Basic calculations

7 Basic calculations Type of influence Short symbol Unit

Pressure Surge psurge
Welding factors
7.1 Factors influencing pipe system design Short-term welding factor fs -
Long-term welding factor fl -
Type of influence Short symbol Unit (The abbreviations fs and fl indicated here
Outside diameter de mm have been freely chosen by Akatherm. In the
Inside diameter di mm DVS 2205 Part 1 guideline they are shown as
Internal pressure pi bar fz (short-term welding factor) and fl (long-
External pressure pex bar term welding factor)!
Underpressure pu bar Connection method
Reference stress Vref N/mm2 - detachable connection
Creep modulus EcR N/mm2 - unions
Operating temperatures - couplings
Lowest operating temperature Ti min C - plug-in connections
Highest operating temperature Ti max C - flange connections
Highest ambient temperature Ta max C - compression connections
Average installation temperature Tins C - permanently attached connections
Safety factor - welding
for load class I = 1.3 S o electrofusion EF
for load class II = 1.8 S o butt-welding BW
for load class III = 2.0 S o hot gas extrusion welding HE
for stability N = 2.0 S o hot gas hand welding HW
Calculated pipe wall temperature o hot gas speed welding HR
TW = 0,9 . TFlow medium TW min C Types of installation
TW max - above ground with linear compensation
Maximum occurring - above ground without linear compensation
temperature difference - concrete encased
max '-= Tu - Ti '- K - buried
T0 = upper maximum value - installation in the open
Tu = lower maximum value - installation in buildings
Load period: Additional influences
Load h/a (= hours per annum)
for min Tw - h/a
for max Tw - h/a Table 7.1
for Ui - h/a
for Ua - h/a The listed data is meant to guide compilation of important data and vari-
Calculated service life for tSL h ables important for the construction of a pipe installation.
calculation of creep strength tSL a
Reduction factors Note:
Time dependence (if applying A1 - The listed mathematical operations and relations have been simplified as
appendix A1, this factor has already been much as possible. Plastic-specific parameters and generally valid factors
taken into account) are partly already integrated into calculation formulae. We have
Reduction factor abstained from detailing the derivation or reproduction of single values
(influence of ambient medium) A2 - to abbreviate this section.
according to DVS 2205 - Part 1
Reduction factor
Temperature dependence (if applying appen- A3 - 7.2 Calculating pipe parameters
dix A1, this factor has already been taken
into account!) 7.2.1 Explanation
Reduction factor The calculation of thermoplastic pipe systems is especially important for
(influence of specific resilience) A4 - the engineer undertaking a project. This chapter presents the basic prin-
DVS 2205 - Part 1 (See table 7.12) ciples required for designing plastic pipe systems. However, the practitio-
Flow medium ner (user) should also be able to acquire the necessary data and standard
Pressure loss per m pipe 'p bar/m variables for internally pressure-loaded pipe in a relatively simple manner
Flow velocity w m/s without spending a lot of time. The mathematical operations are suppor-
Flow volume V
. m3/h ted by diagrams in the appendices from which most values and data can
be read off. Thermoplastic pipe calculations basically occur on the basis
of long-term values. The reference stress (Vref) and mechanical (creep)
strength (i.e. creep modulus (EcR)) of a pipe system in relation to tempe-
rature can be derived from the creep diagram in appendix A1 and the
creep modulus curve diagram in appendix A2. The creep rupture curves
are based on internal pressure tests on pipe samples filled with water and
represent minimum values. If pipe systems are not intended for water but
for other flow media, their effects on creep strength properties must be
given special consideration.

Basic calculations 51
 Basic calculations
7.2.2 Hydraulic principles - Determining the pipe friction number (OP)
- Calculating flow velocity The dimensionless pipe friction number (OP) is required to calculate the
hydraulic loss in the pipe. For laminar flows (Re < 2320) in circular cross-
sections, the following holds:

Equation 7.1
Equation 7.5
d. i = inside diameter -> ds = de - 2 e (mm)
V' 3
. = flow volume (flow rate) (m /h) Re = Reynolds number (-)
V'' = flow volume (flow rate) (l/s) OP = pipe friction number (-)
w = flow velocity (m/s)
Standard values for fluids: In most cases, turbulent flows are created in pipes (Re > 2320).
w ~ ~ 0.5 - 1.0 m/s -> intake side The pipe friction number (OP) for turbulent flows can be determined with
w ~ ~ 1.0 - 3.0 m/s -> pressure side the aid of appendix A3. The pipe roughness value (k), which is crucial for
the calculation, can be considered to be 0.01. In practice, OP = 0.02 can
- Calculating the flow volume be used to make rough estimates of hydraulic loss.
The required pipe size is derived from the flow velocity of the medium
and the clear cross-section of the pipe. The flow rate of fluids is calcula- - Equivalent pipe length
ted as follows:

Equation 7.6

Equation 7.2

di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)

de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
e = pipe wall thickness (mm)
A = cross-sectional area of flow channel (mm2)
w
. = flow velocity (m/s)
V = flow volume (m3/h, l/s)
Equation 7.7

- Calculating the inside diameter of the pipe

Ltot = total pipe length (m)
If the flow rate (flow volume) is known and the constants in the above-
6LPipe = sum of all pipe lengths in the system (m)
stated equations have been compiled, this yields a conventionally-sued 6LFitting = sum of all fitting lengths in the system (m)
formula for calculating the inside diameter of the pipe:
6LValve = sum of all valve lengths in the system (m)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)
OP = pipe friction number (-)
6]F = sum of the individual resistances of fittings (-)
6]A = sum of the individual resistances of valves (-)
Equation 7.3
An exact indication of pressure loss at connections (welding joints, flange
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm) connections, unions) is not possible because the nature and manner of
w = flow velocity (m/s) the connections vary. An overall addition of 10% to the calculated total
V' = flow volume (m3/h) loss would appear to be appropriate.
V''= flow volume (l/s)
- Calculating total pressure loss
The tomogram presented in the appendix A16 (along with the associated In calculating the total pressure loss, the sum of the respective individual
tables A16a, A16b and A16c) can be used to directly calculate the appro- pressure losses must be computed. The sum of the individual pressure
priate dimensions. losses is calculated by:

- Calculating the Reynolds number (Re)

The Reynolds number (Re) indicates the relationship of the inert forces
Equation 7.8
affecting
. the flow particles to the forces of viscosity. The Reynolds num-
ber
. is dimensionless and is calculated as follows: 6'ptot = sum of the individual losses (bar)
6'pRP = sum of the pressure losses in straight pipe lengths (bar)
6'pRF = sum of the pressure losses in fittings (bar)
6'pRV = sum of the pressure losses in valves (bar)
6'pRC = sum of the pressure losses in connections (bar)
Equation 7.4

Re = Reynolds number (-)

Q = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
w = flow velocity (m/s)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)

52 Basic calculations
 Basic calculations
- Pressure loss in straight pipe sections - Resistance factors
The pressure loss in straight pipe sections is calculated using the follo- The pressure loss in a pipe system is caused by friction, changes of direc-
wing equation: tion and transfer loss. To determine the variables involving total pressure
loss in a pipe system requires knowledge of the resistance factors (]F) for
fittings, pipe connections and valves. The most important resistance fac-
tors are indicated below.

- ]F - values for seamless pipe bends

Equation 7.9

'URP = pressure loss in individual pipe sections (bar)

OR = pipe friction number (-)
LP = length of the pipe sections (m)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)
UF = density of the flow (kg/m3)
w = flow velocity (m/s)

- Pressure loss in pipe fittings

Given that substantial losses result from friction, changes of direction and
transfer loss, these individual losses represent a significant portion of the
total pressure loss in a pipe system. The pressure loss is calculated with
the following formula:

Figure 7.1 Seamless pipe bends

Equation 7.10
R/di 1 1.5 2 4
'URF = pressure loss in individual pipe fittings (bar) D
UF = density of the flow (kg/m3) 30 0.23 0.19 0.14 0.11
w = flow velocity (m/s) 45 0.34 0.27 0.20 0.15
]RF = resistance factors for pipe fittings (-) 60 0.41 0.33 0.24 0.19
90 0.51 0.41 0.34 0.23
The resistance factors for fittings will be identified in tables 7.2 to 7.7. Table 7.2 ]F value for seamless bends

- Pressure loss in pipe connections

Pressure loss also occurs in pipe connections, although it cannot be preci- - ]F values for segmented pipe bends
sely characterised, as the geometric dimensions vary a great deal (e.g.
welding beads). DVS 2210 Part 1 recommends basing pressure loss calcu-
lations for connections in plastic pipe systems (such as butt, sleeve and
flange joints) on a resistance factor of ]RF = 0.1 (-) . For pressures losses
in connections, this means:

Equation 7.11

'URC = pressure loss in connections (bar)

UF = density of the flow (kg/m3)
w = flow velocity (m/s)
]RC = resistance factor for pipe connections = 0.1 (-)
Figure 7.2 Segmented pipe bends
To obtain a rough estimate of the pressure loss in connections, it is suffi-
cient to consider an addition of 15% to the pressure loss in straight secti- R/di 1.5 3 4 6
ons ]P and fittings ]PF. D
30 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11
- Pressure loss in valves 45 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17
The pressure loss in valves can be determined using the following equation: 60 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.23
90 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.29
Table 7.3 ]F values for segmented pipe bends

Equation 7.12

'pRV = pressure loss in valves (bar)

UF = density of the flow (kg/m3)
w = flow velocity (m/s)
]RA = resistance factors for pipe valves (-)

The resistance factors for valves are shown in table 7.10.

Basic calculations 53
 Basic calculations
- ]F values for segmented pipe bends - ]F values for cross-section changes

a) Pipe enlargement, perpendicular

de1 / de2 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

]F 0.07 0.15 0.24 0.46 0.56
Table 7.6 Pipe enlargement, perpendicular

b) Pipe constriction, perpendicular

de1 / de2 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Figure 7.3 Elbows
]F 0.10 0.22 0.29 0.33 0.35
D 10 15 20 30 45 Table 7.7 Pipe enlargement, perpendicular
]F 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.14 0.30
c) Pipe enlargement, conical ] value for OP = 0.025
Table 7.4 ]F values for segmented pipe bends

]F values for angle of enlargement DE

- ]F values for tee sections
de2/de1 4 - 8 16 24
1.2 0.10 0.15 0.20
o
1.4 0.20 0.30 0.50
1.6 0.50 0.80 1.50
1.8 1.20 1.80 3.00
2.0 1.90 3.10 5.30
Table 7.8 Pipe enlargement, conical

c t DE is the angle of enlargement. The ] values are related to velocity (w2).

The conical length (l) is derived from the angle of enlargement (DE) and
the diameter ratio de2/de1. The best angle of enlargement in which the
i
stream of the inflowing medium still does not lose contact with the pipe
is about 7 to 8.

t c

Figure 7.4 Tee for dividing and uniting flows

. . . .
Vi/Vt Uniting
. . flows
. Vo/Vt Dividing
. . flows
.
Vt=Vo+Vi Vt=Vo+Vc
]z ]d ]a ]s
0.0 -1.20 0.06 0.0 0.97 0.10 Figure 7.5 Conical enlargement of the flow cross section
0.2 -0.40 0.20 0.2 0.90 -0.10
0.4 0.10 0.30 0.4 0.90 -0.05 d) Pipe enlargement, conical ] value for OP = 0.025
0.6 0.50 0.40 0.6 0.97 0.10
0.8 0.70 0.50 0.8 1.10 0.20 ]F values for angle of enlargement DE
1.0 0.90 0.60 1.0 1.30 0.35 de2/de1 4 8 24
Table 7.5 ]F values for tees 1.2 0.046 0.023 0.210
1.4 0.067 0.033 0.013
.
V. t -> total flow volume (l/s - m3/h) 1.6 0.076 0.038 0.015
V. c -> total continuous volume (l/s - m3/h) 1.8 0.031 0.041 0.016
V. o -> outgoing volume (l/s - m3/h) 2.0 0.034 0.042 0.017
Vi -> incoming volume (l/s - m3/h) Table 7.9 Pipe enlargement, conical

Positive values indicate pressure loss, negative values pressure increases.

- ]F values for tanks and tank outlets

overlying -> ]F = 2.0

flush -> ]F = 0.3
rounded -> ]F = 0.05

Figure 7.6 Conical enlargement of the flow cross section

54 Basic calculations
 Basic calculations
- ]V values for valves - Calculating pressure wave velocity (a)

valve without constriction

free-flow check valve

nominal diameter DN

inclined seat valve

diaphragm valve

butterfly valve
flat-seat valve

Equation 7.13

check valve
ball valve

ball valve
The indicated resistance factors are reference values and are used in
rough pressure loss calculations. Object related calculations are based on
the data of the respected valve manufacturers.

Resistance factor (])

25 4.0 2.1 3.0 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 2,5 1,9
32 4.2 2.2 3.0 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 2.4 1.6
Equation 7.14
40 4.4 2.3 3.0 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 2.3 1.5
50 4.5 2.3 2.9 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 2.0 1.4
65 4.7 2.4 2.9 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 2.0 1.4
80 4.8 2.5 2.8 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 2.0 1.3
100 4.8 2.4 2.7 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 1.6 1.2
Equation 7.15
125 4.5 2.3 2.3 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 1.6 1.0
150 4.1 2.1 2.0 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 2.0 0.9
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
200 3.6 2.0 2.4 0.1...0.3 0.1...0.15 0.3...0.6 2.5 0.8
a0 = speed of sound (m/s)
Table 7.10 ]-values for valves de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)
- ] values for compensators K = correction factor (-)
Surge suppressors : ] = 2.0 per surge EcR = creep modulus of the pipe material (N/mm2)
Expansion joints : ] = 3.0 EF = E modulus of the flow medium (N/mm2)
UF = density of the flow medium (kg/m3)
- ] values for welding seams
Electrofusion : ] = 0.05 - Maximum pressure surge for 'w = w0
Butt-welding : ] = 0.1

- ] values for pipe bends in succession

180 bends : ] = 2.0 ] 90
Stage of 2 x 90 bends : ] = 2.5 ] 90 Equation 7.16

Expansion stage of 2 x 90 bends : ] = 3.0 ] 90

a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
pSurge = pressure surge (bar)
7.2.3 Investigating pressure surges
pO = pump pressure, operating pressure (bar)
The change in the stationary conditions of a pipe system (e.g. due to acti-
vation of a butterfly valve or the failure of a pump) creates a pressure 'w = w0 - w1 (with w1 = flow velocity at the reflection position) (m/s)
wave producing superpositions due to reflections in bends, reducers, etc.
For short pipes of a single length can be assumed that a surge degrada-
that can amount to many times the operating pressure. The largest pres-
sure increase occurs when the closure procedure or stop command follo- tion occurs.
wing pump failure falls under the so-called reflection time. If a pipe
system contains externally controlled valves or trip mechanisms, it must
be ensured that their closure time is larger than the reflection time.
If a pressure surge occurs, its effects must be investigated by means of a Equation 7.17
short-term stress analysis and a stability test.
ts = closing time of the butterfly valve or delay of the pump stop
Note: command after failure (c)
The pressure surge is not always sufficiently expressed by the following LPipe = pipe length (m)
equations. In particular, more precise investigations must be employed in a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
longer or complexly branched pipe systems in order to consider and eva-
luate all the significant factors. The surge degradation factor is:

Significant factors are:

Operating pressure, pump pressure = pO (bar)
Flow velocity = wo (m/s)
E modulus of the pipe material = EcR (N/mm2)
Equation 7.18
(short-term E modulus = creep modulus between 1 and 10 min)
E modulus of the flow medium = EF (N/mm2)
~ 2100 N/mm2) Zs = surge degradation factor (-)
(for water at 20C -> EF ~
LPipe = pipe length between valve mechanism or pump and
Density of the flow medium = UF (g/cm3)
reflection position (m)
ts = closing time of the butterfly valve or delay for the pump stop
command after failure (c)
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)

Basic calculations 55
 Basic calculations
The complete pressure change ('U) corresponding to the velocity change From this, it follows:
('w) velocity when the closing time (tc) is smaller than the reflection time
(tR). The reflection time (tR) is calculated by:

Equation 7.23
Equation 7.19
pu = under pressure from pressure surge calculation (bar)
tR = reflection time (c) pCrit = critical underpressure (bar)
LPipe = pipe length between valve mechanism or pump and reflection SF = safety factor (-)
position (m)
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s) Note:
Appendices B9 to B10 indicate the acceptable external pressure load (pex)
The rough estimate of a pressure surge hazard can draw on the following or the underpressure load (pu) in short-term observations (t = 100 h) and
rule of thumb: long-term observations (t = 25a) for PE at various SDR levels.

7.2.4 Calculating acceptable stress

Calculation of acceptable stress requires the inclusion of various reduc-
Equation tion factors. The significance of individual reduction factors will be dis-
cussed in section 7.2.6. The acceptable stress is determined by the
Equation 7.20
following formula.
HP = delivery height of the pump (m)
Ks = pressure wave size (-)
LPipe = pipe length between valve mechanism or pump and reflection
position (m)
wo = flow velocity (m/s) Equation 7.24

For Ks > 70 and with simultaneous use of rapidly closing valves, a special Vacc = acceptable stress (N/mm2)
pressure surge calculation is recommended. Vref = reference stress (N/mm2), see appendix A2.
fl = long-term welding factor (-)
- Calculating the pressure surge for the section involved fs = short-term welding factor (max. 1h) (-)
LPipe < 500 de R2 = reduction factor for the influence of the flow medium
Equation 7.21 is an empirical calculation formula. It should therefore only (see table 2.3) (-)
be used when rough estimates are to be made for simple pipe systems R4 = reduction factor for the influence of the specific resilience of the
without fittings. material (-)
SF = safety factor for the respective loads (see table 7.13) (-)

7.2.5 Welding factors

The size of the welding factors depends on the specific welding procedu-
res. There is also a distinction made between short-term (fs) and long-
Equation 7.21
term welding factors (fl). Only long-term factors may be used in compo-
pSurge = pressure surge (bar) nent calculations. The calculation of welding factors is performed in DVS
p = pump pressure, operating pressure (bar) 2203 part 2.
w = flow velocity (m/s) Table 7.11 contains the relevant factors for PE butt-weld (DVS 2203 part
UF = density of the flow medium (g/cm3) 1) and electrofusion (DVS 2212 part 1).
M = surge factor (-) The original abbreviations fs and fl have been freely chosen by Akatherm.

In general, the following values can be selected for M: Material Welding factor PE
M = 25 for rapidly closing valves Butt-welding fs 0.9
M = 50 for normally closing valves (BW) fl 0.8
M = 75 for slowly closing valves Electro-fusion fs 0.9
(EF) fl 0.8
The loads often arising along with pressure surges due to vacuums can, Table 7.11 Welding factors fs and fl
under certain conditions, cause buckling of the pipe in specific situations.
The stability (i.e. buckling resistance) of the pipe series in question must 7.2.6 Reduction factors
be verified in every case.
- Reduction factor R1
The reduction factor R1 (time dependent) accounts for the dependence
of material strength on stress duration. This value is displayed in the
creep rupture curves (appendix A1). Use of this diagram supplants direct
Equation 7.22 observation.

pCrit = critical underpressure (bar) - Reduction factor R2

EcR = elasticity modulus (between 110 min) (N/mm2), see appendix A2. This reduction factor designates the influence of the flow medium (che-
e = pipe wall thickness (mm) mical resistance factor) on the creep strength of thermoplastic. Relevant
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm) values can be taken from table 2.3 in chapter 2.

56 Basic calculations
 Basic calculations
- Reduction factor R3 For the outside of bends, the following holds:
The dependence of strength on the operating temperature is accounted
for in reduction factor (R3). This value is also displayed in the creep rup-
ture curves (appendix A1). Use of this diagram supplants direct observa-
tion.

- Reduction factor R4 Equation 7.27

This factor accounts for the specific resilience of the material as a func-
tion of the operating temperature and is therefore derived from impact eo = wall thickness on the outside of the bend (mm)
fBo = factor for the outside of the bend from table 7.14 (-)
strength values. The corresponding values for reduction factor (R4) are
pi = internal pressure (bar)
found in table 7.12.
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
Vacc = acceptable stress (N/mm2)
Material Pipe wall temperature
-10C 20C 40C 60C - Factors (fBi) and (fBo) for determining wall thicknesses of bends
PE100 1.2 1 1 1
Table 7.12 Reduction factor R4 Radius R
1,0 . de 1,5 . de 2,0 . de 2,5 . de
Factors can be interpolated for intermediary temperatures. Seamless pipe-bends fBi 1,27 1,22 1,15 1,12
fBo 0,92 0,93 0,95 0,96
7.2.7 Safety factor (SF) Segmented bends fBi 1,59 1,50 1,44 1,40
fBo 1,15 1,16 1,19 1,20
Load Class
Table 7.14 Factors for determining wall thicknesses for bends
I Even load on the pipe in installations in building. If 1.3
damage occurs, no possible danger to people, property - Welded branches (tees)
and the environment. In principle, branches in pipes represent weaknesses.
II Load on the pipe under changing operating conditions 1.8 This condition has the consequence that unreinforced welded tee secti-
in installations outside buildings. If damage occurs, no ons do not correspond to the nominal pressure of the pipe. Welded tees
damage to people is expected. Effects on property and can only be exposed to a reduced pressure load. An improvement of the
the environment limited. (*) internal load capacity is achieved by increasing the wall thickness of the
III Load on the pipe under changing operating conditions >2.0 connection or by a corresponding strengthening of welded joints.
in installations inside and outside buildings. If damage
occurs, there are possible hazards for people, property - Wall thickness of branch pipes:
and the environment. Applied for monitoring and
inspection facilities.
Table 7.13 Safety factors (SF) for various loads

(*) In contrast to general references in the technical literature (e.g. DVS 2205 part 1) in which
only two loads are distinguished, Akatherm has introduced this additional load class for larger Equation 7.28
loads that could affect a pipe system in an installation outside buildings.
eo = wall thickness (mm)
7.2.8 Minimum wall thickness de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
pi = internal pressure (bar)
- Straight pipes Vacc = acceptable stress (N/mm2)
WRF = weakening factor of the fitting (-)

Values for the weakening factor (WRF) can be interpreted from appendix
B2.
Equation 7.25
The reduced internal loads for fittings welded on pipe segments is shown
e0 = minimum wall thickness (mm) in appendix B2.
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
pi = Internal pressure (bar) 7.2.9 Internal pressure capacity of welded and injection-moulded
Vacc = acceptable stress (N/mm2) fittings.

- Seamless and welded segmented pipe bends - Moulded fittings

For the inside of bends, the following holds: Moulded fittings do not generally require any restrictions regarding a
minimum internal pressure load capacity. They therefore withstand the
same internal pressure load as a pipe of the same SDR level.

- Segment-welded tee sections

The inclusion of unreinforced welded tees in any pipe system reduces the
Equation 7.26
tolerable operating pressure. The corresponding reduction factor is
strongly temperature-dependent, which means that the internal pressure
ei = wall thickness on the inside of the bend (mm)
capacity is lowered by rising operating temperatures. Information about
fBi = factor for the inside of the bend from table 7.14 (-)
the internal pressure load capacity of segment-welded tees is provided by
pi = Internal pressure (bar)
appendix B2.
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
Vacc = acceptable stress (N/mm2)

Basic calculations 57
 Basic calculations
- Segment-welded bends In calculating temperature difference ('-), care should be taken that the
Like the mentioned segment-welded tees, segment-welded bends (angle lowest and highest temperatures (installation, operating and stationary)
>30) have a reduced internal pressure load capacity in comparison with are used in the calculation. Approximations usually take just flow
a straight pipe. The weakening effect of butt-welded segmented bends is medium and ambient temperatures into account. They simplest type of
also dependent on the same temperature conditions affecting segment- compensation for length changes in thermoplastic pipe installations
welded tees. The actual internal pressure load capacities can be seen in involves using L-form expansion bends (90 changes of direction). L-
appendix B2. bends are also referred to as elbows. The minimum dimensions of an
elbow as illustrated in figure 7.7 is indicated by the following equation:
7.2.10 Length changes due to heating and internal pressure

- Thermal-conditioned length change

Exposing a pipe system to varying temperatures (e.g. ambient and opera-
ting temperatures) changes its status with regard to the expansion capa-
Equation 7.32
cities of individual pipe sections. Pipe sections designate the distances
between the system point in question to the relevant fixed point. The LB = length of the expansion bend (mm)
thermally conditioned length change ('l-) of individual pipe sections is L1,2 = system lengths of expansion bends (mm)
calculated as follows: de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
H = expansion (-)
EcR = (average) bending creep modulus of the pipe material for t =
Equation 7.29 25a (N/mm2)
Vsf acc = acceptable flexural stress share for t = 25a (N/mm2)
'l- = thermal length change (mm)
LPipe = pipe length (m) Expansion bend lengths for L, Z and U bends are illustrated in appendices
D- = thermal expansion coefficient (K-1) B5 to B8, and the corresponding values can be read from these diagrams.
'-max = max. temperature difference (K)

Examples for the calculation of '-max:

'-max = TW max - TW min
or
'-max = TW max - TM
or
'-max = TW max - Ta
'-max = temperature difference (K)
TW min = minimum pipe wall temperature (C)
TM = average installation temperature (C)
TW max = maximum pipe wall temperature (C)
Ta = lowest ambient temperature (C)

- Length change due to internal pressure loads

In any closed pipe string, a longitudinal expansion is produced by the
occurrence of internal pressure loads as follows:

Temperature

Equation 7.30
Figure 7.7 Elbow (L-bend)

'lU = length change due to internal pressure (mm)

pi = internal pressure (bar)
EcR = creep modulus of the pipe material (N/mm2)
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)
LPipe = pipe length (L1, L2,, Lx) (mm)
= transverse contraction number (-)

- Determining expansion bend dimensions

Length change ('l-):

Equation 7.31

LPipe = pipe length (m)

D- = thermal expansion coefficient (K-1)
'- = temperature difference (K)
'l- = thermal length change (mm)

58 Basic calculations
 Basic calculations
- Pipe sections for absorbing length changes - Maximum force at fixed-points without compensation for length
As shown in figure 7.8, length changes subject pipe sections to bending. change
The dimensions of expansion bends (LB) are established by the relation- The largest fixed-point load occurs on a firmly fastened pipe string. It is
ship: calculated as follows:

Equation 7.34

Equation 7.35-7.37

Explanation of symbols in equations 7.34 to 7.37

FFP = force at fixed points in a firmly fastened pipe string (N)
AP = area of pipe annular surface (mm2)
H = constricted length expansion (-)
D- = thermal expansion coefficient (K-1)
'- = maximum temperature difference between TL and TU (K)
pi = internal pressure (bar)
EcR = (average) creep modulus of the pipe material for t = 100 min
(N/mm2)
Figure 7.8 Pipe section for absorbing length changes de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)
= transverse contraction number (-)

Since the creep modulus is dependent on time, temperature and stress,

an average load period of 100 min is adopted for the calculations. The
Equation 7.33
corresponding values can be derived from appendix A2. The forces at
LB = length of the expansion bend (mm) fixed points can also be interpolated from the appendix B9.
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
H = expansion (-) - System-dependent fixed-point force
L1,2 = system lengths of expansion bends (mm) Thermoplastic pipes are usually installed so that the compensation capa-
EcR = (average) bending creep modulus of the pipe material for t = 25a city of direction changes can be used to absorb length changes.
(N/mm2) The resulting fixed-point forces are therefore system-specific. In most
Vf acc = acceptable flexural stress (N/mm2) cases, they are smaller than the fixed-point load calculated in section
7.2.14. In practice however, the procedure is simplified by adopting the
- Branch connections largest possible load to design the fixed-point structure. If, due to the load
In pipe sections subject to axial movement, it is also important to ensure compensation parameters, the forces are prevented from being large
that branching pipe strings are not exposed to high flexural tensions. The enough (e.g. for pipe bridges, brickwork, containers, pump supports), a
minimum distance between a tee section and the nearest guide bracket system-specific calculation is an essential part of a structural calculation.
corresponds to the expansion bend length (LB). With the aid of appendi- The PC calculation program can again serve this purpose.
ces B5 to B8, the required expansion bend lengths are visually illustrated.

7.2.11 Calculating forces at fixed points

Fixed points in pipe installations are brackets that fix the pipe in x, y and z
directions. The forces at these points depend on the nature of individual
pipe system. The "slacker" the pipe running between two fixed points is,
the smaller the reaction forces generated by deformation effects. The
exact calculation of the force components in any given pipe system is
laborious. The calculation is made easier by employing the correspon-
dingly suitable PC software for thermoplastic pipe systems.

GL GL

Figure 7.9 Firmly fastened pipe string

Basic calculations 59
 Basic calculations
- Forms of compensation in level pipe systems - Rough calculation of fixed-point forces in L-bends:

L-bend

Equation 7.39

FLB = fixed-point load at (L, Z, U) bends -> Fy or Fx (N)

'l = length change (mm)
EcR = (average) creep modulus of the pipe material
for t = 100 min (N/mm2)
JP = pipe moment of inertia (mm4)
LB = length of the expansion bend (mm)

Z-bend
Equation 7.40

JP = pipe moment of inertia (mm4)

de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)

- Fixed-point force in cases of constricted length change due to

internal pressure load

Equation 7.41

Va = axial stress (N/mm2)

AP = area of pipe annular surface (mm2)
U-bend FFP = force at fixed point (N)
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)

- Fixed-point force in cases involving compensators or expansion

couplers

Figure 7.10 Forms of compensation in level pipe systems

Explanation of figure 7.10: Equation 7.42

Fx , Fy , Fz = force components
Fy, Fx = FT at fixed points "A" und "B" AK = surface subject to pressure (mm2)
FT = transverse force pi = internal pressure (bar)
FR = resulting total force di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)
Z1 , Z2 , Z3 = distances of the system points from the line of action FFP = force at fixed point (N)
S = system centre of mass
The distance (Z) (lever) and the resulting total force (FR) produces the - Resulting force at fixed point
moment (M) Brackets are subject to both horizontal and vertical loads. Simultaneous
loads in both directions produce a resulting total force (FR).

Equation 7.38

at a given position of the individual pipe system Equation 7.43

M = moment of torque (Nm) FB = axial fixed-point force (FFP) or friction force (F) as a result of a
FR = resulting force (N) length change in the pipe string
Z = lever (m) FV = transverse force (FTV) for fixed-point load and/or pipe weight (FW)
between two brackets with or without additional load.

60 Basic calculations
 Basic calculations
7.2.12 Elasticity test - Tangential stress (Y axis) due to internal overpressure
Elasticity tests on pipe systems serve predominantly to calculate force
actions and stresses.
Stresses are created by:
- internal pressure loads
- constricted longitudinal movement under temperature change
- bending of bend sections when absorbing length changes

The forces affecting fixed points do not only cause bending moments in
the bend sections but also in the firmly fastened pieces. In 3-D systems,
Equation 7.45
the pipe string is also subject to torsion (twisting).
For facilities corresponding to load classes II and III (table 7.13) or requi- - Radial stress (Z axis due to inner over pressure)
ring testing or monitoring in general, the elasticity calculation is not only
a criterion for careful project planning but also partly prescribed.

7.2.13 Calculating the stresses arising in a pipe system

Pipe systems are usually exposed to a multi-axial state of stress. The
mechanical stress measured in the internal pressure creep test (appendix Equation 7.46

A1) provides the basis for designing thermoplastic pipe systems. The lay-
- Flexural axial stress (x axis) in a straight pipe between brackets
out of pipes is generally based on the internal pressure load, which cor-
responds to the load in the internal pressure creep test.

Equation 7.47

Va - Flexural stress in bends

Vt
Equation 7.48

Mb from the elasticy test

Vr

Figure 7.11 Radial (Vr), Axial (Va) or Tangential (Vt) stress Equation 7.49

However, in addition to the mentioned stresses in axial, radial and tangen-

tial directions to the pipe axis, which are usually caused by heat or internal
pressure loads, there are other stresses (e.g. flexural stresses) created in a
pipe system, making it necessary to investigate all the stress components
Equation 7.50
as part of a structural analysis. To establish the multi-axial state of stress
requires calculation of the resulting stress (Vres) and comparison with the
value for (Vacc). In particular, failure to account for flexural stresses around
expansion bends and the tensile stresses resulting from impeded thermal
expansion can result in failure of a pipe that is, otherwise, subject to a
small internal pressure load. Equation 7.51

- Stresses due to constricted thermal expansion

- Axial stress (X axis) due to internal pressure

maximum stress value in a short-term perspective:

Equation 7.52

Equation 7.44
in a long-term perspective:
Stress for temperature = constant

Equation 7.53

Basic calculations 61
 Basic calculations
stress for temperature = variable 7.2.14 Expansions
If pipe deformation exceeds certain creep limits, flow zones and micro-
scopic cracks are created across the direction of expansion. For usual
applications, pipe deformation is calculated in the following manner.
Equation 7.54

Tensile stress arises when the period of low operating temperature(tcold)

is shorter than the period of high operating temperature (twarm) , i.e. tcold
< twarm
Equation 7.62

Equation 7.55

- Residual stress due to temperature differences between inner Equation 7.63

pipe wall and outer pipe wall
HVx, HVy = expansion along the x and y axes of stress in a multi-axial
load (-)
Equation 7.56 Vx, Vy, Vz = stress along the x, y and z axes (N/mm2)
EcR = average creep modulus of the pipe material (N/mm2)
- Calculating the resulting stress = transverse contraction number = 0.38 (-)

The largest expansion is calculated on each occasion and compared with

the threshold value (HF) in table 7.15. The requirement reads:
Equation 7.57

Equation 7.58 Equation 7.64

HF = expansion threshold value

Hmax =HVx or HVy (-)
Equation 7.59
Material PE
expansion threshold value HF 3%

Equation 7.60 Table 7.15 Expansion threshold value for PE

Should the correlation between stress and expansion be expressed, it can

also be included in the following relationship:
Equation 7.61

Explanation of symbols in equations 7.44 - 7.61

Rp = moment of resistance of the pipe (cm3)
Mb = bending moment due to the tensile or compressive
Equation 7.65
forces affecting branch sections
LB = bracket distance (m)
EcR = average creep modulus of the pipe material (N/mm2)
JP = pipe moment of inertia (cm4) H = expansion (-)
R = bending radius of bends (mm)
V0 = stress (N/mm2)
ra = average pipe radius (mm)
q = weight of the full pipes (N/m) 7.2.15 Estimating service life
e = pipe wall thickness (mm)
If the calculation variables, temperatures and their reaction time in rela-
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
tion to the assumed total load period are all available, the expected ser-
di = inside diameter of the pipe vice life (life-span) can then be determined. The calculation of the service
EcR = average creep modulus of the pipe material (N/mm2)
life however requires a large amount of mathematical complexity. For this
Ui = internal pressure (bar)
reason, closer examination of the mathematical determination of a pipe
V0 = stress in straight pipe (N/mm2) system's service life will be set aside. In calculating service life, it should
Va = axial stress (N/mm2)
be noted that the life-span of the pipe system is also affected by chemical
Vt = tangential stress (N/mm2)
and/or physical conditions. A detailed treatment of the topic of service-
Vr = radial stress (N/mm2) life, complete with examples, is contained in the DVS 2205-1 guideline.
Vf = flexural stress (N/mm2)
The calculation of service lives involving varying loads requires firm know-
V- = axial stress due to constricted thermal expansion (N/mm2)
ledge about the handling of plastics. Valuable aids are PC calculating pro-
V-max = maximum axial stress due to constricted thermal expansion grammes, which can also provide support for less frequently used
(N/mm2)
calculations.
Vres = resulting stress (N/mm2)
Vx, y, z = direction-dependent stress (N/mm2)
Vacc = acceptable stress (N/mm2)
TsP = inner pipe wall temperature (C)
TeP = outer pipe wall temperature (C)
OB = bend factor (-)
a- = thermal expansion coefficient (K-1)

62 Basic calculations
 Basic calculations
7.2.16 Sample calculation FB = axial fixed-point force (FFP) or friction force (F) as a result of a
A number of values will be calculated for the isometric pipe system illus- length change in the pipe string
trated below. FV = transverse force (FTV) for fixed-point load and/or pipe weight (FW)
between two brackets with or without additional load

Bd
GB
GB

GB
GB

GB GB GB
GB
GB

GB
GB
GB GB

GB
Bd
GB

GB
GB
GB

GB = guide bracket (guide saddle), which is a fixing with an axial

pipe guide
FP = fixed point, which is a fixing without any possibility for
movement
1 LM = support distance for the middle of a continuous pipe
2 LE = support distance for a separate or end piece, as well as the
self-supporting total pipe length of an L bend. If both
bending lengths are, in total, longer than the acceptable
support distance (LF), an additional SB is to be placed
between the pipe bend and the GB
Figure 7.13 Pipe saddle load
3 LV = guide bracket distance for an inclined pipe string. To absorb
weight, a fixed point or bearing fixed point or support ring is
to be provided for each string Determination of the force components
4 LB = bending lengths for absorbing length changes and operating
conditions

Figure 7.12 Pipe isometrics

Explanation of terms 1 2 3 4 for equations 7.66 to 7.73. The num-

bering and short symbols provide information about the variables being Equation 7.67
calculated and where their location in the isometric diagram. The illustra-
tion is therefore a guide and helps the user to obtain an overview of a F = friction coefficient usually between 0.3 and 0.5
pipe system and its calculations. FFP = force at fixed point (N)
FW = weight (N)
1. Load on brackets FTV = transverse force (N)
Brackets are subject to both horizontal and vertical loads. Simultaneous Fw (Pipe) = weight (pipe weight) (N)
loads produce a resulting total force (FR), which can be calculated using FW (Fill med) = weight (weight of fill medium) (N)
the following equation 7.66. Figure 7.13 shows a bracket with the effec- FW (Add load) = weight (additional weight) (N)
tive forces and the calculated bracket distance (Bd).
2. Bracket distances (Bd)
The fixing distances of a plastic pipe are to be determined in such a way
that no excessive stresses arise both under operating conditions and
during testing. Similarly, consideration is also to be given to the deflection
Equation 7.66
limits of the pipe. The arrangement of various brackets and their distances
from each other can be seen in the illustrated example (figure 7.12) of pipe
isometrics.

Basic calculations 63
 Basic calculations
3. Calculating acceptable bracket distances LK acc = acceptable buckling length between two brackets (mm)
D- = thermal expansion coefficient (K-1)
'- = temperature difference (K)
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)

The following applies to all pipe systems without linear compensation:

Equation 7.68

LM = support distance for the middle of a continuous pipe (mm) Equation 7.73
EcR = creep modulus of the pipe material for t = 25a (N/mm2)
facc = acceptable pipe deflection according to the recommendations in Values for LB are found in appendix B10:
table 7.16 (mm) LB acc = acceptable pipe length between two brackets (mm)
de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm) LS acc = available or calculated support distance according to equations
di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm) 1 2 3 (equations 7.68 to 7.70)
e = pipe wall thickness (mm) de = outside diameter of the pipe (mm)
UP = density of the pipe medium (g/cm3) di = inside diameter of the pipe (mm)
UF = density of the flow medium (g/cm3) D- = thermal expansion coefficient (K-1)
'- = temperature difference (K)

Note to equations 7.72 and 7.73:

Axially constricted pipe systems operated at raised temperatures or an
Equation 7.69
expected reduction of the creep modulus (EcR) as a result of chemical
effects will both give rise to risks of buckling.
Raised operating temperatures are:
Equation 7.70
PE -> Tcrit > 45C
PP -> Tcrit > 60C
Values for Y: < O de 110 mm -> Y=1,1 The buckling risk is strengthened due to bending along the pipe axis or
O de125 - 200 mm -> Y=1,2 insufficient pipe storage practices. Bending can result from too long sup-
< O de 225 mm -> Y=1,3 port distances, improper storage of pipe and lasting pipe impacts during
welding.
LB = mathematical definition in equation 7.28 In such case, it is recommended that the buckling distances either calcu-
respectively with appendices B3 to B7 lated or interpolated from appendix B10 are reduced by a factor of 0.8.
Pipe systems with de < 50 mm should be equipped with continuous sup-
Equation 7.71
port for economic reasons.
Explanation of symbols in equations 7.69 to 7.71:
5. Determining pipe deflection for calculated support distances
LM = support distance for the middle of a continuous pipe (mm)
LE = support distance for a separate and end piece, as well as the
Pipe deflection for the calculated support distance (LM) (from equation
self-supporting total pipe length of an L bend.
7.68) is determined by means of the following equation.
LV = guide distance for an inclined pipe string (mm)
LB = length of the expansion bend (mm)
Pipe deflection for the calculated support distance (LE) (from equation
Y = factor (dependent on pipe dimensions) (-)
7.69) is also determined by means of equation 7.74.
To calculate the support distances, the following deflections are recom-
mended as acceptable values:

O de 20 - 110 125 - 200 225 - 355 400 - 600

facc 2 -3 mm 3 - 5 mm 5 - 7 mm 7 - 10 mm
Equation 7.74
Table 7.16 Deflection facc for pipes
q = weight of the filled pipe along with any insulation (N/mm2)
If larger deflections are permitted, the pipe should not be axially constricted. EcR = creep modulus of the pipe material (N/mm2)
LM, LE = bracket distance (m)
4. Verifying the acceptable buckling length LB = acceptable bracket distance (m)
JP = pipe moment of inertia (mm4)
If pipes are installed so that axial expansion of all or individual strings is fD = deflection (mm)
no longer possible (axial constriction), the calculated fixing distance must
be tested for its buckling resistance. To avoid the risk of buckling due to At position 3, the pipe is not subject to deflection but to buckling.
constricted thermal expansion, the length of pipe between two brackets
must be no more than LK .

Equation 7.72

See appendix B10.

64 Basic calculations