Heuristic

For other uses, see Heuristic (disambiguation). when facing complex problems or incomplete informa-
tion. Researchers test if people use those rules with vari-
ous methods. These rules work well under most circum-
A heuristic technique (/hjrstk/; Ancient Greek:
, nd or discover), often called simply a stances, but in certain cases lead to systematic errors or
cognitive biases.[4]
heuristic, is any approach to problem solving, learning,
or discovery that employs a practical method not guaran-
teed to be optimal or perfect, but sucient for the im-
mediate goals. Where nding an optimal solution is im- 2 History
possible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to
speed up the process of nding a satisfactory solution.
Main article: Heuristics in judgment and decision making
Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cogni-
tive load of making a decision. Examples of this method
include using a rule of thumb, an educated guess, an intu- The study of heuristics in human decision-making was
itive judgment, stereotyping, proling, or common sense. developed in the 1970s and 80s by Israeli psycholo-
gists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman,[5] although
the concept was originally introduced by Nobel laureate
Herbert A. Simon. Simons original, primary object of
1 Overview research was problem solving which showed that we op-
erate within what he calls bounded rationality. He coined
Heuristics are strategies derived from previous experi- the term "satiscing", which denotes the situation where
ences with similar problems. These strategies rely on us- people seek solutions or accept choices or judgments
ing readily accessible, though loosely applicable, infor- that are good enough for their purposes, but could be
mation to control problem solving in human beings, ma- optimized.[6]
chines, and abstract issues.[1][2] Rudolf Groner analyzed the history of heuristics from
The most fundamental heuristic is trial and error, which its roots in ancient Greece up to contemporary work
can be used in everything from matching nuts and bolts in cognitive psychology and articial intelligence,[7] and
to nding the values of variables in algebra problems. proposed a cognitive style heuristic versus algorithmic
thinking which can be assessed by means of a validated
Here are a few other commonly used heuristics, from
[3] questionnaire.[8]
George Plya's 1945 book, How to Solve It:
Gerd Gigerenzer focused on the fast and frugal prop-
erties of heuristics, i.e., using heuristics in a way that is
If you are having diculty under-
principally accurate and thus eliminating most cognitive
standing a problem, try drawing a picture.
bias.[9] Heuristics like the Recognition heuristic or the
If you can't nd a solution, try assuming Take-the-best heuristic are viewed as special tools that
that you have a solution and seeing what tackle specic tasks (e.g., binary choice) under conditions
you can derive from that (working back- of uncertainty [10] and are organized in an adaptive tool-
ward). box [11] . From one particular batch of research, Gigeren-
zer and Wolfgang Gaissmaier found that both individ-
If the problem is abstract, try examining
uals and organizations rely on heuristics in an adaptive
a concrete example.
way. They also found that ignoring part of the informa-
Try solving a more general problem rst tion [with a decision], rather than weighing all the options,
(the "inventors paradox": the more am- can actually lead to more accurate decisions.[12][13]
bitious plan may have more chances of
Heuristics, through greater renement and research, have
success).
begun to be applied to other theories, or be explained
by them. For example: the cognitive-experiential self-
In psychology, heuristics are simple, ecient rules, theory (CEST) also is an adaptive view of heuristic pro-
learned or hard-coded by evolutionary processes, that cessing. CEST breaks down two systems that process in-
have been proposed to explain how people make deci- formation. At some times, roughly speaking, individuals
sions, come to judgments, and solve problems typically consider issues rationally, systematically, logically, delib-

1
2 2 HISTORY

erately, eortfully, and verbally. On other occasions, in- chose that it was more likely for Linda to be a fem-
dividuals consider issues intuitively, eortlessly, globally, inist and a bank teller than only a bank teller. The
and emotionally.[14] From this perspective, heuristics are likelihood of two events cannot be greater than that
part of a larger experiential processing system that is of- of either of the two events individually. For this rea-
ten adaptive, but vulnerable to error in situations that re- son, the representativeness heuristic is exemplary of
quire logical analysis.[15] the conjunction fallacy.[20]
In 2002, Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick pro- Nave diversication When asked to make several
posed that cognitive heuristics work by a process called choices at once, people tend to diversify more than
attribute substitution, which happens without conscious when making the same type of decision sequentially.
awareness.[16] According to this theory, when somebody
makes a judgment (of a target attribute) that is com- Escalation of commitment Describes the phe-
putationally complex, a rather easier calculated heuris- nomenon where people justify increased investment
tic attribute is substituted. In eect, a cognitively dif- in a decision, based on the cumulative prior invest-
cult problem is dealt with by answering a rather sim- ment, despite new evidence suggesting that the cost,
pler problem, without being aware of this happening.[16] starting today, of continuing the decision outweighs
This theory explains cases where judgments fail to show the expected benet. This is related to the sunk cost
regression toward the mean.[17] Heuristics can be consid- fallacy.
ered to reduce the complexity of clinical judgements in
Familiarity heuristic A mental shortcut applied to
healthcare.[18]
various situations in which individuals assume that
the circumstances underlying the past behavior still
hold true for the present situation and that the past
2.1 Theorized psychological heuristics behavior thus can be correctly applied to the new
situation. Especially prevalent when the individual
2.1.1 Well known experiences a high cognitive load.

Anchoring and adjustment Describes the common

human tendency to rely too heavily on the rst piece 2.1.2 Lesser known
of information oered (the anchor) when making
decisions. For example, in a study done with chil- Aect heuristic
dren, the children were told to estimate the number
Contagion heuristic
of jellybeans in a jar. Groups of children were given
either a high or low base number (anchor). Chil- Eort heuristic
dren estimated the number of jellybeans to be closer
to the anchor number that they were given.[19] Fluency heuristic
Gaze heuristic
Availability heuristic A mental shortcut that oc-
curs when people make judgments about the prob- Peakend rule
ability of events by the ease with which examples
come to mind. For example, in a 1973 Tversky & Recognition heuristic
Kahneman experiment, the majority of participants
Scarcity heuristic
reported that there were more words in the English
language that start with the letter K than for which Similarity heuristic
K was the third letter. There are actually twice as
many words in the English Language that have K as Simulation heuristic
the third letter as those that start with K, but words
Social proof
that start with K are much easier to recall and bring
to mind.[20] Take-the-best heuristic

Representativeness heuristic A mental shortcut

used when making judgments about the probabil- 2.2 Cognitive maps
ity of an event under uncertainty. Or, judging a
situation based on how similar the prospects are to Heuristics were also found to be used in the manipulation
the prototypes the person holds in his or her mind. and creation of cognitive maps. Cognitive maps are inter-
For example, in a 1982 Tversky and Kahneman ex- nal representations of our physical environment, particu-
periment, participants were given a description of larly associated with spatial relationships. These internal
a woman named Linda. Based on the description, it representations of our environment are used as memory
was likely that Linda was a feminist. Eighty to ninety as a guide in our external environment. It was found that
percent of participants, choosing from two options, when questioned about maps imaging, distancing, etc.,
 3

people commonly made distortions to images. These dis- ative thought and constructing scientic theories.[23] (See
tortions took shape in the regularization of images (i.e., The Logic of Scientic Discovery, and philosophers such
images are represented as more like pure abstract geo- as Imre Lakatos,[24] Lindley Darden, William C. Wim-
metric images, though they are irregular in shape). satt, and others.)
There are several ways that humans form and use cogni-
tive maps. Visual intake is a key part of mapping. The
rst is by using landmarks. This is where a person uses a
mental image to estimate a relationship, usually distance,
between two objects. Second, is route-road knowledge,
and this is generally developed after a person has per-
formed a task and is relaying the information of that task 4 Law
to another person. Third, is survey. A person estimates a
distance based on a mental image that, to them, might ap-
pear like an actual map. This image is generally created In legal theory, especially in the theory of law and eco-
when a persons brain begins making image corrections. nomics, heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case
These are presented in ve ways: 1. Right-angle bias is analysis would be impractical, insofar as practicality is
when a person straightens out an image, like mapping an dened by the interests of a governing body.[25]
intersection, and begins to give everything 90-degree an- The present securities regulation regime largely assumes
gles, when in reality it may not be that way. 2. Symmetry that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. In truth,
heuristic is when people tend to think of shapes, or build- actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases,
ings, as being more symmetrical than they really are. 3. heuristics, and framing eects.
Rotation heuristic is when a person takes a naturally (re-
alistically) distorted image and straightens it out for their For instance, in all states in the United States the legal
mental image. 4. Alignment heuristic is similar to the pre- drinking age for unsupervised persons is 21 years, be-
vious, where people align objects mentally to make them cause it is argued that people need to be mature enough
straighter than they really are. 5. Relative-position heuris- to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consump-
tic: people do not accurately distance landmarks in their tion. However, assuming people mature at dierent rates,
mental image based on how well they remember that par- the specic age of 21 would be too late for some and
ticular item. too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary
deadline is used because it is impossible or impractical to
Another method of creating cognitive maps is by means tell whether an individual is suciently mature for soci-
of auditory intake based on verbal descriptions. Using ety to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some
the mapping based from a persons visual intake, another proposed changes, however, have included the comple-
person can create a mental image, such as directions to a tion of an alcohol education course rather than the attain-
certain location.[21] ment of 21 years of age as the criterion for legal alcohol
possession. This would put youth alcohol policy more on
a case-by-case basis and less on a heuristic one, since the
completion of such a course would presumably be volun-
3 Philosophy tary and not uniform across the population.
The same reasoning applies to patent law. Patents are
Heuristic device is used when an entity X exists to en- justied on the grounds that inventors must be protected
able understanding of, or knowledge concerning, some so they have incentive to invent. It is therefore argued
other entity Y. A good example is a model that, as it that it is in societys best interest that inventors receive a
is never identical with what it models, is a heuristic de- temporary government-granted monopoly on their idea,
vice to enable understanding of what it models. Stories, so that they can recoup investment costs and make eco-
metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristic in that sense. nomic prot for a limited period. In the United States,
A classic example is the notion of utopia as described in the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from
Plato's best-known work, The Republic. This means that the date the application for patent was led, though the
the ideal city as depicted in The Republic is not given monopoly does not actually begin until the application
as something to be pursued, or to present an orientation- has matured into a patent. However, like the drinking-age
point for development; rather, it shows how things would problem above, the specic length of time would need to
have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to an- be dierent for every product to be ecient. A 20-year
other (often with highly problematic results), if one would term is used because it is dicult to tell what the num-
opt for certain principles and carry them through rigor- ber should be for any individual patent. More recently,
ously. some, including University of North Dakota law profes-
Heuristic is also often used as a noun to describe a rule- sor Eric E. Johnson, have argued that patents in dierent
of-thumb, procedure, or method.[22] Philosophers of sci- kinds of industries such as software patents should be
ence have emphasized the importance of heuristics in cre- protected for dierent lengths of time.[26]
4 7 REFERENCES

5 Stereotyping [6] Heuristics and heuristic evaluation. Interaction-

design.org. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
Stereotyping is a type of heuristic that all people use to [7] Rudolf Groner, Marina Groner & Walter F. Bischof
form opinions or make judgments about things they have (1983). Methods of heuristics. Hillsdale N.J., Lawrence
never seen or experienced.[27] They work as a mental Erlbaum.
shortcut to assess everything from the social status of a
[8] Rudolf Groner & Marina Groner (1991). Heuristische
person based on their actions to assumptions that a plant
versus algorithmische Orientierung als Dimension des in-
that is tall, has a trunk, and has leaves is a tree even though dividuellen kognitiven Stils. In K. Grawe, N. Semmer, R.
the person making the evaluation has never seen that par- Hnni (Hrsg.), ber die richtige Art, Psychologie zu be-
ticular type of tree before. treiben . Gttingen, Hogrefe.
Stereotypes, as rst described by journalist Walter Lipp- [9] Gerd Gigerenzer, Peter M. Todd, and the ABC Re-
mann in his book Public Opinion (1922), are the pictures search Group (1999). Simple Heuristics That Make Us
we have in our heads that are built around experiences as Smart. Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-
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[10] Neth, Hansjrg; Gigerenzer, Gerd (May 2015). Heuris-

tics: Tools for an uncertain world. Emerging Trends in
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pp. 118. doi:10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0394.
Algorithm [11] Gigerenzer, Gerd, and Reinhard Selten, eds. (2002)
Bounded rationality: The adaptive toolbox. Cambridge,
Behavioral economics
MA, MIT press. ISBN 978-0262571647
Daniel Kahneman [12] Gigerenzer, Gerd; Gaissmaier, Wolfgang (January 2011).
Heuristic Decision Making. Annual Review of Psychol-
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[15] Epstein, S.; Pacini, R.; Denes-Raj, V.; Heier, H.

(1996). Individual dierences in intuitive-experiential
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[1] Pearl, Judea (1983). Heuristics: Intelligent Search Strate-
gies for Computer Problem Solving. New York, Addison- [16] Kahneman, Daniel; Shane Frederick (2002). Represen-
Wesley, p. vii. ISBN 978-0-201-05594-8 tativeness Revisited: Attribute Substitution in Intuitive
Judgment. In Thomas Gilovich; Dale Grin; Daniel
[2] Emiliano, Ippoliti (2015). Heuristic Reasoning: Studies Kahneman. Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of
in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics. Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. pp. 12. Press. pp. 4981. ISBN 978-0-521-79679-8. OCLC
ISBN 978-3-319-09159-4. 47364085.
[3] Plya, George (1945) How to Solve It: A New Aspect of [17] Kahneman, Daniel (December 2003). Maps of
Mathematical Method, Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer- Bounded Rationality: Psychology for Behavioral Eco-
sity Press. ISBN 0-691-02356-5 ISBN 0-691-08097-6 nomics. American Economic Review. Ameri-
can Economic Association. 93 (5): 14491475.
[4] Gigerenzer, Gerd (1991). How to Make Cognitive Illu-
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[5] Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky, and Paul Slovic, eds.
(1982) Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics & Biases. [19] Smith, H. (1999). Use of the anchoring and adjustment
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[20] Harvey, N (2007). Use of heuristics: Insights from fore-

casting research. Thinking & Reasoning. 13 (1): 524.
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[21] Sternberg, Robert J.; Karin Sternberg (2012). Cognitive

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[22] K. M. Jaszczolt (2006). Defaults in Semantics and Prag-

matics, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISSN
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[23] Roman Frigg and Stephan Hartmann (2006). Models

in Science, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
ISSN 1095-5054

[24] Kiss, Olga (2006). Heuristic, Methodology or

Logic of Discovery? Lakatos on Patterns of Think-
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[25] Gerd Gigerenzer and Christoph Engel, eds. (2007).

Heuristics and the Law, Cambridge, The MIT Press, ISBN
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[26] Johnson, Eric E. (2006). Calibrating Patent Lifetimes

(PDF). Santa Clara Computer & High Technology Law
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[27] Bodenhausen, Galen V.; et al. (1999). On the Dialec-

tics of Discrimination: Dual Processes in Social Stereotyp-
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by Shelly Chaiken and Yaacov Trope. NY: Guilford Press.
pp. 27192. ISBN 1572304219. Retrieved 24 March
2015.

[28] Kleg, Milton (1883). Hate Prejudice and Racism. Al-

bany: State University of New York Press. p. 135. ISBN
0791415368. Retrieved 24 March 2015.

[29] Gken, Sinan. Pictures in Our Heads. European Roma

Rights Centre. Retrieved 24 March 2015.

8 Further reading
How To Solve It: Modern Heuristics, Zbigniew
Michalewicz and David B. Fogel, Springer Verlag,
2000. ISBN 3-540-66061-5
Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Articial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.), Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-
13-790395-2
The Problem of Thinking Too Much, 2002-12-11,
Persi Diaconis
6 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Charles Matthews, Wik, HappyDog, Maximus Rex, Jose Ramos, Shantavira, RadicalBender, Robbot, Altenmann, Romanm, Thesilver-
bail, LX, Wereon, Anthony, Cyrius, SpellBott, Ancheta Wis, Matthew Stannard, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Joconnor, Mellum, Varlaam,
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