ASNT Level II Study Guide Liquid Penetrant Testing Method
ASNT Level II Study Guide Liquid Penetrant Testing Method
Study Guide
Liquid Penetrant
Testing Method
Published by
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
PO Box 28518
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
Copyright 2002 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the authen-
ticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of
ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of
ASNT.
1RRSP, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE and are registered trademarks of The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
IBN-13: 978-1-57117-092-7
ISBN-10: 1-57117-092-8
Contents.....................................................................................................................................................iii
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................vii
Review Questions.....................................................................................................................................31
Answers.....................................................................................................................................................37
History of Liquid Penetrant or the shape of the part. With proper sequencing of
Testing the process in manufacturing and the use of
appropriate cleaning methods with trained and
Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest certified operators, liquid penetrant testing is a very
methods of nondestructive testing. Its origin is reliable, accurate and effective surface inspection
generally attributed to the inspection of wheel process.
axles in the railroad industry in the 1890s. It was
noticed that after oil was wiped off of a part
surface, the oil would reappear where a crack or Advantages of the Penetrant Process
other type of discontinuity was located. This The following are advantages of the liquid
discovery led to the oil-and-whiting test. Parts penetrant process:
were immersed in oil and then wiped with rags 1. very small surface discontinuities can be
dampened with kerosene. Powdered chalk was detected,
used to dust the surface to increase the visibility of 2. a wide variety(s a dng) of materials can be
any oil leaking back onto the part surface. Today's tested,
liquid penetrant testing evolved from the oil-and- 3. complex geometrical shapes can be inspected in
whiting test through continual improvements to the a single operation,
type of oil used, the addition of dyes and the 4. various sensitivities and processing methods are
creation of special removers and developers. available,
5. it is relatively (tng i)easy to use,
6. it can be portable(xch tay, di chuyn c),
Principles of Liquid Penetrant and
Testing 7. when compared to other testing methods, it has
a low cost.
Liquid penetrant testing is based on the ability
of a liquid to seep into cavities that are open to the
surface and remain in the cavity when the excess Disadvantages of the Penetrant
liquid is removed. The liquid remaining in the Process
cavity is then drawn out to form an indication that The following are disadvantages of the liquid
is much more visible than the cavity itself. Liquid penetrant process:
penetrant testing is used to detect surface 1. porous(xp) materials cannot be tested;
discontinuities in solid, nonporous materials. It is 2. surfaces must be clean and free of paint,
used on wrought, cast metal and metal alloys; coatings, soil, moisture(hi m) and
weldments, powdered metals, plastics, ceramics contaminants;
and glass. A variety of materials and application 3. it cannot be used following metal smearing
methods allow for some adjustment of the process operations such as shot peening, sand blasting,
sensitivity to certain types of discontinuities, certain machining operations (unless material is
surface conditions and material types. acid etched to remove smeared metal);
Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most 4. some materials (rubber and plastics) may be
widely used nondestructive testing methods in adversely affected by the penetrant's petroleum
industry. It is able to detect small discontinuities base;
open to the surface regardless of their orientation 5. it is very dependent on operator skill; and
6. some penetrant products use ingredients that
may cause skin irritation under prolonged
contact if proper protective clothing is not worn.
ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
Basics of the Penetrant Process Coatings such as paint and plating interfere with
the penetrant's ability to enter a discontinuity by
The basic penetrant process can be divided into covering or filling the cavity. Indications produced
three steps: application of the penetrant, removal of on coated surfaces are generally from
the excess surface penetrant and development of the discontinuities in the paint or plating rather than
indication. However, the process must be preceded those in the base material. Anodized coatings are
by appropriate surface preparation and cleaning very porous. Absorption of the penetrant can mask
methods, parts must be dried after penetrant discontinuities by making relevant indications
removal, indications must be evaluated after indistinguishable from the anodized surface of the
processing and parts must be cleaned after testing. part.
Operations that deform the surface, such as
grinding, cutting, shot peening, sand blasting and
Preparation of Parts for Penetrant Testing vapor honing, can cover discontinuities by smearing
Final examination by the penetrant process a thin layer of metal over the opening, reducing its
should be performed following all operations that size or sealing it completely. Because liquid
may cause or expose discontinuities on the part penetrant testing cannot detect anything not open to
surface. Examples of these operations are heat the surface, this thin coating of metal prevents the
treating, machining, welding, bending and penetrant liquid from entering the cavity and
straightening. forming an indication. These operations also can
The penetrant process should be performed cause discontinuities in the material and performing
before any treatments that smear the surface of the the liquid penetrant test before the metal smearing
part such as: honing, lapping, sanding, deburring, operation is not always an option. In such cases, the
sand blasting or vapor honing. If these types of material should be chemically etched following the
operations have been performed, the parts must be mechanical operation and before the liquid
chemically etched before the penetrant process in penetrant test.
order to obtain any meaningful results. The most common surface condition that
Penetrant inspection also should be performed adversely affects the liquid penetrant testing process
before operations such as peening, plating, painting, is the presence of contaminants such as oils, grease,
anodizing, or any other surface coating operations. dirt, rust, scale, carbon deposits or others. These
materials may prevent the penetrant from entering
Surface Condition the discontinuity, absorb the penetrant and mask
The surface condition of a part must be evaluated indications, or chemically react with the penetrant
before the penetrant process begins. The condition materials reducing the penetrant's effectiveness.
of the surface plays a critical role in the success or Precleaning of components using the appropriate
failure of the liquid penetrant test to form an method before liquid penetrant testing is critical.
indication from a discontinuity. Table 1.1 lists common contaminants that affect the
penetrant process.
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
history of liquid penetrant testing A,B,C
basic principles of liquid penetrant testing A,B,C
advantages and disadvantages of liquid penetrant testing A,B,C
*See introduction for explanation of references.
Penetrant System 3
Liquid penetrant testing is defined by the
materials used to perform the process. The 3. location, size of the part, quantity and
variations in the testing process produce several coverage required - field inspections are most
system sensitivities and types of penetrants. often performed with solvent removable visible
dye and nonaqueous developer because of
System Sensitivity portability and no special lighting is needed.
The sensitivity of a system is defined as a
Type of Penetrant
measure of the smallest discontinuity that will
produce a discernible indication. The sensitivity of Penetrant can be fluorescent, visible or dual
a system must meet the needs of the mode dye that has both visible and fluorescent
circumstances. If a system is too sensitive, the properties.
results may be misleading and time will be wasted Fluorescent penetrant is further defined by a
in the evaluation process. If the system is not sensitivity level category. The sensitivity of a
sensitive enough, rejectable defects could remain penetrant is related to the brightness of an
undetected. The cost of materials can be directly indication when measured with a photometer and
related to system sensitivity and the use of a compared to a standard. There are five levels of
sensitivity higher than required would increase the sensitivity for fluorescent dyes:
cost unnecessarily. 1. Level 1/2: ultralow sensitivity,
The appropriate liquid penetrant testing system 2. Level 1: low sensitivity,
is determined by considering the following: 3. Level 2: medium sensitivity,
1. governing standard or specification - certain 4. Level 3: high sensitivity, and
industries require specific penetrant methods, 5. Level 4: ultrahigh sensitivity.
or specify restrictions on the materials that
may be used; Fluorescent penetrant contains a dye that is
2. surface condition and the type of visible under UV-A light. To view the indications,
discontinuities associated with the part - rough inspection is performed in a darkened area with an
surfaces, threads, keyways, internal cavities, ultraviolet light source.
wide, shallow or tight crack discontinuities are Visible penetrant uses a red, orange or purple
conditions that can affect the optimum choice dye that is highly visible when contrasted against a
for a penetrant system; and white developer coating the part surface. Inspection
must be performed under white light.
Dual mode penetrants contain dyes that are both than visible dye. Also, because luminous
colored under white light and fluorescent under discontinuity marks can be located easily, the
ultraviolet light. However, the intensities are less fluorescent dye lends itself to faster readout.
than the single mode penetrants. Aerospace industry specifications often call for
Tables 1.2 and 1.3 compare the types of fluorescent testing of critical parts because very
penetrant and sensitivities. small discontinuity indications must be detected
reliably.
Advantages of Fluorescent Liquid Penetrants
Fluorescent indications viewed in a dark test Advantages of Visible Dye Penetrants
booth are more readily seen than indications Though its overall performance is considered
produced by visible dye liquid penetrants under lower and production testing of small parts is
normal light conditions. This is especially true in slower, the visible dye liquid penetrant process has
the case of liquid penetrant indications of minute some advantages of its own. It does not require a
cracks or pinholes. Because fluorescent liquid darkened area or a source of electric power for
penetrant indications are more visible, it is illumination. For this reason, it is more often used
generally accepted that fluorescent liquid penetrant as a portable testing tool in the shop or field. Large
testing is more sensitive to small discontinuities test parts, difficult to move to a dark booth, can be
inspected where they are located with visible dye Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant
liquid penetrants. The visible dye liquid penetrant The regular performance water washable,
is widely used for inspection of weldments both in fluorescent liquid penetrant is generally more
the shop and in the field. practical for rough surface parts such as sand
castings. The higher performance liquid penetrants
Selection of Liquid Penetrant Material and are favored for inspecting forgings, machined
Process surfaces and more critical load carrying parts.
The techniques capable of the greatest
sensitivity are often the most costly and many tests Visible Dye Liquid Penetrant
require the ultimate sensitivity. However, high The selection of a visible dye liquid penetrant is
sensitivity is frequently not required and may even relatively uncomplicated when compared to
produce misleading results. selecting fluorescent liquid penetrants. If the test is
The following factors should be considered to take place in the field, a portable system using a
before deciding on the type of liquid penetrant solvent remover wipe-off technique is usually the
testing system to install and/or use: first choice. Selection of a visible dye liquid
1. composition of parts to be inspected; penetrant is largely dependent on economic factors
1. number of parts or test areas to be inspected per and the facilities available. The visible dye liquid
unit of time; penetrant class is not divided into performance
2. size and weight of parts to be handled; grades as is fluorescent liquid penetrants.
2. location at which testing is required (that is, The visibility of the indications with respect to
receiving department, in process along a the white developer background is a key factor in
production line, during assembly, as final successfully revealing tight discontinuities. The
inspection, in the field during erection, at visibility of colored contrast liquid penetrants
maintenance facilities or in service); depends on the color dye concentration. Because
3. types of discontinuities to be expected, for visible dye liquid penetrants are not categorized
example, porosity, cracks, seams or laps; with respect to visibility or performance, these dyes
4. size of discontinuities to be detected (for are selected based on need.
example, small, deep, large, shallow, clustered
or scattered); Penetrant Application
5. surface condition of parts to be inspected (such
as as-cast, as-forged, machined, ground, Penetrant may be applied by various methods as
lapped, polished, plated, painted, corroded, listed in Table 1.4. Care should be taken to ensure
oily, covered with combustion, scratched or complete coverage of the areas of interest,
scaled parts); and regardless of how the penetrant is applied.
6. condition to which parts will be subjected after Brushing and spraying can fail to cover areas
testing (for example, medical, nuclear or completely and immersion can trap air and prevent
oxygen systems; welding, plating or finishing penetrant (or emulsifier when rinsing) from
operations; high temperature, aerospace, contacting the part surface.
industrial or transportation uses; inaccessible
locations; or consumer products). Penetrant Dwell
The total time the penetrant remains on the part
The selection may be influenced by specification surface is the penetrant dwell. The time required for
requirements, education and experience of a penetrant to enter a discontinuity is dependent on
personnel and the quality level of test required. The temperature, the type of discontinuity and the
quality of the test parts to be inspected should never possibility of contaminants entrapped within
be allowed to influence the quality level of testing. discontinuities. Large, shallow discontinuities
The test quality is determined by the nature of test require less dwell time than small, tight cracks.
parts and the service conditions for which they are Discontinuities free from contaminants require less
intended. dwell time than discontinuities with entrapped soil
because it is easier for the penetrant to enter them.
The standard minimum dwell is 5 min unless
testing in service parts. If service fatigue cracks are
ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
suspected, the minimum dwell time required is aerospace and nuclear power programs can be used
often 2 h, but for stress corrosion up to 4 h may be in extremely cold or relatively high temperatures.
required. When the dwell exceeds 1 h, applying
fresh penetrant every hour improves the rate of
penetration.
Penetrant Removal Method
It is important to allow sufficient time for the Excess penetrant is removed by water wash,
appearance of minute indications from fine hydrophilic emulsification, lipophilic
discontinuities, such as tight fatigue cracks. To use emulsification, or solvent wipe.
the time required for an indication to develop as a The penetrant must be removed from the part
measure of the extent of the discontinuity, other surface without removing it from within a
variables such as type of liquid penetrant, discontinuity. An optimum amount of removal must
sensitivity of technique, temperature of part, dwell be obtained. Too little removal will cause an
time and condition of examination must be excessive penetrant background and indications will
controlled. be indistinguishable from the part surface. If too
Fine liquid penetrant indications usually denote much is removed from the discontinuity, a weak
fine discontinuities, however, fine indications may indication or no indication will be formed. The
also be caused by insufficient dwell time. methods for removing surface penetrant and the
SAE AMS 2644 designation are:
Temperature 1. Method A - Water Washable
The temperature of the penetrant materials and 2. Method B - Lipophilic Emulsifier
the part must be within an acceptable range for 3. Method C - Solvent Removable
processing. ASTM E 1417 specifies a temperature 4. Method D - Hydrophilic Emulsifier
range of 4 to 52 C (40 to 125 F).
The viscosity of most liquids, including Fluorescent penetrant should be removed in a
penetrants, increases at low temperatures. If a part darkened area equipped with ultraviolet lighting
is quite cold, under 16 C (60 F) for example, the regardless of the removal method.
liquid penetrant may become chilled and thickened Table 1.5 lists the advantages and disadvantages
when applied, making the dwell time for very fine of the various removal methods.
discontinuities longer than for parts at higher
temperatures. If a part or liquid penetrant is too hot, Water Washable (Method A)
the volatile components of the liquid penetrant may Water washable penetrants contain emulsifying
evaporate, changing the ability for revealing small agents that make the oil miscible (mixable) with
discontinuities. Material temperatures from 10 to 52 water. The penetrant may be removed with a manual
C (50 to 125 F) produce optimum results with or automatic coarse water spray, by immersion in an
conventional liquid penetrants, however, special air agitated water wash or by manually wiping.
penetrants developed for
The size of the droplets, pressure, temperature The rinsing operation must be monitored
and angle of a water spray rinse can affect removal closely to avoid overwashing. Washing should be
of the penetrant. Most industry and military stopped as soon as an acceptable background level
specifications limit acceptable water temperature to is observed.
10 to 38 C (50 to 100 F) at a pressure not to
exceed 276 kPa (40 psi). The spray nozzle should Lipophilic Emulsifier (Method B)
be a minimum of 30 cm (12 in.) from the part at an Removal is performed by introducing an
angle between 45 and 70 degrees. oilbased emulsifier as a separate process step.
An air agitated immersion rinse is a removal Lipophilic emulsifier diffuses in to the surface
method that must maintain adequate water penetrant. It is usually applied by immersion;
circulation and air agitation. Experiments to brushing or wiping may cause streaking due to
determine the amount of rinsing required for uneven emulsification and are not recommended.
specific processes should be performed before the This system offers more control and has fewer
actual inspection. The water temperature problems with over and under washing compared
requirements are the same as for the water spray to the water washable method. The emulsifier
method. dwell may be anywhere between 5 s up to 5 min.
ASTM E 1417 limits lipophilic emulsifiers to a 3 particular application. The emulsifier concentration
min maximum dwell time. Finding the optimum for spray methods is limited to 5%. Immersion
time for specific conditions is generally method concentration levels can vary from 5% to
accomplished through experimentation. Experience 35% depending on the manufacturer. Do not exceed
under similar circumstances related to the type and the concentration levels suggested by the
size of suspected defects, surface roughness of the manufacturer. The emulsifier dwell time should not
part, temperature of materials, water contamination exceed 2 min.
levels of the penetrant and emulsifier can be used
for a guideline. If the emulsification time is either
too short or too long, the part must be entirely Drying
cleaned and reprocessed with an adjusted emulsifier The need to dry parts after penetrant removal
dwell. depends on the removal method used and the type
Following the appropriate dwell, the part should of developer that will be applied. When dry or
be quickly sprayed with water wash to stop the nonaqueous developer is used, parts are dried before
diffusion process. Once the diffusion process is the developer is applied. When aqueous developer
halted, the emulsified penetrant is rinsed using the is used (water soluble and water suspended), parts
same methods as the water washable method. are dried after the developer is applied.
For water washable and emulsified applications,
Solvent Removable (Method C) parts are dried at room temperature or in a
Solvent remover is usually supplied in aerosol recirculating forced air oven. Parts should be rotated
spray cans. The solvent works by diluting the during drying and pools of water should be
surface penetrant. The part is first wiped with clean, removed. Oven drying time should not be any
dry, lintfree cloths or towels. After the major longer than the minimum time necessary to dry the
portion of penetrant has been wiped from the part. Oven temperature should never exceed that
surface, the surface should be wiped with a clean specified in the written procedure or in ASTM E
cloth, lightly sprayed with solvent, until just a trace 1417(71 C or 160 F).
of penetrant is observed on the cloth. Extreme
caution must be used to avoid excessive removal. Develop the Indication
Hydrophilic Emulsifier (Method D) An indication may be selfdeveloped, where the
This process is similar to method B except that penetrant seeps to the surface after the excess is
the emulsifier is waterbased and uses detergent removed. Development is normally enhanced with a
action rather than diffusion to remove the surface developing agent. Developer is available in dry,
penetrant. Emulsification of the penetrant within a water soluble, water suspended or solvent
discontinuity is less likely to occur with hydrophilic suspended forms. Developers are described in more
emulsifier than with lipophilic emulsifier. This detail starting on page 15.
allows complete removal of surface penetrant and
improves contrast for inspection. Prerinsing the part
following the penetrant dwell is recommended for
Inspection
hydrophilic emulsification processing. The prerinse A vital part of the liquid penetrant testing process
is performed using the water spray techniques is the evaluation of the results. Indications must be
described for water washable penetrant. Prerinsing reviewed for their relationship to discontinuities in
should be held to the minimum time required to the material. Consideration must be given to the type
remove the bulk of surface penetrant. Immediately of material, size, shape and processing history of the
following the prerinse, the hydrophilic emulsifier part that is being inspected. Processing history
should be applied by spraying or immersing. includes information specific to the part and may
Agitation of the emulsifier is required to produce include forming, casting, welding, machining, heat
the detergent (scrubbing) action that removes the treating or other manufacturing operations.
penetrant. The optimum emulsification time must be
determined through experimentation for the
9
When properly performed, the penetrant process for personnel, materials, processing methods and/or
will provide visible indications at all relevant acceptance criteria. Examples include ASTM E
surface discontinuities. 165, ASTM E 1417, MIL-STD-6866, MIL-STD-
271, MIL-STD-410, NAV-SEA 250-1500 and
Importance of the Inspector's Evaluation ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
Inspector training and experience are necessary V.
for determining the relevancy of an indication. Acceptance criteria generally indicate the
Evaluating indications correctly is a skill learned maximum size of allowable indications. They may
by working with experienced inspectors and define a total number or a total area for acceptable
observing the interpretation process until sufficient indications over a specified surface area of a part. A
knowledge is gained. Effective evaluation cannot minimum distance for separation between rounded
be mastered from classroom training alone. indications may also be defined based on the size of
In some mass inspection operations, the person the largest indication. Weldments and castings are
who operates the test equipment merely segregates often photographed for use as accept and reject
the parts that show indications. Others decide their examples of various types of indications. These
disposition. In most cases, however, the inspector reference standards also assist in determining the
who first sees the indication is also expected to type of discontinuity that caused the indication.
interpret it.
Skill and proficiency in developing and then Visual Requirements
interpreting indications must be acquired by Penetrant inspection standards and specifications
experience. A skilled and experienced inspector can have minimum requirements for an inspector's
add greatly to the effectiveness of liquid penetrant visual acuity and color perception. Visual acuity
testing. (the ability to resolve details) decreases as light
The inspector must also know the materials levels decrease. The ability to distinguish between
under test: what they are, how they are made and colors is necessary to locate indications. An
how they have been processed. In addition, the individual with red-green color blindness may not
inspector must understand what types of be able to distinguish indications at various levels
discontinuities may be introduced during of brightness because of the penetrant's colors.
manufacturing and processing. Inspectors who Fluorescent penetrant inspection requires an
know what discontinuities to look for and where inspector to allow for visual adjustment to the
they are likely to occur are able to select the best darkened area. Eyes become adapted to the dark
techniques available for their detection. after approximately 5 min.
Periodic eye examinations by qualified medical
Penetrant Inspection Documents personnel are recommended for those involved in
Penetrant testing is conducted with a specific the interpretation of penetrant indications.
technique in accordance with a written procedure.
The technique defines the process variables (dwell, Classification of Discontinuities by Origin
emulsification, etc.) specifically for the part being There are three times during the life of a part
inspected. The technique should reference the where discontinuities can be introduced. They may
acceptance criteria as per contract, engineering exist in the raw material, they may result from
drawing, specification or standard. forming and machining, or they may be caused by
The procedure is a general inspection instruction service conditions. Table 1.6 lists common
that defines the materials, equipment, cleaning and discontinuities that can be detected with penetrant
process methods that may be used. It defines the inspection. This classification is as follows.
minimum and maximum times, temperatures,
1. Inherent discontinuities are introduced into the
pressures, etc., for each step in the penetrant
basic materials as the result of its initial
process. Requirements for personnel qualification
and certification are also defined. production from ore to raw components up to
Procedures are based on the requirements of the point where it is ready for initial processing.
industry or military specifications, standards or Inherent discontinuities can form during the
codes. These specifications define the requirements solidification process of molten metals in
10 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
castings and ingots. Welding produces many of existing discontinuities. Machining can expose
the same discontinuities when the metal subsurface discontinuities or contribute to the
becomes molten and flows during the process. formation of new discontinuities during grinding,
Discontinuities occur when the material, or a lapping, milling, cutting and lathing operations. 3.
portion thereof, cools too slowly or too fast, is Service discontinuities develop as the result of the
subjected to localized moisture or other material or part being in service. This group
material that creates gas pressure buildup, or includes fatigue from repetitive cyclic loads,
develops internal stresses after solidification. service loads, corrosion, residual stress and stress
Processing or forming discontinuities fall into corrosion.
two groups: (a) discontinuities introduced
during primary processes, such as casting, Identifying Indications
rolling, forging, drawing, welding, etc. and (b)
discontinuities introduced during finishing Indications as small as 0.4 mm (0.015 in.) may
processing, such as machining, heat treating, be considered relevant and may affect the
grinding, plating, etc. Forming operations that serviceability of a part. Inspection may result in
involve hot and cold working can produce new multiple indications being observed that must be
discontinuities or alter the appearance of
determined to be relevant or nonrelevant and discontinuity exists." False indications are often
interpreted as acceptable or rejectable. According caused when penetrant comes into contact with the
to ASTM 1316, a relevant indication is "an NDT part after processing. Penetrant on the inspection
indication that is caused by a condition or type of table surface or on the operator's hands can create
discontinuity that requires evaluation." The false indications. False and nonrelevant indications
relevancy of an indication is determined by the may potentially mask relevant indications.
inspector's judgment alone. The acceptance or Cleaning and reprocessing a part for inspection is
rejection of relevant indications is determined by required when false indications are noted.
criteria specified on the part drawing, in referenced
inspection specifications or standards, or in a
contractual agreement. Postcleaning
Relevant indications are the result of penetrant Residue from the penetrant process can be
bleedout from an unintentional change or harmful to the part during further processing or the
discontinuity on the part surface. Relevant service of a part. It can also interfere with future
indications must be evaluated for size, location and penetrant inspections. Penetrants remaining on a
type according to the specified acceptance criteria part may adversely affect plating, anodizing and
to determine if the discontinuity is cause for welding operations. Residual oils on liquid oxygen
rejection of the part. No all discontinuities are system components can result in an explosion.
necessarily cause for rejection. Penetrant remaining in discontinuities can dry or
According to ASTM 1316, a nonrelevant disrupt the mechanics of penetrant in later
indication is "an NDT indication that is caused by a inspections. Developers may act as an abrasive
condition or type of discontinuity that is not when left on contact areas of moving parts, they
rejectable. False indications are nonrelevant." can absorb moisture and cause corrosion, and they
Nonrelevant indications can be caused by may absorb penetrant in subsequent processing
intentional changes of the part surface. Sheet metal masking indications or creating a high residual
fittings, rolled flanges, threads and splines are background. Developers become harder to remove
examples of features inherent in a part's design that with time. Most developers can be removed with
may form nonrelevant indications. water and wiping or by scrubbing.
According to ASTM 1316, a false indication is
"an NDT indication that is interpreted to be caused
by a discontinuity at a location where no
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
surface condition, cleaning A, B, C
penetrant application removal A, B, C
drying__________________________ A, B,C
inspection A, B,C
________________________________ A, B, C
visual requirements
B,C A,
________________________________
B,C A, B,
identifying indications
________________________________ C A, B, C
formation of discontinuities
________________________________
post cleaning __________________
*See Introduction for explanation of references.
Chapter 2
14
ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
corrosion from small amounts of sulfur and 4. form d, nonaqueous developer Type I,
halogen residues. Nuclear and pressure vessel 5. form e, nonaqueous developer Type II,
codes limit the sulfur or chlorine residual content 6. specific application developer.
to 1 % by weight maximum because of their Table 2.1 compares the various developers.
extensive use of these metals and the risks
involved with any system failure.
Figure 2.3: Penetrant over
Removability discontinuity
Removability is the ease with which excess Penetrant
surface penetrant is sufficiently removed without Discontinuity
removing it from discontinuities. Good
removability is critical for reducing or eliminating
residual background.
Water Tolerance
Water washable penetrants must be capable of
tolerating a certain amount of water contamination.
Developer
Penetrant remaining in a discontinuity is drawn
out by the same capillary forces that draw it into
the cavity. The adhesive force between the
penetrant liquid and the solid surface will cause the
penetrant to be drawn back out of the discontinuity.
The cohesive force of the liquid will stop its rise
out of the discontinuity at the point where it is Figure 2.4: Developer
balanced by the adhesive force. enhancement of discontinuity
If the discontinuity is large, the penetrant drawn
Penetrant Developer
to the surface is visible without further processing.
Developer is applied to aid the detection of smaller
discontinuities. Developers provide an absorbent
surface containing fine capillary paths that assist in
drawing penetrant out of a discontinuity. This
provides a much larger penetrant indication surface
area (Figure 2.4). Observation of indications is
further enhanced by the contrasting background
that the developer provides.
The following are types of developers:
1. form a, dry powder developer,
2. form b, water soluble developer, Discontinuity
3. form c, water suspendible developer,
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
penetrant properties B,C
systems C
"See Introduction for explanation of references.
16
to suspend the particles in water. The development be applied in a thin, uniform coat. The spray does
of indications does not begin until the moisture is not cover larger surfaces quickly and each part
completely evaporated from the developer. The must be separately sprayed while the developer is
thickness of the coating and its white color work constantly agitated. A consistent, even coating of
well with visible dyes. Parts should be checked to developer should be maintained.
ensure a uniform coating of developer has been
applied. The developer should be checked at
regular intervals for penetrant contamination and Special Application
water evaporation. Special application developers are designed for
use with only specified penetrant materials and
Nonaqueous must be qualified with a particular penetrant
system. An example would be qualification of a
Nonaqueous solvent suspended developer is specific manufacturer's visible dye with a dry
supplied in bulk containers and in aerosol spray developer.
cans. It may be used for all penetrant types and
methods. This type of developer is applied after
drying and is considered to be the most sensitive Material and Process Control
developer method available. When nonaqueous Tests
developer is supplied in aerosol spray cans, process
controls are not required, but to ensure the proper Successful penetrant processing relies on
coat of developer, it is necessary to shake the can properly functioning material and equipment.
to be sure the developer particles are resuspended. Process system variables of time, temperature and
When the developer is supplied in bulk, it is pressure along with material concentration,
important that the suspension be thoroughly mixed contamination, consistency, etc., must be verified
before use. The developer must be thoroughly as acceptable at regular intervals. Equipment used
agitated before spraying and should for verification may also require scheduled
calibration. Tables 2.2 and 2.3 contain standard penetrant area cleanliness are examples of typical
process control requirements and equipment process controls that may be specified in the
calibration. penetrant inspection procedure.
Ultraviolet light intensity, emulsifier
concentration, ambient white light intensity and
be used to obtain sufficient darkness to perform automatically lowered and processed in emulsifier
evaluations. immersion stations, or automatically processed
through a water rinse operation.
Stationary Processing Equipment
Requirements vary depending on the type of
Portable Processing Equipment
penetrant and removal method used. The system Penetrant is available in kits packaged with
may consist of a deep sink next to a small tank of spray cans of penetrant, remover and developer.
penetrant or can be more elaborate with They are generally a visible, solvent removable
electrostatic sprayers for penetrant application, system, but they are also available with water
semiautomatic emulsification and/or rinse and washable penetrant, lipophilic emulsifier and
developer stations run by the push of a button. fluorescent penetrant. The developer is almost
Parts may be moved by hoists or conveyors, always nonaqueous.
Stationary Portable
Penetrant Application
Spray booth standard or electrostatic Penetrant spray can
Immersion tanks
Brushes, cotton swabs, etc.
Dwell/drain area
Timer for penetrant dwell
Penetrant Removal
Coarse water spray Solvent spray can
Ultraviolet light (Type 1) Cloths/rags
White light (Type 2) Portable ultraviolet light (Type 1)
Emulsifier tanks and/or spray apparatus Tarp
Water rinse spray and/or tank
Water pressure and temperature gages
Timer for emulsifier dwell
Drying/Development
Hot-air recirculating oven Developer spray can or powder bulb
Oven temperature gage
Developer dip tank, fog chamber, or spray area
Developer dwell area
Timer for developer dwell
Inspection
Ultraviolet light and darkened booth (Type 1) Portable ultraviolet light (Type 1)
White light (Type 1 and 2) Tarp
Magnifier, measuring devices Magnifier, measuring devices
Solvent Solvent
Developer powder bulb or spray can Developer spray can or powder bulb
22 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
developer A,B,C
equipment A,B,C
materials and process controls A,B
*See Introduction for explanation of references,
Chapter 3
or pressing. A steel ingot, for example, is reheated In the case of die or drop forging, laps, surface
to the proper temperature and passed between tears and bursts may be produced. In die forgings,
heavy rolls to form blooms or billets. The size of excess metal is forced out between the two halves
ingots varies widely. Ingots of alloy and tool steel of the die forming the flash and this excess metal is
may be quite small, weighing perhaps 100 kg (220 subsequently trimmed off. If not properly done,
lbm), whereas ingots from which large forgings or flashline cracks or tears may be formed. Another
large thick plate are to be made may weigh many type of forging discontinuity is the internal rupture,
tons. Blooms and billets are formed in an usually called flake, which occurs in the process of
intermediate step between the ingot and the cooling relatively large forgings. These may be very
finished size or product. severe and extremely objectionable.
The surface of blooms and billets may contain
seams due to rolled out ingot cracks resulting from Discontinuities in Rolled and Pierced
cooling stresses, bursts, tears, rolled-in scale or
metal particles. All of these surface imperfections Products
should be removed before the final finishing In the production of seamless tubing, the billet is
operation. The surfaces of blooms and billets may pierced. Discontinuities on the inside surface of the
be freed of such objectionable conditions by pierced billet may take the form of tears. Seams
chipping, grinding or flame scarfing. Billets, may occur on the outside surface, especially if the
especially when intended for seamless tube surface of the billet or blank had not been properly
piercing, are often cleaned up by scaling, by taking cleaned.
a cut off the surface, or by planing the surface.
Discontinuities in Extrusions
Discontinuities in Hot Rolled Bars, Nonferrous seamless tubing is often made by
Shapes, Plate or Strip extrusion, starting with hollow or pierced billets, or
Blooms and billets are often reheated to proper from solid ingots. Discontinuities that occur may be
working temperature and rolled into bars, shapes, checks and tears, or imperfections may result from
plate or strip. Seams, stringers and laminations may uncovering internal discontinuities of the billets or
appear in the finished product as a result of rolling, ingots. Many shapes and products are made by
forging or extrusion. The rolling operation itself various extrusion processes. Because of flow of the
may introduce certain discontinuities, the most metal of the original ingot during extrusion, oxide
common of which are laps resulting from too much and surface skin sometimes become folded into the
or too little metal to fill the rolls. Too rapid interior. A form of pipe also results from this action,
reduction of cross section, especially if the metal is which is most objectionable when it appears in a
at too low a temperature, may produce tears and finished shape.
internal rupture called cupping.
Internal shrinkage cavities or gas pockets may Discontinuities in Cold Worked Metal
result in laminations in plate, strip, pipe, bars or
other shapes. Uneven cooling of some types of steel
Products
may cause cooling cracks to appear in bars and Cold rolling and cold drawing of strip, rod and
shapes. wire is a process for improving the surface finish of
steel products. Close dimensional tolerances can
thus be maintained and the metal becomes
Discontinuities in Forgings somewhat work hardened. Die marks, scratches and
If an ingot or billet is used for forging, a variety surface imperfections sometimes make their
of discontinuities can be produced from improper appearance in this process. The process does not
handling of the metal under the hammer or from remove seams or other discontinuities present in the
working at too low a temperature. Common material before the cold finishing is applied.
discontinuities are laps and folds. Forging bursts,
both external and internal, can also occur.
Chapter 3, Testing in Primary Metals Production 25
techniques when the machine or structure is cracking of steel beams around bolt holes, leading
inspected at intervals during its service life. to bridge collapse, is an example. The corrosion
Fortunately, fatigue cracks do not often propagate allows the tension stress at the surface to be
so rapidly that they cannot be located early in their relieved by cracking.
existence and the part replaced before failure.
Other Causes of Service Damage
Stress Corrosion Cracking Other sources of service damage causing
If a part that is subject to frequent stress cracking are abnormally high stresses caused by
reversals or fluctuations is at the same time subject vibration, as in steam turbine blades and jet engine
to corrosion, fatigue cracks may appear very buckets; impact due to wrecks and other sudden
rapidly and may progress to failure in a very short stoppages; and overloads due to abnormal service
period of time. conditions or simple abuse of the engine or
Corrosion leads to service failure through machine.
cracking of metal subject to corrosion at the same
time it is under tensile stress. Stress corrosion
Recommended reading
Subject Reference
producing metal A
processing discontinuities A
service discontinuities A
* See Introduction for explanation of reference
Chapter 4
Several factors influence the exact appearance irregular in outline. Deep crater cracks in welds
of individual liquid penetrant indications. frequently show up as rounded indications because
However, there are certain general trends that hold a large amount of liquid penetrant is entrapped and
true for all sorts and forms of materials. the individual indications merge.
Porosity resulting from shrinkage cavities may
produce rounded liquid penetrant indications or
Continuous Line Indications may give the appearance of cracks. Usually,
A crack usually shows up as a continuous linear shrinkage cavities have a dendritic pattern that
liquid penetrant indication. The width and helps the inspector identify them. For high stress
brightness of fluorescence or color depend on the applications, shrinkage cavities are rejectable
volume of the crack. The line may be fairly straight discontinuities.
or jagged. A cold shut on the surface of a casting
also appears as a continuous line, generally a Small Dot Indications
relatively narrow one. Because cold shuts are
caused by imperfect fusion where two streams of Liquid penetrant indications in the form of small
metal meet but do not merge, the indication is dots result from a porous condition. Such
likely to be smooth in outline rather than jagged. A indications may denote small pin holes, excessively
forging lap may also cause a continuous line coarse grains in castings, or may be caused by a
indication. shrinkage cavity.
temperature and time allowed for indications to cracks or holes. Or metal can be peened over
develop, and the type of liquid penetrant used. surface discontinuities by forging, polishing or
Generally, clear cut indications come from narrow shot blasting.
linear discontinuities. 2. Rough or porous areas may retain liquid
penetrant, producing irrelevant indications. Or
naturally fluorescent materials (such as many
Brilliance and Extent of Indications oils and greases) may cause confusing
The color or fluorescent brightness of liquid indications.
penetrant indications can be useful in estimating 3. Deposits on the surface or in openings may
the seriousness of the discontinuity. Brightness is dilute the liquid penetrant reducing its
directly related to the amount of penetrant present effectiveness, or such materials may react with
and therefore to the size of the discontinuity. It is the liquid penetrant, destroying fluorescence or
difficult for the human eye to detect slight dye color.
differences in color of dye or brilliance of 4. Water or moisture within crack discontinuities
fluorescence. Fortunately, larger discontinuities can prevent the liquid penetrant from entering
usually produce larger indications in addition to the crack.
increased brightness. Proper cleaning before liquid penetrant testing
will remove any contaminants, leaving surface
openings clear. If it is impossible to adequately
Persistence of Indications clean the surface, this fact must be taken into
One good way to estimate the size of a account when weighing the importance of
discontinuity is by the persistence of the indication. indications.
If it reappears after the developer has been removed
and reapplied, there must be a reservoir of liquid Temperature
penetrant present. Where faint or weak indications
leave some doubt as to the type or even the The viscosity of most liquids increases at low
existence of a discontinuity, it is good practice to temperatures and liquid penetrants are no exception.
repeat the entire liquid penetrant test. If the If a part is quite cold, under 16 C (60 F) for
indication reappears, it is probably due to a small example, the liquid penetrant may become chilled
discontinuity rather than to incomplete cleaning. and thickened when applied, making the dwell time
for very fine discontinuities longer than for parts at
higher temperatures. If a part or liquid penetrant is
Other Variables Affecting too hot, the volatile components of the liquid
Indication Appearance penetrant may evaporate, changing the capability
for revealing small discontinuities. Material
The following variables have a marked effect on temperatures from 10 to 52 C (50 to 125 F)
the size, brilliance and appearance of liquid produce optimum results with conventional liquid
penetrant indications: condition of surface, penetrants.
temperature of the part or the liquid penetrant,
dwell times, amount of washing, developer, Dwell Time and Washing
conditions of examination and previous testing.
Fine liquid penetrant indications usually denote
fine discontinuities. However, fine indications may
Surface Conditions also be caused by insufficient dwell time. A
There are four general ways in which the surface diffused indication may mean a generally porous
conditions can interfere with the proper results from condition but may also imply incomplete washing.
liquid penetrant testing. 1. Surface openings may If excess liquid penetrant is not removed, false
be closed. This can occur when lubricants, indications are evident. On the other hand, washing
polishing compounds, dirt, scale or other too long and too hard can remove liquid penetrant
contaminants are forced into from large or shallow discontinuities, resulting in
less intense indications.
29
rub against each other. Lint from towels or rags will difficult to inspect, especially with solvent
fluoresce under near ultraviolet light and give the removable method. The major concern on a weld
appearance of a crack. False indications due to bead is masking of relevant indications. As-cast
improper handling of parts can be easily prevented. and as-forged surfaces may also lead to nonrelevant
indications because of surface roughness or other
irregularities. Machined parts may have machining
Part Geometry and Surface grooves or marks, or scratches from rough
Condition handling.
The geometry of a part or assembly can cause
nonrelevant indications. The indication of an Evaluation of Nonrelevant
interface between a turbine blade and a disk can not
only produce a nonrelevant indication, but can also Indications
mask possible small indications if the bleedout from One technique that can be used to help identify a
the interface is excessive. In many cases inspection nonrelevant indication is wiping off the indication
procedures will require that an assembly be with a solvent dampened, lint free, swab or cloth
completely disassembled before inspection. and reapplying the developer. The original
Press fittings are a source of nonrelevant developer dwell time must be repeated; however,
indications caused by part geometry. It is sometimes the bleedout should be monitored to help evaluate
impossible to completely disassemble a part that the indication. If there is no bleedout, the original
must be inspected. The bleedout of the liquid indication can be considered nonrelevant or false.
penetrant around press fittings can be considerable This technique may also reveal multiple relevant
and can mask relevant indications. In these indications that had previously merged into one or
situations the part must be monitored very closely had been hidden by excessive bleedout from an
during the developer dwell time to properly evaluate adjacent nonrelevant indication during the
the indications as they form. developer dwell.
Another cause of false and nonrelevant
indications is a rough part surface. Rough weld bead
surfaces and weld spatter make welds very
Recommended reading
Subject Reference*
appearance of liquid penetrant indications A
variables affecting indication appearance A
causes of nonrelevant indications A
*See Introduction for explanation of references.
Review Questions
15. Which type of developer is generally 20. Which of the following describes the
considered the most sensitive for locating comparator that is used to monitor the
fine discontinuities? process performance of the penetrant
system?
a. Solvent suspended.
b. Water soluble a. A panel with one half chrome plated
c. Water suspended. containing five crack centers and the
d. Dry powder. other half grit blasted.
Ref C b. A cracked aluminum block with a
groove in the center.
16. Which of the following penetrant systems c. A chrome plated panel with fine cracks
is the least sensitive? across the face to a depth equal to the
plating thickness.
a. fluorescent, postemulsifiable d. Ceramic coated block with fine cracks
b. visible, solvent removable. extending around the entire panel.
c. fluorescent, solvent removable. Ref B
d. fluorescent, water washable.
Ref B 21. Ultraviolet light intensity is measured with:
17. One method for applying dry developer to a. a digital or analog UV-A meter.
a localized area of a large part is with: b. a photographic light meter.
c. an infrared meter.
a. a brush. d. a standard white light meter.
b. a powder bulb. Ref B
c. an aerosol can.
d. an immersion tank. 22. What instrument is used to check
Ref B hydrophilic emulsifier concentration?
18. Prewash and postwash stations are an a. A hydrometer.
advantage when using which of the b. A capillary fill barometer.
following penetrant methods? c. A centrifuge tube.
d. A refractometer.
a. Visible, lipophilic postemulsifiable. Ref B
b. Fluorescent, hydrophilic
postemulsifiable. 23. The penetrant performance characteristic
c. Visible, water washable. known as sensitivity is defined as the:
d. Fluorescent, lipophilic
postemulsifiable. a. the contrast between an indication and
Ref B the background.
b. ability to produce a visible indication
19. The specific gravity of wet developer is from a small, tight linear discontinuity.
measured with a: c. volume percentage of penetrant that
remains in a discontinuity after
a. developer gage. processing.
b. hydrogage. d. ability to enter a discontinuity to form
c. balance scale. an indication.
d. hydrometer. Ref B
Ref C
34 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
33. Compared to a certified Level I inspector, 37. Which of the following would not be the
a Level II inspector: cause of a nonrelevant indication?
a. can process all forms of a product. a. Penetrant on the inspection table.
b. is authorized to approve all penetrant b. An improperly cleaned surface.
procedures. c. A corrosion crack.
c. requires more formal training hours d. Penetrant trapped in the threads of a
and work experience. part.
d. can determine the acceptance criteria Ref C
for a part.
Ref B 38. The periodic checks performed to assure
that the penetrant testing system is
34. A limitation on materials used to inspect functioning are called:
nickel alloy welds in a nuclear or pressure
vessel system is that the penetrant a. process control tests.
materials should have: b. maintenance tests.
c. certification tests.
a. d. performance evaluations.
sulfur and halogen residual of 10% or Ref C
less by weight.
b. sulfur, chlorine and fluorine residual of 39. A relevant indication in a casting may be
1 % or less by weight. caused by:
c. chlorine and halogen residual of 5% or
less by weight. a. a burst.
d. halogen and fluoride residual of 10% b. a crater crack.
or less by weight. c. laminations.
Ref B d. porosity.
Ref C
35. A weld discontinuity that appears
starshaped with small indications 40. The relative size of a surface discontinuity
emanating from a central point is a: is estimated based on the indication
a. burst. intensity and the:
b grinding crack.
c. crater crack. a. amount of bleedout.
d heat affected zone (HAZ) crack. b. size and shape.
Ref B c. direction of
bleedout
36. Multiple round or nearly round indications Ref C
scattered on a weld are the result of: 41. Which of the following is a nonrelevant
indication found during penetrant
a. crater pits. inspection?
b. undercut.
c. porosity. a. Marks on the part due to penetrant on
d. weld laps. Ref B the inspector's hands.
b. A press fit insert ring in the bore of a
shaft.
c. Linear indications on a heat treated
weldment.
d. Dry developer residue.
Ref B
36 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
42. A visual method used as acceptance 46. Ultraviolet lights over a fluorescent
criteria for a part uses: penetrant wash station are used to:
a. sized wires. a. verify a uniform coating of penetrant
b. a calibrated scale. has been applied to the part.
c. a testing and monitoring panel. b. verify the emulsifier covers the entire
d. referenced photographs. surface.
Ref C c. monitor the removal of surface
penetrant.
43. The purpose of a penetrant system monitor d. check the cleanliness of parts before
is to provide: processing.
Ref C
a. a method of estimating the cost of
inspection. 47. An advantage of inspecting forgings with
b. verification of the overall processing the penetrant process is that:
system performance.
c. standardization for performing process a. it can detect any type of discontinuity
controls. associated with forgings.
d. the means to reject test objects. b. there are no limitations to the part size
Ref B or shape.
c. forging scale does not interfere with
44. Using a weld standard for interpretation of the test.
indications provides: d. penetrant materials do not have any
adverse affects on any alloy that is
a. reliable acceptance criteria. forged.
b. an accurate method to determine repair Ref B
costs.
c. the format for a test report. 48. Discontinuities that may be found in
d. the means to reject linear indications. aluminum extrusions are:
Ref B; Ref C
a. porosity and inclusions.
45. Dry developer is checked for fluorescent b. laminations.
contamination by: c. cracks.
d. laps and seams.
a. comparing the in-use developer to new Ref B
material.
b. processing a testing and monitoring 49. Which of the following discontinuities are
panel. associated with forgings?
c. a laboratory examination for chemical
composition. a. Tears.
d. viewing under an ultraviolet light for b. Cracks.
fluorescent specks. c. Bursts.
Ref B d. Blow holes.
Ref B
37
Review Question
Answers
Angstrom unit - A unit of length that may be used to express the wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation, that is light. One angstrom unit is equal to 0.1 nanometers.
Background -~ The surface of the test part against which the indication is viewed. It may be the
natural surface of the test part or the developer coating on the surface.
Ultraviolet light - Electromagnetic radiation used for nondestructive testing in the range of
wavelength 330 to 390 nm (3300 to 3900 A), also known as UV-A.
Ultraviolet light filter - A filter that transmits near-ultraviolet radiation while absorbing other
wavelengths.
Bieedout - The action of an entrapped liquid penetrant in surfacing from discontinuities to form
indications.
Blotting - The action of the developer in soaking up the penetrant from the discontinuity to
accelerate bieedout.
Carrier - A liquid, either aqueous or nonaqueous, in which liquid penetrant examination
materials are dissolved or suspended.
Clean - Free of contaminants.
Contaminant ~ Any foreign substance present on the test surface or in the inspection materials
that will adversely affect the performance of liquid penetrant materials.
Contrast - The difference in visibility (brightness or coloration) between an indication and the
background.
Defect - One or more flaws whose aggregate size, shape, orientation, location, or properties do
not meet specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable.
Developer - A material that is applied to the test surface to accelerate bieedout and to enhance
the contrast of indications.
Developer, aqueous - A suspension of developer particles in water.
Developer, dry powder - A fine, freeflowing powder used as supplied.
Developer, liquid film - A suspension of developer particles in a vehicle that leaves a
resin/polymer film on the test surface after drying.
Developer, nonaqueous - Developer particles suspended in a nonaqueous vehicle before
application.
40 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
Developer, soluble - A developer completely soluble in its carrier, not a suspension of powder in a
liquid, which dries to an absorptive coating.
Developing time - The elapsed time between the application of the developer and the
examination of the part.
Discontinuity - A lack of continuity or cohesion; an intentional or unintentional interruption in the
physical structure or configuration of a material or component.
Dragout - The carryout or loss of penetrant materials as a result of their adherence to the test
piece.
Drain time - That portion of the dwell time during which the excess penetrant or emulsifier
drains from the part.
Drying oven - An oven used for increasing the evaporation rate of rinse water or an aqueous
developer vehicle from test parts.
Drying time - The time required for a cleaned, rinsed, or wet developed part to dry.
Dwell time - The total time that the penetrant of emulsifier is in contact with the test surface,
including the time required for application and the drain time.
Electrostatic spraying - A technique for attaining a uniform coating in which the material
sprayed is given an electrical charge.
Emulsification time - The time that an emulsifier is permitted to remain on the part to combine
with the surface penetrant before removal. Also called emulsification dwell time.
Emulsifier - A liquid that interacts with an oily substance to make it water washable.
Emulsifier, hydrophilic - A waterbased liquid used in penetrant examination that interacts with
the penetrant oil rendering it water washable. The hydrophilic is supplied in a concentrate
and is mixed with water to a concentration not exceeding that listed in the QPL.
Emulsifier, lipophilic - An oil based liquid used in penetrant examination that interacts with the
penetrant oil rendering it water washable.
Etching - The removal of surface material by chemical or electrochemical methods.
Evaluation - A review, following interpretation of the indications noted, to determine whether they
meet specified acceptance criteria.
False indication - A nondestructive testing indication that is interpreted to be caused by a
discontinuity at a location where no discontinuity exists.
Family - A complete series of penetrant materials required for the performance of a liquid
penetrant examination. The term Family only applies to Method B and Method D and
only includes the penetrant and the emulsifier. Developers are not part of the Family.
Flaw - An imperfection or discontinuity that may be detectable by nondestructive testing and is
not necessarily rejectable.
Flaw characterization - The process of quantifying the size, shape, orientation, location, growth,
or other properties of a flaw based on nondestructive testing response.
Appendix 1, Standard Terminology for the Liquid Penetrant Examination 41
Fluorescence - The emission of visible radiation by a substance as a result of and only during the
absorption of ultraviolet light radiation.
Footcandle - The illumination on a surface, 1 ft2 in area, on which is uniformly distributed a flux of
1 lm (lumen). It equals 10.8 lm/m2.
Immersion rinse - A means of removing surface penetrant in which the test part is immersed in a
tank of either water or remover.
Imperfection -A departure of a quality characteristic from its intended condition.
Indication - Evidence of a discontinuity that requires interpretation to determine its significance.
Inspection - Visual examination of the test part after completion of the liquid penetrant
processing steps.
Interpretation - The determination of whether indications are relevant or nonrelevant.
Liquid penetrant examination - A nondestructive test that uses suitable liquids that penetrate
discontinuities open to the surface of solid materials and, after appropriate treatment,
indicate the presence of discontinuities.
Nondestructive testing (NDT) - The development and application of technical methods to examine
materials or components in ways that do not impair future usefulness and serviceability in
order to detect, locate, measure and evaluate discontinuities, defects and other
imperfections; to access integrity, properties and composition, and to measure geometrical
characteristics.
Nonrelevant indication -A nondestructive testing indication that is caused by a condition or
type of discontinuity that is not rejectable. False indications are nonrelevant.
Over emulsification - Excessive emulsifier dwell time that results in the removal of penetrants
from some discontinuities.
Over washing - Too long or too vigorous washing, or both, which results in removal of
penetrants from some discontinuities.
Penetrant - A liquid which has been formulated to enter surface discontinuites and which
contains a tracer dye.
Penetrant comparator - An intentionally flawed specimen having separate but adjacent areas for
the application of different liquid penetrant materials so that a direct comparison of their
relative effectiveness can be obtained. It can also be used to evaluate liquid penetrant
techniques, liquid penetrant systems, or test conditions.
Penetrant, fluorescent - A penetrant that emits visible radiation when excited by an ultraviolet
light.
Penetrant, postemulsifiable - A liquid penetrant that requires the application of a separate
emulsifier to render the excess surface penetrant water washable.
Penetrant, solvent removable - A liquid penetrant so formulated that most of the excess surface
penetrant can be removed by wiping with lintfree material, with the remaining surface
penetrant traces removable by further wiping with a lintfree material lightly moistened with
solvent remover.
42 ASNT Level II Study Guide: Liquid Penetrant Testing
Penetrant, visible - A liquid penetrant that is characterized by an intense color, usually red.
Penetrant, water washable - A liquid penetrant with a built-in emulsifier.
Pooling - The existence of excessive amounts of penetrant, emulsifier, or developer in an
incompletely drained area.
Post cleaning - The removal of residual liquid penetrant examination materials from the test part
after the penetrant examination has been completed.
Post emulsification - A penetrant removal technique employing a separate emulsifier.
Precleaning - The removal of surface contaminants from the test part so that they will not
interfere with the examination process.
Relevant indication - A nondestructive testing indication that is caused be a condition or type of
discontinuity that requires evaluation.
Rinse - The process of removing liquid penetrant examination materials from the surface of a
test part by means of washing or flooding with another liquid, usually water. The process is
also termed wash.
Solvent remover - A volatile liquid penetrant used to remove excess from the surface being
examined.
Temperature envelope - The temperature range over which a particular penetrant inspection test
will operate.
Viscosity - The property of a fluid that presents a resistance to shearing flow.
Visible light - Electromagnetic radiation in the 400 to 700 nm wavelength range.
Visual adaptation - The adjustment of the eyes when one passes from a bright to a darkened
place.
Water tolerance - The amount of water that a penetrant or emulsifier can absorb before its
effectiveness is impaired.
Wetting action - The ability of a liquid to spread over and adhere to solid surfaces.