faradays law will apply as stated in Eq(3.17)***.

*** There are, however, a number of situations in which Faradays law would not hold.
For a beautiful discussion, read Feynmans Lectures in Physics, CH 17, Vol. II
138 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

APPENDIX-II
Lenzs Law

This law is just the statement of the tendency of a system to resist change
as applied to the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. Let us under-
stand the origin of the law.
Suppose we have q steady current I in a circular loop as in figure 7.13.
Then there is a magnetic field B ~ associated with this current, the lines of force
going through the face of the coil and out is shown in the figure. The lines o
force close upon themselves outside the coil. (The lines of force representing
B~ always close upon themselves). Note particularly the direction of these
lines. The way to remember this is to ask yourself how the axis of a right
handed screw, rotated in the direction of the arrow on the coil, will move.
This is the direction of the magnetic field.
Suppose you increase the current. This will increase the magnetic field in
the direction drawn and the flux will increase. But according to Faradays
law this increase in flux will set up an induced emf given by the rate of change
of this flux, i.e.
d
E= (7.18)
dt
Note the negative sign. This means that the direction of the emf in the coil
will be opposite the sense of rotation of a right handed screw. Thus the
induced emf will try to restore the original current. This is why we have, on
occasion, called it the back emf. If, therefore, the current in the coil has to
be increased, one has to supply energy to overcome this opposing emf.
It is quite easy to see how much energy is required without going into
details of this opposing field. Recall that a coil of self inductance L carrying
a current I has an energy 12 LI 2 . If, therefore, the increased current is Io , the
extra energy to be supplied is 21 LIo2 - 12 LI 2 . You must now be able to argue
why the open circuited coil in Experiment C is damped much less than a
short circuited one.
 Study of Electromagnetic Induction 139

Figure 7.9:

Figure 7.10:
140 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 7.11:

Figure 7.12:

Figure 7.13: Field due to a circular coil carrying current

8.

Determination of Cauchys Con-

tants

8.1 Objective:
To determine Cauchys Constants using a prism and spectrometer.
sectionApparatus: Glass prism, spectrometer and mercury vapour lamp.

8.2 Theory:
the wavelength dependence of refractive index of a dielectric medium can be
approximated by
B
=A+ 2 (8.1)

where represents the refractive index at wavelength and A and B are
constants. The equn.8.1 is known as Cauchys formula and A and B are
known as Cauchys constants. AS is obvious from the above formula, a curve
between and 1/2 is straight line whose intercept with the y axis gives
A and slope with respect to the x-axis gives B. Thus if we can easily find
Cauchys constants. This is done as discussed below.

A parallel beam of white light source (mercury lamp) is passed through a

prism. One would observe a spectrum on the other side of the prism (Fig.8.1).
The prism is then set in the position of minimum deviation and the angle of
142 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 8.1: Top view of the prism table showing relevant details. A - rotation
axis of the prism table. B,C - Threaded screw holes to fix grating stand.
D,E,F - Leveling screws.

minimum deviations corresponding to different colors are measured with the

help of the spectrometer. The refractive indices at different wavelength can
be calculated using the following well known formula
sin A0 +D
2
m

=
sin A2
Note: The wavelengths of various lines (colors) observed in light from mer-
cury vapour lamp are given.

8.3 Experiment:
A spectrometer consists of a collimator which is mounted on the rigid arm
and a telescope mounted on the rota-table arm which can rotate in a hori-
zontal plane about the axis of the instrument. A prism table of adjustable
height is mounted along the axis of rotation of the telescope. A circular
scale and vernier arrangement is provide to enable measurement of the angle
through which the telescope arm or the prism table is rotated.

1. Setting the prism table

The prism table AB is made horizontal with the help of a spirit-level by ad-
 Cauchys constants 143

Figure 8.2: Positioning of the prism for optical alignment.

justing the leveling screws D,E,F (see Fig.8.1). To start with, the prism table
is rotated about its axis and adjusted in such a way that the parallel straight
lines along with the two screw E and F are perpendicular to the axis join-
ing the collimator and the telescope pointing directly opposite. A three way
spirit level is kept on the prism table with its edge XY along the parallel lines

The screws E and F were adjusted to achieve centering of the spirit level
2 and the screw D is adjusted to achieve centering of spirit level 1. Finer
adjustments of D ,E and F are done to center spirit level 3 along with the
spirit levels 1 and 2.

Further adjustment of the prism table is done using the method of optical
alignment. The given prism is placed such that the ground surface is facing
towards the telescope and is perpendicular to the axis of the collimator. Ad-
just the position of the prism such that the edge of the prism opposite to the
ground surface lies approximately along the axis of the prism table as shown
in Fig.8.2. If you now rotate the telescope arm, you would be able to see the
reflected images of the slit appears symmetrically placed about the horizontal
144 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 8.3: Top view of the set up for Schusters method.

 Cauchys constants 145

cross wire when viewed from both sides. The prism table adjustments are
complete now.

2. Schusters method of focusing a spectrometer for parallel

light:

When a distant object is not available or the spectrometer is too heavy to

be carried outside the dark room where the experiment is being performed,
the setting of the spectrometer is done by the Schusters method. the slit is
kept facing the brightest portion of the mercury lamp and its width adjusted
to permit a thin line of light to act as incident light.

Prism is now kept on the prism table with its ground face along the par-
allel lines ruled on the prism table. The prism table is rotated so as to obtain
mercury light incident from the collimator on the prism. Telescope arm is
moved to a suitable position to see the spectrum through it. the prism ta-
ble is rotated to achieve the position of minimum deviation (of course, you
will have to rotate the telescope arm also, as you rotate the prism table, to
retain the spectrum in the field of view of the telescope). At this position,
the spectrum which appeared to be moving in the telescope in one direction
(say left to right) reaches an extreme limit and retraces its path on further
movement of the prism table in the same direction.

Prism is rotated away from this position of minimum deviation. bringing

the refracting angle towards the telescope and the telescope is now focused
on the image as distinctly as possible. prism is then rotated to the other side
of the minimum deviation position towards the collimator and the collimator
is focused to obtain a sharp image of the spectrum. The process is repeated
till the motion of the prism does not affect the focus of the spectrum (please
see Fig.8.3).
The collimator and the telescope are then set parallel light and their settings
are not to be disturbed during the courses of the experiment.

Measurements of angle of minimum deviations and prism angle

A:

The prism is again set in the position of minimum deviation as discussed

above. Now measure the positions of various lines (colors) of the spectrum
146 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

on the circular scale without disturbing the prism table. Now remove the
prism from prism table and rotate the telescope to see the slit directly and
measure its position. The difference between this last reading and the read-
ings corresponding to various colors in the position of minimum deviation
will give us the angles of minimum deviations for different colors.

This given prism is now again placed on the prism table such that the
ground surface is facing towards the telescope and is perpendicular to the
axis of collimator. Adjust the position of the prism such that the edges of
the prism opposite to the ground surface lies approximately along the axis of
the prism table as shown in Fig.8.3. Rotate the telescope arm and measure
the position of reflected images of the slit on both sides of incident beam.
The difference between the two readings is equal to angle 2A0 .

8.4 Observations:
Least count of the spectrometer=

Readings for the measurement of angle of minimum deviations:

Reading of telescope position for direct image of the slit:

Left scale (L ):
Right scale (R ):
Sr. color of Reading for telescope posi- D1 = L 1 D2 = R 2
No. light tion
Left scale 1 Right scale
2
1. Violet I
2. Violet II
3. Blue
4. Green
5. Yellow I
6. Yellow II
7. Red
Readings for measurement of prism angle A:
 Cauchys constants 147

ab
Sr. Position of telescope for reflected slit A0 = 2
No. from
Left face (a) Right face (b)

Calculations:
A0 +Dm
D1 +D2 sin
Sr. Color Dm = 2
= A
2
1/2
sin 20
No.

using the above values draw a graph between and 1/2 and determine
A and B.

Precautions: Care should be taken to ensure proper setting of the spec-

trometer. It should be ensured that the settings of the telescope and colli-
mator are not touched during the course of taking the various readings.

Source of errors: Think and find out yourself after doing the experiment.
9.

Millikans oil drop experiment

10.

To determine the wavelength of

light from a Sodium Lamp by
Newtons rings method.

10.1 THEORY
If we place a plano convex lens L on a flat glass plate G as shown in the
figure, an air film of varying thickness is formed between the curved surface
of the lens and the flat surface of the plate. Light from a Sodium lamp S
falls on a flat glass plate P placed at 45 with respect to the incident beam.
Some of this light is reflected at the plate and directed towards the lens and
glass plate placed below. This light in turn is partially reflected upwards at
all the four surfaces. Light reflected from the curved surface of the lens ABC
and light reflected from the adjacent surface of the glass plate AEB will then
interfere to form a pattern of interference fringes.
Consider points lying close to the point of contact between the lens and
the glass plate. We note that the path difference between the interfering
beams is approximately 2t, where t is the thickness of the air gap. Since the
light reflected from the glass plate G undergoes a further phase shift of x the
condition for an interference maximum is,
1
2t = (n + ), n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .... (10.1)
2
172 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

while the condition for a minimum is,

2t = n, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (10.2)

As the system is axially symmetric the resulting fringes are concentric circles
with the center at the point of contact. if R is the radius of curvature of the
curved surface of the lens, it can be shown from geometry that the Diameter
of the nth dark ring is given by,

Dn2 = 4 t (2R) = 4nR (10.3)

Similarly for the (n + m)th ring,

2
Dn+m = 4(n m)R (10.4)

Subtracting equation 3 from equation 4 we get,

2 2
Dn+m Dm = 4mR

i.e.
2
Dn+m Dn2
= (10.5)
4mR
Thus measuring the diameter of the rings and the radius of curvature of the
lens, we can find the wavelength of the light used.
 Newtons rings 173

PROCEDURE:

1. Clean both surfaces of the lens and glass plate with a tissue paper and
ensure that there is no fingerprint or grease on either. Place the curved
surface of the lens on the glass plate. Check that this is correct by gently
pressing on one edge of the lens, it should rock because of the curved surface
being in contact. Place this assembly in the frame supplied and slightly
tighten the screws to ensure that the lens will not fall but can move slightly
if needed.

2. Hold the lens-plate assembly horizontal while standing below any light
on the ceiling of the laboratory. A circular pattern of interference fringes
174 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

(1-2 mm dia.) should be visible in the light reflected from the assembly. If
no fringes are visible then the glass surfaces have not been cleaned properly.
If the fringes are very irregular in shape then the flat and not the convex
surface of the lens is in contact with the plate.

3. The frame containing the lens and plate is then placed in the Newtons
rings apparatus so that the fringes are directly below the microscope. The
microscope is then moved vertically until the fringes can be seen. If necessary,
one of the three screws on the frame can also be tightened slightly to tilt the
lens and ensure that the fringes are centered.

4. At this stage, the central fringe should be dark if this is not so, then
the plate and lens are not clean, take them out, clean them and perform the
same procedure as above. To ensure maximum contrast, move the Newtons
ring apparatus of the lens in front of the lamp till the other dark fringes are
also as black as possible.

5. Find the vernier constant of the traveling microscope. Then using the
micrometer, move the microscope in the horizontal direction and check that
it can be moved to more than 25 dark and bright fringes on either side of the
center for taking readings.

6. Counting carefully from the center move out till the cross wire is on the
21st fringe or 22nd bright fringe. Now rotate the micrometer in the opposite
direction till the 20th ..fringe of the same type is tangential to the cross-wire.
Note the position of the traveling microscope from the micrometer.
The 21st fringe must not be used as reversing the direction of the screw
there gives a large backlash error.

7. Move the microscope using the micrometer to align the cross-wire tan-
gential to the 18th fringe and note the micrometer reading. Repeat this on
the 16th , 14th , 12th .... fringes, continue in the same fashion on the other side
of the center till the 20th

8. Remove the plano convex lens and plate from the frame and lay the lens
with the flat surface downwards. Raise the central screw of the spherometer
and place the spherometer on the convex surface of the lens. Rotate the screw
 Newtons rings 175

until the tip just touches the lens and note the reading on the spherometer.
Now without disturbing the reading, lift the spherometer and place it on the
flat glass plate. Again lower the screw till it touches the plate and note the
new reading. Repeat this process two or there times and obtain the mean
value of h: which is the difference of the two readings.

9. In order to measure I the distance between any two legs of the spherom-
eter, press the spherometer down on your notebook so that the three legs
make marks on it. Trace out the triangle thus made by the spherometer,
measure all the three sides and take the mean. Use thish and I to find the
radius of curvature R of the lens by the formula.

I2 h
R= + (10.6)
6h 2

Observations:

Least count of micrometer on microscope =

Pitch (least count of main scale) of spherometer = p =
Least count of vernier (circular) scale of spherometer = lc =

Table 10.1: Measurement of the diameter of the fringes

Serial No. of Ring Microscope Reading Diameter = Dn =

No. n Left hand side Right hand side |left hand side right hand
side|
1. 20
2. 18
3. 16
:
:
176 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Calculations:

2
Serial Ring number Dn+10 2
Dn+m 2
Dn
Dn2 =
No n (m = 10) 4mR

1 10
2 8
3 6

Distance between two legs of the spherometer :

(1) (2) (3) Mean =

h=
Spherometer Spherometer Difference Number of n(pitch) +
of the two complete
Circular scale Circular scale circular scale m(least count
reading on reading on rotations
Serial readings moved of circular
No. lens plate m n scale)
1
2
3

(Calculate the maximum possible error and report the result as below)
The wavelength of light from the Sodium lamp was found to be = d
A.
11.

Determination of Planks constant

12.

Diffraction grating

OBJECT

To determine the wavelengths of light emitted by a mercury vapour lamp

by using a diffraction grating.

INTRODUCTION:

Consider a light beam transmitted through an aperture in an opaque screen

(see Fig. 1). If light were treated as rays traveling in straight lines, then
the transmitted light would appear as a bright shadow of the aperture.
However, because of the wave nature of light, the transmitted pattern may
deviate slightly or substantially from the aperture shadow. depending on the
distance between the aperture and the observation plane, the dimensions of
the aperture and the wavelength of light. Indeed, the transmitted intensity
distribution, which is known as the diffraction pattern, may contain intensity
maxima and minima even well outside the aperture shadow (see Fig.1). The
angles at which the intensity maxima and the minima occur depends on the
wavelength of light and the width of the slit. This phenomenon of spreading
out of light waves into the geometrical (dark) shadow when light passes
through a small aperture (or about an obstacle) is known as diffraction.
A diffraction grating consists of a periodic array of a large number of
equidistant slits of width b which are separated by a distance a as shown
in Fig. 2. The period (= a) is known as the grating constant. Thus if N is
192 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

the number of slits per unit length (say, 1 mm), then a = I/N mm
The diffraction pattern due to a grating is essentially the same as the
diffraction pattern due to M slits, where M is a large number ( 10-100) and
is obtained by the superposition of waves emanating from all the slits on the
observation plane. The resulting intensity distribution is given by
 2  2
sin sinM
I = I0 (12.1)
sin

where
ka sin kb sin
= and = (12.2)
2 2
2
with k = , being the wavelength of light.

The grating equation

Consider the incidence of plane waves making an angle i with the plane
of the grating as shown in Fig.2. The net path difference for waves from
successive slits is given by
where is the angle corresponding to any arbitrary direction of the diffracted
light. For normal
 Diffraction grating 193

Figure 12.1: Diffraction of light through an aperture

194 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 12.2: Diffracted orders at a particular wavelength

 Diffraction grating 195

Figure 12.3: Plane waves incident on a diffraction grating at an angle i

a is the grating constant

= 1 + 2 = asini + asin (12.3)

incidence(i = 0) and therefore

= asin (12.4)

When = n, where n is an integer, all diffracted waves in the correspond-

ing direction n are in phase, and their amplitudes add up to give maximum
196 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

intensity. Thus, we have the grating equation, which gives the positions of
the intensity maxima as
asinn = n (12.5)
n = 0, 1, 2,. . . refers to the order of the spectrum.

The zeroth order (n = 0) occurs for n = 0, i.e. along the direction of

the incident light, for all . Thus, light of all wavelengths appears in the
zeroth order peak of the diffraction pattern. For orders n 6= 0, the grating
leads to angular separation of the wavelengths present in the incident beam
(see Eq.5). In other words in each order, different colours would appear at
different angles with reference to the direction of the incident beam. This
feature of the granting makes it extremely useful in wavelength measurement
and spectral analysis. Note that for every n , satisfying the grating equation,
the angle n also satisfies the grating equation with n replaced by -n. Thus,
for normal incidence the +ve and -ve orders appear symmetrically on either
side of the zeroth order (see Fig. 3).

Source of Light:
Mercury vapour lamp is used as the source of light. This source gives a well
defined line spectrum arising from interstate electronic transitions taking
place in the excited mercury atoms.

Spectrometer:
The spectrometer consists of a collimator which is mounted on the rigid arm,
and a telescope mounted on the rotatable arm which can rotate in a horizontal
plane about the axis of the instrument. A prism table of adjustable height
is mounted along the axis of rotation of the telescope. A circular scale-and-
vernier arrangement is provided to enable measurement of the angle through
which the telescope arm or the prism table is rotated.
 Diffraction grating 197

Experiment

1. Setting the prism table

The prism table is made horizontal first with the help of a spirit-level by
adjusting the levelling screws D, E and F (see Fig.4). To start with, the
prism-table is rotated about its axis and adjusted in such a way that the
parallel straight lines along with the two screws E and F are perpendicular
to the axis joining the collimator and the telescope when they are aligned.
A three way spirit level is kept on the prism table with its edge along the
parallel lines. The screws E

Figure 12.4: Top view of the prism table showing relevant details
198 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 12.5: Positioning of the prism for optical alignment

and F are adjusted to achieve centering of the air bubble in spirit levle 1
and the screw D is adjusted to achieve centering of the air bubble in spirit
level 2. Finer adjustments of D, E & F are done to center spirit level 3
along with the spirit levels 1 & 2, which are perpendicular to each other.
Further adjustments of the prism table is done using the method of optical
alignment. The given prism is placed such that the ground surface is facing
towards the telescope and is perpendicular to the collimator. Adjust the
position of the prism such that the edge of the prism opposite to the ground
surface lies approximately along the axis of the prism table (see Fig.5). If
 Diffraction grating 199

you know rotate the telescope arm, you would be able to see the reflected
images of the slit on both sides of the incident direction. Adjust the screws
D, E and F such that the image of the slit appears symmetrically placed
about the horizontal cross wire when viewed from both sides. The prism
table adjustments are now complete.

2. Schusters method of focusing a spectrometer for parallel inci-

dent light:
When a distant object is not available or if the spectrometer is too heavy
to be carried outside the dark room where the experiment is being performed,
the setting of the spectrometer is done by the so called Schusters method.
First , the entrance slit of the collimator is kept facing the brightest
porting of the mercury lamp and its width adjusted to permit a thin line of
light to act as incident light. The given prism is now placed on the vernier
table with its ground face along the parallel lines ruled on the prism table.
The prism table is rotated so as to obtain mercury light incident from the
collimator on one of the polished surfaces of the prism. The telescope arm
is moved to a suitable position to see the spectrum through it (see Fig.6).
The vernier table is rotated to achieve the position of minimum deviation.
)of course, you will have to rotate the telescope arm also, as you rotate the
vernier table, to retain the spectrum in the field of view of the telescope.) At
this position, the spectrum which appeared to be moving (in the telescope)
in one direction (say, left to right) reaches an extreme limit and retraces its
path on further movement of the vernier table in the same direction.
Keeping the position of the telescope fixed, the vernier table is rotated
slightly away from this position of minimum deviation, bringing the refract-
ing angle towards the telescope and the telescope is now focused (see 1 - 1 in
Fig.6) on the image as distinctly as possible. The vernier table is then rotated
to the other side of the minimum deviation position towards the collimator
and the collimator is focused (see 2 - 2 in Fig.6) to obtain a sharp image of
the spectrum. The process is repeated till the motion of the prism does not
effect the focus of the spectral lines.
The collimator and the telescope are then set for parallel light ant these
settings are not be disturbed during the course of the experiment.
200 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

3. Setting up the diffraction grating for normal incidence:

The diffraction grating is positioned securely in the grating stand with the
help of two clamps, and is fitted on the prism table with the help of two
screws into the threaded holes B
 Diffraction grating 201

Figure 12.6: Top view of the setup for Schusters method.

202 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 12.7:

and C, in Fig.4).
The position of the telescope is carefully adjusted such that the direct
image of the slit coincides with the vertical crosswire on the telescope. Read-
ings of the two circular scales I & II are recorded. The telescope arm is
rotated through 90 , and locked in this new position. The prism table is
rotated so as to coincide image of the slit reflected from the grating with the
vertical crosswire in the telescope (see Fig.7). Readings of scales I and II are
recorded again. The prism table is now rotated away from this position by
 Diffraction grating 203

an angle of 45 so as to make the grating face perpendicular to the incident

light coming from the collimator. The prism table is locked in this position.
The telescope arm is now released so that it can be moved freely on both
sides of the incident light position.

4. Determination of Angle of Diffraction:

Experiment is performed with a grating having 2000 lines/inch (or 15000
lines/inch). The diffraction spectrum contains 2 white line in the centre (zero
order spectrum) with dispersed set of coloured lines (blue, blue green, green,
yellow I, yellow II, red I, red II etc.) appearing repetitively on both sides
of the zeroth order representing the higher orders of diffraction spectra (see
Fig.3). Readings of the telescope positions are taken while coinciding its
crosswire with the various coloured lines on the left-side spectra. note down
the readings of both the verniers for each spectral line in the first order and in
the second order. Then take the telescope to the right side of the direct image
and repeat the above procedure. Tabulate all the readings systematically
as per the given format (see Table 1). Find out the differences in angles
corresponding to the same kind of vernier for each spectral line in both the
orders. Determine from this the wavelength of the light of a particular colour
by using the grating formula

asin = n (12.6)

Observations and calculations:

No. of rulings per inch on the grating N = (given)

2.54
The grating constant = N 100 m =
Least count of spectrometer =
Reading of telescope position for direct image of the slit =
Reading of telescope position after rotating it through 90 =
Reading on circular scale when the reflected image is
obtained on the cross-wire =
Reading after rotating the prism tabel through 45 =
204 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

LHS reading RHS reading

for telescope for telescope
Order of Color of position position pq = p+q
2
Spectrum light (p) (q) (deg) (deg)
Yellow
Green
2 Violet
Yellow
Green
1 Violet

*The direction of the arrow indicates the sequence of recording the read-
ings.

Precautions:

i Care should be taken to ensure proper setting of the spectrometer and

these settings of the telescope and the collimator are not touched during
the course of taking the various readings.

ii The position of the grating adjusted to be normal to the incoming light

from the collimator, should not be distrubed throughout the experiment.
Ensure that the prism table locking screw is tightened properly.

iii It is necessary to point the slit towards the brightest part of the source,
in order to obtain reasonable intensity of the lines of different colours
especially in the higher order spectra. It is known that the intensity of
lines in the higher order spectra reduces sharply with increase tn order.

Sources of error:

Think and find out yourself after doing the experiment!!

13.

Brewster angle measurement

Brewster angle experiment:

First understand the concept of p- and s- polarizations and then read about Fresnel reflection
coefficients (you will be learning about these in PYL100). A good source is the book Optics by A. K.
Ghatak (there are many copies in the library) or equivalent.

Procedure/tips for experiment:

1. Observe the polarizer provided to you. It has a dash mark on its mount indicating its pass axis.
How will you verify that this is indeed the polarization direction that is passed by this polarizer?
[Hint: Look at light reflected from the tiles on the ground in a corridor in the lab.]
2. Now orient the dash mark to approximately 45-degrees with respect to the vertical (or horizontal)
direction and rotate the laser (if required) so that you get near-maximum light through the
polarizer.
3. First set the pass axis direction to be vertical. Is the light passing through the polarizer s- or p-
polarized with respect to the mounted glass plate?
4. Follow the procedure in the vendor manual and measure reflection coefficient as a function of the
angle of incidence.
5. Now turn the polarizer axis 90-degrees so that you are passing horizontally polarized light through
the polarizer. Follow the procedure again and measure the reflection coefficient as a function of
the angle of incidence.
6. What difference do you notice in the two cases (horizontal and vertical incident polarization)?
14.

(A). To determine the surface

tension of water by Jeagers method.
(B). To measure surface tension
of water by capillary rise method.

14.1 Object: (A). To determine the surface

tension of water by Jeagers method
14.1.1 Apparatus:
Jeagers setup, traveling microscope and a table lamp.

14.1.2 Theory:
It is well known that in curved liquid surfaces the surface tension gives rise
to excess pressure P which is given by the relation P = T ( r11 r12 ) where T
is surface tension of the liquid, r1 and r2 are the principal radii of curvature.
This excess pressure is always directed towards the center of curvature and
for an air bubble it is given by P = 2T /r. Jeagers method for measurement
of T is an application of this relation between surface tension T and radius
of curvature.
220 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

14.1.3 Procedure:
Apparatus required for Jeagers method consists of a big water reservoir R
fitted with air tight cork at its top through which is inserted a glass tube
immersed below the water level and a conical vessel connected to bottom
outlet of water reservoir through a stop clock S (Fig.14.1). The conical vessel
is also connected to a tube T whose other and is joined to a capillary tube
which is dipped inside the liquid whose surface tension is to be determined.
Open the stop clock S which allows the water to fall in the conical flask C.
This increases the pressure of air bubble inside C as also of the air in the
tube B and capillary tube A and water level in tube B becomes lower and
lower. As more and more water falls in to C, pressure of air in the flask and
the capillary tube continues to build up and when the excess pressure which
is equal to the pressure difference between two sides of the air bubble formed
at the orifice of capillary, becomes equal to 2T/r(r being the radius of the
bore of capillary) the air bubble gets released. At the moment when bubble
is released the water level in the tube B reaches its lowest level i.e. H cm
below the surface of water in the beaker. Now if the position of the orific of
the capillary A is h cm below the water level in the beaker, (H-h)g gives
the pressure difference p at the time of the bubble is released. Thus we have

(H h)g = 2T /r

To measure the radius of orifice of capillary A, fix the capillary tube A in the
horizontal position and focus the microscope on its orifice to get a clear image.
Then adjust the microscope such that its vertical cross-wire coincides with
one edge of the bore and note down the readings. Now move the microscope
so that the vertical cross wire coincides with the diametrically opposite edge
of the bore. The difference between these two readings gives the diameter
of the bore (2r). Thus by measuring H,h and r one can easily determine T
using the relation
g
T = r(H h)
2

14.1.4 Observations:
Density of liquid =
Ambient temperature=
 Surface tension 221

Figure 14.1:

Table for measuring H and h

Sr. h (position of meniscus in H (position of meniscus in (H-h) in
No. A- water surface) B at the time bubble is cm
released-water surface)
1.
2.
3.
.
.

Table for determining radius of capillary , r

222 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Sr. position of one end of cross position of diametrically op- diameter radius
No. section posite end (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
.
.
mean r=

Calculations and Log errors

Result: The surface tension of the liquid at C is =

14.2 Object: (B). To measure surface tension

of water by capillary rise method.
14.2.1 Apparatus:
A beaker, a capillary tube, a stand and a traveling microscope.

14.2.2 Theory:
When we dip a capillary tube vertically inside a liquid which wets it, the
liquid immediately rises inside the capillary above the general level of the
liquid outside. If h is the maximum height to which it rises then the surface
tension of the liquid is given by the relation
r g
T = r(h )
3 2
where r is the radius of the bore of capillary, is the density of liquid. In the
above given relation, the angle of contact has been taken as zero, a condition
which is reasonably justified for light liquids like water. Thus we see from
the above equation that by knowing r, , g and h, one can determine surface
tension T of liquid.
 Surface tension 223

Figure 14.2:

14.2.3 Procedure:
Take a beaker and fill it with water approximately half of the height. Now
dip a capillary inside the water and hold the capillary in the vertical direction
by the help of a stand. Wait until water rises inside the capillary to a
maximum height. Next focus the microscope on the meniscus of water inside
the capillary and adjust the microscope such that horizontal cross wire just
coincides with the meniscus and note the reading on vertical scale. Now
move the microscope downwards and note the position of the general level
of water in the beaker. The difference between the two readings gives height
h. Measure the radius of capillary as described earlier in the previous part
of this experiment and calculate T using he equation given above. Repeat
the experiment with different capillaries of different radii and find out the
average values of T.
224 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

14.2.4 Observations:
Density of liquid=
Radius of capillary tube=

Observation table for measurement of h

Sr. position of meniscus in the position of water level in the height h
No. capillary beaker (cm)
1.
2.
3.
.
.
Mean h=
Calculation and log errors
Result: The surface tension of the liquid at C is =
15.

To determine the viscosity of wa-

ter by Meyers oscillating disk
method

Theory

If a disk undergoes torsional oscillations about its symmetry axis in a fluid

medium, it does not push aside any additional fluid while executing this
motion. The fluid in contact with the disk then remains at rest with respect to
it, while the fluid far away is at rest with respect to the enclosure/container.
so a transverse velocity gradient is set up in the fluid, and this in turn causes
a viscous force to act and damp out the oscillations. Oscar Meyer suggested
measuring the decay of these oscillations to find the viscosity of a liquid.
The equation to a harmonic oscillator undergoing torsional oscillations is.

d2 d
I + K + = 0. (15.1)
dt2 dt
Here I is the moment of inertia of the oscillator, K is the damping coefficient,
is the restoring torque per unit twist and is the oscillations (twist) angle.
The solution of this equation is given by,
! 12
2t 2t KT 1
(t) = 0 e T sin( + ), = , T = 2I 2 (15.2)
T 4 K4
226 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

where 0 and are constants of integration. The variation of this function

with time is shown in the figure 1. The quantity , known as the logarithmic
decrement, is the logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes on
opposite sides of the equilibrium position. Thus,
B1 C1 B2 C2 B1 C1 + B2 C2 B1 C1 + B2 C2 ... + Bn Cn
e = = = =
B2 C2 B3 C3 B2 C2 + B3 C3 B2 C2 + B3 C3 ... + Bn+1 Cn+1
(15.3)
th
Here Bj is the amplitude at the i turning point of the disk, as shown in
Fig.1. Thus by measuring the amplitudes on either side of the equilibrium
position, we can find out the damping coefficient using Eq.(3).
In the case of a disk oscillating inside a liquid, the damping is due to two
causes: damping due to the viscous forces of the liquid, and damping due to
the friction of the wire suspension at the support. Meyer suggested that the
instrument be first used to find the logarithmic decrement 0 in air, where the
viscous damping is negligible, followed by a measurement of the logarithmic
decrement in the liquid. As the frictional damping at the support is the
same in both cases., this (unknown quantity) can be eliminated by taking the
difference 0 . Using this, he was able to find a formula for the viscosity
of the liquid as,
 Meyers disk method 227

Figure 15.1: Damped Oscillations

Figure 15.2: Meyers Apparatus

228 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

" 2 #2
16I 2
 
0 0
= + (15.4)
T (r4 + 2r3 d)2
Here,
I - moment of inertia of the torsional pendulum about the suspension axis.
T - time period for one complete oscillation.
r - radius of the disk.
d - thickness of the disk.
- density of the liquid.
- logarithmic decrement in the liquid.
0 - logarithmic decrement in air.

The quantities mentioned above can all be measured directly, except the
moment of intertia of the disk which is a complex object. To find the moment
of inertia, the time period (T) of the disk in air is found and then a ring with
a known moment of inertia Ir is placed on the disk with its center on the
suspension axis. The time period of the disk and the ring together in air(T)
is again found, when the moment of inertia of the ring-loaded disk is I + It .
Then, we have
T2
Ir = ma2 I = ma2 (15.5)
(T 0 )2 T 2
! 21   12   12
I I 0 I + Ir
T = 2 2
= and T = (15.6)
4

here, m is the mass, a is the average radius of the ring, i.e., a = (d1 + d2 )/4
where d1 and d2 are the inner and outer diameters of the ring, respectively.
Using equations (4) and.(6) we can find the viscosity of water.

PROCEDURE

1. The apparatus consists of a flat disk attached to a short rod passing

through its center which is suspended (with the disk remaining horizontal)
by means of a phosphor bronze wire. The central rod has a perpendicular
screw with two movable masses on opposite sides for leveling the disk. A
small concave mirror with a radius of curvature of about one meter is also
mounted on this rod (see Fig.2).
 Meyers disk method 229

A lamp and scale arrangement is provided which is to be adjusted till a

beam from the lamp after reflection from the concave mirror forms a well
defined circular patch of light on the scale. The image of the cross wires on
the lamp should be clearly visible on the screen. The positions of the scale
and the disk are adjusted till the equilibrium position of the spot of light is
close to the center of the scale.

2. Taking care to avoid all transverse oscillations (such as lateral swing or

wobble), the disk is rotated slightly to give a small torque and left free to
undergo torsional oscillations. By measuring the time of 25 oscillations, the
time period of the pendulum T is found. Repeat this step once more and
take the mean value of T.

3. The given metallic ring is placed flat on the disk, so that its center is as
close as possible to the axis of suspension. The time period of the pendulum
T is now found by the procedure described above. The mass of the ring, and
the outer and inner diameters (d1 and d2 ) of the ring are measured. Make
observation tables for these measurements. (The ring may not be exactly
circular: therefore measure the diameter along different directions and take
the average value). Using these two measurements and Eq.(6) the moment
of inertia I of the pendulum can be calculated. The ring can now be removed
and is not required in the rest of the experiment.

4. To measure the logarithmic decrement, the disk is again set into torsional
oscillation. When the amplitude has fallen to approximately the full scale
reading, start the readings by noting down the reading on the scale at one
extreme position, B1 C1 . The very next reading at the outer turning point
B2 C2 is then recorded (see Fig.1).

5. After 20 complete oscillations, again record the maximum amplitudes on

both sides B41 C41 & B42 C42 . The logarithmic decrement in air can now be
found by using these readings and Eq.(3) for 20 oscillations (i.e., for n=20)
as,  
1 B1 C1 + B2 C2
0 = ln (15.7)
40 B41 C41 + B42 C42
230 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

In general, if n is the number of oscillations, then the logarithmic decrement

is the given by
 
1 B1 C1 + B2 C2
0 = ln (15.8)
2n B2n+1 C2n+1 + B2n+2 C2n+2

Repeat the procedure for 30 and 40 oscillations to calculate 0 . Take the

mean value of 0 to obtain the logarithmic decrement.

6. A clean glass dish is now placed so as to contain the disk, and water is
poured into it so as to cover the disk but not submerge the mirror (see Fig.2).
The equilibrium position of the light spot is now adjusted (if necessary)
so that it again lies at the center of the scale. The same procedure (as
that to find the logarithmic decrement in air) is now repeated to find the
logarithmic decrement in water. Since the oscillations in this case are very
much damped, the experiment has to be performed for smaller number of
oscillations.

Tabulate the observation for air and water as shown in Table 1

and Table 2.

7. Using the data measured above, and the dimensions of the disk equation
(4) is used to find the viscosity of water. The temperature of the water used
must be measured and quoted along with the result.

Observations:

Least count of vernier caliper used =

Least count of stop watch =
Least count of balance used =
Radius of the disk, r =
Thickness of the disk, d =
Outer diameter of the ring, d1 =
Inner diameter of the ring, d2 =
Average radius of the ring, a =
Mass of the ring, m =
Temperature of water =
 Meyers disk method 231

Time required for 25 oscillations in air =

Time period in air, T =
Time required for 25 oscillations in air with ring =
Time period in air with ring, T =

Table 15.1: Readings for finding logarithmic decrement in Air

Trial Serial no. Maximum Amplitude 0

number of oscillation Left(Bi Ci ) Right(Bi+ )Ci+1 ) {using Eq.(8)}
1 Start (i= 1)
n = 20 (i = 41)
2 Start (i= 1)
n = 30 (i = 61)
3 Start (i= 1)
n = 40 (i = 31)

Table 15.2: Readings for logarithmic decrement in Water

Trial Serial No. Maximum Amplitude

number of oscillation Left (Bi Ci ) Right (Bi+1 Ci+1 ) {using Eq.(8)}
1 Start ( i= 1)
n=5 (i = 11)
2 Start (i= 1)
n = 10 (i = 21)
3 Start (i= 1)
n = 15 (i = 31)

Calculate the maximum probable error d and write down the precautions
and sources of error.

Result:

The viscosity of water was found to be poise, at a temperature of

degrees centigrade.