ECE / EEE F418

Modern Communication Technologies

Introduction

Jan 17 2017

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 In this Semester we focus on..

Digital communication systems overview:

Channel capacity and coding,
Digital link improve techniques,
Digital receiver design and performance analysis,
Wireless communication systems:
Wireless channel models and link improvement techniques,
Multiple access schemes.
Basic concept of mobile network,
Optical Communication Systems:
Transmitters, receivers and other optical Communication
subsystem,
Optical wireless systems.
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 When do we learn in this Semester ?

o Teaching Schedule

o 12.00 PM 12.50 PM, Tuesday, Thursday & Saturday in F 108

o Contact me:
o @ Chamber D301 on Monday, Wednesday 4:00pm -
4:30pm
o Email: [email protected]

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 Text & Reference Books

Text Books:
T1. DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS Fundamentals and Applications: ERNARD SKLAR and
Pabitra Kumar Ray; Pearson Education 2009, 2/e.

T2. Wireless Communications Priniciples and Practice. Theodore Rappaport, Pearson

Education

T3. H Kolimbiris Fiber Optic Communications Pearson Education, Ist Indian Edition. OR

Reference Book (RB):

R1. Communications System Engineering, John G Proakis and Masoud Salehi, Pearson
Education, 2002, Second Ed.

R2. Fiber-Optic Communication Systems, Govind P Agarwal, 3rd Edition, Wiley India Edition
2008.

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5

Evaluation Methodology

Component Duration Weightage Marks Date & Time Remarks

Test I 60 mts. 15% 45 Feb 25 Closed Book

1.00 -2.00
PM
Test II 60 mts. 15% 45 April 3, Closed Book
1.00 -2.00
PM
Surprise Quiz 10% 30

Term Paper 20% 60

Comprehensive 3 Hrs 40% 120 03 May 2016 Closed Book
FN
Totals 100% 300

ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION

 Typical Digital Communication System

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 Typical Digital Communication System

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 Performance measures

o High Throughput (Greatest

Channel capacity)

o Minimum SNR at which the

system functions (Receiver
sensitivity)

o Minimum possible Tx power

o Capacity to withstand co &

adjacent channel interference

o Probability of Errors Bit error

probabilities & Symbol error
probabilities

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 Shannon Hartley Channel Capacity Theorem

Shannon investigated on the reliable transmission of digital data over a noisy

channel.

Shannons Contribution: It is theoretically possible to transmit information over a

Noisy channel, with an arbitrarily small error probability, at any rate R, which is less
than or equal to the theoretical capacity of the channel C :

Bits/sec

S/N = Signal to Noise ratio in

W = Channel Bandwidth Hz
the channel

Note: Values of S, N, W set a limit on the transmission rate and not on the
probability of error.

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 Shannon Hartley Channel Capacity Theorem

Bits/sec

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 Lower Bound on Eb / N0 - Channel Capacity

Bits/sec

What Eb/No is needed to achieve R = C ?

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 Lower Bound on Eb / N0 - Channel Capacity

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 Shannons Limit on Eb/N0

Let

Substituting for x and manipulating, we get

For BW tending to infinity, C/W -> 0, x ->0

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 Shannons Limit on Eb/N0

Shannons Limit

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 BW Efficiencies of MPSK, MQAM, MFSK

15
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 Shannons Important Contribution

Shannons work provided a theoretical proof for the bounds on the

channel capacity.

To achieve this performance, out of the known modulation schemes, only

orthogonal signaling can help. However, we have to let k .

That is the number of orthogonal signals M = 2k = 2RT tend to infinity !!

Now the question is: Is there a way to transmit messages reliably ( => with
an arbitrarily small error probability ) over a noisy channel at a positive rate
without an exponential increase in the bandwidth ?

YES: The tool to achieve this is CODING

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 Bits, Symbols, and BW
Coded Bandpass Modulation

bits Bit duration Tb, Bit rate Rb, Bit energy Eb

k- bit Symbols Symbol duration Ts, Symbol rate Rs, Symbol energy Es

Coded: k-bits mapped to n-bits : Ex: k = 2; n = 3:

If transmitted at baseband,
Now we have coded symbols, consisting of 3 bits,
BW = (n/k) (Rb/2)
that need to be transmitted in the symbol duration Ts.

Ex: (3,2) case, during the

Carrier Modulation: Could be BPSK,
symbol duration of Ts, 3 bits
MPSK, QAM, MFSK, OFDM.
have to be sent, using BPSK.
In an uncoded case, If we use a simple BPSK, ( n = k), That is, 3 sinusoid segments
BW = Bit rate of the system = Rb. of duration Ts/3, with phases
either 0 or p, are to be sent.
In the coded case, the rate at which the coded bits
need to be transmitted is (n/k) Rb. This needs more BW than
sending 2 sinusoid segments
BWcoded (BPSK) = (n/k) Rb of duration Ts/2, with phases
either 0 or p
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 Coded Bandpass Modulation
Tx Configurations (BPSK Example)

At the transmitter, k bit message is mapped onto an n-bit coded bits, BPSK
modulated and transmitted.

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 Coded Bandpass Modulation Rx Configuration (BPSK Example)

At the receiver, nbit coded word is detected using a matched filter + decision
stage. k-bit message is mapped from n-bit code word.

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 Bits, Symbols and BW
Coded MPSK Modulation

bits Bit duration Tb, Bit rate Rb, Bit energy Eb

k- bit Symbols Symbol duration Ts, Symbol rate Rs, Symbol energy Es

Coded: k-bits mapped to n-bits : Ex: k = 2; n = 3:

Now we have coded symbols, consisting of 3 bits, If transmitted at baseband,
that need to be transmitted in the symbol duration Ts. BW = (n/k) (Rb/2)
Ex: (3,2) case, during the
Carrier Modulation: Could be BPSK, symbol duration of Ts, 3 bits
MPSK, QAM, MFSK, OFDM. have to be sent, using 8PSK.

In an uncoded case, If we use an MPSK, BW = That is, a single sinusoid

(1/k)Rb. segment of duration Ts, with one
of the 8 phases is to be sent.
In the coded case, the rate at which the coded bits
need to be transmitted is This needs a BW corresponding
(n/k) Rb. & number of coded bits is n to a pulse of duration Ts (2Tb).
BWcoded (MPSK) = (1/log2M) (n/k) Rb
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 Example of Coding & MPSK Modulation

An example could be a data sequence encoded with a (127, 64) BCH code and
then modulated using 16 array PSK.

Coded Data Symbol Rate

Data Rate Rcb Rs
Rate R
(127,64) BCH 16 PSK
Coding Modulation

Received
Eb/N0
PE & Pb
PB
(127,64) BCH 16 PSK De
De Coding Modulation

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 Where is Channel Coding done ?

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 Euclidean & Hamming distances

In a general signaling scheme with coded waveforms, sequences of length k of the

source outputs are mapped into sequences of length n of the form

si = E (1,1, . . . , 1)

The ratio Rc = k / n : code rate

These points are located on the vertices of a n-dimensional hypercube of edge

length 2E.

There exist a total of 2n vertices of an n-dimensional hypercube of which we have to

choose M = 2k as code words.

Obviously, one has to select these 2k vertices in such a way that they are as far
apart from each other as possible.

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 Euclidean & Hamming distances

For the sequences si and sj , Corresponding to any 2 of the 2k code words, the
Euclidean distance d E i j , between hem is

(d Ei j )2 = 1ln ( 2 E) 2
l:sli sl j

If the sequences si and sj , differ in d H i j locations, Then the Euclidean distance d

E is related to d H through
ij ij

(d Ei j )2 = 1ln ( 2 E) 2 = 4d H i j E
l:sli sl j

Let each of the 2k code word differ from another code word in at least d Hmin
components (Hamming Distance), then

(dE min )2 = 4dHminE

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 Error Probability, BW and Coding gain

Since, PM M Q (((d Emin ) 2 (i j ) / 2N0) ) If no coding is employed, that is if we

used all the vertices of a k-dimensional
hypercube rather than 2k vertices of an
PM M Q (((4d HminE / 2N0) ) n-dimensional hypercube , then

E = (k/n) Eb = RcEb
Rc = k / n = 1 dHmin = 1

PM M Q (((2 Eb / N0 )d Hmin Rc)

PM M Q (((2Eb / N0) )

The symbol error probability is bounded by

minimum hamming distance & the code rate.

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 Error Probability, BW and Coding gain

Coding Gain: Reduction in the required Eb/N0, to achieve the same symbol
error probability, when coding is employed.

Gcoding = d Hmin Rc

Bandwidth Expansion Ratio

B = (BWcoded (BPSK) / BWuncoded (BPSK) )

BWcoded (BPSK) = (n/k) Rb BWuncoded (BPSK) = Rb

B = (n/k) = 1/Rc

( Not exponential as in Orthogonal OR

Linear increase in the Bandwidth
MFSK where it is BW = (2k/2k) Rb )
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 What else can we do with Coding ?

Will it help, if we know that a particular

The purpose of Coding, as we
detected coded symbol is in error?
discussed till now, was to :
(Error Detection)
Reach the Shannon bound with moderate
YES. We can ask for re
(Linear) increase in Bandwidth
transmission, if time permits.

(ARQ Protocols)
Can we get a different kind of benefit from
coding? In real time systems, If delay of the
ARQ is not allowed, can we also
correct the errors ?
Coding or no coding, at the receiver, we do
accept that errors occur in the detection of
(Error Detection & correction)
received symbols.
Can we get this benefit from coding?
Any error in the coded or uncoded symbol YES (Parity-check coding, BCH,
will translate to errors in the original data bits. Golay, Hamming codes, )
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 Types of Channel Coding

Waveform Coding: Procedures to transform a waveform set (representing a message

set) into an improved waveform, to provide better distance properties compared to the
original set.

Examples: Orthogonal coding that we discussed before. PPM was one such a case.

Structured Sequences: Procedures that insert structured redundancy in to the message

bits, so that the presence of errors can be detected or Detected and Corrected

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 Hadamard Matrices and Orthogonal Codes

There are a class of Orthogonal codes

that can be constructed, from a base set.

The signal set is Orthogonal if and only if

Note: H2 (1, : ) is orthogonal to H2 (2 : 4, : )

Similarly, each row of H2 is orthogonal

Note that H1(1, : ) is orthogonal to H1(2, : ) to all other rows of H2.
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 Hadamard Matrices and Orthogonal Codes

We can construct a code word set Hk, At the receiver, 2k -bit coded word is detected
of dimension 2k X 2k, Hadamard using a matched filter + decision stage. k-bit
Matrix for a k-bit data set from Hk-1 message is mapped from 2k -bit code word.

k message are replaced by

2k orthogonal code bits.
To meet the real time requirement, 2k code bits
are to be transmitted in the same time duration
as k bits.
At the transmitter, k bit message is
mapped onto an 2k -bit coded bits,
and can be BPSK modulated and Hence, BW requirements grow
transmitted. exponentially with M

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 Bi-orthogonal Codes

A bi-orthogonal set of M total code The Biorthogonal sets fall under

words can be obtained from M/2 code antipodal signal sets,
words by augmenting it with negative
of each code word as:
Hence, they have better distance
properties and show improved bit error
probability performance compared to
orthogonal sets.

Biorthogonal set requires half the BW

compared to orthogonal set.

BW requirements grow
exponentially with M/2
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 Structured Sequences

The probability of errors in the received bits is made to reduce by increasing

either the BW or Eb/N0. However there is a limit to which we can do.

The other way of handling the issue is to introduce known amount of redundancy in
the message bits to identify whether error has occurred or not.

Once the error detection is made, there can be methods to rectify the errors and
deliver error free bits at the receiver.

Methods exist that introduce structured redundancy in to the given message bits.

Such coded sequence are called as are called Structured sequences

The redundant bits can be used either for error detection or for error correction

This addition of redundant bits will definitely demand for more power and BW
but not as much as orthogonal codes (BW) or non orthogonal (power)
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 Structured Sequences Nomenclature

k : Number of Message bits or Data bits

n: Number of Code bits or Channel symbols or Channel Bits

Code is referred as (n , k) Code

(n k): Additional bits added by encoder called redundant bits or Parity

bits or Parity Symbol or Check bits

(n k) / k : Redundancy of the code

k / n : Code rate ( Rc)

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 Parity Codes

Append an extra bit (parity bit) to the At the receiver, modulo sum the received
original block k of bits (symbol), to form a bits and if the value is odd ( 1), then
(k+1) bit coded symbol there exists one, three or in general odd
number of bit errors in the block of k bits.
Rate of the code = k/(k+1) Thus, a block with an odd number of bit
errors can be detected.
Even parity: The appended parity bit is
such that when modulo sum over all the But, a block with an even number of bit
bits is taken the result is even (0 in errors can not be detected.
binary case).
The location of the parity bit is known to
Example 1: For the 7-bit message receiver and hence can be discarded to
[ 1 1 1 0 0 1 1] appending a [1] makes get the message bit sequence
the coded word as [ 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1] and Odd parity: The appended parity bit is such
the modulo sum of all bits is 0 that when modulo sum over all the bits is
Example 2: For [ 1 1 0 0 0 1 1] taken the result is odd (1 in binary case).
appending a [0] makes the coded word Even or Odd Parity code Can only
as [ 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0] the modulo sum of detect the presence of an odd number
all bits is 0 of errors.
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 Parity Codes and Tx , Rx Operations
Symbol Rate Rs
or Code data rate
Message Bits Code Bits
Parity
Modulation
Message Data Coding
Rate Rb Coded Data Rate Rcb
Coded Symbol
or bit Energy Es

Message Bits Code Bits

Parity De De Modulation
Coding and detection
Message bit error Bit error
probability = PB probability =
p = Pb
At the demod / detect stage, assume If the error in the block is not detected, then
that p is the probability of code bit error. the block is used to decode the message.

Parity Decoder works on a block of n bits to

identify whether the block is in error or not. What is the probability that the errors go
un detected and contribute to message bit
If the block is in error, then the block is error probability ?
dropped. Error detection.
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 Code bit errors, block errors and message bit errors

Message Code Bits

Coded Symbol
Bits Parity De Coding De Mod and detect or bit Energy Es
PB Code Bit error
probability = p = Pb
If all bit errors are equally likely and occur independently, with p as the probability of
bit error, the probability of j errors occurring in a block of n bits is

Where

With one bit parity code, even number of errors go undetected.

The probability of Message error or Block error or Word error is

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 Example of
Code bit errors, block errors
EX: For a (4,3) even parity error detection code, if the probability of channel symbol
error p = 10-3, what is the probability of not being able to detect the erroneous block ?

Message Parity Bit Code Word

000 0 0 000

010 1 1 010

011 0 0 011

... . . ...

111 1 1 111

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 Rectangular Parity Codes
(Can correct 1 error)
From the given message bits (Ex: k = 25 bits)

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

Form a rectangle of message bits

1 1 0 1 0 1
comprising of M rows & N columns
1 0 0 0 0 1
Horizontal parity bit is added to each row
Vertical parity bit is added to each column 0 1 1 0 0 0

Now the total coded bits are 36 and the 0 0 0 0 1 1

code is (36,25)
These 36 bits are transmitted, in serial 1 1 0 0 1 1
fashion, either in baseband or passband
At the receiver, the 36 serial bits are again 1 1 1 1 0 0
formed into a rectangle of (6 X 6) and
parity test is conducted. Rate of the code
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 Coded block error Probabilities with Error Correction
Capable Codes
In a coded word, if all bit errors are equally With pc = 10-3 PM = 6.3 X 10 -4
likely and occur independently, with p as
the probability of bit error,
The decoded bit error probability is
If the code can correct up to t errors, then

the probability of Message error or Block

error or Word error ( ie., the decoded block
has an uncorrected error) is given by
With pc = 10-3 PB = 3.5 X 10 -5

j=t+1

In the example of rectangular (36,25) code

It could correct one error : t = 1

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 Coded Vs Uncoded Example

Compare the message error probability for a communication system link with and
without the use of error correction coding. Assume that the un-coded transmission
characteristics are: BPSK modulation, Gaussian Noise, Pr/N0 = 47,766, data rate R =
4800 bits/sec.

For the coded case, also assume the use of a (15,11) error correcting code that is
capable of correcting any single error pattern within a block of 15 bits.
Uncoded
With BPSK, Bit error probability is pu = Q((2Eb/N0))

Eb / N0 = (Pr / N0 ) (1/R) = 43776 / 4800 = 9.12 = 9.6 dB pu = 1.02 X 10-5

Un Coded message or block error probability is obtained by considering all the ways in
which message or block is not in error.
Even if one bit in message block is in error, the block is erroneous.
(1 pu)11 is probability that message is not in error
Message Error probability is then PuM = 1 (1 pu)11 = 1.12 X 10-4
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 Coded Vs Uncoded Example

For the coded case, also assume the use of a (15,11) error correcting code that is
capable of correcting any single error pattern within a block of 15 bits.
Coded
Rc = 4800 X 15/11 = 6545 Ec / N0 = (Pr / N0 ) (1/Rc) = 6.69 = 9.3 dB

pc = Q((2Ec/N0)) = Q((13.38)) = 1.36 X 10-4

Coded block error n = 15, t = 1 & pc = 1.36 X 10-4.

probability is

(Considering only the first term for summation)

Coded to uncoded Performance improvement = 1.12 *10-4/ 1.94*10-6 = 57.7

Coded to uncoded BW Expansion = 6545 /4800 =1.36 With pc = 1.36 X10-4

PBc = 2.6 X 10 -7
The decoded bit error probability is PBuc= 1.02 X 10-5
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 Coded Vs Uncoded with low EB/N0

Uncoded (14 dB) Coded (14 dB)

j=t+1
Ec
pc the code can correct 2 errors, t = 2,
pc
PMC = 1.56* 10-6
since the coding has
14 dB = 25.12 increased the number of improvement over un-coded
bits from 12 to 24, the = 2.112 * 10-5/ 1.56* 10-6 = 13.5
pc = 1.76* 10-6 energy per coded bit is
BW Expansion = 24/12 = 2
Ec = Eb * 12/24
PMU = 1 (1 - pc)k The decoded bit error probability is
Ec = 25.12/2 = 12.56
With k = 12,
pc = 9.23 * 10-4 PBC = 1.98* 10-7
PMU = 2.112 * 10-5
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 Coded Vs Uncoded with EB/N0 = 10 dB

Uncoded (10 dB) since the coding has increased the number of
bits from 12 to 24, the energy per coded bit is
pc
Ec = Eb * 12/24 Ec = 10/2 = 5

10 dB = 10
pc = 4.1 * 10-2
pc = 3.36* 10-3

PMU = 1 (1 - pc)k j=t+1

the code can correct 2 errors, t = 2,

With k = 12,

PMU = 3.96 * 10-2 PMC = 5.7* 10-2

Coded (10 dB) The decoded bit error probability is

Ec
pc PB = 17.43* 10-3

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 Coded Vs Uncoded with Low EB/N0

Eb / Un coded Coded Un coded / Coded

No
pc 1.76 X 10 -6 9.23 X 10 -4 0.0019
14
PMuc 2.12 X 10 -5 1.56 X 10 -6 13.5
dB
PBuc 1.76 X 10 -6 1.98 X 10 -7 8.8
pc 3.36 X 10 -3 4.10 X 10 -2 0.008
10
PMuc 3.96 X 10 -2 5.70 X 10 -2 0.69
dB
PBuc 3.36 X 10 -3 17.40X 10 -3 0.19

At low SNRs, Coding does not help

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 Liner Block codes Important Points

Minimum Distance of a code: Each Error detection capability : dmin-1 = 2

code word differs from another code
word in at least d min components.
Error correction capability : =1
floor [(dmin-1)/2]

Code can be used for simultaneous

correction of a errors and detection of
b errors, where b a, provided the
dmin = 3 minimum distance

dmin a + b + 1

a = 1 and b = 1 satisfy the above.

Weight of a Code: Number of non
zero components in the vector. Hence, this code can detect 1 error
Minimum Weight = 3 and correct 1 error simultaneously
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 Hamming, Golay and BCH Codes

Hamming codes are a simple class of liner block codes.

m = 2, 3,

Have a minimum distance of 3 and can correct 1 error and detect up to 2 errors

Golay Codes: Most useful block codes are extended (24,12) Golay codes.

Have a minimum distance of 8 & Can correct all triple errors.

Bose- Chadhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) codes are a generalization of Hamming codes.

These are a powerful set of codes & large selection of block lengths & Code rates are
possible.

Multiple Error correction capabilities.

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 Error correction Capabilities of BCH codes

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 Comparison of Codes
Performance of BCH Codes

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