CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO STRESS & STRAIN

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO STRESS & STRAIN

1.1 MECHANICS OF MATERIAL

Mechanics of material is the study of behaviour of structural and machine

members under the action of external loads, taking into account the internal
forces created and its resulting deformation. Analysis is directly towards
determining the limiting loads which the member can stand before encountering
material failure of excessive deformation occurs:

Therefore, three conditions are brought into play:

1. Conditions of equilibrium

The external force and reactions on a member must form a system in

equilibrium and therefore related by a certain number of equations, known as
the conditions of equilibrium. In general, in a 3-dimentional system, we can
obtain 6 equations. In coplanar system [i.e. 2-dimensional system], we obtain 3
equation normally. These equations are obtained by equating forces and / or
taking moments.

2. Stress-strain relationships

In a given material, there is a relationship between stress and strain within the
elastic limit. Beyond the elastic limit, we shall study under the topic of Strain
beyond the elastic limit for bending and torsion.

3. Compatibility

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Compatibility in the ordinary sense means the ability to get along. In the
solids term, a number of relationships can be obtained between the strains or
deformations to ensure that the system derived from any assumptions made is
compatible, i.e. the deformations can exist concurrently. Such conditions clearly
arise where, a number of parts have to fit together, as in the analysis of
compound bars, beams and cylinders.

1.2 STRESS

1.2.1 Direct Stress

When a body that is subjected to an external load is sectioned, there is a

distribution of force acting over the sectioned area which holds each segment of
the body in equilibrium. Then intensity of this internal force at a point in the
body is referred to as stress.

Figure 1.1

Therefore, stress is denoted as

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P
=
A Equation (1.1)

Where

= Average normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area, acts

perpendicular to the cross section.
P= Internal resultant normal force, which is applied through the centroid of
the cross-sectional area.
**P is determined using the method of sections and the equations of
equilibrium.
A= Cross-sectional area of bar.

1.2.2 Shear Stress

If two parts which are thin or small are joined together, the applied loads can
cause shearing of the material with negligible bending. Shear stress () has the
same units as normal stress but represents a stress that acts parallel to the
surface cross section.

Figure 1.3

The average shear stress distributed over each sectioned area that develops this
shear force is defined by
V
= Equation (1.2)
A

Where

= Average shear stress at the section.

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V = Internal resultant shear force at the section determined from the

equations of equilibrium.
A = Area of the section.

Generally, there are six independent components of stress at each point in the
body consisting of normal stress (x, y, z) and shear stress (xy, yz, xz).

Figure 1.2 General state of stress.

Example 1.1:
The inclined member in Figure E-1 is subjected to a compressive force of
3000N. Determine the average compressive stress along the smooth areas of
contact defined by AB and BC, and the average shear stress along the horizontal
plane defined by EDB. [1.80MPa; 1.20MPa;
0.60MPa]

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Figure E-1

1.3 ALLOWABLE STRESS

To ensure safety, it is necessary to choose an allowable stress that restricts

the applied load to one that is less than the load the member can fully support.
One method of specifying the allowable load for the design or analysis of a
member is to use a number called the factor of safety [FoS].
The factor of safety is a ratio of the failure load, Ffail to that of the allowable
load, Fallow. Ffailis found from experimental testing of the material and the factor
of safety is selected based on experience or standardized code.

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Stated mathematically,
F fail
FoS=
Factor of Safety, F allow Equation (1.3)

If the load applied to the member is linearly related to the stress developed
within the member, then we can express F.S as

fail
FoS= Equation (1.4)
allow
fail
FoS=
Or allow Equation (1.5)

In any case, the factor of safety is chosen to be greater than 1 in order to avoid
the potential for failure.

1.3.1 Use of factors of safety

Because failure modes differ within structural members, often several factors
of safety are required in part design. An example of this is an elevator cable.
The cable might fail by elastically extending too far, or fail due to metal fatigue.
The failure criterion for extension might be related to modulus of elasticity, E
and a factor of safety less than 2.0 might be appropriate for this matter. For
metal fatigue, a factor of safety of 40 might be required based on a fatigue
strength failure criterion.

There are several points to consider when choosing a factor of safety:

1. The factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 to prevent failure.

2. If the factor of safety is too big, performance is sacrificed.
3. If the factor of safety is too small, safety becomes an issue.

1.3.2 Factors considered in determining a factor of safety

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Defining a FoS must take into consideration many details including:

1. Risk of accidental overloading of structure above actual design tolerances.

2. Accuracy of predictions on the imposed loads.
3. Environmental effects.
4. The consequences of engineering failure.
Components whose failure could result in substantial financial loss, serious
injury, or death may use a safety factor of four or higher (often ten). Non-
critical components generally might have a design factor of two.
5. Type of load [static or dynamic]
6. Possibility of structural fatigue failure.
7. Variability in quality of workmanship and material properties.
8. Deterioration due to poor maintenance and corrosion.

Buildings commonly use a factor of safety of 2.0 for each structural member.
The value for buildings is relatively low because the loads are well understood
and most structures are redundant. Pressure vessels use 3.5 to 4.0, automobiles
use 3.0, and aircraft and spacecraft use 1.2 to 3.0 depending on the application
and materials. Ductile, metallic materials tend to use the lower value while
brittle materials use the higher values. The field of aerospace engineering uses
generally lower design factors because the costs associated with structural
weight are high (i.e. an aircraft with an overall safety factor of 5 would probably
be too heavy to get off the ground). This low design factor is why aerospace
parts and materials are subject to very stringent quality control and strict
preventative maintenance schedules to help ensure reliability. A usually applied
Safety Factor is 1.5, but for pressurized fuselage it is 2.0, and for main landing
gear structures it is often 1.25.

1.4 DESIGN OF SIMPLE CONNECTIONS

If a member is subjected to a normal force at a section, its required area at

the section is determined from;

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Normal Force P
Area , A= = Equation (1.6)
Allowable stress allow

or if the section is subjected to a shear force, then the required area at the
section is

Shear Force P
Area , A= = Equation (1.7)
Allowable stress allow

Common types of problems for which equations (1.3)-(1.7) can be used for
design:

Figure 1.4

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Figure 1.5

Example 1.2:

The control arm is subjected to the loading shown in Figure E-2. Determine to
the nearest 5mm the required diameter of the steel pin at C if the allowable
shear stress for the steel is allow= 55 MPa.
[20mm]

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Figure E-2

1.5 STRAIN

Loads will cause all material bodies to deform and, as a result, points in the
body will undergo displacement or changes in position. Termed as strain, it is
the change in length () per unit length (L) or denoted mathematically as

= Equation (1.8)
L

Normal strain is a measure of the elongation or contraction of a small line

segment in a body, whereas shear strain is a measure of the change in angle

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that occurs between two small line segments that are originally perpendicular to
one another. The normal strain causes a change in volume of the rectangular
element, whereas the shear strain causes a change in its shape. Both if these
effects occur simultaneously during the deformation.

Figure 1.6

The state of strain at a point is characterised by six strain components: three

normal strains (x, y, z) and there shear strain (xy, yz, xz). Strain is the
geometrical quantity that is measured using experimental techniques. Once
obtained, the stress in the body can then be determined from material property
relations.

Example 1.3

If the elongation of wire BC is 0.2 mm after the force P is applied, determine

the magnitude of P. The wire is made from steel with E = 200GPa and has a
diameter of 3mm. [628
N]

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1.6 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

A stress-strain diagram is important in engineering as it provides a means for

obtaining data about a materials tensile or compressive strength without regard

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for the materials size or shape. The relationship between stress and strain can
be explained using the stress-strain diagram as shown below:

Figure 1.7

Explanation of diagram as per stated below:

1. Elastic limit

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Any items that are to be used over and over again must not be stressed beyond
this early range. Load may be applied and then relieved after a time and again if
the stress is kept below that indicated at the elastic limit, then the item will
always return to its original shape when the load returns to zero. Hookes law
and Youngs modulus applies for this early range of straight-line relationship.
Thus, according to Hookes law;

Stress ( )
Youn g' s Modulus ( E )= Equation (1.9)
Strain( )

2. Yield Point

Small increments of stress change causes large increments of strain change. A

yield strength or yield point of a material is defined as the stress at which a
material begins to deform plastically. Once the yield point is passed, some
fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible. Knowledge of
the yield point is vital when designing a component since it generally represents
an upper limit to the load that can be applied. It is also important for the control
of many materials production techniques such as forging, rolling, or pressing.

3. Strain Hardening

Strain hardening is defined as the strengthening of a metal by plastic

deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and
dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material. More load
applied causing stress to increase to its maximum. At this point, it is called as
Ultimate Stress. Past this point, lateral strain becomes significant (necking) and
rupture or breaking point soon follows. The strain range from the elastic limit

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to the rupture point is known as the plastic range. This range is important in
many manufacturing processes, such as forging a crankshaft.

1.7 DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS

Materials can be classified as either being ductile or brittle, depending on its

stress-strain characteristics.

1.7.1 Ductile Materials

Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it ruptures is called
a ductile material, i.e. mild steel, brass, molybdenum and zinc. Ductile materials
are capable of absorbing shock or energy, and if overloaded, it will usually
exhibit large deformations before failing. They undergo the elastic behaviour,
yielding, strain hardening and necking.

1.7.2 Brittle Materials

Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are referred to as
brittle materials, i.e. grey cast iron, stone, glass, ceramic and concrete. Brittle
materials fracture suddenly. These materials fail with only little elongation after
the proportional limit is exceeded.
It can generally be stated that most materials exhibit both ductile and brittle
behaviour. For example, steel has brittle behaviour when it contains high carbon
content, and is ductile when the carbon content is reduced.

1.8 POISSONS RATIO

Poissons ratio () is the ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to the strain in
the axial direction (direction of load applied). These strains are generally of
opposite signs, that is, if one is an elongation, the other will be a contraction or
vice-versa. It is denoted as;

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lateral strain
= Equation (1.10)
axial strain

1.9 FATIGUE AND CREEP

When a material has to support a load for a very long period of time, it may
continue to deform until a sudden fracture occurs or its usefulness is impaired.
This time-dependent permanent deformation is known as CREEP. In general,
the creep strength will decrease at higher temperature or higher applied stresses.

When a metal is subjected to repeat cycles of stress or strain, it causes the

structure to break down, leading to brittle fracture. This behaviour is called
FATIGUE. Members are designed to resist fatigue by insuring that the stress in
the member does not exceed its fatigue limit.

Example 1.4:

An aluminum rod as shown below has a circular cross section and is subjected
to an axial load of 10 kN. Based on the portion of the stress-strain diagram
shown below, determine the approximate elongation of the rod when the load is
applied. Take Eal = 70GPa.
[18.3mm]

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Tutorial 1: Introduction to Stress and Strain

Q1. Two circular bars, one of brass and other of steel, are to be loaded by a
shear load of 30kN. Determine the necessary diameter of the bars if the single
shear stress in the two bars must not exceed 50MN/m2 and 100MN/m2
respectively. [27.64mm,
19.54mm]

Q2. A horizontal bar CBD having a length of 2.2m is supported and loaded as
shown in Figure Q2. The vertical member AB has a cross sectional area of

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540mm2. Determine the magnitude of the load P so that it produces a normal

stress equal to 50MPa in member AB. [19.6kN]

Figure Q2

Q3. A short, hollow and circular cast iron cylinder which is shown in Figure
Q3 is to support an axial compressive load, P=580kN. The ultimate stress in
compression for the material is u = 240MPa. It is decided to design the cylinder
with a wall thickness, t of 25mm and a factor of safety of 3.0 with respect to the
ultimate strength. Calculate the minimum required outside diameter, d of the
cylinder.
[0.1173m]

Figure Q3

Q4. A special purpose bolt of diameter, d=10mm passes through a hole in a

steel plate as shown in Figure Q4. The head of the bolt bears directly against the

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steel plate when a tensile force is P=10kN acts on the bolt. The diameter of the
circular bolt head is D=18mm and its thickness is t=5mm. Calculate the average
bearing stress, b between the head of bolt and the plate, and calculate the
average shear stress, in the head of the bolt. [56.8MPa; 63.7MPa]

Figure Q4

Q5. Determine the stress in each section of the bar shown in figure Q5 when
subjected to an axial tensile load of 20kN. The central section is 30mm square
cross section; the other sections are of circular section. What will be the total
extension of the bar? E=210GN/m2
[0.302mm]

Figure Q5

Q6. (a) A 25mm diameter bar is subjected to an axial tensile load of 100kN.
Under the action of this load a 200mm gauge length is found to extend 0.19mm.

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Determine the modulus of elasticity, E for the bar material. [214

GPa]

(b) If, in order to reduce the weight whilst keeping the external diameter
constant, the bar is bored axially to produce a cylinder of uniform thickness,
what is the maximum diameter of bore possible given that the maximum
allowable stress is 240 MPa. The load can be assumed to remain constant at
100kN.
[9.72mm]

(c) What will be the change in the outside diameter of the bar under the limiting

stress quoted in (b)? Take E= 210 GPa and =0.3. [-

8.5710-6m]

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