Instrumentation & Control

Process Control Fundamentals

Table of Contents
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1
Performance Objective..............................................................................................................................1

The Importance of Process Control................................................................................................................1

Learning Objectives..................................................................................................................................1
The Importance of Process Control.................................................................................................................2
Process......................................................................................................................................................2
Process Control.........................................................................................................................................2
Reduce Variability..............................................................................................................................2
Increase Efficiency.............................................................................................................................3
Ensure Safety......................................................................................................................................3

Control Theory Basics.....................................................................................................................................4

Learning Objectives..................................................................................................................................4
The Control Loop............................................................................................................................................. 5
Three Tasks...............................................................................................................................................5
Process Control Terms....................................................................................................................................6
Process Variable.......................................................................................................................................6
Setpoint.....................................................................................................................................................6
Measured Variables, Process Variables, and Manipulated Variables......................................................7
Error.........................................................................................................................................................7
Offset........................................................................................................................................................8
Load Disturbance.....................................................................................................................................8
Control Algorithm....................................................................................................................................8
Manual and Automatic Control................................................................................................................9
Closed and Open Control Loops..............................................................................................................10

Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology.......................................................................................11

Learning Objectives..................................................................................................................................11
Control Loop Equipment and Technology........................................................................................................12
Primary Elements/Sensors........................................................................................................................12
Transducers and Converters.....................................................................................................................13
Transmitters..............................................................................................................................................13
Signals.......................................................................................................................................................14
Pneumatic Signals..............................................................................................................................14
Analog Signals...................................................................................................................................14
Digital Signals................................................................................................................................... 15
Indicators..................................................................................................................................................15
Recorders..................................................................................................................................................16
Controllers................................................................................................................................................16
Correcting Elements/Final Control Elements...........................................................................................18
Actuators...................................................................................................................................................18

Fundamentals of Control ii
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Table of Contents
ISA Symbology................................................................................................................................................19
Symbols...................................................................................................................................................20
Pumps...............................................................................................................................................21
Piping and Connections...................................................................................................................22
Identification Letters...............................................................................................................................23
Tag Numbers...........................................................................................................................................23
ISA Symbology Review............................................................................................................................26

Controller Algorithms and Tuning...............................................................................................................27

Learning Objectives................................................................................................................................27
Controller Algorithms....................................................................................................................................28
Discrete Controllers................................................................................................................................28
Multistep Controllers...............................................................................................................................29
Continuous Controllers............................................................................................................................29
Why controllers need tuning?..........................................................................................................................31
Gain..........................................................................................................................................................31
Proportional Mode..........................................................................................................................................33
Proportional Gain....................................................................................................................................33
Proportional Band....................................................................................................................................33
Limits of Proportional action...................................................................................................................34
Determining the Controller Output.........................................................................................................34
Proportional Action- Closed Loop...........................................................................................................35 .
Integral Mode..................................................................................................................................................37
Integral Action........................................................................................................................................37
Open Loop Analysis................................................................................................................................37
Closed Loop Analysis..............................................................................................................................38
Reset Windup............................................................................................................................................39
Summary..................................................................................................................................................40
Derivative Mode...............................................................................................................................................41
Derivative Action....................................................................................................................................41
Rate Summary.........................................................................................................................................44

Process Control Loops....................................................................................................................................46

Learning Objectives.................................................................................................................................46
Single Control Loops.......................................................................................................................................47
Feedback Control.....................................................................................................................................47
Examples Of Single Control Loops.................................................................................................................48
Pressure Control Loops............................................................................................................................49
Flow Control Loops.................................................................................................................................49
Level Control Loops.................................................................................................................................50
Temperature Control Loops......................................................................................................................51

www.PAControl.com
Table of Contents
iii Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Table of Contents
Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops......................................................................................................52
Multivariable Loops.................................................................................................................................52
Feedforward Control...............................................................................................................................53
Feedforward plus Feedback....................................................................................................................54
Cascade Control......................................................................................................................................55
Batch Control...........................................................................................................................................56
Ratio Control...........................................................................................................................................56
Selective Control......................................................................................................................................57
Fuzzy Control...........................................................................................................................................57
Table of Contents

Fundamentals of Control iv
2006 PAControl.com
Introduction
Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise control of level,
temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications. This module introduces you to
control in process industries, explains why control is important, and identifies different ways in which
precise control is ensured.
The following five sections are included in this module:
Q The importance of process control
Q Control theory basics
Q Components of control loops and ISA symbology
Q Controller algorithms and tuning
Q Process control systems

As you proceed through the module, answer the questions in the activities column on the right side of each
page. Also, note the application boxes (double-bordered boxes) located throughout the module. Application
boxes provide key information about how you may use your baseline knowledge in the field. When you see the
workbook exercise graphic at the bottom of a page, go to the workbook to complete the designated exercise
before moving on in the module. Workbook exercises help you measure your progress toward meeting each
sections learning objectives.

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE
After completing this module, you will be able to determine needed control loop components in specific
process control applications.

www.PAControl.com
Introduction
Fundamentals of Control v
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
The Importance of Process
Control
Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably produce end products can be
a precise, demanding, and potentially hazardous process. Small changes in a process can have a large impact
on the end result. Variations in proportions, temperature, flow, turbulence, and many other factors must be
carefully and consistently controlled to produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials
and energy. Process control technology is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their operations running
within specified limits and to set more precise limits to maximize profitability, ensure quality and safety.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
Q Define process
Q Define process control
Q Describe the importance of process control in terms of variability, efficiency, and safety

Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be activated.

www.PAControl.com
The Importance of Process
Control
Fundamentals of Control 1
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 The Importance of Process Control

The Importance of Process Control

PROCESS Activities
Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, 1. Process is defined as the
refers to the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create changing or refining of raw materials
end products. The raw materials, which either pass through or
that pass through or remain in a
remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids)
liquid, gaseous, or slurry state to
state during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or
cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce to create end products.
the end product.
Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas
industry, the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical
industry, the water treatment industry, and the power industry.

PROCESS CONTROL
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control
process variables when manufacturing a product. For example,
factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to another, the
temperature of the materials, how well the ingredients are mixed,
and the pressure under which the materials are held can
significantly impact the quality of an end product. Manufacturers 2. Which of these industries are
control the production process for three reasons: examples of the process industry?
Q Reduce variability Select all options that apply.
Q Increase efficiency
Q Ensure safety
1 Pharmaceutical
2 Satellite
Reduce Variability
3 Oil and Gas
Process control can reduce variability in the end product, which 4 Cement
ensures a consistently high-quality product. Manufacturers can also 5 Power
save money by reducing variability. For example, in a gasoline
blending process, as many as 12 or more different components
may be blended to make a specific grade of gasoline. If the refinery
does not have precise control over the flow of the separate
components, the gasoline may get too much of the high-octane
components. As a result, customers would receive a higher grade
and more expensive gasoline than they paid for, and the refinery
would lose money. The opposite situation would be customers
receiving a lower grade at a higher price.

2 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com.
The Importance of Process Control

The Importance of Process Control

Reducing variability can also save money by reducing the need for
product padding to meet required product specifications. Padding
Activities
refers to the process of making a product of higher-quality than it 3. What are the main reasons for
needs to be to meet specifications. When there is variability in the manufacturers to control a
end product (i.e., when process control is poor), manufacturers are process? Select all options that
forced to pad the product to ensure that specifications are met, apply.
which adds to the cost. With accurate, dependable process control,
the setpoint (desired or optimal point) can be moved closer to the
actual product specification and thus save the manufacturer money. 1 Reduce variability
2 Ensure safety
3 Reduce costs
4 Increase efficiency
PV limit to ensure quality PV limit to ensure quality
5 Increase productivity
PV Setpoint

Low Variability

PV Setpoint

High Variability

Increase Efficiency
Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize
efficiency. For example, a control point might be the temperature at
which a chemical reaction takes place. Accurate control of temperature
ensures process efficiency. Manufacturers save money by minimizing
the resources required to produce the end product.

Ensure Safety
A run-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear or chemical
reaction, may result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control
of all of the processg variables. The consequences of a run-away
process can be catastrophic.
Precise process control may also be required to ensure safety. For
example, maintaining proper boiler pressure by controlling the inflow
of air used in combustion and the outflow of exhaust gases is crucial
in preventing boiler implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of
workers.
Fundamentals of Control 3
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE - THE IMPORTANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL

Fundamentals of Control 4
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Control Theory Basics
This section presents some of the basic concepts of control and provides a foundation from which to
understand more complex control processes and algorithms later described in this module. Common terms and
concepts relating to process control are defined in this section.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
Q Define control loop
Q Describe the three tasks necessary for process control to occur:
Measure
Compare
Adjust
Q Define the following terms:
Process variable
Setpoint
Manipulated variable
Measured variable
Error
Offset
Load disturbance
Control algorithm
Q List at least five process variables that are commonly controlled in process measurement industries
Q At a high level, differentiate the following types of control:
Manual versus automatic feedback control
Closed-loop versus open-loop control

Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be activated.

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 4
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Control Theory Basics

The Control Loop

Imagine you are sitting in a cabin in front of a small fire on a cold
winter evening. You feel uncomfortably cold, so you throw another
log on the fire. Thisis an example of a control loop. In the
Activities
control loop, a variable (temperature) fell below the setpoint (your 1. The three tasks associated with
comfort level), and you took action to bring the process back into any control loop are measurement,
the desired condition by adding fuel to the fire. The control loop comparison, and adjustment. Is
this statement true or false?
will now remain static until the temperature again rises above or
falls below your comfort level.

THREE TASKS
Control loops in the process control industry work in the same way,
requiring three tasks to occur:
Q Measurement
Q Comparison
Q Adjustment
In Figure 7.1, a level transmitter (LT) measures the level in the tank
and transmits a signal associated with the level reading to a
controller (LIC). The controller compares the reading to a
predetermined value, in this case, the maximum tank level
established by the plant operator, and finds that the values are
equal. The controller then sends a signal to the device that can bring
the tank level back to a lower levela valve at the bottom of the
tank. The valve opens to let some liquid out of the tank.
Many different instruments and devices may or may not be used in
control loops (e.g., transmitters, sensors, controllers, valves,
pumps), but the three tasks of measurement, comparison, and
adjustment are always present.

A Simple Control Loop

LIC

LT
Maximum
level
5 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com.
www.PAControl.com
Control Theory Basics

Process Control Terms

As in any field, process control has its own set of common terms
that you should be familiar with and that you will use when talking
Activities
about control technology. 2. A process variable is a
condition that can
change the process in
PROCESS VARIABLE some way.
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas)
that can change the manufacturing process in some way. In the
example of you sitting by the fire, the process variable was
temperature. In the example of the tank in Figure 7.1, the process
variable is level. Common process variables include:
Q Pressure
Q Flow
Q Level
Q Temperature
Q Density
Q Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
Q Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are
combined in a vessel) 3. Imagine you are in a cabin in
Q Mass front of a small fire on a cold
Q Conductivity winter evening. You feel
uncomfortably cold, so you
throw another log into the
SETPOINT fire. In this scenario, the
The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is desired to be process variable is
maintained. For example, if a process temperature needs to kept temperature. Is this true or
within 5 C of 100 C, then the setpoint is 100 C. A false?
temperature sensor can be used to help maintain the temperature
at setpoint.
The sensor is inserted into the process, and a contoller compares the
temperature reading from the sensor to the setpoint. If the temperature
reading is 110 C, then the controller determines that the process is
above setpoint and signals the fuel valve of the burner to close slightly
until the process cools to 100 C. Set points can also be maximum or
minimum values. For example, level in tank cannot exceed 20 feet.

4. If the level of a liquid in a

tank must be maintained
within 5 ft of 50 ft, what is the
liquids setpoint?

1 45 ft
2 55 ft
3 5 ft
4 50 ft

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 6
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Control Theory Basics

Process Control Terms

MEASURED VARIABLES, PROCESS VARIABLES, AND
MANIPULATED VARIABLES
Activities
In the temperature control loop example, the measured variable is 5. is a
temperature, which must be held close to 100 C. In this example sustained deviation of the process
variable from the setpoint.
and in most instances, the measured variable is also the process
variable. The measured variable is the condition of the process fluid
that must be kept at the designated setpoint.
Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the process
variable. For example, a manufacturer may measure flow into and
out of a storage tank to determine tank level. In this scenario, flow is
the measured variable, and the process fluid level is the process
variable. The factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at
setpoint is called the manipulated variable. In the example
described, the manipulated variable would also be flow (Figure 7.2).

6. A load disturbance is an undesired

change in one of the factors that
can affect the setpoint. Is this
statement true or false?

Variables

ERROR
Error is the difference between the measured variable and the
setpoint and can be either positive or negative. In the temperature
control loop example, the error is the difference between the 110 C
measured variable and the 100 C setpointthat is, the error is +10
C.

The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate

error. Therefore, it is imperative that error be well understood. Any
error can be seen as having three major components. These three
components are shown in the figure on the folowing page

Magnitude
The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between the
values of the setpoint and the process variable. The magnitude of
error at any point in time compared to the previous error provides
the basis for determining the change in error. The change in error is
also an important value.

7 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com
www.PAControl.com
 Control Theory Basics

Process Control Terms

Activities
Duration
Duration refers to the length of time that an error condition
has existed.

Rate Of Change
The rate of change is shown by the slope of the error plot.

Rate of Change of Error

(Slope of Error Plot)
PV

Magnitude of Error

Duration SP

Components of Error

OFFSET
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the
setpoint. In the temperature control loop example, if the control
system held the process fluid at 100.5 C consistently, even though
the setpoint is 100 C, then an offset of 0.5 C exists.

LOAD DISTURBANCE
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that
can affect the process variable. In the temperature control loop
example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would be a load
disturbance because it would lower the temperature of the process
fluid.

CONTROL ALGORITHM
Setpoint
A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a control
Process variable or measured variable
function. Using the temperature
Controller
control loop example, V in the
Manipulated variable
equation below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error. The
relationship in a control algorithm can be expressed as:

Fundamentals of Control 8
www.PAControl.com
 2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Control Theory Basics

Process Control Terms

V = f e
Activities
7. Automatic control systems are
The fuel valve position (V) is a function (f) of the sign (positive or control operations that involve
negative) of the error (Figure 7.3). human action to make
adjustment. Is this statement true
or false?

Process variable Error Manipulated variable

f(e)

Feedback

Algorithm Example
Control algorithms can be used to calculate the requirements of
much more complex control loops than the one described here. In
more complex control loops, questions such as How far should the
valve be opened or closed in response to a given change in
setpoint? and How long should the valve be held in the new
position after the process variable moves back toward setpoint?
need to be answered.

MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL

Before process automation, people, rather than machines, performed
many of the process control tasks. For example, a human operator
might have watched a level gauge and closed a valve when the level
reached the setpoint. Control operations that involve human
action to make an adjustment are called manual control systems.
Conversely, control operations in which no human intervention is
required, such as an automatic valve actuator that responds to a level
controller, are called automatic control systems.

9 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Process Control Terms
CLOSED AND OPEN CONTROL LOOPS Activities
A closed control loop exists where a process variable is measured,
8. Under what circumstances
compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct any deviation does an open control loop
from setpoint. An open control loop exists where the process exist?
variable is not compared, and action is taken not in response to Select all options that apply.
feedback on the condition of the process variable, but is instead
taken without regard to process variable conditions. For example, a 1 Process variable is not measured
water valve may be opened to add cooling water to a process to 2 Process variable is not compared
prevent the process fluid from getting too hot, based on a pre-set
3 Process variable is
time interval, regardless of the actual temperature of the process measured and compared to
fluid. a setpoint
4 Action is taken without
regard to process variable
conditions
5 Action is taken with regard
to process variable conditions

www.PAControl.com
 COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE - CONTROL THEORY BASICS

10 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

Summing block

Valve position

www.PAControl.com
Components of Control Loops and
ISA Symbology
This section describes the instruments, technologies, and equipment used to develop and maintain
process control loops. In addition, this section describes how process control equipment is represented in
technical drawings of control loops.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
Q Describe the basic function of and, where appropriate, the basic method of operation for the following
control loop components:
Primary element/sensor
Transducer
Converter
Transmitter
Signal
Indicator
Recorder
Controller
Correcting element/final control element
Actuator
Q List examples of each type of control loop component listed above
Q State the advantages of 420 mA current signals when compared with other types of signals
Q List at least three types of final control elements, and for each one:
Provide a brief explanation of its method of operation
Describe its impact on the control loop
List common applications in which it is used
Q Given a piping and instrumentation drawing (P&ID), correctly label the:
Instrument symbols (e.g., control valves, pumps, transmitters)
Location symbols (e.g., local, panel-front)
Signal type symbols (e.g., pneumatic, electrical)
Q Accurately interpret instrument letter designations used on P&IDs

Fundamentals of Control 11
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

The previous section described the basic elements of control as
measurement, comparison, and adjustment. In practice, there are
Activities
instruments and strategies to accomplish each of these essential 1. Identify three examples of a primary
tasks. In some cases, a single process control instrument, such as a element/sensors in process control?
modern pressure transmitter, may perform more than one of the Select all options that apply.
basic control functions. Other technologies have been developed so
that communication can occur among the components that measure,
1 Resistance Temperature Detectors
compare, and adjust.
2 Thermocouples
3 Control Valve
PRIMARY ELEMENTS/SENSORS 4 Converter
5 Pitot tubes
In all cases, some kind of instrument is measuring changes in the
process and reporting a process variable measurement. Some of the
greatest ingenuity in the process control field is apparent in sensing
devices. Because sensing devices are the first element in the control
loop to measure the process variable, they are also called primary
elements. Examples of primary elements include:
Q Pressure sensing diaphragms, strain gauges, capacitance cells
Q Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
Q Thermocouples
Q Orifice plates
Q Pitot tubes
Q Venturi tubes
Q Magnetic flow tubes 2. Primary elements will not make
Q Coriolis flow tubes direct contact with the process fluid.
Q Radar emitters and receivers Is this statement true or false?
Q Ultrasonic emitters and receivers
Q Annubar flow elements
Q Vortex sheddar

Primary elements are devices that cause some change in their

property with changes in process fluid conditions that can then be
measured. For example, when a conductive fluid passes through the
magnetic field in a magnetic flow tube, the fluid generates a voltage
that is directly proportional to the velocity of the process fluid. The
primary element (magnetic flow tube) outputs a voltage that can be
measured and used to calculate the fluids flow rate. With an RTD,
as the temperature of a process fluid surrounding the RTD rises or
falls, the electrical resistance of the RTD increases or decreases a
proportional amount. The resistance is measured, and from this
measurement, temperature is determined.

12 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

TRANSDUCERS AND CONVERTERS Activities
A transducer is a device that translates a mechanical signal into an
electrical signal. For example, inside a capacitance pressure device, 3. A is a device
a transducer converts changes in pressure into a proportional change that translates a mechanical signal
in capacitance. into an electrical signal.
A converter is a device that converts one type of signal into another
type of signal. For example, a converter may convert current into
voltage or an analog signal into a digital signal. In process control, a
converter used to convert a 420 mA current signal into a 315 psig
pneumatic signal (commonly used by valve actuators) is called a
current-to-pressure converter.

TRANSMITTERS
A transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a
sensor or transducer into a standard signal and transmits that
signal to a monitor or controller. Transmitter types include:
Q Pressure transmitters
4. A transmitter is a device that
Q Flow transmitters
converts a reading from a transducer
Q Temperature transmitters
Q Level transmitters
into a
Q Analytic (O2 [oxygen], CO [carbon monoxide], and pH) standard signal and transmits that signal
transmitters to a monitor or controller. Is this
statement true or false?

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 13
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

SIGNALS Activities
There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process industry 5. Identify the signal types that are
to transmit the process variable measurement from the instrument used in the process control
to a centralized control system. industry?
Select all options that apply.
1. Pneumatic signal
2. Analog signal
3. Digital signal 1 Hydraulic signals
2 Digital signals
Pneumatic Signals 3 Analog signals
4 Pneumatic signals
Pneumatic signals are signals produced by changing the air pressure Electro-magnetic signals
5
in a signal pipe in proportion to the measured change in a process
variable. The common industry standard pneumatic signal range is
315 psig. The 3 corresponds to the lower range value (LRV) and
the 15 corresponds to the upper range value (URV). Pneumatic
signalling is still common. However, since the advent of electronic
instruments in the 1960s, the lower costs involved in running
electrical signal wire through a plant as opposed to running
pressurized air tubes has made pneumatic signal technology less
attractive.

Analog Signals
The most common standard electrical signal is the 420 mA current
signal. With this signal, a transmitter sends a small current through
a set of wires. The current signal is a kind of gauge in which
4 mA represents the lowest possible measurement, or zero, and 20
mA represents the highest possible measurement.
For example, imagine a process that must be maintained at 100 C.
An RTD temperature sensor and transmitter are installed in the
process vessel, and the transmitter is set to produce a 4 mA signal
when the process temperature is at 95 C and a 20 mA signal
when the process temperature is at 105 C. The transmitter will
transmit a 12 mA signal when the temperature is at the 100 C
setpoint. As the sensors resistance property changes in
response to changes in temperature, the transmitter outputs a
420 mA signal that is proportionate to the temperature changes.
This signal can be converted to a temperature reading or an
input to a control device, such as a burner fuel valve.

Other common standard electrical signals include the 15 V (volts)

signal and the pulse output.

14 Fundamentals of Control
Control Loop Equipment and Technology
Digital Signals
Digital signals are the most recent addition to process control signal
Activities
6. The is a
technology. Digital signals are discrete levels or values that are
human-readable device that
combined in specific ways to represent process variables and also
displays information about
carry other information, such as diagnostic information. The
methodology used to combine the digital signals is referred to as the process or the instrument
protocol. it is connected to.

Manufacturers may use either an open or a proprietary digital

protocol. Open protocols are those that anyone who is developing a
control device can use. Proprietary protocols are owned by specific
companies and may be used only with their permission. Open digital
protocols include the HART (highway addressable remote
transducer) protocol, FOUNDATION Fieldbus, Profibus, DeviceNet,
and the Modbus protocol.
(See Module 8: Communication Technologies for more information
on digital communication protocols.)

INDICATORS
While most instruments are connected to a control system, operators
sometimes need to check a measurement on the factory floor at the
measurement point. An indictor makes this reading possible. An 7. Which of the following are
indicator is a human-readable device that displays information about examples of a digital signal?
the process. Indicators may be as simple as a pressure or temperature Select all options that apply.
gauge or more complex, such as a digital read-out device. Some
indicators simply display the measured variable, while others have
control buttons that enable operators to change settings in the field.
1 Profibus
2 4 - 20 mA
3 1-5v
4 Fieldbus
5 3 - 15 psig

15 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Control Loop Equipment and Technology
RECORDERS Activities
A recorder is a device that records the output of a measurement 8. A recorder is a device that records
devices. Many process manufacturers are required by law to provide the of a
a process history to regulatory agencies, and manufacturers use measurement or control device.
recorders to help meet these regulatory requirements. In addition,
manufacturers often use recorders to gather data for trend analyses.
By recording the readings of critical measurement points and
comparing those readings over time with the results of the process,
the process can be improved.
Different recorders display the data they collect differently. Some
recorders list a set of readings and the times the readings were
taken; others create a chart or graph of the readings. Recorders that
create charts or graphs are called chart recorders.

CONTROLLERS

A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement

instrument, compares that data to a programmed setpoint, and, if
necessary, signals a control element to take corrective action.
Local controllers are usually one of the three types:
pneumatic, electronic or programmable. Contollers also
commonly reside in a digital control system.

Computer-based central controller

Pneumatic, electronic, or programmable local controller

Transmitter
Single-loop controller Valve

Controllers

16 Fundamentals of Control
DCS 2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Power supply I/O card
Controller (CPU)

Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

Controllers may perform complex mathematical functions to
compare a set of data to setpoint or they may perform simple
Activities
addition or subtraction functions to make comparisons. Controllers 9. Which of the following have the
always have an ability to receive input, to perform a mathematical ability to receive input, to perform
function with the input, and to produce an output signal. Common a mathematical function with the
examples of controllers include: input, and produce an output
Q Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)PLCs are usually signal?
computers connected to a set of input/output (I/O) devices. The
computers are programmed to respond to inputs by sending
outputs to maintain all processes at setpoint. 1 Actuators
Q Distributed control systems (DCSs)DCSs are controllers 2 Transmitters
that, in addition to performing control functions, provide 3 Transducers
readings of the status of the process, maintain databases and 4 Controllers
advanced
man-machine-interface.

10.Which of the following is the

Setpoint
most common final control
element in process control
P ID industries?

Pipestand Controller Analog Rack Mount Controller

(Pneumatic or Electronic) (Electronic)
1 Agitator
2 Pump
motor
3 Valve
4 Louver

Single Loop Digital Converter Distributed Control System

(Electronic) (Electronic)

Types of Process Controllers

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 17
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

Activities
11. is a part
final control device that causes
a
physical change in the final control
device when signaled to do so.
Smart
Transmitter

Smart Transmitter
Digital Valve Controller (Smart Positioner) (Provides PID Output)

Types of Process Controllers

CORRECTING ELEMENTS/FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

The correcting or final control element is the part of the control
system that acts to physically change the manipulated variable. In
most cases, the final control element is a valve used to restrict or cut
off fluid flow, but pump motors, louvers (typically used to regulate air
flow), solenoids, and other devices can also be final control elements.
Final control elements are typically used to increase or decrease fluid
flow. For example, a final control element may regulate the flow of
fuel to a burner to control temperature, the flow of a catalyst into a
reactor to control a chemical reaction, or the flow of air into a boiler
to control boiler combustion.
In any control loop, the speed with which a final control element
reacts to correct a variable that is out of setpoint is very important.
Many of the technological improvements in final control elements
are related to improving their response time.

ACTUATORS
An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical
change in the final control device when signalled to do so. The most
common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or
closes a valve in response to control signals from a controller.
Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or
electrically. Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot
valves, pistons, or electric motors are often parts of an actuator system.

www.PAControl.com
18 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

ISA Symbology
The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (ISA) is one
of the leading process control trade and standards organizations. The
Activities
ISA has developed a set of symbols for use in engineering drawings 12.What does the acronym
and designs of control loops (ISA S5.1 instrumentation symbol P&ID stand for?
specification). You should be familiar with ISA symbology so that
you can demonstrate possible process control loop solutions on paper
to your customer. Figure 7.5 shows a control loop using ISA 1 Piping and Instrument Designing
symbology. Drawings of this kind are known as piping and
2 Piping and
instrumentation drawings (P&ID).
Instrumentation Drawing
3 Process Control and
Installation Drawing
4 Proportional, Intergral
and Derivative control

Piping and Instrumentation Drawing

(P&ID)

www.PAControl.com
 Fundamentals of Control 19
2006 PAControl.com

FIC SP
TIC
123 123

YIC
TY 123
123

TT
123
FT
123

www.PAControl.com
 Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

ISA Symbology
SYMBOLS
In a P&ID, a circle represents individual measurement
Activities
13.Which of the following is a symbol
instruments, such as transmitters, sensors, and detectors (Figure of a transmitter in an auxiliary
7.6). location?
LOCATION

1
Control Room Auxiliary Field Not Accessible
Figure 7.6: Discrete Instruments
A single horizontal line running across the center of the shape 2

indicates that the instrument or function is located in a primary

location (e.g., a control room). A double line indicates that the 3
function is in an auxiliary location (e.g., an instrument rack). The
absence of a line indicates that the function is field mounted, and a
dotted line indicates that the function or instrument is inaccessible
(e.g., located behind a panel board). 4

A square with a circle inside represents instruments that both display

measurement readings and perform some control function
(Figure 7.7). Many modern transmitters are equipped with
microprocessors that perform control calculations and send control
output signals to final control elements.

DISPLAY AND CONTROL TYPES

14.Which of the following is a symbol
of a field-mounted control/display
element?
Flow/ Square
Root
Control Room Field Not Accessible

1
Shared Control/Display Elements

A hexagon represents computer functions, such as those carried out 2

by a controller (Figure 7.8).
Control Types
3

Control Room 4
Auxiliary Field Not Accessible

Computer Functions (Controllers)

www.PAControl.com
20 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

ISA Symbology
Activities
15.Which of the following is a symbol
of a controller located behind a
panel?

Fundamentals of Control 21
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
ISA Symbology
A square with a diamond inside represents PLCs (Figure 7.9).
PLC Types
Activities
16.The symbol displayed below
denotes a PLC in a primary
location.
Is this statement true or false?
Control Room Auxiliary Field Not accessible

PLCs

Two triangles with their apexes contacting each other (a bow tie
shape) represent a valve in the piping. An actuator is always
drawn above the valve (Figure 7.10).

Pneumatic valveManual valveElectric valve

17.Which of the following is a

symbol of a pneumatic valve?

Valves 1

Pumps
2
Directional arrows showing the flow direction represent a pump
(Figure 7.11).

Pumps

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 22
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

ISA Symbology
Piping and Connections
Piping and connections are represented with several different
Activities
symbols (Figure 7.12): 18.The symbols displayed below
Q A heavy solid line represents piping represent a data link and a process
connection.
Q A thin solid line represents process connections to instruments
Is this statement true or false?
(e.g., impulse piping)
Q A dashed line represents electrical signals (e.g., 420 mA
connections)
Q A slashed line represents pneumatic signal tubes
Q A line with circles on it represents data links

Other connection symbols include capillary tubing for filled systems

(e.g., remote diaphragm seals), hydraulic signal lines, and guided
electromagnetic or sonic signals.

Piping

Process connection

Electrical signal

Pneumatic signal

Data link

Capillary tubing for filled systems

Hydraulic signal line

Guided electromagnetic or sonic signal

Piping and Connection Symbols

23 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

ISA Symbology
IDENTIFICATION LETTERS Activities
Identification letters on the ISA symbols (e.g., TT for temperature 19.The initial letter on an ISA
transmitter) indicate: symbol indicates the measured
Q The variable being measured (e.g., flow, pressure, temperature) variable. Is this statement true or
Q The devices function (e.g., transmitter, switch, valve, sensor,
false?
indicator)
Q Some modifiers (e.g., high, low, multifunction)

Table 7.1 on page 26 shows the ISA identification letter

designations. The initial letter indicates the measured variable. The
second letter indicates a modifier, readout, or device function. The
third letter usually indicates either a device function or a modifier.
For example, FIC on an instrument tag represents a flow
indicating controller. PT represents a pressure transmitter. You can
find identification letter symbology information on the ISA Web site
at http://www.isa.org.

TAG NUMBERS 20.What does the third letter on an

Numbers on P&ID symbols represent instrument tag numbers. Often ISA symbol indicate?
these numbers are associated with a particular control loop (e.g.,
flow transmitter 123). See Figure 7.13.
Identification letters 1 Device function or a modifier
FIC
2 Measured variable
123
Tag number 3 Readout
4 Type of process fluid

Identification Letters and Tag Number

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 24
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

ISA Symbology

A
Measured Variable
Analysis
Modifier Readout
Alarm
Device Function Activities
Modifier

B Burner, combustion Users choice Users choice Users choice

C Users choice Control
D Users choice Differential
Sensor (primary
E Voltage
element)
F Flow rate Ration (fraction)
G Users choice Glass, viewing device
H Hand High
I Electrical Current Indication
J Power Scan
K Time, time schedule Time rate of change Control station
L Level Light Low
M Users choice Momentary Middle, intermediate
N Users choice Users choice Users choice Users choice
O Users choice Orifice, restriction
P Pressure, vacuum Point, test connection
Q Quantity Integrate, totalizer
R Radiation Record
S Speed, frequency Safety Switch
T Temperature Transmit
U Multivariable Multifunction Multifunction Multifunction
Vibration, mechanical
V Valve, damper, louver
analysis
W Weight, force Well
X Unclassified X axis Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified
Event, state, or
Relay, compute,
Y presence Y axis
convert

Z Position, dimension Z axis Driver, actuator

ISA Identification Letters

25 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

ISA Symbology
ISA SYMBOLOGY REVIEW Activities
Figure 7.14 shows the elements of ISA symbology used in a 21.In Figure 7.14, what kind of
P&ID. signal is transmitted out from
Flow indicating controller that the temperature transmitter?
performs a square root flow
calculation (primary location) Temperature
indicating
controller (field
mounted)

SP 1 Data link
FIC TIC 2 Mechanical
123 123
Data link signal
3 Electrical
signal
Electrical
PLC 4 Pneumatic
signal signal

YIC
TY
123 123
Flow Pneumatic
transmitter Temperature line
computer
TT
FT 123
123
Temperature
transmitter

Impulse
Tubing

Pipe

Pneumatically Electrically
actuated valve actuated valve

P&ID with ISA Symbology

Fundamentals of Control 28
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE - COMPONENTS OF CONTROL LOOPS AND
ISA SYMBOLOGY

Fundamentals of Control 29
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Controller Algorithms and Tuning
The previous sections of this module described the purpose of control, defined individual elements within
control loops, and demonstrated the symbology used to represent those elements in an engineering drawing.
The examples of control loops used thus far have been very basic. In practice, control loops can be fairly
complex. The strategies used to hold a process at setpoint are not always simple, and the interaction of
numerous setpoints in an overall process control plan can be subtle and complex. In this section, you will be
introduced to some of the strategies and methods used in complex process control loops.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
Q Differentiate between discrete, multistep, and continuous controllers
Q Describe the general goal of controller tuning.
Q Describe the basic mechanism, advantages and disadvantages of the following mode of controller action:
Proportional action
Intergral action
Derivative action
Q Give examples of typical applications or situations in which each mode of controller action would be
used.
Q Identify the basic implementation of P, PI and PID control in the following types of loops:
Pressure loop
Flow loop
Level loop
Temperature loop
Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be activated.

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 27
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Controller Algorithms and Tuning

Controller Algorithms
The actions of controllers can be divided into groups based upon
the functions of their control mechanism. Each type of contoller has
advantages and disadvantages and will meet the needs of different
Activities
applications. Grouped by control mechanism function, the three 1. Which one of the following is
types of controllers are: an everyday example of a
Q Discrete controllers
discrete controller?
Select the options that apply.
Q Multistep controllers
Q Continuous controllers
1 Refrigerator
2 Electric iron
3 Air conditioner
DISCRETE CONTROLLERS 4 Rice cooker
Discrete controllers are controllers that have only two modes or
positions: on and off. A common example of a discrete controller is
a home hot water heater. When the temperature of the water in the
tank falls below setpoint, the burner turns on. When the water in the
tank reaches setpoint, the burner turns off. Because the water starts
cooling again when the burner turns off, it is only a matter of time
before the cycle begins again. This type of control doesnt actually
hold the variable at setpoint, but keeps the variable within
proximity of setpoint in what is known as a dead zone (Figure
7.15).

Discrete Control

www.PAControl.com
 28 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

Dead zone

Process variable action

Control action

www.PAControl.com
Controller Algorithms and Tuning

Controller Algorithms
MULTISTEP CONTROLLERS
Multistep controllers are controllers that have at least one other
Activities
2. A controller with three or more
possible position in addition to on and off. Multistep controllers
set positions is called a continuous
operate similarly to discrete controllers, but as setpoint is
approached, the multistep controller takes intermediate steps. controller. Is this statement true or
Therefore, the oscillation around setpoint can be less dramatic when false?
multistep controllers are employed than when discrete controllers
are used (Figure 7.16).

Process variable action

Control action

Figure 7.16: Multistep Control Profile

CONTINUOUS CONTROLLERS
Controllers automatically compare the value of the PV to the SP to
determine if an error exists. If there is an error, the controller adjusts
its output according to the parameters that have been set in the
controller. The tuning parameters essentially determine:
How much correction should be made? The magnitude of
the correction( change in controller output) is determined by
the proportional mode of the controller.

How long should the correction be applied? The duration of the

adjustment to the controller output is determined by the integral
mode of the controller
How fast should the correction be applied? The speed at which a
correction is made is determined by the derivative mode of the
controller.

Fundamentals of Control 29
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Controller Algorithms
When there is an error, the controller
makes a change in its output. It determines:
How much? Proportional Mode
SP PV Activities
How long? Integral Mode
How fast? Derivative Mode

Setpoint

LIC I/P
PID

Controller

LT

PV

SP

Load

Automatic Feedback Control

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 30
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Controller Algorithms and Tuning

Why Controllers Need

Tuning? Activities
Controllers are tuned in an effort to match the characteristics of the
control equipment to the process so that two goals are achieved: 3. The change in the controller output
is the foundation of process control measurement in that electricity: divided by the change in the input to
Q The system responds quickly to errors. the controller is known as .
Q The system remains stable (PV does not oscillate around
the SP).

GAIN
Controller tuning is performed to adjust the manner in which a
control valve (or other final control element) responds to a change in
error.
In particular, we are interested in adjusting the gain of the controller
such that a change in controller input will result in a change in
controller output that will, in turn, cause sufficient change in
valve position to eliminate error, but not so great a change as
to cause instability or cycling.
Gain is defined simply as the change in output divided by the change
in input.

Examples:
Change in Input to Controller - 10%
Change in Controller Output - 20%
Gain = 20% / 10% = 2

Change in Input to Controller - 10%

Change in Controller Output - 5%
Gain = 5% / 10% = 0.5
convey measurements and instructions to other instruments in a
control loop to maintain the highest level of safety and efficiency.
The next three sections in this module discuss electricity, circuits,
transmitters, and signals in greater detail so you can understand the
importance of electricity in process control.

31 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Why Controllers Need
Tuning? Activities
Gain Plot - The Figure below is simply another graphical way of
representing the concept of gain.
4. Fast or slow processes have no
Gain Kc = Output % / Input
impact on controller gain settings. Is
% this statement true or false?
100 Gain=2 Gain=1

Output %
50
Gain=0.5

0
0 50 100
Input %
Graphical Representaion of Gain Concept

Examples - The following examples help to illustrate the purpose of

setting the controller gain to different values.

LIC I/P LICI/P

LT LT

Controllers May be Tuned to Help Match the Valve to the Process

Fast Process May Require Less Gain To Achieve Stability

Small volume liquid process

Slow Process May Require Higher Gain To Achieve Responsiveness

Large volume gas process

Fast and Slow Processes May Require Different Controller Gain Settings
Proportional Mode
PROPORTIONAL ACTION
The proportional mode is used to set the basic gain value of the
Activities
5. Identify the major
controller. The setting for the proportional mode may be expressed
disadvantage of proportional
as either:
action.
1. Proportional Gain
2. Proportional Band

PROPORTIONAL GAIN 1 Tends to leave an offset

2 Reset Windup during shutdown
In electronic controllers, proportional action is typically expressed 3 Possible overshoot
as proportional gain. Proportional Gain (Kc) answers the question: during startup
"What is the percentage change of the controller output relative to
4 Can cause cycling in fast
the percentage change in controller input?"
process by amplifying noisy
Proportional Gain is expressed as: signals
Gain, (Kc) = Output% /Input %

PROPORTIONAL BAND

Proportional Band (PB) is another way of representing the

same information and answers this question:
"What percentage of change of the controller input span will cause
a 100% change in controller output?"

PB = Input (% Span) For 100%Output

Converting Between PB and Gain

A simple equation converts gain to proportional Band:

added.
PB = 100/Gain
Also recall that:
Gain = 100%/PB
Proportional Gain, (Kc) = Output% / Input %

PB= Input(%Span) For 100%Output

Proportional Mode
PB=200%
Activities
PB= 50%

100

Gain=2 Gain=1
PB=100% Gain=0.5
6. If proportional gain is 0.5, and a
level reading is 5% above setpoint,
Output % a proportional controller will
signal the outflow control valve to
50 open by <1 / 2.5 / 5> % of its full
range.

0
0 50 100 150 200
Input %

Relationship of Proportional Gain and Proportional Band

LIMITS OF PROPORTIONAL ACTION

Responds Only to a Change in error - Proportional action responds
only to a change in the magnitude of the error.
Does Not Return the PV to Setpoint - Proportional action will not
return the PV to setpoint. It will, however, return the PV to a value
that is within a defined span (PB) around the PV.

DETERMINING THE CONTROLLER OUTPUT

Controller Output - In a proportional only controller, the output is

a function of the change in error and controller gain.
Output Change, % = (Error Change, %) (Gain)
Example: If the setpoint is suddenly changed 10% with a proportional
band setting of 50%, the output will change as follows:

Calculating Controller Output

Controller Output = Input, % X Gain
Gain = 100%/PB
EXAMPLE
Input = 10%
PB = 50%, so Gain = 100%/50% = 2
 Controller Algorithms and Tuning

Proportional Mode
Controller Output = Input X Gain
Controller Output = 10% X 2 = 20%
Activities
Expressed in Units:
Controller Output Change = (0.2)(12 psi span) = 2.4 psi OR (0.2)
(16 mA span) = 3.2 mA

PROPORTIONAL ACTION - CLOSED LOOP

Loop Gain - Every loop has a critical or natural frequency. This is

the frequency at which cycling may exist. This critical frequency is
determined by all of the loop components. If the loop gain is too high
at this frequency, the PV will cycle around the SP; i.e., the process
will become unstable.
Low Gain Example - In the example below, the proportional band is
high (gain is low). The loop is very stable, but an error remains
between SP and PV.
10
9
8
7
% 6
SP
5
4 PV
3
2
IVP
1
PB= 200%
0
Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Proportional Control Closed Loop - Low Gain Example

High Gain Example - In the example, the proportional band is

small resulting in high gain, which is causing instability. Notice that
the process variable is still not on set point.
 Proportional Mode
10

9
IVP
Activities
8 7. What will be the result if the
7 proportional gain is set too high?
SP
6 Select all options that apply.
%5
4 PV 1 Large offset
3 2 Minimized offset
2 3 Possible cycling

1 PB=10% 4 Stable
0 TIME
loop
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Proportional Control Closed Loop - High Gain example

Proportional Summary - For the proportional mode, controller

output is a function of a change in error. Proportional band is
expressed in terms of the percentage change in error that will cause
100% change in controller output. Proportional gain is expressed as
the percentage change in output divided by the percentage change in
input.

PB = (Input, % / Output, % ) x 100 = 100/Gain

Gain= Input % / Output %

Controller Output = (Change in Error)(Gain)

1. Proportional Mode Responds only to a change in error
2. Proportional mode alone will not return the PV to SP.
Advantages - Simple
Disadvantages - Error
Settings - PB settings have the following effects:
Small PB (%) Minimize Offset
High Gain (%) Possible
cycling

Large PB (%) Large Offset

Low Gain Stable Loop

Tuning - reduce PB (increase gain) until the process cycles following

a disturbance, then double the PB (reduce gain by 50%).
Integral Mode
INTEGRAL ACTION Activities
Duration of Error and Integral Mode - Another component of 8. action is the type of control algorithm
error is the duration of the error, i.e., how long has the error existed? that eliminates offset.
The controller output from the integral or reset mode is a function of
the duration of the error.
100

90
80

70
60
PV
% 50
40
30
20
SP
10 Duration

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

INTEGRAL(RESET)

OPEN LOOP ANALYSIS

Purpose- The purpose of integral action is to return the PV to SP. This
is accomplished by repeating the action of the proportional mode as
long as an error exists. With the exception of some electronic
controllers, the integral or reset mode is always used with the
proportional mode.
Setting - Integral, or reset action, may be expressed in terms of:
Repeats Per Minute - How many times the
proportional action is repeated each minute.
Minutes Per Repeat - How many minutes are required for
1 repeat to occur.
Integral Mode
CLOSED LOOP ANALYSIS Activities
Closed Loop With Reset - Adding reset to the controller adds one 9.Which of the following are
more gain component to the loop. The faster the reset action, the integral or reset actions expressed
greater in
the gain. terms of?
Select all options that apply.
Slow Reset Example - In this example the loop is stable because
the total loop gain is not too high at the loop critical frequency.
Notice thatthe process variable does reach set point due to the reset 1 Repeats per setting
action. 2 Repeats per minute
3 Repeats per loop
100 4 Minutes per repeat
90
80
70
60 SP
50
40
30
% PV

20 IVP
PB=80%
10
Repeat=2.0 Repeats/min
0 TIME
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SLOW RESET, CLOSED LOOP

Fast Reset Example - In the example the rest is too fast and the PV is
cycling around the SP.

100
90
80

70 SP
60
50
% PV
40
30
IVP
20
PB=80%
10 Repeat=10 Repeats/min
0 TIME
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

FAST RESET, CLOSED LOOP

 Integral Mode
RESET WINDUP Activities
Defined - Reset windup is described as a situation where the 10. Identify the major
controller output is driven from a desired output level because of a disadvantages of integral action.
large difference between the set point and the process variable. Select all options that apply.

100
1 Tends to leave an offset
2 Reset windup during shutdown
3 Possible overshoot during start up
4 Can cause cycling in fast
process by amplifying noisy
Output% signals
IVP

ARW

0
INPUT(ERROR)

Reset Windup - Ant-Reset Windup

Shutdown - Reset windup is common on shut down because the

process variable may go to zero but the set point has not changed,
therefore this large error will drive the output to one extreme.

100

SP

Input %

PV
ARW

0
Shutdown Input(Error) Startup
Reset Windup - Shutdown and Startup

Startup - At start up, large process variable overshoot may occur

because the reset speed prevents the output from reaching its desired
value fast enough.
Anti Reset Windup - Controllers can be modified with an anti-reset
Integral Mode
windup (ARW) device. The purpose of an anti-reset option is to allow
the output to reach its desired value quicker, therefore minimizing
Activities
the overshoot.

SUMMARY
Integral (Reset) Summary - Output is a repeat of the proportional
action as long as error exists. The units are in terms of repeats per
minute or minutes per repeat.
Advantages - Eliminates error
Disadvantages - Reset windup and possible overshoot

Fast Reset 1.High Gain

(Large Repeats/Min.,Small Min./Repeat) 2.Fast Return To Setpoint
3.Possible Cycling
Slow Reset 1.Low Gain
(Small Repeats/Min.,Large Min./Repeats) 2.Slow Return To Setpoint
3.Stable Loop

Trailing and Error Tuning - Increase repeats per minute until the
PV cycles following a disturbance, then slow the reset action to a
value that is 1/3 of the initial setting.

40 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Derivative Mode
DERIVATIVE ACTION Activities
Derivative Mode Basics - Some large and/or slow process do 11. action is a
not respond well to small changes in controller output. For control algorithm that is tied to
example, a large liquid level process or a large thermal the rate of change in the error.
process (a heat exchanger) may react very slowly to a small
change in controller output. To improve response, a large initial
change in controller output may be applied. This action is the role
of the derivative mode.

The derivative action is initiated whenever there is a change in the

rate of change of the error (the slope of the PV). The magnitude of
the derivative action is determined by the setting of the derivative .
The mode of a PID controller and the rate of change of the PV. The
Derivative setting is expressed in terms of minutes. In oper ation, the
the controller first compares the current PV with the last value of the
PV. If there is a change in the slope of the PV, the controller
etermines what its output would be at a future point in time
12. Which of the following are
(the future point in time is determined by the value of the derivative
setting, in minutes). The derivative mode immediately increases derivative or rate actions expressed in
the output by that amount. terms of?

1 Repeats per minute

100
90 2 Hours
80 3 Seconds
Slope= Rate of Error Change(Y/X)
4 Minutes
70
60 5 Milliseconds
50
40
PV
%30 Y
X

20
10 SP
0

TIME
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Derivative Action is based on the rate of change in Error (Y/X)

www.PAControl.com
41 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Derivative Mode
Example - Let's start a closed loop example by looking at a
temperature control system. IN this example, the time scale has
13. The addition of derivative or
been lengthened to help illustrate controller actions in a slow
rate alone to a close loop control can
process.
cause the process variable to match
Assume a proportional band settingof 50%. There is no reset at
the set point. Is this statement true or
this time. The proportional gain of 2 acting on a 10% change in
false?
set pint results in a change in controller output of 20%. Because
temperature is a slow process the setting time after a change in
error is quite long. And, in this example, the PV never becomes
equal to the SP because there is no reset.

Rate Effect - To illustrate the effect of rate action, we will add the
are mode with a setting of 1 minute. Notice the very large controller
output at time 0. The output spike is the result of rate action. Recall
that the change in output due to rate action is a function of the speed
(rate) of change of error, which in a step is nearly infinite. The
addition of rate alone will not cause the process variable to match the
set point.
100

90
80 IVP

70
60 SP

50

40 PV
30

20 PB=50%
10 Reset=0
Rate=0
0 TIME

0 100 200 300 400

100 IVP

90

80

70
PV
60 SP
0 100 200 300
50 400

40

30
20 PB=50%
10 Reset=0
Rate=1
min
0
PV

42
No Rate, Small Rate examples, Closed Loop
TIME
Activities
Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com
Derivative Mode
Effect of Fast Rate - Let's now increase the rate setting to 10 minutes.
The controller gain is now much higher. As a result, both the IVP
Activities
(controller output) and the PV are cycling. The point here is that
increasing the rate setting will not cause the PV to settle at the SP.
100 IVP
90
80

70 SP
60
50
40
30 PV

20
PB= 50%
10
Reset=0 Rate= 10 min
0
TI

ME
0 100 200 300 400
P+D, High Rate Setting, Closed Loop Analysis
Need for Reset Action - It is now clear that reset must be added
to bring process variable back to set point.

Applications - Because this component of the controller output is

dependent on the speed of change of the input or error, the output
will be very erratic if rate is used on fast process or one with noisy
signals. The controller output, as a result of rate, will have the
greatest change when the input changes rapidly.

Controller Option to Ignore Change in SP - Many controllers,

especially digital types, are designed to respond to changes in the PV
only, and to ignore changes in SP. This feature eliminates a major upset
upset that would occur following a change in the setpoint.

43 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Derivative Mode
SUMMARY
Derivative (Rate) Sumary - Rate action is a function of the speed
Activities
of change of the error. The units are minutes. The action is to apply
an immediate response that is equal to the proportional plus reset
action that would have occurred some number of minutes I the
future.

Advantages - Rapid output reduces the time that is required to

return PV to SP in slow process.

Disadvantage - Dramatically amplifies noisy signals; can cause

cycling in fast processes.

Settings
Large (Minutes) 1.High Gain
2.Large Output Change
3.Possible Cycling
Small (Minutes) 1.Low Gain
2.Small Output Change
3.Stable Loop

Trial-and-Error Tuning
Increase the rate setting until the process cycles following a
disturbance, then reduce the rate setting to one-third of the initial
value.

www.PAControl.com
44 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Controller Algorithms and Tuning

Controller Algorithms
Proportional, PI, and PID Control
Activities
By using all three control algorithms together, process operators can:
Q Achieve rapid response to major disturbances with derivative
14. What type of control is used
control in an application where noise is
present, but where no offset can
Q Hold the process near setpoint without major fluctuations with
be tolerated?
proportional control
Q Eliminate offset with integral control

Not every process requires a full PID control strategy. If a small offset 1 P only
has no impact on the process, then proportional control alone may be
2 PD
sufficient.
3 PI
PI control is used where no offset can be tolerated, where noise 4 PID
(temporary error readings that do not reflect the true process variable
condition) may be present, and where excessive dead time (time after
a disturbance before control action takes place) is not a problem.
In processes where no offset can be tolerated, no noise is present, and
where dead time is an issue, customers can use full PID control.
Table 7.2 shows common types of control loops and which types of
control algorithms are typically used.
Controlled Proportional
Variable Control PI Control PID Control

Flow Yes Yes No

Level Yes Yes Rare
Temperature Yes Yes Yes
Pressure Yes Yes Rare
Analytical Yes Yes Rare

Table 7.2: Control Loops and Control Algorithms

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE - CONTROLLER ALGORITHMS AND TUNING

Fundamentals of Control 45
2006 PAControl.com
www.PAControl.com
Process Control Loops
In this section, you will learn about how control components and control algorithms are integrated to create a
process control system. Because in some processes many variables must be controlled, and each variable can
have an impact on the entire system, control systems must be designed to respond to disturbances at any point
in the system and to mitigate the effect of those disturbances throughout the system.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
Q Explain how a multivariable loop is different from a single loop.
Q Differentiate feedback and feedforward control loops in terms of their operation, design, benefits, and
limitations
Q Perform the following functions for each type of standard process control loop (i.e., pressure, flow, level,
and temperature):
State the type of control typically used and explain why it is used
Identify and describe considerations for equipment selection (e.g., speed, noise)
Identify typical equipment requirements
Diagram the loop using ISA symbology
Q Explain the basic implementation process, including a description of equipment requirements and
considerations, for each of the following types of control:
Cascade control
Batch control
Ratio control
Selective control
Fuzzy control
Q Describe benefits and limitations of each type of control listed above
Q Give examples of process applications in which each type of control described in this section might be
used
Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be activated.

Fundamentals of Control 46
www.PAControl.com
 2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Process Control Loops

Single Control Loops

Control loops can be divided into two categories: Single variable
loops and multi-variable loops. Activities
1. What type of control loop
FEEDBACK CONTROL takes action in response to
measured deviation from
A feedback loop measures a process variable and sends the setpoint?
measurement to a controller for comparison to setpoint. If the
process variable is not at setpoint, control action is taken to return
the process variable to setpoint. Figure 7.18 illustrates a feedback
loop in which a transmitter measures the temperature of a fluid and, 1 Discrete control loop
if necessary, opens or closes a hot steam valve to adjust the fluids 2 Multi-step control loop
temperature. 3 Open loop
4 Feedback control loop

Feedback Loop
An everyday example of a feedback loop is the cruise control
system in an automobile. A setpoint is established for speed. When
the car begins to climb a hill, the speed drops below setpoint and
the controller adjusts the throttle to return the cars speed to
setpoint.
Feedback loops are commonly used in the process control industry.
The advantage of a feedback loop is that it directly controls the
desired process variable. The disadvantage to feedback loops is that
the process variable must leave setpoint for action to be taken.

www.PAControl.com
 47 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com.

www.PAControl.com
Controller
Process
Steam valve
Transmitter

Process Control Loops

Examples of Single Control Loops

While each application has its own characteristics, some general
statements can be made about pressure, flow, level, and temperature
Activities
loops. 2. How does a high-volume pressure
control loop react as compared to a
small-volume pressure control loop?
PRESSURE CONTROL LOOPS
Pressure control loops vary in speedthat is, they can respond to
changes in load or to control action slowly or quickly. The speed 1 Same rate
required in a pressure control loop may be dictated by the volume of 2 Quicker
the process fluid. High-volume systems (e.g., large natural gas
3 Slower
storage facilities) tend to change more slowly than low-volume
4 Extremely fast
systems (Figure 7.21).

A Pressure Loop

www.PAControl.com
 Fundamentals of Control 48
2006 PAControl.com

Pneumatic controller

Relief valve
Pressure transmitter

Process
fluid

Fluid pump

www.PAControl.com
 Process Control Loops

Examples of Single Control Loops

FLOW CONTROL LOOPS Activities
Generally, flow control loops are regarded as fast loops that respond 3. Flow control loops are generally
to changes quickly. Therefore, flow control equipment must have considered to be slow responding
fast sampling and response times. Because flow transmitters tend to loops. Is this statement true or false?
be rather sensitive devices, they can produce rapid fluctuations or
noise in the control signal. To compensate for noise, many flow
transmitters have a damping function that filters out noise.
Sometimes, filters are added between the transmitter and the control
system. Because the temperature of the process fluid affects its
density, temperature measurements are often taken with flow
measurements and compensation for temperature is accounted for in
the flow calculation. Typically, a flow sensor, a transmitter, a
controller, and a valve or pump are used in flow control loops
(Figure 7.22).

A Flow Loop

www.PAControl.com
 49 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com.

Pneumatic controller

Flow transmitter
Valve

Process
fluid

Fluid pump

www.PAControl.com
Process Control Loops

Examples of Single Control Loops

LEVEL CONTROL LOOPS Activities
The speed of changes in a level control loop largely depends on the 4. Redundant control systems are
size and shape of the process vessel (e.g., larger vessels take longer sometimes used in level applications
to fill than smaller ones) and the flow rate of the input and outflow because preventing tank overflow is
pipes. Manufacturers may use one of many different measurement often critically important. Is this
technologies to determine level, including radar, ultrasonic, float statement true or false?
gauge, and pressure measurement. The final control element in a
level control loop is usually a valve on the input and/or outflow
connections to the tank (Figure 7.23). Because it is often critical to
avoid tank overflow, redundant level control systems are sometimes
employed.

A Level Loop

www.PAControl.com
 Fundamentals of Control 50
2006 PAControl.com

Converter

Level controller

Differential pressure transmitter

www.PAControl.com
 Process Control Loops

Examples of Single Control Loops

TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOPS Activities
Because of the time required to change the temperature of a process 5. What type of control strategy
fluid, temperature loops tend to be relatively slow. Feedforward is often used to increase the
control strategies are often used to increase the speed of the speed of a temperature control
temperature loop response. RTDs or thermocouples are typical loop?
temperature sensors. Temperature transmitters and controllers are
used, although it is not uncommon to see temperature sensors wired
directly to the input interface of a controller. The final control
element for a temperature loop is usually the fuel valve to a burner 1 Feedforward control
or a valve to some kind of heat exchanger. Sometimes, cool process 2 Feedback control
fluid is added to the mix to maintain temperature (Figure 7.24). 3 Cascade control
4 Ratio control

A Temperature Loop

51 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
MULTIVARIABLE LOOPS Activities
Multivariable loops are control loops in which a primary controller 6. A multivariable control loop
controls one process variable by sending signals to a controller of a contains a primary and
different loop that impacts the process variable of the primary loop. secondary controller
For example, the primary process variable may be the temperature assigned
of the fluid in a tank that is heated by a steam jacket (a pressurized to different process variables? Is
steam chamber surrounding the tank). To control the primary this statement true or false?
variable (temperature), the primary (master) controller signals the
secondary (slave) controller that is controlling steam pressure. The
primary controller will manipulate the setpoint of the secondary
controller to maintain the setpoint temperature of the primary
process variable (Figure 7.17).
.

Multivariable Loop
When tuning a control loop, it is important to take into account the
presence of multivariable loops. The standard procedure is to tune
the secondary loop before tuning the primary loop because
adjustments to the secondary loop impact the primary loop. Tuning
the primary loop will not impact the secondary loop tuning.

Controller

www.PAControl.com
Process
Valve

52 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com

Primary controller www.PAControl.com

 SP
Secondary controller
Valve
Transmitter

Process Control Loops

Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops

FEEDFORWARD CONTROL Activities
Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates load 7. What type of control loop
disturbances and controls them before they can impact the process anticipates and controls
variable. For feedforward control to work, the user must have a load disturbances before
mathematical understanding of how the manipulated variables will they can impact the process
impact the process variable. Figure 7.19 shows a feedforward loop variable?
in which a flow transmitter opens or closes a hot steam valve based
on
how much cold fluid passes through the flow sensor.
1 Feedback control
loop
2 Feedforward control
loop
3 Ratio control
loop
4 Single variable
loop

Feedforward Control
An advantage of feedforward control is that error is prevented, rather
than corrected. However, it is difficult to account for all possible load
disturbances in a system through feedforward control. Factors such as
outside temperature, buildup in pipes, consistency of raw materials,
humidity, and moisture content can all become load disturbances and
cannot always be effectively accounted for in a feedforward system.
In general, feedforward systems should be used in cases where the
controlled variable has the potential of being a major load disturbance
on the process variable ultimately being controlled. The added
complexity and expense of feedforward control may not be equal to
the benefits of increased control in the case of a variable that causes
only a small load disturbance.

www.PAControl.com
Fundamentals of Control 53
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
 Flow transmitter
Controller Process Control Loops

Cold process
fluid

Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops

Activities
Steam valve

FEEDFORWARD PLUS FEEDBACK

Because of the difficulty of accounting for every possible load 8. A controller with a summing
disturbance in a feedforward system, feedforward systems are often function totals the input from both
combined with feedback systems. Controllers with summing the feedforward loop and the
functions are used in these combined systems to total the input from feedback loop and sends a unified
both the feedforward loop and the feedback loop, and send a unified signal to
signal to the final control element. Figure 7.20 shows a the final control element. This is
feedforward-plus-feedback loop in which both a flow transmitter how a single control signal is sent to
and a temperature transmitter provide information for controlling a the final control element in a
hot steam valve. feedforward plus feedback system.
Is this statement true or false?

Feedforward Plus Feedback Control

System

www.PAControl.com
 54 Fundamentals of Control
2006 PAControl.com.

Summing controller
Feedback controller

Flow transmitter

Process
fluid Temperature transmitter

Steam valve

www.PAControl.com
Feedforward controller

Process Control Loops

Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops

This module has discussed specific types of control loops, what
components are used in them, and some of the applications (e.g.,
Activities
flow, pressure, temperature) they are applied to. In practice, however, 9. Ratio control is the term used
many independent and interconnected loops are combined to control to describe a system in which
the workings of a typical plant. This section will acquaint you with the
some of the methods of control currently being used in process controller of the primary loop determines
industries. the setpoint of a secondary loop. Is
this statement true or false?

CASCADE CONTROL
Cascade control is a control system in which a secondary (slave)
control loop is set up to control a variable that is a major source of
load disturbance for another primary (master) control loop. The
controller of the primary loop determines the setpoint of the summing
contoller in the secondary loop (Figure 7.25).

Cascade Control

www.PAControl.com
 Fundamentals of Control 55
2006 PAControl.com

Secondary controller Primary controller

Process
fluid

Temperature transmitter
Flow transmitter

Valve

www.PAControl.com
 Process Control Loops

Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops

BATCH CONTROL Activities
Batch processes are those processes that are taken from start to 10.Which term describes a control
finish in batches. For example, mixing the ingredients for a juice system in which controlled
drinks is often a batch process. Typically, a limited amount of one flow is added proportionately
flavor (e.g., orange drink or apple drink) is mixed at a time. For to an uncontrolled flow?
these reasons, it is not practical to have a continuous process
running. Batch processes often involve getting the correct proportion
of ingredients into the batch. Level, flow, pressure, temperature, and
often mass measurements are used at various stages of batch 1 Selective control
processes. 2 Cascade control
A disadvantage of batch control is that the process must be 3 Ratio control
frequently restarted. Start-up presents control problems because, 4 Fuzzy control
typically, all measurements in the system are below setpoint at start-
up. Another disadvantage is that as recipes change, control
instruments may need to be recalibrated.

RATIO CONTROL
Imagine a process in which an acid must be diluted with water in the
proportion two parts water to one part acid. If a tank has an acid
supply on one side of a mixing vessel and a water supply on the
other, a control system could be developed to control the ratio of
acid to water, even though the water supply itself may not be
controlled. This type of control system is called ratio control (Figure
7.26). Ratio control is used in many applications and involves a
contoller that receives input from a flow measurement device on the
unregulated (wild) flow. The controller performs a ratio calculation
and signals the appropriate setpoint to another controller that sets the
flow of the second fluid so that the proper proportion of the second
fluid can be added.
Ratio control might be used where a continuous process is going on
and an additive is being put into the flow (e.g., chlorination of
water).

Water flowAcid flow

Ratio Control

56 Fundamentals of Control
www.PAControl.com
 2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Process Control Loops

Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops

SELECTIVE CONTROL Activities
Selective control refers to a control system in which the more 11.In which type of control
important of two variables will be maintained. For example, in a system will the more important
boiler control system, if fuel flow outpaces air flow, then of two variables be
uncombusted fuel can build up in the boiler and cause an explosion. maintained?
Selective control is used to allow for an air-rich mixture, but never a
fuel-rich mixture. Selective control is most often used when
equipment must be protected or safety maintained, even at the cost
of not maintaining an optimal process variable setpoint. 1 Fuzzy control
2 Cascade control
FUZZY CONTROL 3 Ratio control
4 Selective control
Fuzzy control is a form of adaptive control in which the controller
uses fuzzy logic to make decisions about adjusting the process.
Fuzzy logic is a form of computer logic where whether something is
or is not included in a set is based on a grading scale in which
multiple factors are accounted for and rated by the computer. The
essential idea of fuzzy control is to create a kind of artificial
intelligence that will account for numerous variables, formulate a
theory of how to make improvements, adjust the process, and learn
from the result.
Fuzzy control is a relatively new technology. Because a machine
makes process control changes without consulting humans, fuzzy
12. control is the term
control removes from operators some of the ability, but none of the
responsibility, to control a process. used to describe a control system in
which the controller uses computer
logic to make decisions about
adjusting the process.

www.PAControl.com
 COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE - PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS

Fundamentals of Control 57
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
Module 7: Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 7.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL

1. Which of the following options best represents the reasons to control a process?
(Select three options that apply)

(1) Reduce variability

(2) Increase productivity
(3) Increase efficiency
(4) Reduce cost
(5) Ensure safety

2. Process is defined as the method of changing or refining raw materials to create end
products. Is this statement true or false?

(1) True
(2) False

3. Which of the following are advantages of reducing variability in a process

application?

(1) Helps ensure a consistently high-quality end product.

(2) Helps ensure an increase in the reaction rate of the process.
(3) Helps ensure increase in efficiency of the process.
(4) Helps ensure safety
Module 7: Workbook Exercises
Page 58 Workbook Exercises
2006 PAControl.com
EXERCISE 7.2 CONTROL THEORY BASICS

1. Which of the following tasks is associated with process control? (Select three options
that apply)

(1) Measurement
(2) Comparison
(3) Quality Analysis
(4) Adjustment
(5) Calculation

2. Which of the following variables are commonly measured or monitored in process

control applications? (Select three options that apply)

(1) Pressure
(2) Viscosity
(3) Nitrogen content
(4) Flow rate
(5) Temperature

3. A process liquid level needs to be held within 5 ft of 150 ft in a large tank. A pressure
transmitter monitors the liquids level using a pressure reading and sends the result
to a controller. The controller compares the level reading to the set point and opens
or closes an inflow or outflow pipe depending on the liquid level. Keeping in mind the
given scenario, match the terms in Column A with their values in Column B.

(1) Inferred process variable (A) 150 ft

(2) Manipulated variable (B) Pressure
(3) Measured variable (C) Flow of liquid to the tank
(4) Set point (D) Level

www.PAControl.com
Workbook Exercises Page 59
2006 PAControl.com

www.PAControl.com
4. Match each term to its correct definition.

(1) Load disturbance

(2) Control algorithm
(3) Manual control
(4) Manipulated variable
(5) Set point

(A) The factor that is changed to keep a measured variable at set point.
(B) An undesired change in a factor that can affect the process variable.
(C) A value or range of values for a process variable that must be maintained to
keep the process running properly.
(D) A control operation that directly involves human action.
(E) A mathematical expression of a control function

5. Match each term to its correct description.

(1) Closed-loop, automatic control

(2) Closed-loop, manual control
(3) Open-loop, automatic control

(A) An operator turns off the heater coil when the temperature transmitter outputs
a certain reading.
(B) A controller turns off the heater coil at set intervals, regardless of the process
temperature.
(C) A temperature sensor measures process temperature, sends the result to a
controller to compare to the setpoint, and the controller turns off the heater
coil.

6. is a deviation from set point due to load disturbance.

(1) Error
(2) Offset
(3) Rate of change

7. is a continuing error due to the inability of a control system to keep the

measured variable at set point.

(1) Load disturbance

(2) Offset
(3) Pressure
Page 60 Workbook Exercises
2006 PAControl.com
EXERCISE 7.3 COMPONENTS OF CONTROL LOOPS AND ISA SYMBOLOGY

1. The basic function of a is to convert a reading from a transducer into a

standard signal and transmit that signal to a controller or computer monitor.

(1) recorder
(2) transmitter
(3) converter

2. 420 mA is the most common standard analog signal used in the process control
industry today. Is this statement true or false?

(1) True
(2) False

3. Match the signal type in Column A with its example/application in Column B.

(1) Analog signal (A) 3 15 psig

(2) Pneumatic signal (B) Fieldbus, Profibus and Modbus
(3) Digital signal (C) 4-20 mA and 1 5 V

4. A customer would use to read the temperature of a process fluid on a

display.

(1) an indicator
(2) a volt-meter
(3) an actuator

5. Match each control loop equipment to its correct description.

(1) Recorder
(2) Controller
(3) Final control element
(4) Actuator

6. A pump motor is the most commonly used final control element. Is this statement
true or false?

(1) True
(2) False
Workbook Exercises Page 61
2006 PAControl.com
7. Match the ISA symbols in Column A with its respective description in Column B.

(1) (A) Programmable logic control

(2) (B) Temperature transmitter

(3) (C) Pneumatically actuated valve

(4) (D) Electrically actuated valve

Page 62 Workbook Exercises
2006 PAControl.com
EXERCISE 7.4 CONTROL ALGORITHMS AND TUNING

1. Match each term to its correct definitions.

(1) Proportional band

(2) Proportional/integral (PI) control
(3) Proportional control
(4) Derivative control
(5) Integral control

(A) A type of control that corrects error and eliminates offset.

(B) A type of control that produce erratic output in noisy applications.
(C) The percent change in error that will cause a 100% change in controller
output.
(D) A type of control that is prone to leaving an offset.
(E) A type of control that repeats the action of the proportional mode as long as
an error exists.

2. Identify the two effects on a process variable if the proportional gain (Pgain) is set too
high? (Select all that apply)

(1) Minimize offset

(2) Large offset
(3) Stable loop
(4) Possible cycling

3. Derivative gain (Dgain) is typically set to zero in flow applications since flow
applications are usually noisy and derivative control will react to readings that are in
fact noise, thus preventing the process from holding set point. Is this statement true
or false?

(1) True
(2) False
Workbook Exercises Page 63
2006 PAControl.com
EXERCISE 7.5 PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS

1. Which control system anticipates load disturbances and controls them before they
can impact the process variable?

(1) Selective control

(2) Fuzzy control
(3) Feed forward control
(4) Cascade control

2. Match the component label in Column A to its ISA symbol representation in Column
B.

(1) Flow transmitter (A)

(2) Temperature transmitter (B)

(3) Flow controller (C)

(4) Valve (D)

3. If R1 = 60 :, R2 = 100 :, and R3 = 100 :, what is the equivalent resistance (Req) in

the circuit?

(1) slow
(2) fast
 (3) variable speed

Page 64 Workbook Exercises

2006 PAControl.com.
Module 7: Workbook Exercises - Answers

Exercise 7.1 The Importance of Process Control

1. 1, 3, 5
2. 1
3. 1

Exercise 7.2 Control Theory Basics

1. 1, 2, 4
2. 1, 4, 5
3. D, C, B, A
4. B, E, D, A, C
5. C, A, B
6. 1
7. 2

Exercise 7.3 Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

1. 2
2. 1
3. C, A, B
4. 1
5. C, D, B, A
6. 2
7. B, C, D, A

Exercise 7.4 Control Algorithms and Tuning

1. C, A, D, B, E
2. 1, 4
3. 1

Exercise 7.5 Process Control Loops

1. 3
2. B, C, D, A
3. 1
Module 7: Workbook Exercises - Answers

Workbook Exercises Page 65

2006 PAControl.com
Module 7: Activity Answers
The Importance of Process Control

1. True
2. 1,3,5
3. 1,2,4

Control Theory Basics

1. True
2. True
3. True
4. 4
5. 3
6. False
7. False
8. 2,4

Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

1. 1,2,5
2. False
3. 3
4. True
5. 2,3,4
6. 1
7. 1,4
8. 2
9. 4
10. 3
11. 1
12. 2
13. 1
14. 2
15. 3
16. True
17. 4
18. True
19. True
20. 1
21. 3
Module 7: Activity Answers

Page 66 Activity Answers

2006 PAControl.com
Controller Algorithms and Tuning

1. 1,2,3,4
2. False
3. 2
4. False
5. 1
6. 2.5
7. 2,3
8. 3
9. 2,4
10. 2,3
11. 2
12. 4
13. False
14. 3

Process Control Loops

1. 4
2. 3
3. False
4. True
5. 1
6. True
7. 2
8. True
9. False
10. 3
11. 4
12. 1
Activity Answers Page 67
2006 PAControl.com
www.PAControl.com