BASICS OF TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY

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COTTON MIXING

Cotton is a hygroscopic material, hence it easily adapts to the atmospheric

airconditions. Air temperature inside the mxing and blowroom area should be more than
25 degree centigrade and the relative humidity (RH %) should be around 45 to 60 %,
because high moisture in the fibre leads to poor cleaning and dryness in the fibre leads
to fibre damages which ultimately reduces the spinnability of cotton.

Cotton is a natural fibre. The following properties vary very much between bales
(between fibres) fibre micronaire fibre length fibre strength fibre color fibre maturity. Out
of these, fibre micronaire, color, maturity and the origin of growth results in dye
absorption variation. There fore it is a good practice to check the maturity, color and
micronaire of all the bales and to maintain the following to avoid dye pick up variation
and barre in the finished fabric.

BALE MANAGEMENT:

In a particular lot

Micronaire range of the cotton bales used should be same for all the mixings of a
lot
Micronaire average of the cotton bales used should be same for all the mixings of
a lot
Range of color of cotton bales used should be same for all the mixings of a lot
Average of color of cotton bales used should be same for all the mixings of a lot
Range of matutrity coefficient of cotton bales used should be same for all mixings
of a lot
Average of maturity coefficient of cotton bales used should be same for all
mixings of a lot

Please note, In practice people do not consider maturity coefficient since

Micronaire variation and maturity variation are related to each other for a
particular cotton.

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If the cotton received is from different ginners, it is better to maintain the percentage of
cotton from different ginners throught the lot, even though the type of cotton is same.

It is not advisable to mix the yarn made of out of two different shipments of same cotton.
For example, the first shipment of west-african cotton is in january and the second
shipment is in march, it is not advisable to mix the yarn made out of these two different
shipments. If there is no shadevariation after dyeing, then it can be mixed.

According to me, stack mixing is the best way of doing the mixing compared to using
automatic bale openers which picks up the material from 40 to 70 bales depending on
the length of the machine and bale size, provided stack mixing is done perfectly.
Improper stack mixing will lead to BARRE or SHADE VARIATION problem. Stack
mixing with Bale opener takes care of short term blending and two mixers in series
takes care of long term blending.

Why?

Tuft sizes can be as low as 10 grams and it is the best way of opening the
material(nep creation will be less, care has to be taken to reduce recyling in the
inclined lattice)
contaminations can be removed before mixing is made
The raw material gets acclamatised to the required temp and R.H.%, since it is
allowed to stay in the room for more than 24 hours and the fibre is opened , the
fibre gets conditioned well.

Disadvantages:

more labour is required

more space is required
mixing may not be 100% homogeneous( can be overcome by installing double
mixers)

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 If automatic bale opening machine is used the bales should be arranged as
follows

let us assume that there are five different micronaires and five different colors in
the mixing, 50 bales are used in the mxing. 5 to 10 groups should be made by
grouping the bales in a mixing so that each group will have average micronaire
and average color as that of the overall mixing. The position of a bale for
micronaire and color should be fixed for the group and it should repeat in the
same order for all the groups

It is always advisable to use a mixing with very low Micronaire range.Preferably

.6 to 1.0. Because

It is easy to optimise the process parameters in blow room and cards

drafting faults will be less
dyed cloth appearance will be better because of uniform dye pickup etc

It is advisable to use single cotton in a mixing, provided the length, strength

micronaire, maturity coefficient and trash content of the cotton will be suitable for
producing the required counts. Automatic bale opener is a must if more than two
cottons are used in the mixing, to avoid BARRE or SHADE VARIATION problem.

It is better to avoid using the following cottons

cottons with inseparable trash (very small size), even though the trash % is less
sticky cotton (with honey dew or sugar)
cotton with low maturity co-efficient

Stickiness of cotton consists of two major causes. Honeydew from Whiteflies and
aphids and high level of natural plant sugars. The problems with the randomly
distributed honey dew contamination often results in costly proudction
interruptions and requires immediate action often as severe as discontinuing the
use of contaminated cottons. An effective way to control cotton stickiness in

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 processing is to blend sticky and non-sticky cotton. Sticky cotton percentage
should be less than 25%.

BLOWROOM

BLOWROOM

Basic operations in the blowroom:

1. opening
2. cleaning
3. mixing or blending
4. microdust removal
5. uniform feed to the carding machine
6. Recycling the waste

Blow room installations consists of a sequence of different machines to carry out the
above said operations.Moreover Since the tuft size of cotton becomes smaller and
smaller, the required intensities of processing necessitates different machine
configuration.

TECHNOLOGICAL POINTS IN BLOWROOM

Opening in blowroom means opening into small flocks.Technological operation of

opening means the volume of the flock is increased while the number of fibres remains
constant. i.e., the specific density of the material is reduced

The larger the dirt particle , the better they can be removed
Since almost every blowroom machine can shatter particles, as far as possible a
lot of impurities should be eliminated at the start of the process.Opening should
be followed immediately by cleaning, if possible in the same machine.
The higher the degree of opening, the higher the degree of cleaning. A very high
cleaning effect is almost always purchased at the cost of a high fibre loss. Higher
roller speeds give a better cleaning effect but also more stress on the fibre.

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 Cleaning is made more difficult if the impurities of dirty cotton are distributed
through a larger quantity of material by mxing with clean cotton.
The cleaning efficiency is strongly dependent on the TRASH %. It is also affected
by the size of the particle and stickyness of cotton. Therefore cleaning efficiency
can be different for different cottons with the same trash %.
There is a new concept called CLEANING RESISTANCE. Different cottons have
different cleaning resistance.
If cotton is opened well in the opening process, cleaning becomes easier
because opened cotton has more surface area, therefore cleaning is more
efficient
If automatic bale opener is used, the tuft size should be as small as possible and
the machine stop time should be reduced to the minimum level possible
If Manual Bale openers are used, the tuft size fed to the feed lattice should be as
small as possible
Due to machine harvesting, cotton contains more and more impurities, which
furthermore are shattered by hard ginning. Therefore cleaning is always an
important basic operation.
In cleaning, it is necessary to release the adhesion of the impurities to the fibres
and to give hte particles an opportunity to separate from the stock. The former is
achieved mostly by picking of flocks; the latter is achieved by leading the flocks
over a grid.
Using inclined spiked lattice for opening cotton in the intial stages is always a
better way of opening the cotton with minimum damages. Ofcourse the
production is less with such type of machines. But one should bear in mind that if
material is recyled more in the lattice, neps may increase.
Traditional methods use more number of machines to open and clean natural
fibres.
Mechanical action on fibres causes some deterioration on yarn quality,
particularly in terms of neps. Moreover it is true that the staple length of cotton
can be significantly shortened.

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 Intensive opening in the initial machines like Bale breaker and blending machines
means that shorter overall cleaning lines are adequate.
In a beating operation, the flocks are subjected to a sudden strong blow. The
inertia of the impurities accelerated to a high speed, is substantially greater than
that of the opened flocks due to the low air resistance of the impurities. The latter
are hurled against the grid and because of their small size, pass between the grid
bars into the waste box, while the flocks continue around the periphery of the
rotating beater.
By using a much shorter machine sequence, fibres with better elastic properties
and improved spinnability can be produced.
Air streams are often used in the latest machine sequence, to separate fibres
from trash particles by buoyancy differences rather than beating the material
against a series of grid bars.
There are three types of feeding apparatus in the blowroom opening machines
1. two feed rollers( clamped)
2. feed roller and a feed table
3. a feed roller and pedals
Two feed roller arrangements gives the best forwarding motion, but unfortunately
results in greatest clamping distance between the cylinders and the beating
element
feed roller and pedal arrangement gives secure clamping throughout the width
and a small clamping distance, which is very critical for an opening machine
In a feed roller and table arrangement, the clamping distance can be made very
small. This gives intensive opening, but clamping over the whole width is poor,
because the roller presses only on the highest points of the web. Thin places in
the web can be dragged out of hte web as a clump by the beaters
Honeydew (sugar) or stickiness in cotton affect the process very badly.
Beacause of that production and quality is affected. Particles stick to metal
surfaces, and it gets aggreavated with heat and pressure. These deposits
change the surface characteristics which directly affects the quality and running
behavior.

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 There are chemicals which can be sprayed to split up the sugar drops to achieve
better distribution. But this system should use water solutions which is not
recommeded due to various reasons.
It is better to control the climate inside the department when sticky cotton is used.
Low temperature (around 22 degree celcius) and low humidity (45% RH). This
requires an expensive air conditioning set up.
The easiest way to process sticky cotton is to mix with good cotton and to
process through two blending machines with 6 and 8 doublings and to install
machines which will seggregate heavier particles by buoyanccy differences.
General factors which affect the degree of opening , cleaning and fibre loss are,
1. thickness of the feed web
2. density of the feed web
3. fibre coherence
4. fibre alignment
5. size of the flocks in the feed (flock size may be same but density is
different)
6. the type of opening device
7. speed of the opening device
8. degree of penetration
9. type of feed (loose or clamped)
10. distance between feed and opening device
11. type of opening device
12. type of clothing
13. point density of clothing
14. arrangement of pins, needles, teeth
15. speeds of the opening devices
16. throughput speed of material
17. type of grid bars
18. area of the grid surface
19. grid settings
20. airflow through the grid

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 21. condition of pre-opening
22. quantity of material processed,
23. position of the machine in the machine sequence
24. feeding quantity variation to the beater
25. ambient R.H.%
26. ambient teperature
Cotton contains very little dust before ginning. Dust is therefore caused by
working of the material on the machine. New dust is being created through
shattering of impurities and smashing and rubbing of fibres. However removal of
dust is not simple. Dust particles are very light and therefore float with the cotton
in the transport stream.Furthermore the particles adhere quite strongly to the
fibres. If they are to be eliminated they are to be rubbed off.The main elimination
points for adhering dust therefore, are those points in the process at which high
fibre/metal friction or high fibre/fibre friction is produced.
Removal of finest particles of contaminants and fibre fragments can be
accomplished by releasing the dust into the air, like by turning the material over,
and then removing the dust-contaminated air. Release of dust into the air occurs
whereever the raw material is rolled, beaten or thrown about.Accordingly the air
at such positions is sucked away. Perforated drums, stationary perforated drums,
, stationary combs etc. are some instruments used to remove dust

CARDING

THE PURPOSE OF CARDING:

1. to open the flocks into individual fibres

2. cleaning or elimination of impurities
3. reduction of neps
4. elimination of dust
5. elimination of short fibres
6. fibre blending
7. fibre orientation or alignment

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 8. sliver formation

TECHNOLOGICAL POINTS IN CARDING

There are two types of feeding to the cards

1. feeding material in the form of scutcher lap

2. flock feed system (flocks are transported pneumatically)

lapfeeding
1. linear density of the lap is very good and it is easier to maintain(uniformity)
2. the whole installation is very flexible
3. deviations in card output will be nil, as laps can be rejected
4. autolevellers are not required, hence investment cost and maintenace cost
is less
5. transportation of lap needs more manual efforts( more labour)
6. lap run out is an additional source of fault, as it should be replaced by a
new lap
7. more good fibre loss during lap change
8. more load on the taker-in, as laps are heavily compressed
flock feeding
1. high performance in carding due to high degree of openness of feed web
2. labour requirement is less due to no lap transportaion and lap change in
cards
3. flock feeding is the only solution for high prouduction cards
4. linear density of the web fed to the card is not as good as lap
5. installation is not felxible
6. autoleveller is a must, hence investment cost and maintenance cost is
more
Type of flock feed(chute feed)
1. there are two basic concepts of flock feed
1. one piece chute without an opening device

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 2. two piece chute with an opening system
2. one piece chute is simple, economical and requires little maintenance
3. two piece chute is complex, expensive, but delivers a uniform batt.
4. One piece chut is a closed system, i.e.excess flock returns to the
distrbutor, if too much material is present, neps can be increased
5. one piece chute is not flexible to run different mixings
6. layout restrictions are more with one piece chute
A feeding device is a must to feed the web to the Taker-in region and it should
perform the following tasks
1. to clamp the batt securely throughout its width
2. to grip the fibres tightly without slippage during the action of taker-in
3. to present the fibres in such a manner that opening can be carried out
gently
The divertor nose (sharp or round) and the length of the nose (guide surface)
have a significant influence on quality and quantity of waste removed. Shart nose
divertor avoids fibre slippage but the opening action is not gentle. If the length of
the guide surface is too short, the fibres can escape the action of the taker-in.
They are scraped off by the mote knives and are lost in the waste receiver.
Feed roller clothed with sawtooth is always better, because it gives good batt
retention. Thus the opening effect of the taker-in is more as it is in combing
Rieter has devloped a "unidirectional feed system" where the two feed
devices(feed roller and feed plate are oppositely arranged when compared with
the conventional system. i.e. the cylinder is located below and the plate is
pressed against the cylinder by spring force. Owing to the direction of feed roller,
the fibre batt runs downwards without diversion directly into the teeth of the taker-
in (licker-in) which results in gentle fibre treatment. This helps to reduce faults in
the yarn.
The purpose of the taker-in is to pluck finely opened flocks out of the feed batt, to
lead them over the dirt eliminating parts like mote knives, combing segment and
waste plates, and then to deliver the fibres to the main cylinder. In high
production cards the rotational speed ranges from 700-1400

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 The treatment for opening and cleaning imparted by Taker-in is very intensive,
but unfortunately not very gentle.Remember that around 60% of the fibres fed to
the main cylinder is in the form of individual fibres.
The circumferential speed of Taker-in is around 13 to 15 m/sec and the draft is
more than 1000.It clearly shows that fibre gets deteriorated at this opening point.
Only the degree of deterioration can be controlled by adjusting the following
1. the thickness of the batt
2. the degree of openness of the rawmaterial
3. the degree of orientation of the fibres
4. the aggressiveness of the clothing
5. the distance between the devices
6. the rotational velocity of the taker-in
7. the material throughput
Latest TRUTZSCHLER cards work with three licker-ins compared to one liker-
in.The first one is constructed as needle roll. This results in very gentle opening
and an extremely long clothing life for this roll. The other two rollers are with finer
clothing and higher speeds, which results in feeding more %of individual fibres
and smallest tufts compared to single lickerin, to the main cylinder. This allows
the maing cylinder to go high in speeds and reduce the load on cylinder and flat
tops. There by higher productivity is achieved with good quality. But the
performance may vary for different materials and different waste levels.
Between the taker-in and main cylinder, the clothings are in the doffing
disposition. It exerts an influence on the sliver quality and also on the
improvement in fibres longitudinal orientation that occurs here The effect
depends on the draft between main cylinder and taker-in.The draft between main
cylinder and taker-in should be slightly more than 2.0.
The opening effect is directly proportional to the number of wire points per fibre.
At the Taker-in perhaps 0.3 points/ fibre and at the main cylinder 10-15 points
/fibre.If a given quality of yarn is required,a corresponding degree of opening at
the card is needed. To increase production in carding, the number of points per
unit time must also be increased. this can be achieved by

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 1. more points per unit area(finer clothing)
2. higher roller and cylinder speeds
3. more carding surface or carding position

speeds and wire population has reached the maximum, further increase will
result in design and technological roblems. Hence the best way is to add carding
surface (stationary flats). Carding plates can be applied at

4. under the liker-in

5. between the licker-in and flats
6. between flats and doffer
Taker-in does not deliver 100% individual fibres to main cylinder. It delivers
around 70% as small flocks to main cylinder. If carding segments are not used,
the load on cylinder and flats will be very high and carding action also suffers. If
carding segemets are used, they ensure further opening, thinning out and
primarily spreading out and improved distribution of the flocks over the total
surface area.carding segments bring the following advantages
1. improved dirt and dust elimination
2. improved disentanglement of neps
3. possibility of speed increase (production increase)
4. preservation of the clothing
5. possibility of using finer clothings on the flats and cylinder
6. better yarn quality
7. less damage to the clothing
8. cleaner clothing In an indepth analysis, all operating elements of the card
were therefore checked in regard to their influence on carding intensity. It
showed that the "CYLINDER-FLATS" area is by far the most effective
region of the card for.
9. opening of flocks to individual fibres
10. elimination of remaining impurities(trash particles)
11. elimination of short fibres( neps also removed with short fibres)
12. untangling the neps

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 13. dust removal
14. high degree of longitudinal orientation of the fibres
The main work of the card, separation to individual fibres is done between the
main cylinder and the flats Only by means of this fibre separation, it is possible to
eliminate the fine dirt particles and dust.When a flat enters the working zone, it
gets filled up very quickly. Once it gets filled, after few seconds,thereafter , hardly
any further take-up of fibres occurs, only carding.Accordingly, if a fibre bundle
does not find place at the first few flats, then it can be opened only with
difficulty.It will be rolled between the working surfaces and usually leads to nep
formation
In princile, the flats can be moved forwards or backwards, i.e. in the same
direction as or in opposition to the cylinder.In reverse movement, the flats come
into operative relationship with the cylinder clothing on the doffer side. At this
stage, the flats are in a clean condition. They then move towards the taker-in and
fill up during this movement.Part of their receiving capacity is thus lost, but
sufficient remains for elimination of dirt, since this step takes place where the
material first enters the flats At this position, above the taker-in, the cylinder
carries the material to be cleaned into the flats. The latter take up the dirt but do
not transport it through the whole machine as in the forward movement system
Instead , the dirt is immediately removed from the machine. Rieter studies show
clearly that the greater part of the dirt is hurled into the first flats directly above
the taker-in.
Kaufmann indicates that 75% of all neps can be disentagled, and of these about
60% are in fact disentagled. Of the remaining 40% disentaglable nep
1. 30-33% pas on with the sliver
2. 5-6% are removed with the flat strips
3. 2-4%are eliminated with the waste

The intensity of nep separation depends on

4. the sharpness of the clothing

5. the space setting between the main cylinder and the flats

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 6. tooth density of the clothing
7. speed of the main cylinder
8. speed of the flat tops
9. direction of flats with reference to cylinder
10. the profile of the cylinder wire
The arrangement of the clothing between the cylinder and the doffer is not meant
for stripping action It is for CARDING ACTION.This is the only way to obtain a
condensing action and finally to form a web. It has both advantages and
disadvantages.The advantage is that additional carding action is obtained here
and it differs somewhat from processsing at the flats.A disadvantage is that
leading hooks and trailing hooks are formed in the fibres , beause the fibres
remain caught at one end of the main cylinder(leading hook) and some times on
the doffer clothing(trailing hook).
There are two rules of carding
1. The fibre must enter the carding machine, be efficiently carded and taken
from it in as little time as possible.
2. The fibre must be under control from entry to exit
Carding effect is taking place between cylinder and doffer because, either the
main cylinder clothing rakes through the fibres caught in the doffer clothing, or
the doffer clothing rakes thro the fibres on the main cylinder Neps can still be
disentangled here, or non-separated fibre bundles can be opened a bit in this
area and can be separated during the next passage through the flats
A disadvantage of web-formation at the card is the formation of hooks. According
to an investigation by morton and Yen in Manchester, it can be assumed that
1. 50% of the fibres have trailing hooks
2. 15% have leading hooks
3. 15% have both ends hooked
4. 20% without hooks
Leading hooks must be presented to the comber and trailing hooks to the ring
spinning frame There must be even number of passages between card and
comber and odd number between the card and ringframe

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 THEORY OF CARDING:

Fibre Dynamics in the Revolving-Flats Card

A Critical Review

C.A. Lawrence, A. Dehghani, M. Mahmoudi, B. Greenwood and C.Iype

School of Textile Industries, University of Leeds

Over the last 30 years numerous developments have taken place with the cotton card.
The production rate has risen by a factor of 5 with the main rotating components
running at significantly higher speeds. Triple taker-in rollers and modified feed systems
are in use, additional carding segments are fitted for more effective fibre opening, and
improved wire clothing profiles have been developed for a better carding action.
Advances in electronics have provided much improved monitoring and process control.
Most of these developments have resulted in enhanced cleaning of cotton fibres,
reduced neppiness of the card web and better sliver uniformity.

Despite the various improvements made to the card a commonly held view is that more
is known about the cleaning processes on the card than about the carding process itself
. For instance, modern cards can achieve an overall cleaning efficiency of 95%. It is
well established that the cleaning efficiency of modern taker-in systems is a round 30%,
that the cylinder/flats action with the latest wire clothing profiles gives 90% cleaning
efficiency and that effective cleaning is associated with lower neps in the card web .

However, even though the nep content and the sliver Uster CV% are used as quality
measures of carding performance they are not satisfactory indicators for anticipating
yarn quality. This is because some fibre arrangements in the sliver may lead to nep
formation and imperfections during up-stream drafting processes

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In addition to the removal of trash and neps, important aspects of the carding process in
relation to yarn quality and spinning performance are the degree of fibre
individualisation, the fibre extent and the fibre hook configurations in the sliver. With
regard to these factors, increased production rate can reduce carding quality. It is
therefore of importance that a better understanding is established of the effect that
carding actions have on such quality parameters, particularly at high production rates.

The most widely accepted view of how fibres are distributed within the card under
steady-state conditions is illustrated in Figure 1. Reported studies into the fundamentals
of the carding process have largely been concerned with how the principal working
components of the card affect this distribution of fibre mass and interact with the mass
to achieve:trash and nep removal from cottons; the disentangling of the fibre mass into
individual fibres, with minimal fibre breakage; and the alignment of the fibres to give a
sliver suitable for drafting in down stream processes.

These actions occur at the interface of the card components within the three zones
indicated in Figure 1. This paper therefore gives a critical review of published research
on the:

mechanisms by which the fibre mass is broken down into individual fibres,

mechanisms of fibre transfer between the component parts of the card

effect of the saw-tooth wire geometry on these actions

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 Figure 1: Distribution of Fibre Mass during Short-Staple Carding

Q1: fibre mass transferred from cylinder to doffer

K : transfer coefficient

Q2: recycling layer

QL: fibre mass transferred from taker-in to cylinder

Qf : flat strips

Qo : operational layer

(where Q is mass per unit time)

Zone 1: Fibre-Opening

Separation and Cleaning of the Input Fibre Mass:

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The taker-in has effectively a combing action, which results in the breakdown of the
tufts, consituting the fed fibre mass, into single fibres and smaller size tufts (tuflets), and
in the liberation of trash particles ejected from the mass flow by the mote knives
positioned below the taker-in. To effectively breakdown the fibre mass feed into tuftlets
with minimal fibre breakage, the taker-in wire has to be coarse, with a low number of
points per unit area (4.2 to 6.2 pcm-2) and not too acute an angle of rake. The objective
is to obtain gentle opening of the fibre mass feed and easy transfer of the tuftlets to the
cylinder. Angles of 8085 are used for short and medium length cottons to give
effective opening and cleaning. For longer cottons and synthetics, a 90o or negative
rake may be needed to facilitate gentler opening and satisfactory fibre transfer to
prevent lapping of the taker-in .

Fibres, usually very short fibres, which are not adequately held by the teeth or present
in the interspaces of the clothing are ejected causing fibre loss. However, it is the mote
knives that govern the amount of fibre to trash (i.e. lint) in the extracted waste.
Experimenting with the settings of two mote knives below the taker-in, Hodgson found
that the absence of the knives greatly increased the lint content with little increase in
trash. With the knives present, the best setting was that which gave the least waste
since increasing the amount of waste did not improve cleaning. Artzt found that
irrespective of teeth density and tooth angle the waste increased with taker-in speed but
the increase was attributed to higher lint content.

It is reasonable to assume that the smaller the tuftlet size and the greater the mass ratio
of individual fibres to tuftlets the better the cleaning effect of the taker-in. Supanekar and
Nerurkar suggest that the takerin breaks down the fibre feed into tuftlets of various
sizes and mass, conforming to a normal frequency distribution. In the case of cotton,
some tuftlets may consist of only fibres whilst others will contain seed or trash particles
embedded among the fibres, these tuftlets constituting the heavier end of the
distribution curve. Thus, the mean of the distribution would depend on the trash content
of the material, as well as on the production rate, the taker-in speed and the wire
clothing specification. However, the authors did not report any data to support their
ideas.

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Little detailed information has yet been published on the mass variation of tuftlets or on
the relative proportion of discrete fibres to tuftlets resulting from the combing action of
the taker-in. Nittsu using photographic techniques studied the effect of process
variables on tuftlet size. It was found that the total number of tuftlets decreases the
closer the feed plate setting, the lower the feed rate, the smaller the steeper rake of the
saw-tooth clothing and the higher the licker-in speed. Since th licker-in opens the batt
into both tuftlets and individual fibres, a decrease in the total number of tuftlets suggests
an increase in the mass of individual fibres. Liefeld calculated estimates of the opened
fibre mass at various stages through the blowroom and gives a value of 50mg for
tuftlets on the taker-in. Mills claims that the calculated optimum number of fibre per
tooth is one, and that this should be maintained at increased production rates by
increasing the taker-in speed. There is, however, the question of fibre damage at high
taker-in speeds.

Figure 2: Frequency distribution of tuftlet mass

N: Taker-in speed (rpm), P: Production rate (kg/hr)

Honold and Brown found no fibre damage occurred at speeds of up to 600 r/min.
Krylov reports the absence of fibre breakage at speeds up to 1,380 r/min, and Artzts
work shows taker-in speeds to have a negligible effect on fibre shortening and

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subsequently on yarn strength. In all cases cotton fibres of 26.5- 30.2 mm (2.5% span
length) and 3.8 4.9 micronaire were processed. The level of fibre breakage, however,
would seem to depend on production rate and the batt fringe setting to the licker-in.
High production rates achieved by increased sliver counts and a close setting of the batt
fringe result in significant fibre breakage.No fundamental studies have been reported on
the forces involved in the fibre-wire interaction of revolvingflat card components.
However, Li and et al report a simulated study of fibre-withdrawal forces for wool in
high-speed roller- clearer cards. Although impact forces could cause damage, it was
found that card component speeds had no significant effect on the withdrawal-force,
and that fibre configuration and entanglement were the important factors.

The importance of producing small size tuftlets is evident form the various components
fitted in the fibreopening zone on modern short-staple cards. Saw-tooth wire covered
plates, termed combing segments, fitted below the taker-in or built into the taker-in
screen are claimed to give improved trash removal. Reportedly, the stationary flats fitted
between the taker-in and the revolving flats provide extra opening of the tuftlets
transferred to the cylinder from the taker-in. They also act as a barrier to large, hard,
trash particles such as seed coats, protecting the wire of the revolving flats from
damage, particularly at high cylinder speeds. This enables finer wire to be used for the
revolving flats and thereby improves the cleaning effect of the interaction between
cylinder and revolving flats. The chances are also reduced of longer length fibres
becoming deeply embedded in the revolving flats to become part of the flat strips.
These attachments are widely accepted by the industry as beneficial, particularly at high
production speed. However, there is no published systematic study of their
effectiveness in reducing tuft size, and the effect of stationary flats on the recycling
layer, Q2, is unknown. The little information that is available attempts to illustrate the
effectiveness of these components on yarn quality, but there is no evidence of analytical
rigour in the way the data were obtained.

Fig 3. shows the effect of the combing segment and the stationary flats on dust deposits
in rotor spinning and on the imperfections in several types of ring spun yarn. The figure
includes values for the effect of stationary flats above the doffer, but this will be

21
considered in a later section. It would appear that the added components in the taker-in
region might well reduce the dust deposit in the rotor, but the results showing
improvements in yarn quality are not convincing, and in all cases the stationary flats
above the doffer appear the most effective. Leifeld reports that the cylinder revolving
flats carding action occurs when the fibre mass delivered to the cylinder is in a highly
opened state.

Tandem cards are said to give a high standard of carding with low nep and trash levels
in the card web. This is because a uniform web of almost discrete fibres is fed to the
second cylinder of the tandem card and closer revolving flat settings with higher cylinder
speeds can be used . Single taker-in systems, even with combing segments and
stationary flats, cannot give as high a degree of opening. However, Leifeld reports that a
triple taker-in system facilitates high taker-in speeds and, fitted to a single-cylinder card,
feeds a uniform web of discrete fibres to the cylinder, thereby offering a more cost-
effective process than the tandem card, but no comparative data for the two types of
card are given. Although it may be reasoned that a triple taker-in action should improve
nep removal, it is of importance to compare the web qualities with regard to dust and
trash content, the level and type of fibre hooks, and the degree of fibre parallelism since
these greatly influence yarn quality

22
 Figure 3: Effect of Combing Segment and Stationary Flats

Contradicting the triple taker-in approach, Mills states that the fibrous material fed to the
card should not be broken down into individual fibres by the taker-in system. This is
because the fibres would remain largely disoriented with a high proportion of them lying
transversely to the direction of mass flow when transferred to the cylinder and
subsequently to the revolving flats. This can result in fibre loss during transfer to the
cylinder and an unevenness of the fibre mass across the cylinder width, causing neps to
be formed and degrading the carding action between the cylinder and the revolving
flats.

It is claimed that good carding requires a thin, uniformly distributed sheet of well-opened
tuftlets fed to the cylinder from the taker-in. Fujino reports results that would appear to
confirm the view that as the level of opening increases through faster taker-in speed,
the degree of fibre parallelism on transfer to the cylinder decreases. The nep level in the
card web was, however, observed to decrease noticeably with increased taker-in speed.

23
This was attributed to the reduced speed ratio of the cylinder and taker-in. Artzt found
that reducing the takerin/ cylinder draft ratio from 2.4 to 1.4 caused yarn imperfections
to increase. In contrast to these findings Harrison states that increasing taker-in speed
did not affect the nep level in the card web, the exception being for low micronaire
cottons. The apparent contradictions in these results suggest that a better
understanding of the transfer mechanism may be needed which takes into account fibre
properties. Fibre Mass Transfer to Cylinder

Two contrasting views have been reported on the mechanism of fibre transfer. Oxley
suggests that the fibre mass on the taker-in is ejected between the cylinder wire and the
back plate. Whereas Varga believes that the fibre mass is stripped from the taker-in in
the following way. In the feed to the card, tufts and fibres lie randomly and by the action
of the taker-in are brought into length-wise orientation in the direction of the roller
rotation. The trailing ends of newly formed tuftlets protrude above the taker-in wire and
are easily stripped by the cylinder wire clothing. This implies that the transfer involves a
reversal of the leading and trailing ends of the fibres. Further orientation and parallelism
of the fibre mass is thought to occur during the transfer onto the cylinder. No
experimental work has been published which specifically involves a study of the transfer
of fibres from the taker-in to the cylinder. Therefore it has yet to be established whether
at the interface, the cylinder, which has the faster surface speed, strips the fibre mass
with its clothing or the taker-in, through the action of centrifugal forces, ejects the tuftlets
and single fibres onto the cylinder, or a combination of both occurs. It is also of interest
to determine if the airflow in the region assists the fibre mass transfer. Whatever the
case, the fibre mass is likely to be subjected to an uncontrolled drafting effect, which
could introduce irregularities in the mass flow.

Zone 2: The Fibre Carding Zone

In the carding zone, it is the interaction of the fibre mass and the wire-teeth clothing of
cylinder and flats that fully individualises the fibres and gives parallelism to the fibre
mass flow. In considering how fibres enter and are individualised in the carding zone,
Oxley suggests that tuftlets are not strongly held on the cylinder clothing because the

24
tooth angle faces the direction of cylinder rotation. They are, thus, easily removed and
more firmly held by the opposing teeth of the flats. It is therefore assumed that as a flat
enters the carding zone it becomes almost fully loaded with fibres, the airflow within the
region assisting the fibre mass transfer. Having been stripped of fibre mass, subsequent
following areas of the cylinder wire clothing move past the fully loaded flat and proceed
to comb fibres from the flat, carrying them towards the doffer. The action of combing
causes the fibres to be hooked around the cylinder wire points and prevents them from
being easily removed by other flats.

Debar and Watsons experiments of the movement of radioactive tracer fibres through
a miniature card showed that some fibres caught by the flats were often only removed
by the cylinder-wire clothing after many revolutions of the cylinder. Varga reports an
alternative view to Oxleys, stating that two types of action occur at the cylinder-flats
interface. First, a carding action where the upper layer of a tuftlet or a loosely opened
fibre group is caught and held by the flats whilst simultaneously the bottom layer is
sheared away by the fast moving cylinder surface. This action causes the top to hang
from the flats and to contact subsequent parts of the cylinder wire surface resulting in
the second action which is combing, where the wire clothing of the cylinder hooks single
or a small group of fibres and combs them from the top layer. A second flat catches the
bottom layer on the cylinder and the actions are repeated. In this way tuftlets or groups
of fibres are separated into individual fibres.

By making abrupt changes in the colour of the fibre mass fed to the card, Oxley
demonstrated that tuftlets from the load on a given flat are carried forward by the
cylinder clothing and separated into individual fibres over a small number of preceding
flats, typically 4. It was concluded that the interchange of fibres between cylinder and
flats does not occur over the full carding zone. Sengupta ] made measurements of the
carding/combing forces and showed that essentially these actions were on average
confined to the first ten working flats.

25
 Figure 4: Relation of Flat Load and Working Time

A study by Hodgson showed that moving in the direction of the cylinder rotation, a
given flat acquires two-thirds of its final load directly it comes into position over the
cylinder. The load then increases exponentially with time, reaching nine-tenths of the
final value within 6-8 minutes. Completion of the load takes place slowly during the
remainder of the working time. See Fig 4. As shown in the figure, with flats moving in
the reverse direction the load first increases rapidly with time and then slows until the
flat is about to leave the working area. Here it encounters the fibre layer being
transported on the cylinder surface from the taker-in. The flat receives a sudden
addition of fibre mass to become fully loaded, and, in agreement with other results, the
load weighs more than for the forward direction of motion. Contrary to Oxleys
conclusions, it was found that 30% of the final load on a given flat resulted from fibre
interchange between flats and cylinder over the full carding zone.

It may be reasoned that the number of flats involved in separating a tuftlet depends on
the tuftlet size, the mass flow rate and the flat setting. Large tuftlets will be pressed into
the cylinder wire during the carding action, whereas small tuftlets will be more easily

26
carded and will remain at the top of the cylinder wire teeth. The larger the tuftet, the
higher the production rate and the closer the flat settings, the greater the number flats
involved in the separation of a given tuftlet. Bogdan reports that flats tend to load quickly
at the beginning of their cycle of contact with the cylinder. This, however, is only a
partial loading, since the fibre mass tends to resist more fibres entering the space but, in
the case of cotton, not the leaf and trash particles present.

Analysis of the trash in cotton flat strips showed that initially the percentage of trash in a
given flat strip is low and increases slowly during the first 10 minutes of carding, then
remains at almost a constant value. The final percentage depends on the trash content
of the cotton. For a fixed production rate, the amount of flat strips was found to be
directly proportional to the flat speed, but provided the speed was such that the working
time was not less than 10 minutes, both the weight and composition of the flat strips
remained approximately constant. Feil claims that a high degree of air turbulence exists
in the flat/cylinder zone. A combination of centrifugal forces, mechanical contact with the
flat wire and air turbulence causes the trailing ends of fibres attached individually to the
cylinder clothing to vibrate and shake loose trash and dust particles. Short fibres which
cannot adequately cling to the cylinder clothing will also be shaken free, and along with
impurities become part of the flat strips.

Fibres that are deeply embedded in the flats, and cannot be reached by the cylinder
wires become flat strips. For this reason the closeness of the flats setting to the cylinder
is important. It may be assumed that closer flats/cylinder setting and faster cylinder
speeds will give more effective carding and combing actions as described by Varga and
thereby improve web quality through reduced neps and trash. Cylinder diameters vary
and Karasev showed mathematically that for a given cylinder rotational speed the
carding power will be greater for a larger cylinder diameter with a higher number of
working flats. However, because of lower mechanical stresses, smaller cylinders can be
rotated at higher speeds than larger cylinders. The above advantage is therefore
reduced the higher the speed of the smaller cylinder. Artzt studying the influence of card
clothing parameters and cylinder speeds on yarn imperfections, report that the teeth
density of the flats and cylinder, and the speed of the cylinder must prevent tuftlets lying

27
within the spiral pitch of the cylinder clothing. If this occurs the tuftlets generally become
the thick places in the yarn. It was found that high teeth densities and low cylinder
speeds were as effective as lower teeth densities and high cylinder speed. High teeth
densities with high cylinder speeds did not give effective carding, but no reason was
reported for this.

Since the action of the cylinder in this region is to individualise fibres, the wire clothing
on the cylinder has a steeper rake and a higher point density than the wire clothing of
the flats. Thus, with closer settings and higher cylinder speeds greater forces may be
involved and may result in fibre breakage. However, the work of Li indicates that the
withdrawal forces needed to separate an entangled fibre mass was largely dependent
on the density of the fibre mass and the contact angle fibres made with the wire
clothing, than on the machine speeds.

Van Alphen reports that increasing cylinder speed causes more fibre breakage than
increasing taker-in speed and that this is reflected in the yarn properties. Rotor yarn
tenacity was reduced by up to 5% with increasing cylinder speeds between 480 600
r/min. Whereas ring yarns showed a 5% reduction for speeds between 260 380 r/min
and 10% at 600 r/min. The higher sensitivity of ring yarns to fibre breakage was
attributed to the negative effect of short fibres during roller drafting. Krylov reports that
no fibre shortening was observed for cylinder speeds up to 380 r/min.

It may be reasoned that the smaller the tuftlets and the more parallel fibres in tuftlets are
to the direction of mass flow the lower the probability of fibre breakage. Honold
attributes fibre damage to the cylinder/flat interaction and suggested that the degree of
damage depends on the size of the tuftlets entering the working area; the smaller the
tuftlets, the closer the setting that can be used and the lower the fibre breakage.
Hodgsons work showed fibre length is also an important factor. For cottons, fibre
breakage was only found to have occurred when the staple length was greater than
25mm. Increasing the flat speed appears to have no effect on fibre breakage. However,
the amount of flat strips increased proportionally with the flat speed and the mean fibre
length of the strips increased significantly. This means that faster flat speeds result in

28
larger amounts of useable fibre in the waste. Interestingly, when carding cottons,
immature fibres were not readily found in the flat strips. The coarser rigid fibres seem
more easily retained by the flats. The effectiveness of the carding and combing actions
within the cylinder/flats area is, inter alia, dependent on the quantity of fibre mass on the
cylinder, and this includes the recycling layer, Q2. It is of interest therefore to consider
how the Q2 is formed during fibre transfer from cylinder to doffer, and its importance to
the card web quality.

Zone 3: Cylinder / Doffer Interaction

Varga reports that the action of fibre mass transfer to the doffer is similar to the transfer
at the input to the cylinder-flats zone. The regions above and below the line of closest
approach of the cylinder to the doffer (i.e. the setting line) are important to the
mechanism of fibre mass transfer and the transfer coefficient, K. The two regions may
be termed the top and bottom co-operation arcs or top and bottom zones. Simpson
claims that transfer can occur in both zones and that the particular region in which
transfer actually occurs influences the fibre configuration and the nep level of the card
web, although cylinder-flats action is more important in reducing neps. Which zone
transfer occurs in is dependent on the cylinder-doffer surface speed ratio, C/D. For high
C/Ds, transfer occurs in the top zone and results in a larger number of trailing than
leading hook fibres and a low nep level. The reverse occurs when transfer takes place
in the bottom zone owing to lower C/Ds. Simpson does not however say at what C/D
value transfer changes from one zone to the other. Although reference is made to other
authors who have proposed a mechanism for fibre transfer in the top zone, no
mechanism or experimental evidence is given to support the idea of fibre transfer in the
bottom zone. Lauber and Wulfhorst used laser-doppler anemometry and high-speed
cine photography to study fibre behaviour in the bottom zone, i.e. up to110 mm below
the setting line. Their findings showed no evidence of fibre transfer within the bottom
zone.

Since Morton and Summers work in 1949 other researchers have confirmed that the
values given in Table 1 for the five classes of fibre configuration observed in slivers. It is

29
of interest to note that the hooked lengths are greater for leading than trailing hooks.
Although, the calendar draft can be used to change the relative proportions, Gosh and
Bhaduri showed that the method of removing the web from the doffer does not
influence the propensity of any class of configuration. It is the mechanism of transfer
that is seen as principally responsible for the shape fibres have in the sliver.

Table 1: Classification of Fibre Configuration in Card Sliver

Several studies have been reported on the fibre-mass-transfer mechanism. A number

used tracer fibres with one end of a fibre dyed a different colour from the other. The
reported findings suggest that fibre mass transfer occurs by fibres acting independently
and not as a web of fibres. Observations showed that prior to transfer, nearly 70% of
fibres on the cylinder had leading hooks, only 9% had trailing hooks. On transfer the
relative proportions changed as indicated in Table 2. Half the number observed
underwent reversals, with greater than 70% changing their configurations [e.g. leading
hooks becoming trailing hooks]. Of those that transferred without reversals ca 90% did
so with a change of configuration.

30
 Table 2 Mode of Fibre Transfer from Cylinder to Doffer

Ghosh and Bhaduri report that tracer fibres were noted generally to go around with the
cylinder for several revolutions before being transferred by the doffer. On occasions
transfer only happened when the cylinder speed was increased. Debar and Watsons
work with radioactive viscose tracer fibres showed that a fibre on the cylinder wire
passes the doffer up to a maximum 20 times before being removed by the doffer,
sometimes interchanging several times between the cylinder and flats, during the 20
revolutions on the cylinder. Hodgson found that cotton fibres make between 10 and 25
cylinder revolutions before being removed by the doffer. With the continuity of fibre
mass flow through the card, this means that the doffer web is built up over many
cylinder revolutions and that the recycling layer, Q2, is comprised of multiple fractional
layers of the fibre mass transferred from taker-in to cylinder during these cylinder
revolutions .

31
 Figure 5: Mechanism of fibre transfer for trailing hook formationv

A proposed hypothesis for the mechanism of fibre transfer is illustrated in Figure 5. Here
the trailing ends of fibres are lifted from the cylinder surface by centrifugal forces and
become hooked around the teeth of the doffer clothing. The frictional drag of the doffer
clothing eventually removes these fibre from the cylinder clothing. This mechanism only
explains the formation, without reversal, of trailing hooks in the doffer web. However,
the importance to fibre transfer of the relative angles and tooth lengths of the cylinder
and doffer is self evident from the figure. Baturin developed equations that showed the
importance of tooth angle and teeth density of the cylinder and doffer wires to the value
of K and thereby Q2. Other investigators have reported experimental data that verify
Baturins equations. It was found that the more acute the working angle of the doffer
wire compared to the cylinder wire, the higher the value of K, and the lower Q2, and that
higher teeth densities on the doffer increased K. These findings would tend to suggest
that the proposed mechanism is a principal action by which fibres are removed from the
cylinder. However, this mechanism of fibre transfer does not explain the change of fibre
configuration with reversals and the formation of leading hooks in the doffer web. It also
does not explain how fibres forming the recycling layer, Q2, are subsequently removed,
even though an input layer of fibre mass is added to Q2 each time it passes the taker-in.

The above studies did not take account of the degree of fibre parallelism on the cylinder
prior to transfer, nor the number of fibres per tooth on the cylinder and consequently the
likelihood of fibre interaction during transfer. Fujino and Itani used a microscopic
technique to observe the orientation of fibres on the cylinder surface above the taker-in
and just before the doffer, and in the doffer web. They found that fibres showed the
highest degree of parallelism when on the cylinder surface just above the doffer. The
degree of parallelism decreases on transfer to the doffer, and further deteriorates when
the web is removed from the doffer to form the sliver, even though the calendar draft
helps to maintain some degree of parallelism. Grimshaw and others report the use of
fixed flats just before the cylinder/doffer top transfer zone, to improve fibre parallelism in
the card web.; up to 20% reduction in fibre hooks and 25% improvement in fibre
parallelism were obtained in the card web, resulting in improved yarn properties. Figure

32
3 shows that the fixed flats in this region are more effective in improving yarn properties
compared with the fixed flats above the taker-in. The action of the flats fitted above the
doffer is not fully understood. It is assumed that they tend to lift the fibres to the tip of
the cylinder wire for more effective transfer to the doffer, particularly at high cylinder
speed. Lauber and Wolfhorst, Kamogawa report that in this region aerodynamic forces
affect the parallelism of the fibres and the way they are transferred to the doffer.
However, no details are given.

Owing to the higher speed and larger diameter of the cylinder, it is assumed that during
transfer in the top zone the fibres are more substantially affected by the flow of air
transported with the cylinders than by the doffers wire clothing. High-speed
photographs showed that in the bottom zone the main flow of fibre mass was with the
doffer at close to the doffer speed, even when the fibres were just below the
cylinderdoffer setting line. However, some fibres were seen to be free of both the doffer
and cylinder and tended to move with the air currents and eventually with the motion of
the cylinder surface. From the above discussion, it can be seen that work is still needed
to establish a more detailed understanding of fibre mass transfer between the cylinder
and doffer. The results of such work may also help in better explaining how fibres
remain on the cylinder to form the recycling layer Q2.

Varga suggests that with fibre transfer in the top zone, the thicker layer of web on the
doffer surface protrudes above the doffer wire and into the gap setting between doffer
and cylinder. The faster moving cylinder wire clothing combs through the doffer web and
thereby pulls fibres back onto the cylinder surface. De Swann showed that fibres can be
readily transferred from the doffer to the cylinder as well as from cylinder to doffer. In
Hodgsons study, changing cylinder/doffer setting affected the neppiness of the web but
did not affect K, which seems to contradict Vargas view. Baturin and Simpson however
showed that K will increase if the region of interaction between the cylinder and doffer is
reduced by decreasing the doffer or the cylinder diameter and this tend to supports
Vargas suggestion for a combing and robbing action of the cylinder. It is reasonable to
assume that the combing action could lead to fibres in Class II and IV (Table 1), but

33
there is still no verified explanation of how fibres in Classes I, III, and V are formed, with
and without reversals.

Much of the research on the cylinder / doffer interaction concerns the effect of machine
variables on the size of Q2 (or the operational layer, Qo), on the web quality and
changes to the relative proportions of the classified configurations, and on ultimately the
yarn quality. Sing and Swani developed a Markovian model for the carding process in
order to determine the probabilities of fibre transfer between cylinder and flats and
cylinder and doffer, taking into account the recycling of fibres. It was shown that the
times spent by a fibre on the cylinder, Tr, and in the flats/cylinder region, Td, are given
by:

Tr = 1 / K and Td = Tr . Pf . (1)

Where K = Q1 / Qo and Pf = Qf / Qo

Reported values for K would seem to vary between 0.2% to 20%, depending on doffer
and cylinder speeds, on the relative profiles of the saw-tooth wire clothing, and on the
sliver count. Simpson suggests that fibre properties are also of importance, in that
there is a tendency for low micronaire cottons to give higher cylinder loading and for
fibres with low shear friction and good compression recovery to result in higher K
values. No physical explanation is given for these findings and no other studies are
reported on the effect of fibre properties. Further work is therefore needed in this area.

34
 Figure 6: Effect of Cylinder and Doffer Speed on K and Pf

A popular view is that a low fibre mass entering the cylinder/flats interface, i.e. a low
fibre load on the cylinder, results in better quality carding. This would seem to imply that
the higher the value of K the better the carding since less fibre mass is recycling to be
added to the mass transferred from the taker-in. However, there are several ways of
increasing K and not all of them result in improved carding quality. Figure 6, shows that
for a given cylinder speed and sliver count, increased doffer speed increases K and
reduces Pf , whereas keeping the doffer speed and sliver count constant and increasing
the cylinder speed increase both K and Pf . For constant cylinder and doffer speeds,
increased sliver count was found to reduce K and Pf. If the same up stream machinery
is used, then the best measure of effective carding is the quality of the carded ring-spun
yarns produced. Gosh and Bhaduris work showed that for a fixed carding rate, with
increasing doffer or cylinder speed, K increases but Qo and the yarn imperfections
decrease; no trend was found with yarn tenacity or irregularity. Singh and Swani studied
the properties of yarns made from slivers corresponding to differing K and Pf values and
found that Pf was the more important of the two parameters, in that the higher the value
of Pf the better the yarn quality. Kaufman reports that the lighter the fibre load is on the
flats, the better the carding quality. Thus, the use of Pf does not give an adequate

35
understanding of the importance of the recycling layer nor of the size of the fibre mass
load at the cylinder/flats interface.

Figure 7: Effect of Doffer Speed on Carding Parameters

Baturin reports an alternative approach to the above in which the following expression
was derived for the number of cycles, Np, under steady state conditions that fibres on
the cylinder clothing make pass the flats before being removed by the doffer:

Np = 1 + Vc/KVd .. (2)

Where K is the transfer coefficient

Vc and Vd are cylinder and doffer surface speeds (m/min).

Since this gives the number of times the recycling fibre mass is subjected to the carding
action, it may be a better indication than Pf of the importance of Q2. From the
expression, Np decreases when K increases by increasing doffer speed. Figure 7
shows that for a constant production rate, web quality decreases when Np decreases

36
with doffer speed, even though the cylinder load decreases and a high number of
cylinder teeth per fibre is obtained. The last two parameters are usually taken as
indicative of good carding. Figure 8 shows the effect of increased doffer speed and
sliver count on web quality and there is a consistent trend which suggests that
increasing the production rate by increasing the sliver count, instead of doffer speed,
gives better web quality. With regard to sliver irregularity, several investigators report
theoretical and experimental studies showing that increasing the recycling layer, Q2,
reduces the short-term irregularity.

Figure 8: Effect of Doffer Speed and Sliver Count on Web Quality

Karasev attempted to show experimentally the importance of Q2 by removing it during

carding using a suction extractor. It was found that without Q2 a large proportion of the
fibre mass transferred from the takerin became embedded into the empty teeth of the
cylinder clothing. Only the larger tuftlets and groups of individual fibres would then be

37
subjected to the carding and combing actions. Hence, there is a greater chance of small
groups of entangled fibres being removed by the doffer. Q2 therefore acts as a support
to new layers of fibre mass being transferred form the taker-in, keeping the new fibre
mass at the tips of the cylinder wire teeth and thereby promoting the interaction of
tuftlets with the flats and cylinder clothing. This idea, however, does not facilitate an
explanation of the mechanism by which fibres leave the recycling layer to form part of
the doffer web, Q1. Gupta suggest that the rotating cylinder could be considered as a
large centrifuge that would cause fibres, impurities and seed fragments to migrate to the
cylinder periphery and thereby make contact with the flats clothing and, presumably, the
doffer teeth.

However, no experimental verification of this hypothesis is reported. Many of the

authors have reported the effect of machine variables on fibre configurations within the
card sliver and several have related yarn properties to the observed configurations.
Generally it was found that for a fixed sliver count increasing the carding rate by
increasing the doffer speed, increased the number of minority hooks and reduced the
number of majority hooks, irrespective of cylinder speed. However, for a given doffer
speed, increased cylinder speed gave the reverse trend for minority hooks, but no clear
trend for majority hooks. Baturin and Brown showed that increased cylinder speed
decreases cylinder load owing to the effect of centrifugal forces and Simpson showed
that increased cylinder speed also increased minority hooks and decreased majority
hooks. Bhaudri reports that when the fibres are forced nearer the surface of the cylinder
teeth, either by increasing the fibre load or increasing the centrifugal force on the
cylinder, the proportion of minority hooks increases. Simpson found that there was a
direct relation between yarn imperfections and increased occurrence of minority hooks
and that spinning end breakage rates and yarn imperfection increased with increased
card production speed owing to minority hooks. Gosh and Simpson found that heavier
slivers had fewer minority hooks. However, the increased draft needed to process the
heavier slivers into yarn led to increased yarn imperfections.

Conclusions

38
1. The taker-in action separates the fed fibre mass into tuftlets and individual fibres.
Although it is reported that the taker-in action gives a normal mass distribution of tuftlet
sizes, this is speculation. Little research has been reported on the effect of taker-in
parameters, fibre properties and the blowroom process on tuftlet size distribution and on
the relative proportions of tuftlets to individual fibres.

2. The perceived benefits of combing segments built into the taker-in under-screen and
of stationary flats fitted before and after the revolving flats are well known, but only
limited experimental findings have been reported to support the use of these
attachments. There are conflicting views on the benefits of triple taker-in systems,
concerning whether the fibre opening by such systems would give a high misalignment
of fibres to the direction of mass flow during transfer to the cylinder and degrade the
subsequent carding action. A better understanding is therefore required of the fibre
mass transfer from taker-in to cylinder, since the surface speed ratio of these
components is seen as a key factor in the proper functioning of high production cards.

3. The cylinder-flats and cylinder-doffer interactions have been well researched.

Published findings show that each flat acquires two-thirds of its load at the beginning of
its cycle of contact with the cylinder, and that separation of a given tuftlet occurs over a
few flats. With regard to clothing parameters and cylinder speed, high teeth densities
and lower cylinder speeds gave similar results to the converse arrangement. However,
a high teeth density and cylinder speed did not give effective carding. Results showed
that high cylinder speeds caused more fibre breakage than high taker-in speed.

4. A high cylinder to doffer speed reduces cylinder load, gives a higher K value and a
better web quality. Increasing doffer speed was also found to increase K, but the web
quality deteriorated. The reported mechanism of fibre transfer from cylinder to doffer
does not adequately explain the effect of the cylinder doffer speed ratio, or the various
reported changes in fibre configuration during transfer. Further work is therefore still
needed in this area

39
CARD CLOTING

METALLIC CARD CLOTHING

INTRODUCTION: As carding machine design improved in 1950's and 60's, it became

apparent that card clothing was a limiting factor Much time and effort was spent in the
development of metallic card clothing.

There are two rules of carding

1. The fibre must enter the carding machine, be efficiently carded and taken from it
in as little time as possible
2. The fibre must be under control from entry to exit

Control of fibres in a carding machine is the responsibilitgy of the card clothing

Following are the five types of clothings used in a Carding machine
1. Cylinder wire
2. Doffer wire
3. Flat tops
4. Licker-in wire
5. Stationary flats

CYLINDER WIRE

The main parameters of CYLINDER Card clothing

6. Tooth depth
7. Carding angle
8. Rib width
9. Wire height
10. Tooth pitch
11. Tooth point dimensions

40
 TOOTH DEPTH
1. Shallowness of tooth depth reduces fibre loading and holds the fibre on
the cylinder in the ideal position under the carding action of the tops. The
space a fibre needs within the cylinder wire depends upon its
Micronaire/denier value and staple length would have to be reduced.
2. The recent cylinder wires have a profile called "NO SPACE FOR
LOADING PROFILE" (NSL). With this new profile, the tooth depth is
shallower than the standard one and the overall wire height is reduced to
2mm, which eliminates the free blade in the wire. This free blade is
responsible for fibre loading Once the fibre lodges betweent the free blade
of two adjacent teeth it is difficult to remove it.Inorder to eliminate the free
blade, the wire is made with a larger rib width
FRONT ANGLE
1. Front angle not only affects the carding action but controls the lift of the
fibre under the action of centrifugal force. The higher the cylinder speed,
the lower the angle for a given fibre. Different fibresM have different co-
efficients of friction values which also determine the front angle of the wire.

If the front angle is more, then it is insufficient to overcome the centrifugal

lift of the fibre created by cylinder speed. Therefore the fibre control is lost,
this will result in increasing flat waste and more neps in the sliver.

2. If the front angle is less, then it will hold the fibres and create excessive
recyling within the carding machine with resulting overcarding and
therefore increased fibre damage and nep generation.
3. Lack of parallelisation, fibre damage, nep generation, more flat waste etc.
etc., are all consequencesof the wrong choice of front angle.
TOOTH PITCH:
1. Each fibre has a linear density determined by its diameter to length ratio.
Fine fibres and long fibres necessitate more control during the carding
process. This control is obtained by selecting the tooth pitch which gives
the correct contact ratio of the number of teeth to fibre length.

41
 2. Exceptionally short fibres too require more control, in this case it is not
because of the stiffness but because it is more difficult to parallelise the
fibres with an open tooth pitch giving a low contact ratio.
RIB THICKNESS
1. The rib thickness of the cylinder wire controls the carding "front" and thus
the carding power Generally, the finer the fibre, the finer the rib width. The
number of points across the carding machine is determined by the carding
machine's design, production rate and the fibre dimensions. General trend
is towards finer rib thicknesses, especially for high and very low
production machines.
2. Rib thickness should be selected properly, if there are too many wire
points across the machine for a given cylinder speed, production rate and
fibre fineness, "BLOCKAGE" takes place with disastrous results from the
point of view of carding quality. In such cases, either the cylinder speed
has to be increased or most likely the production rate has to be reduced to
improve the sliver quality
POINT POPULATION: The population of a wire is the product of the rib thickness
and tooth pitch per unit area. The general rule is higher populations for higher
production rates, but it is not true always. It depends upon other factors like
production rate, fineness, frictional properties etc.
TOOTH POINT The tooth point is important from a fibre penetration point of view.
It also affects the maintenance and consistency of performance. Most of the
recent cylinder wires have the smallest land or cut-to-point Sharp points
penetrate the fibre more easily and thus reduce friction, which in turn reduces
wear on the wire and extends wire life.
BLADETHICKNESS Blade thickness affects the fibre penetration. The blade
thickness is limited by practical considerations,but the finer the blade the better
the penetration of fibres. Wires with thin blade thickness penetrate the more
easily and thus reduce friction, which in turn reduces wear on the wire and
extends wire life.

42
 BACK ANGLE A lower back angle reduces fibre loading, but a higher value of
back angle assists fibre penetration. Between the two extremes is an angle which
facilitates both the reduction in loading and assists fibre penetration and at the
same time gives the tooth sufficient strength to do the job for which it was
designed.
HARDNESS OF WIRE The cylinder wire needs to be hard at the tip of the tooth
where the carding action takes place.The hardness is graded from the hard tip to
the soft rib. High carbon alloy steel is used to manufacture a cylinder wire and it
is flame hardened. Rib should not be hardened, otherwise, it will lead to
mounting problems
The design or type of clothing, selected for the fibre to be carded is important,but
it is fair to state that within reason, an incorrect design of clothing in perfect
condition can give acceptable carding quality whereas a correct clothing design
in poor condition will never give acceptable carding quality There is no doubt that
the condition of the clothings is the most important single factor affecting quality
at high rates of production. Wire condition and selection of wire are considered to
be the two most important factors which influence the performance of modern
high production carding machines.
The condition of the clothing may be defined as the collective ability of the
individual teeth of the clothing to hold on to the fibre against the opposing carding
force exerted by other teeth acting in the carding direction. For a given design of
clothing the condition of the teeth determines the maximum acceptable
production rate that can be achieved at the card.
The speed of the main cylinder of card provides the dynamic force required to
work on separating the fibres fed to the card but it is the ability of the carding
teeth on the cylinder to carry the fibre forward against the opposing force offered
by the teeth of the tops which determines the performance of the card. Increasing
cylinder speed increases the dynamic forces acting upon the carding teeth and
thus the condition of teeth becomes more important with increased speed.If the
condition and design of the cylinder wire is poor, the teeth will not be able to hold

43
 onto the fibre through the carding zone, thus allowing some of the freedfibre to
roll itself into nep.

DOFFER WIRE

1. The doffer is a collector and it needs to have a sharp tooth to pickup the
condensed mass of fibres circulating on the cylinder. It also requires
sufficient space between the teeth to be efficient in fibre transfer from the
cylinder, consistent in the transfer rate and capable of holding the fibre
under control until the doffer's stripping motion takes control.
2. A standard doffer wire has an overall height of approx. 4.0 mm to facilitate
the deeper tooth which must have sufficient capacity to collect all the fibre
being transferred from the cylinder to meet production requirements.
Heavier webs require a deeper doffer tooth with additional collecting
capacity to hanndle the increased fibre mass.
3. The doffer wire's front angle plays a very important part in releasing the
fibre from the cylinder wire's influence. A smaller angle has a better
chance of enabling the doffer wire's teeth to find their way under the fibres
and to secure the fibre's release from the cylinder with greater efficiency A
60 degree front angle for Doffer has been found to give the optimum
performance under normal carding conditions. Too small an angle results
in cloudy web and uneven sliver whilst too large an angle results in fibre
recirculation and nep generation.
4. Having collected the fibre, it is important for the doffer to retain it until it is
stripped in a controlled manner by the doffer stripping motion. The tooth
depth, tooth pitch and rib width combine to create the space available for
fibre retention within the doffer wire. Thus they directly influence the
collecting capacity If the space is insufficient, fibre will fill the space and
any surplus fibre will be rejected. When the surplus fibre is left to
recirculate on the cylinder, cylinder loading can take place. Unacceptable
nep levels and fibre damage will also result. In severe cases pilling of the
fibre will take place.

44
5. The point of the doffer wire normally has a small land which helps to
strengthn the tooth. The extremely small land of around 0.05 mm ensures
that the doffer wire height is consistent, has no adverse effect on fibre
penetration and is considred essential for efficient fibre transfer from the
cylinder. The land has micropscopic striations which are created during
manufacturing or grinding. The striations help to collect the fibres from the
cylinder and keep them under control during the doffing process.
6. It has been found that a cut-to-point doffer wire penetrates the fibre better
than does the landed point wire but is less likely to keep the fibre under
control during the doffing process. Sometimes a cut-to-point doffer wire is
accompanied by striations along one side of the tooth for this reason. Until
recently 0.9mm rib thickness is standardised for doffer wire, regardless of
production and fibre characteristics.This rib thickness has been found to
give optimum results. However doffer wires with a 0.8mm rib thickness
have been introduced for applications involving finer fibres.
7. In general 300 to 400 PPSI(points per square inch) has been found to
perform extremely well under most conditions. Doffer wire point population
is limited by the wire angle and tooth geometry. Higher population for
doffer does not help in improving the fibre transfer
8. As the production rate rises, the doffer speed also increases. The doffer is
also influenced by the centrifugal force, as is the cylinder.But cylinder wire
front angle can become closer to counter the effect of centrifugal force, to
close the front angle on a doffer wire would reduce its collecting capacity
and result in a lowering of the production rate. The solution is to use the
wire with striations, which will hold the fibre until the doffer is stripped.
9. The hardness of the doffer wire is a degree lower than that of the cylinder
but sufficiently hard to withstand the forces generated in doffing and the
resultant wear of the wire. The reason for this slightly lower hardness
requirement is the longer and slimmer tooth form of the differ wire.
10. The fibres which are not able to enter the wire will lay on top,
i.e.completely out of control. There fore instead of being carded by the

45
 tops the fibres will be rolled. Similarly a fibre buried too deep within the
cylinder wire will load the cylinder with fibre, weaken the carding action
and limit the quantity of new fibres the cylinder can accept. Therefore, the
production rate would have to be reduced.

LICKER-IN WIRE:

Licker-in with its comparatively small surface area and small number of carding
teeth, suffers the hardest wear of all in opening the tangled mass of material fed
to it.
Successful action of the Licker-in depends upon a penetrating sharp point rather
than a sharp leading edge as with the cylinder wire. Therefore the licker-in wire
cannot be successfully restored to optimum performance by grinding.
The most satisfactory system to adopt to ensure consistent performance is to
replace the licker-in wire at regular intervals before sufficient wear has taken
place to affect carding quality.
The angles most widely used are 5 degrees negative or 10 degrees.
There is no evidence to suggest recommendation of a tooth pitch outside the
range of 3 to 6 points per inch.
It is better to use Licker-in roller without groove. Interlocking wires are used for
such type of licker-ins. This avoids producing the eight precise grooves and to
maintain them throughout its life Interlocking wire is almost unbreakable and thus
no threat to the cylinder, tops and doffer in the event of foreigh bodies entering
the machine.

FLAT TOPS

1. The flat tops are an equal and opposite carding force to the cylinder wire
and it should be sharp, well maintained and of the correct design.
2. The selection of flexible tops is very much related to the choice of cylinder
wire, which in turn is related to the cylinder speed, production rate and
fibre charactersitics, as previously stated.

46
 3. The modern top is of the semi-rigid type, having flexible foundation and
sectoral wire. The points arewell backed-off and side-ground to give the
necessary degree of fineness. The strength of the top from a carding point
of view is in the foundation and is affected by the number of plies and the
type of material used.The position of the bend in the wire is determined by
stress factors, at around 2:1 ratio along the length of the wire protrusion.
4. The modern top is made from hardened and tempered wire to increase
wear resistance, thus improving the life of the flat top.
Life of the cylinder wire depends upon
1. Material being processed
2. production rate
3. cylinder speed
4. settings
Wear is the natural and unavoidable side effect of the work done by the vital
leading edge of the metallic wire tooth in coping with the opposing forces needed
to obtain the carding action which separates fibre from fibre When the leading
edge becomes rounded due to wear, there is a loss of carding power because
the point condition has deteriorated to an extent where the leading edge can no
longer hold on to the fibre against the carding resistance of the flats. This
ultimately leads to fibres becoming rolled into nep with consequent degradation
of carding quality. Therefore it is important to recognise that, due to the inevitable
wear which takes place during carding, metallic wire must be reground at regular
intervals with the object of correctly resharpening the leading edge of each tooth.
GRINDING:
1. GRINDING A CUT-TO-POINT CYLINDER WIRE:
1. Wire points of cylinder have become finer and the tip is cut-to-
point.Because of this new profile it has beccome necessary to
recommend a little or no grinding of the cylinder wire following
mounting TSG grinding machine of GRAF (wire manufacturer) can
be used to sharpen these modern wires TSG grinding is a safe
method of grinding.

47
 2. Before grinding the wire should be inspected with a protable
microscope to ascertain the wear. Based on this and the wire point
land width, no of traverse for TSG grinding should be decided. If the
width of the wire point tip is bigger and the wear out is more, the
number of traverse during grinding should be more For a new wire,
3 or 4 traverses may be enough. But it may require 10 to 30
traverses for the last grinding before changing the wire, depending
upon the maintenance of the wire.
2. GRINDING A NORMAL CYLINDER AND DOFFER WIRE:
1. The first grinding of the metallic wire on the cylinder and doffer is
the final and most important step leading up to providing the card
with a cylinder in the best possible condition for carding well at
maximum production rate.Grinding the lands of the teeth provides
the leading edge of each tooth with the final sharpness reqauired
for maximum carding power.
2. The first grinding should be allowed to continue until at least eighty
percent(for cylinder) and 100% (for doffer) of the lands of the teeth
have been ground sufficient to sharpen the leading edge of the
tooth.
3. To ascertain this stage of grinding, it is necessary to stop the
cylinder regularly and use a simple microscope to examine the
teeth at random across and round the cylinder.
4. If the wire on the cylinder is of good quality and has been correctly
mounted, the initial grinding period should be completed with in 20
min.
5. It is essential to avoid over-working the wire before taking
corrective action. The regrinding cycle must be determined
accurately for the conditions applying in the individual mill, by using
the microscope
6. If regrinding is done properly, there are several advantages
1. carding quality will remain consistent

48
 2. There is no risk of overworking the wire
3. Time required for regrinding is very short
4. The exact condition of the clothing is known
5. The working life of the wire is likely to be longer because the
points are never allowed to become worn beyond recovery
7. To obtain acceptable grinding conditions at the low grinding speed,
the grindstone must always be HARP, CLEAN and CONCENTRIC.
If the grinding stone is gradually allowed to become dull and glazed
through constant use, the limited cutting action available will
eventually disappear, resulting in burning and hooking of the
carding teeth.

Due to the low peripheral speed of the grindstone which has to be

used, it is most important that the speed of the wire to be ground is
as high as is practicable to provide a high relative speed between
the grindstone surface and the cardig teeth.If wire speed is low, the
individual carding tooth spends too long a time in passing under the
grindstone, thereby increasing the risk of hooking and burning the
tooth, which is usually irreparable.

8. With cylinder grinding, speed is no problem because the normal

operating speed of the cylinder is more than sufficient. The speed
of the doffer for grinding is more commonly a problem and this
should be driven at a minimum speed of 250 m/min, to avoid
damage when grinding the wire, the design which is particularly
susceptible to hooking due to the long fine, low angled teeth
needed on the doffer.
9. The directions of rotation for metallic wire grinding are normally
arranged so that the back edge of the tooth is first to pass u nder
the grindstone. This is termed grinding "back of point"
3. GRINDING FLAT TOPS:

49
 1. Flat tops provide the opposing carding force against the cylinder
wire and hence can equally effect carding quality.It is essential to
ensure that the tops are kept in good condition to maintain
maximum carding power with the cylinder.Again, the only reliable
approach is to examine the tops with the microscope and decide
whether grinding is required or not.
2. For cards fitted with regrindable tops, it is good practice to regrind
the flats at regular intervals thus ensuring that the conditions of the
two principal carding surfaces are always complementary one to
other

DRAWFRAME

DRAWFRAME

TASKS OF DRAWFRAME

1. Through doubling the slivers are made even

2. doubling results in homogenization(blending)
3. through draft fibres get parallelised
4. hooks created in the card are straightened
5. through the suction ,intensive dust removal is achieved
6. autoleveller maintains absolute sliver fineness

Quality of the drawframe sliver determines the yarn quality.

Drawing is the final process of quality improvement in the spinning mill

Drafting is the process of elongating a strand of fibres, with the intention of
orienting the fibres in the direction of the strand and reducing its linear density.In
a roller drafting system, the strand is passed throgh a series of sets of rollers,
each successive set rotating at a surface velocity greater than that of the
previous set.

50
 During drafting, the fibres must be moved relative to each other as uniformly as
possible by overcoming the the cohesive friction. Uniformity implies in this
context that all fibres are controllably rearranged with a shift relative to each
other equal to the degree of draft.
In drawframe, the rollers are so rotated that their peripheral speed in the
throughflow direction increases from roller pair to roller pair, then the drawing
part of the fibres, i.e.the draft, takes place. Draft is defined as the ratio of the
delivered length to the feed length or the ratio of the corresponding peripheral
speeds.
Drawing apart of the fibres is effected by fibres being carried along with the roller
surfaces. For this to occur, the fibres must move with the peripheral speed of hte
rollers. This transfer of the roller speed to the fibres represents one of the
problems of drafting operation. The transfer can be effected only by friction, but
the fibre strand is fairly thick and only its outer layers have contact with the
rollers, and furthermore various, non-constant forces act on the fibres.
Roller drafting adds irregularities in the strand.Lamb states that,though an
irregularity causing mechanism does exist in drafting, drafting also actually
reduced the strand irregularities by breaking down the fibre groups Drafting is
accompanied by doubling on the drawframe, this offsets the added irregularity.

Variance (sliver out) = Variance(sliver in) + Variance(added by m/c)

In Statistics , Variance is the square of standard deviation

Two passages of drawing with eight ends creeled each time would produce a
single sliver consisting of 64 ribbons of fibre in close contact with each other.In
the ultimate product, each ribbon may be only a few fibres thick and thus the
materials of the input slivers are dispersed by the drawing process. The term
doubling is also used to describe this aspect of drawing

51
 Drafting arrangement is the heart of the drawframe. The drafting arrangement
should be
1. simple
2. stable design with smooth running of rollers
3. able to run at higher speeds and produce high quality product
4. flexible i.e suitable to process different materials , fibre lenths and sliver
hanks
5. able to have good fibre control
6. easy to adjust
Roller drafting causes irregularities in the drafted strand since there is incomplete
control of the motion of each individual fibre or fibre group.The uniformity of the
drafted strand is determined by
1. draft ratio
2. roller settings
3. material characteristics
4. pressure exerted by the top roller
5. hardness of top roller
6. fluting of the bottom rollers
7. distribution of draft between the various drafting stages
drafting is affected by the following rawmaterial factors
1. no of fibres in the cross section
2. fibre fineness
3. degree of parellelisation of the fibres
4. compactness of the fibre strand
5. fibre cohesion which depends on
1. surface structure
2. crimp
3. lubrication
4. compression of the strand
5. fibre length
6. twist in the fibre

52
 7. distribution of fibre length
3-over-3 roller drafting arrangements with pressure bar is widely used in the
modern drawframes Bigger front rollers are stable and operated at lower speeds
of revolution, this necessitated pressure bar arrangement for better control of
fibres. Some drawframes are with 4-over-3 drafting arrangement, but strictly
speaking it behaves like a 3-over-3 drafting system except for the fact that fourth
roller helps to guide the sliver directly into the delivery trumpet.
DRAFTING WAVE Floating fibres are subject to two sets of forces acting in
opposite directions. The more number of fibres which are moving slowly because
of the contact with the back rollers restrain the floating fibres from accelerating.
The long fibres in contact with the front rollers tend to accelerate the floating
fibres to the higher speed As the floating fibres move away from the back roller,
the restraining force by back roller held fibres reduces and the front roller
influence increases. At some balance point, a fibre accelerates suddenly from
low to high speed. This balance point is compounded by the laws of friction,
static friction being higher than dynamic friction. When one floating fibre
accelerates, the neighbouring shor fibres suddenly feel one more element
tending to accelrate them and one fewer trying to restrain them. Thus there may
be an avalanche effect which results in drafting wave.

COMBING

COMBER

Combing is the process which is used to upgrade the raw material. It influences the
following yarn quality

1. yarn evenness
2. strength
3. cleanness
4. smoothness
5. visual appearance

53
In addition to the above, combed cotton needs less twist than a carded yarn.

TASK OF THE COMBER:

To proudce an improvement in yarn quality, the comber must perform the following
operation.

1. elimination of short fibres

2. elimination of remaining impurities
3. elimination of neps

The basic operation of the comber is to improve the mean length or staple length by
removing the short fibres.

Since fineness of short fibres(noil) is low, the overall micronaire of the sliver after
combing is high
Because of combing, fibre parallelisation increases. Please note that this is a
side effect which is not an advantage always. The high degree of parallelisation
might reduce inter-fibre adhesion in the sliver to such an extent that the fibres
slide apart while pulled out of the can. This may lead to sliver breaks or false
draft.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION IN A COMBER
1. Feeding, lap is fed by feed roller
2. fed lap gripped by the nipper
3. gripped lap is combed by circular comb
4. detaching roller grips the combed lap and moves forward
5. while the detaching roller delivers the material, top comb comes into
action to further clean the lap
6. While going back,nipper opens and receives a new bit of lap

54
 The rawmaterial delivered by the carding machine can not be fed directly to the
comber. Lap preparation is a must A good lap fed to the comber should have
1. highest degree of evenness so that lap is gripped uniformly by the nipper
2. a good parallel disposition of fibres so that long fibres will not be lost in the
noil
3. trailing hooks from carding should be fed as leading hooks to reduce long
fibre loss in the noil
Degree of parallelisation of lap fed to the combers should be optimum. If fibres
are over parallelized lap licking will be a major problem. Because of fibre to fibre
adhesion, mutual separation of layers within the sheet is very poor.Moreover the
retaining power of the sheet can be strongly reduced that it is no longer able to
hold back the neps as it usually does. Some of these neps also pass thro the top
comb. Neppiness of the web is increased.
Retaining power of the fibres results in self cleaning of the lap during combing
operation. A thick sheet always exerts a greater retaining power than a thin
one.To certain extent, the bite of the nipper is more effective with a higher sheet
volume.On the negative side , a thick sheet always applies a strong load to the
comb and this can lead to uncontrolled combing.A compromise should be struck
between quality and productivity.
If the sheet is more even across the width, clamping effect at the bite of the
nipper will be better.Evenness of the lap is therefore of considerable significance.
The most effective method of obtaining a high degree of evenness of the sheet
is through more number of doublings in the web form (as it is done in RIBBON
LAP)
Fibres must be presented to the comber so that leading hooks predominate in
the feedstock. This influences not only the opening out of the hooks themselves,
but also the cleanliness of the web.If the sheet is fed to the comber in the wrong
direction, the number of neps rises markedly.

55
 Both quantity and form of fibre hooks depend mainly upon the stiffness of the
fibres. This rises to the second or third power with fine fibres. Fine and long fibres
will always exhibit more and longer hooks than short and coarse fibres.
Accordingly, the role of fibre hooks in the spinning process becomes more
significant as fibres become finer.
There are two types of feeds in COMBER
1. Forward feed (concurrent feed):Feed of the sheet into the nippers occurs
while the nippers move towards the detaching roller
2. Backward feed (counter-feed) : Feed of the sheet occurs during return of
the nippers
Higher Noil % always improves the imperfections in the final yarn. But the
strength and other qality parameters improve upto certain noil %, further increase
in noil results in quality detrioration.
In backward feed, the cylinder comb combs through the fibres more often than in
forward feed Therefore, the elimination of impurities and neps is always good.
However the difference is usually undetectable in modern high performance
combers of the latest generation.
The FEED LENGTH has a direct influence on production rate, noil %, and the
quality of combing. High feed length increases the production rate but cause
deterioration in quality. Higher the quality requirement, feed length should be
lower. To some extent, the feed length may be decided by the length of the fibre
also.

Detaching length is the distance between the bite of hte nippers and the nip of
the detaching rollers.This distance direectly affects the noil %. More the
detaching distance, higher the elimination of noil.

Needles of the top comb have a flattened cross section and are used with a point
density in the range of 22 to 32 needles per centimeter. More the needles, more
the noil%.
The Depth of Penetration of top comb also affects the Noil %. If the comb depth
is increased by 0.5mm approximately 2% increase in noil will occur. When the

56
 depth is increased, the main improvement in quality is seen in Neps.Over deep
penetration of top comb disturbs fibre movement during piecing which will
deteriorate the quality.
Since the web from detaching roller is intermittent because of the intermittent
functions like feeding combing and detaching, to have a continuous web from the
comber,fibre fringes are laid on the top of each other in the same way as roofting
tiles. This process is called Piecing. This is a distinct source of fault in the
operation of Rectinlinear Combing. The sliver produced in this way exhibits a
periodic variation.
As large a lap as possible with adapted lap weight which is as high and as
uniform as possible must be positioned in front of the comber. The better the
comber lap is prepared, the heavier the lap weight can be set on the comber and
the less the resultant noil waste with the same degree of cleanliness of the yarn.
The higher degree of combing out is used in order to permit final spinning of
ultra-fine yarns or to increase the strength of a yarn. Reducing the lint content
improves the medium staple. However, not all cottons meet these requirements.
Low degree of combing out, on the other hand, frequently serve to improvepurity.
When the card sliver is pulled through the needle bars, these separate off foreign
bodies, large neps and torn fibres. Light combing out has also been introduced to
a greater extent owing to the impairments in cotton purity influenced by
mechanical harvesting. Even when combing with minimum noil percentages,
there is a noticeable improvement in fibre parallelsim in the sliver. Even the
smoothness and shine of the yarn are improved. It must thus be anticipated that
this method will become more and more popular in the future.
Production of the comber is dependent upon the following
1. N- Nips per min
2. S- feed in mm/nip
3. G- lap weight in g/m
4. K- Noil percentage
5. A- tension draft between lap and feed roller(from 1.05 to 1.1)
6. E- efficiency

57
 Production = (E * N * S * G * (100-K) * 60 * 8) / (1000 * 1000 * A *100)

ROVING FRAME

Roving machine is complicated, liable to faults, causes defects, adds to production

costs and delivers a product that is sensitive in both winding and unwinding. This
machine is forced to use by the spinner for the following two reasons

1. Sliver is thick, untwisted strand that tends to be hairy and to create fly. The draft
needed to convert this is around 300 to 500. Drafting arrangements of ringframes
are not capable of processing this strand in a single drafting operation to create a
yarn that meets all the normal demands on such yarns.
2. Drawframe cans represent the worst conceivable mode of transport and
presentation of feed material to the ring spinning frame.

TASKS OF ROVING FRAME:

1. Attenuation- drafting the sliver into roving
2. twisting the drafted strand
3. winding the twisted roving on a bobbin
Fibre to fibre cohesion is less for combed slivers. Rollers in the creel can easily
create false drafts Care must be taken to ensure that the slivers are passed to
the drafting arrangement without disturbance.Therefore, a perfect drive to the
creel rollers is very important.
The drafting arrangement drafts the material with a draft between 5 and 15.The
delivered strand is too thin to hold itself together at the exit of the front bottom
roller.
Bobbin and flyer are driven separately, so that winding of the twisted strand is
carried out by running the bobbin at a higher peripheral speed than the flyer.
The bobbin rail is moving up and down continuously, so that the coils must be
wound closely and parallel to one another to ensure that as much as material is
wound on the bobbin.

58
 Since the diameter of the packages increases with each layer, the length of the
roving per coil also will increase. Therefore the speed of movement of bobbin rail
must be reduced by a small amount after each completed layer
Length delivered by the front roller is always constant. Owing to the increase in
the diameter of the package for every up and down movement, the peripheral
speed of package should keep on changing , to maintain the same difference in
peripheral speeds between pakcage and flyer.
There are two types of drafting systems.
1. 3/3 drafting system
2. 4/4 drafting system

In general 3/3 drafting system is used, but for higher draft applications 4/4
drafting system is used.

The draft often has limits not only at the upper limit (15 to 20), but also at lower
limit It is around 5 for cotton and 6 for synthetic fibres. If drafts below these lower
limits are attempted, then the fibre masses to be moved are too large, the
drafting resistance becomes too high and the drafting operation is difficult to
control.

It is advisable to keep the break draft (predarft) as low as possible, because

lower break draft always improves roving evenness.

In general two condensers are used in the drafting arrangement. The purpose of
this condensers is to bring the fibre strands together. It is difficult to control,
Spread fibre masses in the drafting zone and they cause unevenness. In addion,
a widely spread strand leaving the drafting arrangement leads to high fly levels
and to high hairiness in the roving. The size of condensers should be selected
according to the volume of the fibre sliver.
Flyer inserts twist. Each flyer rotaion creates one turn in the roving. Twist per unit
length of roving depends upon the delivery rate.Turns per metre = (flyer
rpm)/(delivery speed (m/min)) Higher levels of roving twist, therefore, always

59
 represent production losses in Roving frame and possible draft problems in the
ring spinning machine. But very low twist levels will cause false drafts and roving
breaks in the roving frame.
Centrifugal tension is created at the bobbin surface as the layers are being
wound and is created by the rotation of the package. Each coil of roving can be
considered as a high-speed rotating hool of roving on which centrifugal tension
increases with increasing diameter of the package. centrifugal tension in the
roving is proportional to the square of the winding surface velocity.In this context
ccentrifugal force acts in such a manner as to lift the top roving strand from the
surface of the package so that the radial forces within the strand that hold the
fibres together are reduced and the roving can be stressed to the point of
rupture. Breaks of this type may occur at the winding-on Point of the presser or in
strands that have just been wound on the top surface of the package. This
phenomenon is known as "bobbin-bursting". This phenomenon will be prominent
if the twist per inch is less or the spindle speed is extremely high when the
bobbin is big.
Apart from inserting twist, the flyer has to lead the very sensitive strand from the
flyer top to the package without introducing false drafts. Latest flyers have a very
smooth guide tube set into one flyer leg and the other flyer leg serves to balance
the flyer. The strand is completely protected against air flows and the roving is no
longer pressed with considerable force against the metal of the leg, as it is in the
previous designs. Frictional resistance is considerably reduced, so that the
strand can be pulled through with much less force.
False twisters are used on the flyers to add false twist when the roving is being
twisted between the front roller and the flyer.Because of this additional twist, the
roving is strongly twisted and this reduces the breakage rate. Spinning triangle is
also reduced which will reduce the fibre fly and lap formation on the front bottom
roller.
Because of the false twister, the roving becomes compact which helps to
increase the length wound on the bobbin. This compactness helps to increase
the flyer speed also.

60
 Roving strength is a major factor in determining winding limitations. It must be
high enough for the fibres to hold together in a cohesive strand and low enough
for satisfactory drafting at the spinning machine The factors affecting roving
strength are as follows:
o the length, fineness, and parallelisation of fibres
o the amount of twist and compactness of the roving
o the uniformity of twist and linear density.
BUILDER MOTION: This device has to perform the following tasks
0. to shift the belt according to the bobbin diameter increase
1. to reverse the bobbin rail direction at top and bottom
2. to shorten the lift after each layer to form tapered ends
Shifting of the belt is under the control of the ratchet wheel. The ratchet wheel is
permitted to rotate by a half tooth. The bobbin diameter increases more or less
rapidly depending upon roving hank. The belt must be shifted through
corresponding steps. The amount of shifting, which depends upon the thickness
of the roving, is modified by replacement of the ratchet wheel or by other gears.If
a ratchet wheel with fewer teeth is inserted, then the belt is shifted through larger
steps, i.e. it moves more rapidly, and vice versa.
To form a package, the layer must be laid next to its neighbours. For that the lay-
on point must continually be moved. The shift of the winding point is effected by
moving the bobbin rail. This raising and lowering is done by rails.Since the
package diamter is steadily increasing, the lift speed must be reduced by a small
amount after each completed layer.
During winding of a package, the ratchet is rotated at every change-
over.Reversal of the bobbin layer occurs little earlier for every reversal.This gives
a conitnuous reduction in the lift of the rail. Thus bobbins are built with taper

61
RING FRAME

The ring spinning will continue to be the most widely used form of spinning machine in
the near future because it exhibits significant advantages in comparison with the new
spinning processes.

Following are the advantages of ring spinning frame

It is universaly applicable, i.e.any material can be spun to any required count

It delivers a material with optimum charactersticss, especially with regard to
structure and strength.
it is simple and easy to master
the know-how is well established and accessible for everyone

Functions of ringframe
o to draft the roving until the reqired fineness is achieved
o to impart strength to the fibre, by inserting twist
o to wind up the twisted strand (yarn) in a form suitable for storage,
transportaion and further processing.

DRAFTING

Drafting arrangement is the most important part of the machine. It influences

mainly evenness and strength The following points are therefore very important
o drafting type
o design of drafting system
o drafting settings
o selection of drafting elements like cots, aprong, traveller etc
o choice of appropriate draft
o service and maintenance
Drafting arrangement influence the economics of the machine - directly by
affecting the end break rate and indirectly by the maximum draft possible.

62
 If higher drafts can be used with a drafting arrangement, then coarser roving can
be used as a feeding material.This results in higher production rate at the roving
frame and thus reducing the number roving machines required space, personnel
and so on.
In fact increase in draft affects the yarn quality beyond certain limit. Within the
limit some studies show that increase in draft improves yarn quality. The
following draft limits have been established for practical operation:
o carded cotton- upto 35
o carded blends - upto 40
o combed cotton and blends(medium counts) - upto 40
o combed cotton and blends(fine counts) - upto 45
o synthetic fibres - upto 50
The break draft must be adapted to the total draft in each case since the main
draft should not exceed 25 to 30. It should be noted that higher the break draft,
more critical is the break draft setting
The front top roller is set slightly forward by a distance of 2 to 4mm relative to the
front bottom roller, while the middle top roller is arranged a short distance of 2mm
behind the middle bottom roller.
Overhang of the front top roller gives smooth running of the top rollers and
shortens the spinning triangle.This has a correspondigly favourable influence on
the end break rate.
Rubber cots with hardness less than 60 degrees shore are normally unsuitable
because they can not recover from the deformation caused by the pressure on
the top roller while running.
Soft rubbercots for toprollers have a greater area of contact, enclose the fibre
strand more completely and therefore provide better guidance for the
fibres.However softer cots wear out significantly faster and tend to form more
laps.
Normally harder rubbercots are used for back top rollers, because the roving
which enters the backroller is compact, little twisted and it does not require any
additional guidance for better fibre control.

63
 In the front top roller, only few fibres remain in the strand and these exhibit a
tendency to slide apart Additional fibre guidance is therefore
necessary.Therefore rubbercots with hardness levels of the order 80 degrees to
85 degrees shore are mostly used at the back roller and 63 degrees and 65
degrees at the front roller.

If coarse yarns and synthetic yarns are being spun, harder rubbercots are used
at the front roller because of increased wear and in the case of synthetic yarns to
reduce lapups.
Three kinds of top roller weighting(loading) are presently in use
o spring loading
o pneumatic loading
o magnetic weighting
With pneumatic loading system, the total pressure applied to all top rolers is
obtained by simple adjustment of the pressure in the hose using pressure
reducing valve. Moreover the rubbercots will not get deformed if the machine is
stopped for a longer duration, because the pressure on top rollers can be
released to the minimum level.
The fibre strand in the main drafting field consists of only a few remaining fibres.
There is hardly any friction field and fibre guidance provided by the rollers alone
is inadequate. Special fibre guiding devices are therefore needed to carry out a
satisfactory drafting operation. Double apron drafting arrangements with longer
bottom aprons is the most widely used guding system in all the modern
ringframes.
In doube apron drafting system two revolving aprons driven by the middle rollers
form a fibre guiding assembly. In order to be able to guide the fibres, the upper
apron must be pressed with controlled force against the lower apron. For this
purpose, a controlled spacing (exit opening), precisely adapted to the fibre
volume is needed between the two aprons at the delivery. This spacing is set by
"spacer" or "distance clips"Long bottom aprons have the advantage in

64
 comparison wiht short ones, that they can be easily replaced in the event of
damage and there is less danger of choking with fluff.
Spindles and their drive have a great influence on power consumption and noise
level in the machine The running characteristics of a spindle, especially
imbalance and eccentricity relative to the ring flange, also affect yarn quality and
of course the number of end breakage. Almost all yarn parameters are affected
by poorly running spindles. Hence it should be ensured that the centering of the
spindles relative to the rings is as accurate as possible. Since the ring and
spindle form independent units and are able to shift relative to each other in
operation, these two parts must be re-centered from time to time. Previously, this
was done by shifting the spindle relative to the ring, but now it is usually carried
out by adjusting the ring.
In comparison with Tangential belt drive, the 4-spindle drive has the advantages
of lower noise level and energy consumption, and tapes are easier to replace.
Lappet guide performs the same sequence of movements as the ringrail, but with
a shorter stroke, this movement of the guide ensures that differences in the
balloon height caused by changes in the ring rail positions do not become too
large. This helps to control the yarn tension variation with in control, so that ends
down rate and yarn charactersitics are under control.
Spindles used today are relatively long. The spacing between the ring and the
thread guide is correspondingly long, thus giving a high balloon. This has two
negative influence
o A high balloon results in large bobbin diameter leading to space problems
o Larger the balloon diameter , higher the air drag on the yarn.This inturn
causes increased deformation of the balloon curve out of hte plane
intersecting the spindle axis.This deformation can lead to balloon stability
there is increase danger of collapse.

Both these disadvantages result in higher yarn tension, thereby higher

endbreaks.In order to avoid this balloon control rings are used. It divides the
balloon into two smaller sub-balloons. Inspite of its large overall height, the

65
 double-balloon created in this way is thoroughly stable even at relatively low yarn
tension.

Balloon control rings therefore help to run the mahcine with long spindles(longer
lift) and at high spindle speed, but with lower yarn tension. Since the yarn rubs
against the control ring, it may cause roughening of the yarn.
Most ends down arise from breaks in the spinning triangle, because very high
forces are exerted on a strand consisting of fibres which have not yet been fully
bound together in the spinning triangle.

RING and TRAVELLER COMBINATION:

The following factors should be considered

o materials of the ring traveller
o surface charecteristics
o the forms of both elements
o wear resistance
o smoothness of running
o running-in conditions
o fibre lubrication
For the rings two dimensions are of primariy importance. 1 internal diameter 2.
flange width.
Antiwedge rings exhibit an enlarged flange inner side and is markedly flattened
on it upper surface.This type of profile permitted to use travellers with a lower
centre of gravity and precisely adapted bow(elliptical avellers), which in turn
helped to run the machine with higher spindle speeds. Antiwedge rings and
elliptical travellers belong together and can be used in combination.
Low crown profle has the following advantage. Low crown ring has a flattened
surface top and this gives space for the passage of the yarn so that the curvature
of the traveller can also be reduced and the centre of gravity is lowered.In
comparison with antiwedge ring, the low crown ring has the advantage that the
space provided for passage of the yarn is somewhat larger and that all current

66
 traveller shapes can be applied, with the exception of the elliptical traveller. The
low crown ring is the most widely used ring form now.
The ring should be tough and hard on its exterior. The running surface must have
high and even hardeness in the range 800-850 vikcers. The traveller hardness
should be lower (650-700 vickers), so that wear occurs mainly on the traveller,
which is cheaper and easier to replace. Surface smoothness should be high, but
not too high, because lubricating film can not build up if it too smooth.
A good ring in operation should have the following features:
o best quality raw material
o good, but not too high, surface smoothness
o an even surface
o exact roundness
o good, even surface hardness, higher than that of the traveller
o should have been run in as per ring manufacturers requirement
o long operating life
o correct relationship between ring and bobbin tube diameters
o perfectly horizontal position
o it should be exactly centered relative to the spindle
In reality, the traveller moves on a lubricating film which builds up itself and which
consists primarily of cellulose and wax. This material arises from material
abraded from the fibres.If fibre particles are caught between the ring and
traveller, then at high traveller speeds and with correspondingly high centrifugal
forces the particles are partially ground to a paste of small, colourless,
transparent and extremely thin platelets.The platelets are continually being
replaced during working. The traveller smoothes these out to form a continuous
running surface.The position, form and structure of lubricating film depends on
o yarn fineness
o yarn structure
o fibre raw material
o traveller mass
o traveller speed

67
 o heigh of traveller bow

Modern ring and traveller combination with good fibre lubrication enable traveller
speeds upto 40m/sec.

Traveller imparts twist to the yarn. Traveller and spindle together help to wind the
yarn on the bobbin.Length wound up on the bobbin corresponds to the difference
in peripheral speeds of the spindle and traveller The difference in speed should
correspond to length delivered at the front rollers. Since traveller does not have a
drive on its own but is dragged along behing by the spidle.
High contact pressure (upto 35 N/square mm) is generated between the ring and
the traveller during winding, mainly due to centrifugal force. This pressure leads
to generation of heat. Low mass of the traveller does not permit dissipation of the
generated heat in the short time available. As a result the operating speed of the
traveller is limited.
When the spindle speed is increased, the friction work between ring and traveller
(hence the build up) increases as the 3rd power of the spindle rpm.
Consequently if the spindle speed is too high, the traveller sustains thermal
damage and fails. This speed restriction is felt particularly when spinning cotton
yarns of relatively high strength.
If the traveller speed is raised beyond normal levels, the thermal stress limit of
the traveller is exceeded, a drastic change in the wear behaviour of the ring and
traveller ensues. Owing to the strongly increased adhesion forces between ring
and traveller, welding takes place between the two. These seizures inflict
massive damage not only to the traveller but to the ring as well.Due to this
unstable behaviour of the ring and traveller system the wear is atleast an order of
magnitude higher than during the stable phase. The traveller temperature
reaches 400 to 500 degrees celcius and the danger of the traveller annealing and
failing is very great.
The spinning tension is proportional
o to the friction coefficient between ring and traveller
o to the traveller mass

68
 o to the square of hte traveler speed

and inversely proportional

o to the ring diameter

o and the angle between the connecting line from the traveller-spindle axis
to the piece of yarn between the traveller and cop.
The yarn strength is affected only little by the spinning tension. On the other hand
the elongation diminishes with increasing tension, for every tensile load of hte
fibres lessens the residual elongation in the fibres and hence in the yarn.
Increasing tension leads also to poorer Uster regularity and IPI values
If the spinning tension is more, the spinning triangle becomes smaller. As the
spinning triangle gets smaller there is less hairiness.

SHAPE OF THE TRAVELLER:

The traveller must be shaped to match exactly with the ring in the contact zone,
so that a single contact surface, with the maximum surface area is created
between ring and traveller. The bow of the traveller should be as flat as possible,
in order to keep the centre of gravity low and thereby improve smoothness of
running. However the flat bow must still leave adequate space for passage of the
yarn. If the yarn clearance opening is too small, rubbing of the yarn on the ring
leads to roughening of the yarn, a high level of fibre loss as fly, deterioration of
yarn quality and formation of melt spots in spinning of synthetic fibre yarns.

WIRE PROFILE OF THE TRAVELLER:

Wire profile influences both the behaviour of the traveller and certain yarn
characteristics, they are
o contact surface of the ring
o smooth running
o thermal transfer
o yarn clearance opening

69
 o roughening effect
o hairiness

MATERIAL OF THE TRAVELLER

The traveller should

o generate as little heat as possible
o quickly distribute the generated heat from the area where it develops over
the whole volume of the traveller
o transfer this heat rapidly to the ring and the air
o be elastic, so that the traveller will not break as it is pushed on to the ring
o exhibit high wear resistance
o be less hard than the ring, because the traveller must wear out in use in
preference to the ring
In view of the above said requirements, traveller manufacturers have made
efforts to improve the running properties by surface treatment. "Braecker" has
developed a new process in which certain finishing components diffuse into the
traveller surface and are fixed in place there. The resulting layer reduces
temperature rise and increases wear resistance.
Traveller mass determines the magnitude of frictional forces between the
traveller and the ring, and these in turn determine the winding and balloon
tension. Mass of the traveller depends upon
o yarn count
o yarn strength
o spindle speed
o material being spun

If traveller weight is too low, the bobbin becomes too soft and the cop content will
be low. If it is unduly high, yarn tension will go up and will result in end breaks. If
a choice is available between two traveller weights, then the heavier is normally
selected, since it will give greater cop weight, smoother running of the traveller
and better transfer of heat out of traveller.

70
 When the yarn runs through the traveller, some fibres are liberated. Most of
these fibres float away as dust in to the atmosphere, but some remain caught on
the traveller and they can accumulate and form a tuft. This will increase the mass
of traveller and will result in end break because of higher yarn tension. To avoid
this accumulation, traveller clearers are fixed close to the ring, so that the
accumulation is prevented. They should be set as close as possible to the
traveller, but without affecting its movement. Exact setting is very important.
Specific shape of the cop is achieved by placing the layers of yarn in a conical
arrangement. In the winding of a layer, the ring rail is moved slowly but with
increasing speed in the upward direction and quickly but with decreasing speed
downwards. This gives a ratio between the length of yarn in the main (up) and
cross (down) windings about 2:1.
The total length of a complete layer (main and cross windings together) should
not be greater than 5m (preferably 4 m) to facilitate unwinding. The traverse
stroke of the ring rail is ideal when it is about 15 to 18% greater than the ring
diameter.
End break suction system has a variety of functions.
o It removes fibres delivered by the drafting arrangement after an end break
and thus prevents mulitple end breaks on neighbouring spindles.
o It enables better environmental control, since a large part of the return air-
flow of the aircondition system is led past the drafting system, especially
the region of the spinning triangle.
o In modern installations, approx. 40 to 50 % of the return air-flow passes
back into the duct system of the airconditioning plant via the suction tubes
of pneumafil suction system.
o A relatively high vacuum must be generated to ensure suction of waste
fibres
for cotton - around 800 pascals
for synthetic - around 1200 pascals
o A significant pressure difference arises between the fan and the last
spindle. This pressure difference will be greater, the longer the machine

71
 and greater the volume of air to be transported. The air flow rate is
normally between 5 and 10 cubic meter/hour.
o Remember that the power needed to generate an air-flow of 10 cubic
meter/ hour , is about 4.5 times the power needed for an air-flow of 6 cubic
meter/ hour, because of the significantly higher vacuum level developed at
the fan.

SPINNING GEOMETRY:

From Roving bobbin to cop, the fibre strand passes through drafting
arrangement, thread guide, balloon control rings and traveller. These parts are
arranged at various angles and distances relative to each other The distances
and angles together are referred to as the spinning geometry, has a significant
influence on the spinning opeartion and the resulting yarn. They are
o yarn tension
o number of end breaks
o yarn irregularity
o binding-in of the fibres
o yarn hairiness
o generation of fly etc.
Spinning Triangle Twist in a yarn is generated at the traveller and travel against
the direction of yarn movement to the front roller. Twist must run back as close
as possible to the nip of the rollers, but it never penetrates completely to the nip
because, after leaving the rollers, the fibres first have to be diverted inwards
andwrapped around each other. There is always a triangular bundle of fibres
without twist at the exit of the rollers, this is called as SPINNING TRIANGLE.
Most of the end breaks originate at this point. The length of the spinning triangle
depends upon the spinning geometry and upon the twist level in the yarn.
The top roller is always shifted 3 to 6 mm forward compared to bottom roller. This
is called top roller overhang.This gives smoother running and smaller spinning
triangle. The overhang must not be made too large as the distance from the

72
 opening of the aprons to the roller nip line becomes too long resulting in poorer
fibre control and increased yarn irregularity.
Continuous variation of the operating conditions arises during winding of a
cop.The result is that the tensile force exerted on yarn must be much higher
during winding on the bare tube than during winding on the full cop, because of
the difference in the angle of attack of the yarn on the traveller. When the ring rail
is at the upper end of its stroke, in spinning onto the tube, the yarn tension is
substantially higher than when the ring rail is at its lowermost position. This can
be observed easily in the balloon on any ring spinning machine.
The tube and ring diameters must have a minimum ratio, between approx. 1:2
and 1:2.2, in order to ensure that the yarn tension oscillations do not become too
great.
Yarn tension in the balloon is the tension which finally penetrates almost to the
spinning triangle and which is responsible for the greater part of the thread
breaks. It is reduced to a very small degree by the deviation of the yarn at the
thread guide. An equilibrium of forces must be obtained between the yarn tension
and balloon tension.

RINGS & TRAVELLERS:

In most cases, the limit to productivity of the ring spinning machine is defined by the
traveller in interdependence with the ring, and yarn. It is very important for the
technologist to understand this and act on them to optimise the yarn production.

The following factors should be considered

o materials of the ring traveller

73
 o surface charecteristics
o the forms of both elements( ring and traveller)
o wear resistance
o smoothness of running
o running-in conditions
o fibre lubrication

TRAVELLER:

Traveller imparts twist to the yarn. Traveller and spindle together help to wind the yarn
on the bobbin. Length wound up on the bobbin corresponds to the difference in
peripheral speeds of the spindle and traveller. The difference in speed should
correspond to length delivered at the front rollers. Since traveller does not have a drive
on its own but is dragged along behing by the spidle.

High contact pressure (upto 35 N/square mm)is generated between the ring and the
traveller during winding, mainly due to centrifugal force. This pressure leads to
generation of heat. Low mass of the traveller does not permit dissipation of the
generated heat in the short time available. As a result the operating speed of the
traveller is limited.

Heat produced when by the ringtraveller is around 300 degree celcius. This has to be
dissipated in milliseconds by traveller into the air.

Parts of a traveller:

74
Height of bow: It should be as low as possible for stable running of traveller. It should
also have sufficient yarn pasage.

Yarn passage: According to count spun the traveller profile to be selected with required
yarn passage.

Toe gap : This will vary according to traveller number and flange width of the ring

Wire section: It plays an important role for yarn quality, life of traveller.

Ring contact area: This area should be more, uniform, smooth and continuous for best
performance.

Inner width: This varies according to traveller profile and ring flange.

SALIENT FEATURES OF A TRAVELLER:

Generate less heat

dissipate heat fastly
have sufficient elasticity for easy insertion and to retain its original shape after
insertion
friction between ring and traveller should be minimal
it should have excellent wear resistance for longer life
hardness of the traveller should be less than the ring

When the spindle speed is increased, the friction work between ring and traveller
(hence the build up) increases as the 3rd power of the spindle rpm. Consequently if the

75
spindle speed is too high, the traveller sustains thermal damage and fails. This speed
restriction is felt particularly when spinning cotton yarns of relatively high strength.

If the traveller speed is raised beyond normal levels , the thermal stress limit of the
traveller is exceeded, a drastic change in the wear behaviour of the ring and traveller
ensues. Owing to the strongly increased adhesion forces between ring and traveller,
welding takes place between the two. These seizures inflict massive damage not only to
the traveller but to the ring as well.Due to this unstable behaviour of the ring
and traveller system the wear is atleast an order of magnitude higher than during the
stable phase. The traveller temperature reaches 400 to 500 degrees celcius and the
danger of the traveller annealing and failing is very great.

The spinning tension is proportional

to the friction coefficient between ring and traveller

to the traveller mass
to the square of hte traveler speed

and inversely proportional

to the ring diameter

and the angle between the connecting line from the traveller-spindle axis to the
piece of yarn between the traveller and cop.

In order to maintain the same friction or spinning tension with different

coefficients of friction, different traveller weights must be used. The coefficient of
friction is determined by the fiber lubrication and is subject to fluctuation. Dry
cotton means higher coefficient of friction. For manmade fibres depending upon
the manufacturer, lower to medium coefficient of friction.

The coefficient of friction with fiber lubrication can vary from 0.03 and 0.15.

R = Co efficeint of friction x N

76
where

R - traveller friction in mN

N = Normal force >= (Fc x ML x V xV)/(R)

Fc - centrifugal force

ML - mass of the traveller in mg

V - traveller speed in m/s

R - radius of the ring (inside)

The yarn strength is affected only little by the spinning tension. On the other hand
the elongation diminishes with increasing tension, for every tensile load of the
fibres lessens the residual elongation in the fibres and hence in the yarn.
Increasing tension leads also to poorer Uster regularity and IPI values.

If the spinning tension is more, the spinning triangle becomes smaller . As the
spinning triangle gets smaller, there is less hairiness.

SHAPE OF THE TRAVELLER:

The traveller must be shaped to match exactly with the ring in the contact zone,
so that a single contact surface, with the maximum surface area is created
between ring and traveller. The bow of the traveller should be as flat as possible,
in order to keep the centre of gravity low and thereby improve smoothness of
running. However the flat bow must still leave adequate space for passage of the
yarn. If the yarn clearance opening is too small, rubbing of the yarn on the ring
leads to roughening of the yarn, a high level of fibre loss as fly, deterioration of
yarn quality and formation of melt spots in spinning of synthetic fibre yarns.

77
 WIRE PROFILE OF THE TRAVELLER:

Wire profile influences both the behaviour of the traveller and certain yarn
characteristics, they are
o contact surface of the ring
o smooth running
o thermal transfer
o yarn clearance opening
o roughening effect
o hairiness

MATERIAL OF THE TRAVELLER

The traveller should

o generate as little heat as possible
o quickly distribute the generated heat from the area where it develops over
the whole volume of the traveller
o transfer this heat rapidly to the ring and the air
o be elastic, so that the traveller will not break as it is pushed on to the ring
o exhibit high wear resistance
o be less hard than the ring, because the traveller must wear out in use in
preference to the ring
In view of the above said requirements, traveller manufacturers have made
efforts to improve the running properties by surface treatment. "Braecker" has
developed a new process in which certain finishing components diffuse into the
traveller surface and are fixed in place there. The resulting layer reduces
temperature rise and increases wear resistance.
Traveller mass determines the magnitude of frictional forces between the
traveller and the ring, and these in turn determine the winding and balloon
tension. Mass of the traveller depends upon
o yarn count
o yarn strength

78
 o spindle speed
o material being spun

If traveller weight is too low, the bobbin becomes too soft and the cop content will
be low. If it is unduly high, yarn tension will go up and will result in end breaks. If
a choice is available between two traveller weights, then the heavier is normally
selected, since it will give greater cop weight, smoother running of the traveller
and better transfer of heat out of traveller.

When the yarn runs through the traveller, some fibres are liberated. Most of
these fibres float away as dust in to the atmosphere, but some remain caught on
the traveller and they can accumulate and form a tuft. This will increase the mass
of traveller and will result in end break because of higher yarn tension. To avoid
this accumulation, traveller clearers are fixed close to the ring, so that the
accumulation is prevented. They should be set as close as possible to the
traveller, but without affecting its movement. Exact setting is very important.

For the rings two dimensions are of primariy importance. 1. internal diameter 2.
flange width.
Antiwedge rings exhibit an enlarged flange inner side and is markedly flattened
on it upper surface. This type of profile permitted to use travellers with a lower
centre of gravity and precisely adapted bow(elliptical travellers), which in turn
helped to run the machine with higher spindle speeds. Antiwedge rings and
elliptical travellers belong together and can be used in combination.
Low crown profle has the following advantage. Low crown ring has a flattened
surface top and this gives space for the passage of the yarn so that the curvature
of the traveller can also be reduced and the centre of gravity is lowered.In
comparison with antiwedge ring, the low crown ring has the advantage that the
space provided for passage of the yarn is somewhat larger and that all current
traveller shapes can be applied, with the exception of the elliptical traveller. The
low crown ring is the most widely used ring form now.

79
 The ring should be tough and hard on its exterior. The running surface must have
high and even hardeness in the range 800-850 vikcers. The traveller hardness
should be lower (650-700 vickers), so that wear occurs mainly on the traveller,
which is cheaper and easier to replace. Surface smoothness should be high, but
not too high, because lubricating film can not build up if it too smooth.
A good ring in operation should have the following features:
o best quality raw material
o good, but not too high, surface smoothness
o an even surface
o exact roundness
o good, even surface hardness, higher than that of the traveller
o should have been run in as per ring manufacturers requirement
o long operating life
o correct relationship between ring and bobbin tube diameters
o perfectly horizontal position
o it should be exactly centered relative to the spindle
In reality, the traveller moves on a lubricating film which builds up itself and which
consists primarily of cellulose and wax. This material arises from material
abraded from the fibres.If fibre particles are caught between the ring and
traveller, then at high traveller speeds and with correspondingly high centrifugal
forces, the particles are partially ground to a paste of small, colourless,
transparent and extremely thin platelets. The platelets are continually being
replaced during working. The traveller smoothes these out to form a continuous
running surface.The position, form and structure of lubricating film depends on
o yarn fineness
o yarn structure
o fibre raw material
o traveller mass
o traveller speed

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 o heigh of traveller bow

Modern ring and traveller combination with good fibre lubrication enable traveller
speeds upto 40m/sec.

TECHNOLOGICAL GUIDELINES:

When the ring diameter is less, balloon diameter will be small. This leads to more
yarn tension. Hence use lighter travellers.
When the ring diamter is bigger, balloon diamter will be more. This leads to less
yarn tension and the balloon touches the separator. Hence use heavier travellers
When the tube length is short, the yarn tension will be more. Hence use lighter
travellers
When the tube length is long, the yarn tension will be less, hence use heavier
travellers
When the yarn contact area and ring contact area in traveller is closer, fibre
lubrication is better especially in cotton. For this use heavier travellers
When spindle speed is increased use lighter traveller with low bow height. At
higher speeds, lighter travellers give lesser yarn tension. When low bow height
travellers are used centre of gravity will be closest to the ring which aids in
running of traveller.
Use lighter travellers on new rings. This is done to reduce end breakages by
reducing the yarn tension.
Use heavier travellers on old rings. This is done to avoid bigger balloons
Heavier travellers reduce hairiness
When using lighter travellers, yarn stretch will be less. It helps for better yarn
elongation
During running-in the endbreakage rate should be kept minimum, hence use
lighter travellers.
The shorter the balloon, the lighter the traveller to be used, the higher traveller
speeds can be achieved.

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 The ring traveller, together with the yarn as a pull element, is set into motion on
the ring by the rotation of the spindle. If the direction of pull deviates too much
from the running direction of the traveller (spinning angle less than 30 degrees)
the tension load will be too high.

Preconditions for good operating results

The maximum ability of the ring/traveller system to withstand occuring stress situation
during operation determines the performance limit of the ring spinning and twisting
machine. Traveller wear does not only depend on traveller material; problems of heat
dissipation are of crucial importance, too. The heat generated between ring and traveller
must be reduced as quickly as possible to avoid local temperature in the traveller wear
zones. The ability of the traveller to resist to stress is determined by several factors.
Investigations regarding improvements of rings and travellers aimed at a further
increase of performance should above all make sure that all other conditions with a
certain influence on the spinning process are optimal.

Therefore make sure that:

the rings are correctly centered with regard to the spindles

the yarn guide eyelet is well centered with regard to the spindle

the spindle bearing is in good condition, thus preventing spindle vibrations

the ratio between bobbin diameter and ring diameter is correct

the concentricity of the ballon control ring with regard to the

spindle is correct

the fibre tufts which accumulate on flange travellers are removed by means of suitable
traveller cleaners

the climatic conditions (temperature and relative air humidity) are favourable

82
for the spinning process

the air in the mill is free from disturbing particles that influence efficient performance of
the traveller

It has to be stressed that a smooth and well run-in track is of most importance.

Concentricity of spindle, ring, yarn guide and balloon control ring

Especially at high spindle speeds concentric positioning of ring, spindle, yarn eyelet
and balloon control ring is required for keeping the ends down rate at low level. Spindles
and rings must be aligned and centered absolutely parallel. Ring rails or ring holders
should, therefore, be installed absolutely horizontally compared to the vertically fitted
spindles. Ring and traveller form the main elements in ring spinning and twisting. They
determine to a large extent performance and operating conditions of the machine.

The traveller accomplishes two main tasks while running on the ring at high speeds:

a) It gives the roving supplied by the feed rollers the necessary twist.

b) It assists in winding the yarn onto the bobbin in the form of a cop with correct
tension.

During this operation the ring guides the traveller, which is essential for the perfect
positioning of the yarn and the formation of the cop. The traveller is pressed against the
ring track by centrifugal forces. The resulting frictional forces reduce traveller speed,
which is dragged along by the passing-through yarn, and provide the yarn with the
tensile forces necessary for assembling the individual fibres into the spun yarn as well
as for limiting the yarn balloon.

Steel travellers are hardened to a certain degree and polished to a mirror finish. They
can be adapted in shape, weight and surface finish to the ring, yarn type and yarn
count. Nylon travellers of standard quality (for HZ and J rings) are made of highly wear-
resistant polyamide. Extremely aggressive yarns are processed with glass-fibre-

83
reinforced a Super Nylon travellers. Twisting and winding carried out by the traveller
must be performed with appropriate yarn tension. The ratio between spindle speed and
the speed at which the yarn is supplied determines yarn twist. Any change of this ratio is
easily compensated by the traveller without having an influence on twisting, winding and
tensioning.

On flange rings, the gliding speed of travellers having a suitable shape can be as rapid
as 130 ft/s (88 MPH) or 40 m/s (140 km/h); on DIA-DUR coated rings the speed can to
some extent reach 147 ft/s (100 MPH) or 45 m/s (160 km/h) . Having an average life
span of 200-300 operating hours the traveller covers a distance of more than 18.000
miles (30.000 km) - a tremendous task for a small part of wire weighing only a few
milligrams. These standards can even be surpassed by nylon travellers used on HZ
rings, if operating conditions are favourable.

These high traveller speeds involve pressures of up to 35 N/mm 2. But even if high-
quality materials with an optimum of hardness and resistance to wear are used, these
standards can only be reached if

in the case of flange rings, a film of lubricating fibres is produced continuously,

in the case of HZ and J rings, a sufficient amount of lubricant is consistently

provided.

d 1 = spinning ring diameter

d 2 = fitting diameter

h 1 = ring height

h 2 = ring height above ring rail

b = flange width

flange 1 = 3.2 mm

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flange 2 = 4.1 mm

Spindles operating without vibrations contribute a great deal to a smooth operation of

the traveller. Non-concentric spindles and spindles not running smoothly cause constant
changes in yarn tension , because the traveller cannot run around the ring without being
shaken.

Vibration-free movements of ring rail and ring holder

The ring rail should move smoothly without jerking. Vibrations and hard jolts at the
reversing points of the ring rail disturb the operation of the traveller. Repeated changes
in yarn tension cause the traveller to flutter. This results in increasing yarn breaks and in
accelerated wear of ring and traveller.

Correct ratio between bobbin diameter, bobbin length, ring diameter and spindle gauge

Ratio bobbin length (H) : Inside ring diameter (D)

Thread tension increases with growing bobbin length. In view of the limited thread
tension, the total bobbin length should not exceed 5 times the ring diameter. Only when
using balloon control rings or similar devices this value can be exceeded.

H:D=5:1

Ratio bobbin diameter (d) : Inside ring diameter (D)

The bobbin diameter d is equivalent to the mean outer bobbin diameter d 1 + d 2

The following values are recommended:

for spinning: d : D = 0.48 - 0.5 (a = 29-30), (minimum value a = 26)

for twisting d : D = 0.44 - 0.5 (a = 27-30), (minimum value a = 22)

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For light and heavy bobbins, the values for light bobbin types are decisive for calculating
d : D. If the ratio d : D is reduced thread tension increases.

Correct surface smoothness, i.e. optimum peak-to-valley height and evenness of the
ring track

The traveller contact surfaces must be smooth and even. Only then a smooth operation
of the traveller will be possible. The contacted surfaces should be clean and preferably
without traces of wear. In addition, they should be designed in such a way that they
offer sufficient adherence for potential lubricants (e.g. fibres, oil, grease).

Once the sliding surfaces have lost their original quality, even the best ring traveller will
not be able to run smoothly. For maintaining the surface of the running track in a good
condition, it is very important - besides a certain degree of maintenance - to run the ring
well in.

Balloon control rings and separators

The influence of balloon control rings is quite considerable, especially at long cops. A
reduction of the yarn balloon is advantageous or may even be the prerequisite for
optimum performance. If balloon control rings are mounted at correct distance (the yarn
balloon should be restricted as long as possibleduring one lift of the ring rail) then a
marked performance increase is possible. The balloon control rings are removed when
sensitive materials are processed and sufficiently long separators are installed to avoid
many yarn breaks and to prevent fibre fly from accumulating on the adjacent spindles.

Traveller cleaners

Traveller cleaners are an excellent method for removing all fibre fly that accumulates
on the outer part of C and El travellers. The traveller cleaner should have the right
distance to the outside ring flange. A distance of about 0.5 mm between cleaner and
traveller (in operating position) is recommended. When adjusting the distance between

86
outside ring flange and cleaner, the size of the traveller should be taken into
consideration.

Room climate

Constant temperature and air humidity have positive effects on the operation of the
traveller. Changes of the room climate, such as raised air humidity will increase wear by
friction. Besides the regular exchange of air, the purity of the air is of great importance
for the traveller. Any dust (also dust from unsuitable floors) or other impurities may
impair traveller operation and lead to more ring/traveller wear.

Flange width and ring height

Optimal operating results are reached when the ideal flange width is chosen for flange
rings and the ideal ring height is obtained for self-lubricating HZ and J rings, dependent
on yarn count range, yarn quality and traveller type.

Ring profile and traveller shape

Determining the most favourable ring and traveller shapes is a precondition for
obtaining the optimal individual performance. If ring profile and traveller shape match
well, the traveller will adopt a stable position in the ring. It should have sufficient
tolerance of movement, so that any obstacles which may occur especially when the
machine is started are avoided. A satisfactory large yarn clearance counteracts yarn
breaks and yarn damage.

Running-in of rings

Normally the running-in procedure is decisive for the future positive/nega tive behaviour
of the ring and the length of its service life. Every ring requires a certain degree of
running-in time if it is to maintain high traveller speeds with as little ring and traveller
wear as possible. During running-in the use of steel travellers without surface treatment
is recommended. After the termination of the running-in process, steel travellers with
surface treatment or nylon as well as bronze travellers can be used.

87
The running-in process, beginning with the starting phase, consists of improving the
initial running properties of the metallic running surface up to the optimal values by
smoothing and passivation(oxidation) as soon as possible. In this way, together with
fibre lubrication, constant minimum mixed friction conditions and minimum thermal
stressing can be attained for the ring traveller. A careful running-in process will improve
the lifetime of the rings.

In order to keep the stress on the traveller as low as possible during the starting phase,
it is advisable to always change the traveller in the upper third part of the cops. Further
advantages are brought with the use of a traveller running-in program(reduction of the
speed by about 10% for 10 to 20 minutes, only available on modern spinning
machines).

Spindle speed should be reduced atleast for the first 10 traveller changes. If final speed
is higher than 32m/sec, reduce by atleast 20%. If final speed is lower than 32m/sec,
reduce by at least 10%.

New rings should not be degreased, but only rubbed over with a dry cloth.

In general, the running in should be done with the same traveller type which is used for
normal operation with the 10 to 20% less than normal speed. It is not advisable to do
running with the same speed but with 1 to 2 numbers lighter travellers than usual.

The first traveller change should be carried out after 15 min

The second traveller chage should take place after 30 min

The third traveller change should be made after 1 to 1.5 hours.

The fourth traveller change should be made after the first doff.

Further traveller changes are to be made according to the manufacturers

recommendations

88
HAIRINESS: Following are the reasons for higher yarn hairiness due to ring and
travellers

Poorly centered spindles, anti balloon rings and yarn guides lead to inconsistent yarn
tension.

Rough surfaces roughen the yarn (due to damaged parts)

Open anti balloon ring

The clearance between ring and cop should not be too small. Traveller will cut the fibres
protruding from the cop.

the fibres get electrostatically charged

poor twist propagation to the spinning triangle due to lighter travellers

Heavy friction of the balloon on the anti-balloon ring respectively impact on the balloon
separator (due to lighter traveller)

Poor ring centering

crooked tubes

yarn getting roughened in narrow yarn passage in the traveller

scratched up yarn passages catch the yarn and roughen it (due to very high traveller
running time)

friction of the yarn due to very high traveller weight

rough gliding surface of the ring ( due to worn out rings)

89
COM-4 AND ELITE YARNS

COM-4 CONCEPT:

With the ComforSpin technology a new yarn with perfect yarn structure the COM4
yarn - has been established in the market. With the help of a microscope the structure
of the yarns can easily be compared: The conventional ring yarn shows to be far less
perfect than commonly assumed. The long, protruding fibres cause a number of
problems in downstream processing. COM4 yarn shows a very compact structure with
highly parallel fibres and much less disturbing hairiness.

The air current created by the vacuum generated in the perforated drum condenses the
fibres after the main draft. The fibres are fully controlled all the way from the nipping line
after the drafting zone to the spinning triangle.

An additional nip roller prevents the twist from being propagated into the condensing
zone. The compacting efficiency in the condensing zone is enhanced by a specially
designed and patented air guide element.

Optimal interaction of the compacting ele-ments ensures complete condensation of all

fibres. This results in the typical COM4 yarn characteristics.

90
The ComforSpin technology allows aero-dynamic parallelization and condensation of
the fibres after the main draft. The spinning triangle is thus reduced to a minimum. The
heart of ComforSpin machine is the compacting zone, consisting of the following
elements:

perforated drum

suction insert

air guide element

The directly driven perforated drum is hard to wear and resistant to fibre clinging. Inside
each drum there is an exchangeable stationary suction insert with a specially shaped
slot. It is connected to the machines suction system.

91
 THE ELITE YARN:

The operating method of the SUESSEN EliTe Spinning System is well-known.After the
fibres leave the drafting system they are condensed by an air-permeable lattice
apron,which slides over an inclined suction slot.The fibres follow the outer edge of this
suction slot and at the same time they perform a lateral rolling motion.

Above the front bottom roller of the drafting system,the fibre band influenced by high
draft is spreading.In the area of the suction slot,which is covered by the lattice
apron,the fibre band is condensed.Commencing from the semi-dotted clamping line of
the EliTe Q Top Roller,twist is being inserted.There is no spinning triangle.

The improvement achieved is shown in Fig .The left side displays the fibre triangle at
the exit of a conventional ring frame drafting system.The twist imparted by the spindle
cannot flow up to the clamping line.The outer fibres spread out and are thus more highly

92
tensioned than those on the inside. The right side of the picture does not show a
spinning triangle.The yarn twist flows right up to the clamping line.The yarn is round and
smooth.

Since the spinning triangle is very very small, the end breaks will be very less and
therefore the fly liberation will also be less.

Condensing of the fibr bundle,which follows the drafting process,can already be seen as
a significant development of the ring spinning technology.Condensed ring yarn is more
than a speciality.In view of its manifold advantages.

It is of technological importance that the suction leve l relevant for the condensing
operation is exactly the same for all spinning positions. To fulfil this criteria,individual
motors combined with suction units for 6 spinning positions,have been arranged
accordingly.This provides short air-flow distances with identical negativ pressures at all
spinning points .

93
During yarn formation all fibres are perfectly condensed and gathered parallel to each
other in the compacting zone. Consequently all fibres are twisted in and contributing to
the superior fibre utilisation rate compared to conventional ring yarn. The result is
exceptionally low hairiness combined with higher yarn tenacity and elongation. These
are the unique characteristics of these yarns.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPACT YARN:

higher fibre utilisation

higher tenacity with same twist factor, or

same tenacity with reduced twist factor for higher production

lowest hairiness (highest reduction in hairs longer than 3 mm)

fewer weak points

better imperfections (IPI) values

higher abrasion resistance

greater brilliance of colour

intensive dye penetration

no singeing before printing

Due to better utilization of fibre substance it is possible to reduce yarn twist of

these Yarns,particularly of knitting yarns,by up to 20%,maintaining the yarn
strength of conventional ring yarns.This increases yarn production. The ends-
down rate in spinning these Yarns is reduced by 30 to 60%,which improves
machine efficiency.

94
 Applying the same winding speed as with conventional ring yarns,there are less
raised points in these Yarns and the increase in yarn imperfections is reduced
because they have a better resistance to shifting. Higher winding speeds are
therefore possible with compact yarns Yar ns .

In accordance with up to 20%twist reduction in spinning compact yarns ,the

twisting turns can be reduced for certain types of yarn.As a result,production of
twisting frame is increased and twisting costs are reduced.

Owing to the lower hairiness and higher tenacity of compact Yarns,the ends-
down rate in beaming is reduced by up to 30%.Higher beamer efficiency,higher
produc tion and fewer personnel for repair of ends-down in beaming are the
consequence.

Compact Warp yarns help to save up to 50%of sizing agent,while the running
behaviour of weaving machi-nes is the same or even better. Cost can be saved
in sizing and desizing processes.

Owing to the better work capacity of compact Yarns, ends down can decreased
by up to 50% in the warp and by up to 30%in the weft. Efficiency is consequently
increased by 2 to 3%, production is increased and weaving costs are reduced. In
practice,the average ends-down rate is reduced by 33% per 100,000 weft
insertions of compact Yarns on rapier weaving machines and by 45% on air-jet
weaving machines. Instead of a weft insertion of 500 600 m/min with
conventional ring yarn, 700-800 m/min is possible with compact Yarns on air-jet
weaving machines.

Due to reduced Yarn hairiness, singeing can sometimes be dispensed with,or it

can be carried out at a higher cloth advance speed.As a result,production costs
are considerably reduced.

fibres upto 7% can be saved because singing can be avoided

95
 Dyeing and Printing Improved structure of compact Yarns and their reduced twist
favours the absorption of colour pigments and chemical finishing agents.Saving
of dyestuff is possible.

Owing to the improved yarn strength, compact Yarns are well suited for non-iron
treatment of woven fabrics. In the course of such treatment, the strength of
fabrics made from conventional ring yarns can decrease by up to 25%, with
frequent problems in the manufacture of clothes. Compact Yarns make up for
this loss in strength.

Knitting:Compact Yarns with their increased yarn strength and reduced formation
of fluff permit to achieve higher machine efficiency and therefore production on
knitting machines at a reduced ends-down rate,less interruptions and less fabric
faults. Production costs therefore decrease. The enormously low hairiness of
compact Yarns often permits to dispense with usual waxing. Considerable cost
saving is achieved because of this.

In knitting fibre abrasion reduced by 40% due to low hairiness. Fewer defects/
yarn breaks and better quality. Less contamination on all machines by foreign
fibres. Less wear of needles, guide elements and sinkers due to less dust in the
compact Yarn . Low hairiness has positive impact on loop structure . L Low pilling
values get more and more important. In many cases single compact Yarns
substitute conventional ply yarns. Waxing can be reduced or completely
dispensed with.

Compact Yarns are much more suitable for warp knitting than conventional ring
yarns, because of their higher work capacity and lower hairiness. They are
predestined to bear the high load due to numerous deflecting points with high
friction in the warp knitting machine.

Due to better embedding of fibres (including short ones) in compact Yarn,

approx.6%fewer combing noils are possible.

96
 Cheaper carded qualities instead of combed qualities can be spun with the
Compact Spinning ystem.

in many cases single EliTe Yarns can substitute conventional ply yarns

new qualities can be developed, opening up a new creative scope for products

Hairiness Testing of Yarns

Hairiness of yarns has been discussed for many years, but it always remained a fuzzy
subject. With the advent of compact yarns and their low hairiness compared to
conventional yarns,the issue of measuring hairiness and the proper interpretation of the
values has become important again.Generally speaking,long hairs are undesirable,
while short hairs are desirable (see picture ). The picture shown below just give a visual
impression of undesirable and desirable hairiness at the edge of a cops.

Figure:

RING YARN COMPACT YARN

There are two major manufacturers of hairiness testing equipment on the market, and
both have their advantages and disadvantages. Some detail is given below.

97
USTER

USTER is the leading manufacturer of textile testing equipment. The USTER hairiness
H is defined as follows.

H =total length (measured in centimeters) of all the hairs within one centimeter of yarn .

(The hairiness value given by the tester at the end of the test is the average of all these
values measured, that is,if 400 m have been measured,it is the average of 40,000
individual values). The hairiness H is an average value, giving no indication of the
distribution of the length of the hairs. Let us see an example

0.1cm 0.2cm 0.3cm 0.4cm 0.5cm 0.6cm 0.7cm 0.8cm 0.9cm 1.0cm total

yarn 1 100 50 30 10 5 6 0 2 1 0 398

yarn 2 50 10 11 5 10 0 5 10 0 11 398

Both yarns would have the same hairiness index H, even though yarn is more
desirable,as it has more short hairs and less long hairs,compared to yarn 2.

This example shows that the hairiness H suppresses information,as all averages do.
Two yarns with a similar value H might have vastly different distributions of the length of
the individual hairs.

The equipment allows to evaluate the variation of the value H along the length of the
yarn. The "sh value "is given, but the correlation to the CV of hairiness is somehow not
obvious.A spectrogram may be obtained.

2. ZWEIGLE

Zweigle is a somewhat less well known manufacturer of yarn testing equipment. Unlike
USTER, the Zweigle does not give averages. The number of hairs of different lengths
are counted separately, and these values are displayed on the equipment. In addition,
the S3 value is given, which is defined as follows:

98
S3 =Sum (number of hairs 3 mm and longer)

In the above example, the yarns would have different S3 values:

S3yarn 1 =2 .

S3yarn 2 =4 .

A clear indication that yarn 2 is "more hairy "than yarn 1. The CV value of hairiness is
given a histogram (graphical representation of the distribution of the hairiness) is given.

The USTER H value only gives an average, which is of limited use when analyzing the
hairiness of the yarn.The Zweigle testing equipment gives the complete distributionof
the different lengths of the hairs. The S3 value distinguishes between long and short
hairiness, which is more informative than the H value.

Ten Fundamental Rules for Successful Operation of EliTe Ring Spinning Machines:

1. EliTe Q Spinning Machines produce yarn of supreme quality and come up to the
expectations. Installation of the machine in the spinning mill EliTe Q Spinning Machines
have a considerable air flow rate a machine with .1008 spindles sucks in about 60
cubic meter of air per minute,i.e. it has the effect of a vacuum cleaner. The ambient air
is sucked into machine and most of the fly and dirt contained in it is deposited on the
EliTe Q Machine. Although EliTe Spinning Machines generate considerably less fly than
standard ring spinning machines, they are soon covered with dust and fly if they are
installed in the same room as conventional spinning machines. The fly has a negative
effect on the yarn in the condensing zone and the smooth running of the lattice apron.
As a result, the yarn is of substandard quality.

Rule 1: EliTe Q Spinning Machines must be separated from conventional spinning

machines.

2. Spinning room conditions: The fibres in the condensing zone are exposed to the
room conditions without any protection. Our recommendations on the room conditions

99
suitable for processing cotton and man-made fibres should be followed, therefore. If the
air humidity is too high, there will be a higher tendency towards roller laps. If the air is
too dry,t here will be more fly. If the room temperature is too high, there will be higher
friction values and premature wear.

Rule 2: maximum room temperature:33 degree.C humidity should be

max...,5 g water/kg air for cotton

min.9,0 g water/kg air for cotton
max..0,0 g water/kg air for synthetics
min.9,0 g water/kg air for synthetics

3. Position of the Eli Top in relation to the front bottom roller of the drafting system: If
the setting is correct, the top edge of the suction slot in the Eli Tube is precisely set at
the nip line of the delivery top roller. If the nip line cuts the slot, condensation is
impaired. The hairiness of the yarn increases and the tearing strength is reduced. If the
nip line is behind the slot, part of the spinning torsion may get into the condensation
zone, resulting in an increased ends-down rate and damaged lattice aprons.

Rule 3: The front top roller is precisely 3.5 mm offset towards the operator in relation to
the front bottom roller of the drafting system.

4. Traverse mechanism: The roving must run over the slot in such a way, that, from the
operators view, the fibres move from the top right to the bottom left. If the fibres run
over the slot top from the L.H. side, they make an S-shaped movement causing a
certain unsteadiness in the condensing zone. This has a negative effect on the yarn
values.

Rule 4: The traverse mechanism for the sliver should be adjusted in such a way that the
traverse motion at the front of the drafting system does not exceed 4 mm, and that the
l.h.limit position of the sliver is level with the L.H. edge of the top of the slot.

100
5. Cleaning the Eli Tubes and lattice aprons: Eli Tubes and lattice aprons are the most
important components of the EliTe Q Condensing System. Careful maintenance is an
important prerequisite for optimum yarn values. In the centre area, where the suction is
active, a permanent air flow keeps the lattice aprons clean. To the left and right of this
area, the lattice apron can be clogged by fine dust. With the time, this results in a
considerable increase of the friction between the lattice aprons and the EliTube. If this
friction is too high, erratic running of the lattice apron and substandard yarn quality is
the result. Therefore,lattice aprons and Eli Tubes should be removed from the machine
from time to time and cleaned. This can be done when the machine is running. The time
needed per box length is 5 min. The expenditure of time necessary for changing the
EliTubes with lattice aprons is about 90 minutes for a machine with .1008 spindles,
which corresponds to a loss of production of 90 minutes. For yarn count Ne 40, the
production loss involved is less than 370 g. The cleaning frequency varies depending on
the portion of fine dust of the cotton. As an average value, 500 operating hours may be
taken into account. The aprons are cleaned in a washing machine or in an ultrasonic
cleaning device.The EliTubes are cleaned using a damp piece of cloth. Damaged lattice
aprons must be replaced. On EliTubes with considerable traces of wear, the inserts
must be replaced.

Rule 5: Lattice aprons and Eli Tubes must be cleaned from time to time.

6. Measures to be taken in the case of laps at the front top roller Laps may occur in the
case of unsuitable room conditions or damaged or inappropriately buffed cuts, or if the
fibre material used is prone to the formation of laps. Large laps may block the delivery
and front rollers and damage the cot of the blocked roller. If spinning is continued with
damaged cots, periodic yarn faults will be the result. Consequently, a blocked Eli Top
must be replaced by a new Eli Top and repaired in the service room. For this purpose,
all operators should carry a spare Eli Top with them.

Rule 6: EliTops with blocked top rollers must be replaced by new top rollers.

101
7.Buffing the EliTe Q Top Rollers : The cots of the EliTe Q Top Rollers are subject to
wear and should be buffed from time to time.The tension draft in the condensing zone
6 %as a general rule depends on the difference in diameter between the front top roller
and the delivery top roller. Changed tension drafts may result in changed yarn
parameters.

Rule 7: Make sure that the difference in diameter of the front top roller and the delivery
roller corresponds precisely to the desired tension draft.

8. Checking the partial vacuum As a general rule, continuous control of the vacuum
pressure is not necessary. When the whole machine is cleaned, we recommend,
however,to remove also the connecting hoses between the suction tubes and the fans
and to clean them.

Rule 8: Clean the connecting hoses with regular frequency.

9. Maintenance of the fans: Fans may be clogged after a time, which has a negative
effect on the suction.

Rule 9: The fans should be removed from the machine and cleaned once a year.

10. Spinning speed: In the case of EliTe Q Spinning Machines, return on investment is
not based on higher production, but on the production of yarn of supreme quality. The
Suessen recommendations concerning traveller speeds and running-in speeds for rings
and travellers should be followed, therefore. Not the ultimate increase in speed, but the
yarn quality leads to success.

Rule 10: Yarn quality is more important than quantity.

WINDING

Ring spinning produces yarn in a package form called cops. Since cops from ringframes
are not suitable for further processing, the winding process serves to achieve additional
objectives made necessary by the requirements of the subsequent processing stages.

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Following are the tasks of winding process

Extraction of all disturbing yarn faults such as the short, long thick ,long thin,
spinners doubles, etc
Manufacture of cones having good drawing - off properties and with as long a
length of yarn as possible
paraffin waxing of the yarn during the winding process
introduction into the yarn of a minimum number of knots
achievement of a high machine efficiency i.e high produciton level

The winding process therefore has the basic function of obtaining a larger package from
several small ring bobbins. This conversion process provides one with the possibility of
cutting out unwanted and problematic objectionable faults. The process of removing
such objectionable faults is called as yarn clearing.

Practical experience has proven that winding alters the yarn structure.This phenomenon
does not affect yarn evenness, but affect the following yarn properties

thick places
thin places
neps
hairiness
standard deviation of hairiness

If winding tension is selected properly, the following tensile properties are not affected

tenacity
elongation
work- to- break

But excessive tension in winding will deteriarate the above said tensile properties.

Changes in the yarn surface structure due to winding cannot be avoided. Since the yarn
is accelerated from zero speed to 1200 or 1350 meters per min in a few milli seconds

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while being pulled off the bobbin, dragged across several deflection bars and eyelets,
forced into a traverse motion at speed that make it invisible, and finally rolled up into a
firm construction called package or cone.

The factors that affect the yarn structure during winding include the frictional properties
of the yarn itself, the bobbin geometry and the bobbin unwinding behaviour, winding
speed, winding geometry as well as the number and design of the yarn / machine
contact points.

However, the bobbin unwinding behaviour is the major limiting factor for winding speed
which also is the main reason for the above said changes in yarn structure. Most of the
damage occurs at the moment when the end is detached and removed from the tight
assembly of yarn layers on the bobbin and dragged along the tube at very high speeds.

High speed automatic winders have frequently been blamed for causing higher nep
counts but this is not a correct statement. typical nep-type imperfections, i.e shor mass
defects, can be identified as tight fibre entanglements, clumps of immature or dead
cotton fibres, or seed coat fragments. Naturally, such defects are not produced by the
winding machine. The increase in nep counts after winding is related to the formation of
loose fiber accumulations. These fibre accumulations represent a true mass defect, yet
their apperance in the yarn and in the final fabric is clearly different from that of typical
fibre entanglements or seed coat fragments.

Some very fine and delicate yarns will result in marginal structural changes after
winding. But this is not the result of mechancial stress like in winding but a natural
reaction caused by the reversal of the yarn running direction. irectional influences are
omnipresent, they become apparent in all subsequent processing stages.

In earlier days, knotters were used in winding machine to join two ends after cutting the
fault and after chaning the ringframe bobbin . But now, splicing of the yarn ends has
become quite popular and has gradually replaced knotting by way of its better
appearance while at the same time retaining sufficient strength.

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WAXING PROCESS:

Waxing is the process which is almost exclusively used in all automatic and manual
winding machines for yarns which are meant for knitting. This helps to reduce the
coefficient of friction of yarns created during knitting process.

Extensive tests have shown that the coefficient of friction of waxed yarn is not constant,
but depends on the amount of wax on the yarn. It is proved that both too little and too
much wax cause increase in coefficient of friction and thus detrioration in running
efficiency on the knitting machine.

The recommended wax pick up for different material are given below:

I. cotton and its blends - wax take-up of 1.0 to 2.0 grams per kg of yarn
II. synthetics - wax take-up of 0.5 to 1.5 gram per kg of yarn
III. wool and its blends - wax takep-up of 2.0 to 3.0 grams per kg

From the technical point of view, it is interesting to note that very small amounts of wax
are already sufficient to give an optimal reduction in friction coefficient. If for example,
we take 1 kg of 50s metric yarn, there are 50000 meters of yarn. It is quite sufficient to
apply 1 gm of wax on this length of yarn, to obtain optimum reduction in friction.

As the original coefficients of friction of non-waxed yarns are so varied, due to different
raw materials and blends, dye-stuffs, additives, twist etc, so also are the values
obtained with waxed yarns. The table shows several typical examples of coefficient of
friction for unwaxed and waxed yarns.

Absolute comments about coefficients of friction are not possible. It depends on several
factors, such as type of material, count, twist, dyeing process, yarn moisture content,
atmospheric conditions etc.

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 percentage of friction
KIND OF YARN friction coefficient of friction coefficient of
coefficient decrease
COUNT (METRIC) unwaxed yarn waxed yarn
%

cotton , 50s combed 0.285 0.145 49

cotton, 40 bleachd
0.30 0.14 53
cbd

wool, 36s natural 0.33 0.155 53

wool,36s dyed 0.32 0.155 52

polyester 40s white 0.42 0.21 50

Even with efficient waxing, the results in knitting can still be adversely affected, if the
package of waxed yarn is subsequently handled. A typical example is conditioning of
waxed packages. The conditioning causes an increase in friction coefficient, and thus a
deterioration in running properties. Therefore one should not condition waxed
packages. An increase in moisture content causes an increase in friction coefficient.

If too-damp bobbins are creeled at the winding machine, poor waxing results, because
yarns with high moisture content take up hardly any wax. If bobbins have to be
conditioned or steamed, the yarn should be allowed to stand for atleast 24 hours, so
that it can return to its normal condition before winding.

A further problem can arise during steaming, or any other treatment involving the
application of heat to a waxed package.

Low yarn tension will affect the wax pickup

Dimensions and form of wax rollers will affect the wax uniformity

As it is clear and is important that, if the waxed particles are to carry out their function,
they must remain on the surface of the yarn. When the yarn is subjected to heat

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however, the wax melts and penetrates to the inside of the yarn body: it can then no
longer work effectively.

When choosing the wax, it is essential to consider the type of yarn and fibre, the
temperature in the production area, etc., and the characteristics indicated by the wax
manufacturer

YARN FAULTS AND CLEARING:

It is still not possible to produce a yarn without faults for various reasons. Stickiness of
cotton can contribute to the formation of thick and thin places. Fly liberation in
Ringframe department is one of the major reasons for short faults in the yarn because
of the fly gets spun into the yarn. Hence it is not possible to have fault free yarn from
ringspinning, it is necessary to have yarn monitoring system in the last production
process of the spinning mill. As physical principle for electronic yarn clearing the
capacitive and the optical principle have established. Both principles have their
advantages in specific applications.

Depending upon the rawmaterial, the machiery set up, production and process
parameters, there are about 20 to 100 faults over a length of 100 km yarn which does
not correspond to the deisred appearance of the yarn. This means that the yarn
exhibits a yarn fault every 1 to 5 km. These faults are thick and thin faults, foregin fibres
and diry places in the yarn.

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The yarn faults which go into the woven or knitted fabric can be removed at very high
costs or can not be removed at all. Therefore the yarn processing industry demands a
fault free yarn.

The difference between frequent yarn faults and seldom occuring yarn faults are mainly
given by the mass or diameter deviation and size. These faults are monitored by
classimat or clearer installation on winding.

Each yarn contains, here and there, places which deviate to quite a considerable extent
from the normal yarn corss-section. These can be short thick places, long thin places,
long thick places or even spinners doubles. Eventhough such events seldom occur,
they represent a potential disturbance in the appearance of the fabric or can negatively
influnece subsequent processing of the yarn.

Short thick places are those faults which are not longer than approximately 8 cms, but
have a cross-sectional size approx. twice that of the yarn. These faults are relatively
frequent in all spun yarns. To an extent they are the result of the rawmaterial (vegetable
matter, non-seprated fibres, etc). To a much larger extent, these faults are produced in
the spinning section of the mill and are the result of spun in fly. Short thick places are

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easily determinable in the yarn. In many cases, they cause disturbances in subsequent
processing. Once they reach a certain size (cross-section and length) , and in each
case accoridng to the type of yarn and its application, short thick place fults can
considerably affect the appearance of the finished product.

Long thick places are much more seldom-occuring than the short thick places and
usually have a length longer than 40cms. In some cases, their length can even reach
many meters. Their cross sectional size approx. + 40% to +100% and more with respect
of the mean cross-section of the yarn. Long thick places will affect the fabric
apperance. Faults like spinners doubles are difficult to determine in the yarn, with the
naked eye. On the other hand, they can produce quite fatal results in the finished
product. A spinners-double in the warp or in yarn for circular knitting can downgrade
hundreds of meters of woven, or knitted fabric.

Thin places occur in two length groups. Short thin places are known as imperfections,
and have a length approx. three times the mean staple length of the fibre. Their
frequency is dependent on the rawmaterial and the setting of the drafting element. They
are too frequent in the yarn to be extracted by means of the electronic yarn clearing.

Long thin places have lengths of approx. 40cms and longer and a cross-sectional
decrease with respect to the mean yarn cross-section of approx.30 to 70%. They are
relatively seldom-occuring in short staple yarns, but much more frequently-occuring in
long staple yarns. Long thin faults are difficult to determine in the yarn by means of the
naked eye. Their effect in the finished product however, can be extremely serious.

The quite extensive application of electronic yarn clearing has set new quality standards
with respect to the number of faults in spun yarns.

It is therefore necessary to evolve a method of yarn fault classification before clearing

the faults in winding. The most important aspect is certainly the determination of the
fault dimensions of cross-sectional size and length. With such a cross-section and
length classification and by means of the correct choice of the class limits, the
characteristic dimensions of the various fault types can be taken into consideration, then

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a classification system will result which is suitable primarily for satisfying the
requirements of yarn clearing and yet allows, to quite a large extent, for a selection of
the various types of faults.

The yarn faults are classified according to their length and cross-sectional size, and this
in 23 classes.

FIG: CLASSIMAT FAULTS:

The cross-sectional deviations are given +% or -% values. i.e theupper limit,

respectively , lower limit with respect to the mean yarn fault cross-section is
measure in %. The fault length is measured in cms.

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 FIG: YARN CLEARING CONCEPT OF USTER QUANTUM CLEARER

N - NEPS

S- SHORT FAULTS

L-LONG FAULTS

CCP - COARSE COUNTS

CCM-FINE COUNTS

The classes and their limits are set out according to the following:

Short thick place faults: 16 classes with the limits, 0.1 cm, 2cm, 4cm, and 8cm for
the lengths and +100%, +150%,+250%, and +400% for the cross-sectional sizes
are provided. The classes are indicated A1...D4. The classes A4, B4, C4, D4
contain all those faults, according to their length, whose cross-sectional size
oversteps +400%.

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 spinners doubles: This refers to a class (with the indication E) for faults whose
length oversteps 8 cms and whose cross-sectional size oversteps +100 ( open to
the right and upwards)

Long thick place faults and thick ends: The long thin place faults are contained in
4 classes with the limits 8 cms and 32 cms for the lengths, and -30% , -45% and
-75% for the cross-sectional sizes. The classes are designated H1.....I2. The
classes I1 and I2 are open to the right. i.e they contain all those thin places
having a size between -30 and -45%, respetively, -45% and -75% and whose
lengths are longer than 32 cms. The classification of the shorter thin places is of
no advantage in the analysis of the seldom-occuring faults.

Types of Electronic Yarn Clearers:

Electronic Yarn Clearers available in the market are principally of two types capacitive
and optical. Clearers working on the capacitive principle have mass as the reference
for performing its functions while optical clearers function with diameter as the
reference. Both have their merits and demerits and are equally popular in the textile
industry. Besides the above basic difference in measuring principle, the basis of
functioning of both the types of clearers is similar if not exactly same. Since most of the
other textile measurements like, U% / CV%, thick and thin places etc., in various
departments take into account mass as the reference parameter, the functioning of the
capacitive clearer is explained in some detail in the following sections.

Functioning Principle

The yarn is measured in a measuring field constituted by a set of parallely placed

capacitor plates. When the yarn passes through this measuring field (between the
capacitor plates), an electrical signal is produced which is proportional to the change in
mass per unit length of the yarn. This signal is amplified and fed to the evaluation
channels of the yarn clearing installation. The number and type of evaluation channels
available are dependent on the sophistication and features of the model of the clearer in
use. Each of the channels reacts to the signals for the corresponding type of yarn fault.

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When the mass per unit length of the yarn exceeds the threshold limit set for the
channel, the cutting device of the yarn clearer cuts the yarn.

Yarn Clearer Settings

The yarn clearer has to be provided with certain basic information in order to obtain the
expected results in terms of clearing objectionable faults. The following are some of
them -

a. Clearing Limit:

The clearing limit defines the threshold level for the yarn faults, beyond which the cutter
is activated to remove the yarn fault. The clearing limit consists of two setting
parameters - Sensitivity and Reference Length.

i. Sensitivity - This determines the activating limit for the fault cross sectional size.

ii. Reference Length This defines the length of the yarn over which the fault cross-
section is to be measured. Both the above parameters can be set within a wide range of
limits depending on specific yarn clearing requirements. Here, it is worth mentioning that
the reference length may be lower or higher than the actual fault length. For a yarn
fault to be cut, the mean value of the yarn fault cross-section has to overstep the set
sensitivity for the set reference length.

b. Yarn Count :

The setting of the yarn count provides a clearer with the basic information on the mean
value of the material being processed to which the clearer compares the instantaneous
yarn signals for identifying the seriousness of a fault.

c. Material Number:

Besides the yarn count there are certain other factors which influence the capacitance
signal from the measuring field like type of fibre (Polyester / Cotton / Viscose etc.) and

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environmental conditions like relative humidity. These factors are taken into
consideration in the Material Number. The material number values for different
materials are provided in Table.

Table : Material number

8.5 very damp material (80%Rh)

7.5 cotton, wool, viscost
6.5 very dry material(50% RH)
7 very damp material
6 natural silk
5 very dry material
acetate, acrylonitrile 50 to 80% RH
5.5
polyamide 50 to 80% RH
polypropylene, poly
4.5 50 to 80% RH
ethylene
3.5 polyester 50 to 80%RH
2.5 polyvinyl chloride 50 to 80% RH

From the values given in the table it could be seen that, for water absorbent fibres like
cotton, the Material Number is changed by 1 for a 15% change in Relative Humidity. A
reduction in material number results in a more sensitive setting causing higher fault
removal. For blended yarns, the material number is formed from the sum of the
percentage components of the blend. For instance, when a 67/33 Polyester / Cotton
blend is run at an RH of 65%, the Material umber should be set at (0.67 * 3.5) + (0.33 *
7.5) = 4.8.

d. Winding Speed:

The setting of the winding speed is also very critical for accurate removal of faults. It is
recommended that, instead of the machine speed, the delivery speed be set by actual
calculation after running the yarn for 2-3 minutes and checking the length of yarn

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delivered. Setting a higher speed than the actual is likely to result in higher number of
cuts. Similarly a lower speed setting relative to the actual causes less cuts with some
faults escaping without being cut. In most of the modern day clearers, the count,
material number and speeds are monitored and automatically corrected during actual
running of the yarn.

Fault Channels:

The various fault channels available in a latest generation yarn clearer are as follows:

1. Short Thick places

2. Long Thick Places

3. Long Thin Places

4. Neps

5. Count

6. Splice

The availability of one or more of the above channels is dependent on the type of the
yarn clearer. Most of the modern clearers have the above channels. Besides detection
of the various types of faults, with latest clearers, it is also possible to detect
concentration of faults in a specific length of yarn by means of alarms(cluster faults).

Contamination Clearing:

Detection of contamination in normal yarn has become a requirement in recent times

due to the demands by yarn buyers abroad. Therefore, some of the optical yarn clearers
have an additional channel to detect the contamination in yarn. This is mostly used
while clearing cotton yarn. The various facilities available in the yarn clearers nowadays
enable precise setting and removal of all objectionable faults while at the same time
ensure a reasonably high level of productivity.

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SPLICING:

A high degree of yarn quality is impossible through knot, as the knot itself is
objectionable due to its physical dimension, appearance and problems during
downstream processes. The knots are responsible for 30 % to 60% of stoppages in
weaving.

Splicing is the ultimate method to eliminate yarn faults and problems of knots and
piecing. It is universally acceptable and functionally reliable. This is in spite of the fact
that the tensile strength of the yarn with knot is superior to that of yarn with splice.
Splicing is a technique of joining two yarn ends by inter-mingling the constituent fibres
so that the joint is not significantly different in appearance and mechanical properties
with respect to the parent yarn. The effectiveness of splicing is primarily dependent on
the tensile strength and physical appearance.

Splicing satisfies the demand for knot free yarn joining: no thickening of the thread or
only slight increase in its normal diameter, no great mass variation, visibly
unobjectionable, no mechanical obstruction, high breaking strength close to that of the
basic yarn under both static and dynamic loading, almost equal elasticity in the joint and
basic yarn. No extraneous material is used and hence the dye affinity is unchanged at
the joint. In addition, splicing enables a higher degree of yarn clearing to be obtained on
the electronic yarn clearer.

Splicing technology has grown so rapidly in the recent past that automatic knotters on
modern high speed winding machine are a thing of the past. Many techniques for
splicing have been developed such as Electrostatic splicing, Mechanical splicing and
Pneumatic splicing. Among them, pneumatic splicing is the most popular. Other
methods have inherent drawbacks like limited fields of application, high cost of
manufacturing, maintenance and operations, improper structure and properties of yarn
produced.

Pneumatic Splicing

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The first generation of splicing systems operated with just one stage without proceeding
to trimming. The yarn ends were fed into the splicing chamber and pieced together in
one operation. Short fibres, highly twisted and fine yarns could not be joined
satisfactorily with such method. Latest methods of splicing process consist of two
operations. During the first stage, the ends are untwisted, to achieve a near parallel
arrangement of fibres. In a second operation the prepared ends are laid and twisted
together.

Principle of Pneumatic Splicing

The splicing consists of untwisting and later re-twisting two yarn ends using air blast,
i.e., first the yarn is opened, the fibres intermingled and later twisted in the same
direction as that of the parent yarn. Splicing proceeds in two stages with two different air
blasts of different intensity. The first air blast untwists and causes opening of the free
ends. The untwisted fibres are then intermingled and twisted in the same direction as
that of parent yarn by another air blast

Structure of Splice

Analysis of the longitudinal and transverse studies revealed that the structure of the
splice comprises of three distinct regions/elements brought by wrapping, twisting and
tucking / intermingling.

Wrapping:

The tail end of each yarn strand is tapered and terminates with few fibres. The tail end
makes a good wrapping of several turns and thus prevents fraying of the splice. The
fibres of the twisting yarn embrace the body of the yarn and thus acts as a belt. This in
turn gives appearance to the splice.

Twisting

The two yarn ends comprising the splice are twisted around the body of the yarn, each
yarn strand twists on the body of the yarn on either side of the middle of the splice. The

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cross-section of this region distinctly shows the fibres of the two yarn strands separately
without any intermingling of the fibres.

Tucking / Intermingling

The middle portion of the splice is a region (2-5 mm) with no distinct order. The fibres
from each yarn end intermingle in this splice zone just by tucking. The studies on
quantitative contribution of splice elements showed that intermingling/tucking
contributes the most to the strength of splice (52%), followed by twisting (33%) and
wrapping (about 15%). The lower strength of the splice is attributed to the lower packing
coefficient of the splice zone. Spliced yarn has a lower breaking elongation than normal
yarn. Breaking elongation is mainly affected by intermingling. Wrapping and twisting
provides mainly transverse forces. The absence of fibre migration gives lower breaking
elongation to splice.

Effect of Variables on the Properties of the Spliced yarn

Several studies have been conducted on the effect of various variables on the
properties of the spliced yarn.

Effect of Fibre Properties and Blend

Fibre properties such as torsional rigidity, breaking twist angle and coefficient of friction
affect splice strength and appearance. The lower torsional rigidity and higher breaking
twist angle permit better fibre intermingling. Higher coefficient of friction of fibres
generates more inter-fibre friction to give a more cohesive yarn. Thus, these properties
of fibre contribute to better retention of splice strength. In blended yarn, usually the
addition of polyester to other fibre blend like P/W, P/C both for ring and rotor spun yarn
increases splice strength.

Effect of Yarn Fineness

Several studies on cotton, polyester and wool report that coarser yarns have higher
breaking strength but a moderate extension. The coarse yarn cross section contains

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more fibres and provides better fibre intermingling during pre-opening; hence the splice
is stronger than that of finer yarns.

Effect of Yarn Twist

An increase in the twist significantly increases the breaking load and elongation, even at
higher pneumatic pressure. This could be due to better opening of the strands at higher
pneumatic pressure. Splicing of twisted ply yarn is more complicated than single yarn
due to the yarn structure having opposing twists in the single and doubled yarns.
Twisted yarns also require a relatively longer time for complete opening of the yarn
ends.

Effect of Different Spinning Methods

Yarn produced with different spinning methods exhibit different structure and properties.
Therefore, these yarns show significant differences in splice quality. The ring spun yarn
lent best splicing but the potential of splicing is affected by the spinning conditions. The
breaking strength percentage of ring spliced yarns to a parent yarn is 70% to 85% for
cotton yarn. However, the breaking strength and extension of splice vary with fibre and
yarn properties. Rotor spun yarns, due to the presence of wrapper fibres, make it
difficult to untwist and the disordered structure is less ideal for splicing. The breaking
strength retention varies from 54% to 71% and is much lower compared to the splice of
ring spun yarns. In case of friction spun yarns, the highest relative tensile strength
obtained at the spliced joints can be above 80%, but a number of splicing failures
occurs due to unfavourable yarn structure. The air-jet-spun (MJS) yarn and the cover
spun yarn are virtually impossible to splice. Only very low tensile strengths and
elongation values can be attained due to the inadequate opening of the yarn ends
during preparation of the splicing. The coefficient of variation of these properties is also
generally high.

Effect of Opening Pressure

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A study on 50/50 polyester cotton, 25 tex ring spun yarn shows a rise in tensile strength
up to a certain opening pressure. However, long opening time deteriorates the strength.
An increase in pressure up to 5 bar caused release of fibre tufts and fibre loss from the
yarn ends in P/C blend which is due to intensive opening, but beyond this pressure,
drafting and twisting in the opposite direction may also occur.

Effect of Splicing Duration

With a given splicing length, when the splicing is extended for a long period of time, the
breaking strength of the spliced yarn and also their strength retention over the normal
value of the basic yarn increases because of increased cohesive force resulting from an
increased number of wrapping coils in a given length. The effects are more pronounced
at higher splicing lengths. It is desirable however, that splicing duration be as short as
possible. The splicing duration alone has no conclusive effect on elongation properties
of splice yarn. It has also been observed that, for maximum splice strength, different
materials require different durations of blast. These are between 0.5 to 1.8 seconds.

Effect of Splicing Length

Studies on splicing of flyer and wrap spun yarns spun with different materials, showed
that regardless of the splicing material, the breaking strength and strength retention of
both yarn types increase with the splicing length because of the increased binding
length of the two yarn ends. Elongation at break and retention of elongation of both flyer
and wrap spun spliced yarns increase with the splice length. Compared to the splicing
duration, the splicing length has more pronounced effect on the load-elongation
properties of the spliced yarn. It can be therefore be stated that the splices made on
longer lengths and for longer period of time have more uniform strength.

Comparison of Dry and Wet Splicing

The comparative studies on dry and wet splicing with water showed that the breaking
load retention for wet spliced yarns are significantly greater than dry spliced yarns. In

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fact, wet splicing is more effective for yarn made from long staple fibres and for coarse
yarn. This may be due to higher packing coefficient resulting from wet splicing.

Effect of Splicing Chamber

The factors like method and mode of air supply and pressure along with type of prism
affect the splicing quality. It was observed that irregular air pressure has advantages
over constant pressure for better intermingling in the splicing chamber, which varies
with different staple fibres, filament yarns, and yarns with S and Z twists. It is not
possible to make a general comment regarding potential of the splicing chamber due to
the multiplicity of factors influencing splicing.

Assessment of Yarn Splice Quality

The two important characteristics of a splice are appearance and strength. Although
quality of splice can be assessed by methods like load-elongation, work of rupture, %
increase in diameter and evaluation of its performance in down stream process etc., the
appearance can be assessed either by simple visual assessment or by comparing with
photograph of standard splice.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BOBBIN FORMATION:

Strectch length: It is the length of the yarn deposited on the bobbin tube during
each chase (one up and down movement of ringrail ) of ring rail. The length
should be around 3.5 to 5 meters. It should be shorter for coarser yarns and
longer for fine yarns.

Winding ratio:It is the ratio of the length of yarn wound during the upward
movement of the ring rail and the length wound during the downward movement
of the ringrail.

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 Bobbin taper: The ratio of the length of the upper taper of the cop (bobbin with
yarn) to the diameter of the bobbin must be 1:2 or greater.

WINDING SPEED: It depends upon the following factors

count
type of yarn, (type of fibre, average strength and minimum strength)
type and charactersitics of bobbin
package taper
final use of package

The best winding speed is the speed which allows the highest level of production
possible for a given type of yarn and type of package, and with no damage whatsoever
to the yarn.(abrasion and breaks due to excessive tension)

WINDING PRODUCTION: It depends upon the following factors

winding speed
time required by the machine to carry out one splicing operation
bobbin length per bobbin( both bobbin weight and tpi to be considered, because
TPI will affect the bobbin length). This decides the number of bobbin changes
the number of faults in the yarn and the clearer settings, this decides the clearer
cuts
count
the number of doffs. It depends upon the doff weight. Higher the doff weight,
lower the number of doffs
the time taken for each doff either by the doffer or by an operator
Down time due to red light. It depends upon, number of red lights, number of
repeaters setting for red lights, clearer settings like off count channel, cluster
setting which will result in red lights and others
bobbin rejections, it depends on weak yarn, wrong gaiting, double gaiting, bobbin
characteritics etc.

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WINDING PACKAGE DEFECTS: Following are some of the package defects which will
result in complaints

Yarn waste in the cones. This is due to loose yarn ends that are wound on to the
cone
Stitch, drop over, web: Yarn is visible on the small or on the big side of the cone
either across the side , around the tube, or going back in the cone
Damaged edges or broken ends on the cone: The yarn is broken on the edges or
in the middle of the cone.
Ring formation: The yarn runs in belt formation on to the package, because it is
misguided
Without transfer tail: The desired transfer tail is missing or too short
Ribbon formation: Pattern or ring formation are made by the drum when rpm are
stying the same
Displaced yarn layers: yarn layers are disturbed and are sliding towards the small
diameter of the cone
Misguided yarn : The yarn is not equally guided over the hole package
Cauliflower: On the smaller side of the package, the yarn shows a wrinkle effect
Soft and Hard yarn layer: Some layer of yarn are pushed out on the small side of
the cone
Soft and Hard cones: Great difference in package density from one winder head
to another

YARN CONDITIONING

Why conditioning is required?

Moisture in atmosphere has a great impact on the physical properties of textile fibres
and yarns.Relative humidity and temperature will decide the amount of moisure in the
atmosphere. High relative humidity in different departments of spinning is not desirable.
It will result in major problems. But on the otherhand, a high degree of moisture
improves the physical properties of yarn. Moreover it helps the yarn to attain the

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standard moisture regain value of the fibre. Yarns sold with lower moisture content than
the standard value will result in monetary loss. Therefore the aim of CONDITIONING is
to provide an economical device for supplying the necessary moisture in a short time, in
order to achieve a lasting improvement in quality.

In these days there is a dramatic change in the production level of weaving and knitting
machines, because of the sophisticated manufacturing techniques. Yarn quality
required to run on these machines is extremely high. In order to satisfy these demands
without altering the rawmaterial, it was decided to make use of the physical properties
inherent in the cotton fibres. Cotton fibre is hygroscopic material and has the ability to
absorb water in the form of steam. It is quite evident that the hygroscopic property of
cotton fibres depends on the relative humidity. The higher is the humidity, more the is
moisture abosrption. The increase in the relative atmospheric humidity causes a rise in
the moisture content of the cotton fibre, following an S-shaped curve.

The relative humidity in turn affects the properties of the fibre via the moisture content of
the cotton fibre. The fibre strength and elasticity increase proportionately with the
increase in humidity. If the water content of the cotton fibre is increased the fibre is able
to swell, resulting in increased fibre to fibre friction in the twisted yarn structure. This
positive alteration in the properties of the fibre will again have a positive effect on the
strength and elasticity of the yarn.

CONTEXXOR CONDITIONING PROCESS BY XORELLA:

The standard conventional steaming treatment for yarn is chiefly used for twist setting
to avoid snarling in further processing. It does not result in lasting improvement in yarn
quality. The steaming process may fail to ensure even distribution of the moisture,
especially on cross-wound bobbins (cheeses) with medium to high compactness. The
thermal conditioning process of the yarn according to the CONTEXXOR process
developed by XORELLA is a new type of system for supplying the yarn package.

The absence of Vacuum in conventional conditioning chambers, prevents

homogeneous penetration. The outer layers of the package are also too moist and the

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transition from moist to dry yarn gives rise to substantial variations in downstream
processing of the package, both with regard to friction data and strength.

Since the moisture is applied superficially in the wet steam zone or by misting with
water jets, it has a tendency to become re-adjusted immediately to the ambient humidity
level owing to the large surface area. Equipment of this king also prevents the optimum
flow of goods and takes up too much space.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:

Thermal conditioning uses low-temperature saturated steam in vacuum. With the

vacuum principle and indirect steam, the yarn is treated very gently in an absolutely
saturated steam atmosphere. The vacuum first removes the air pockets from the yarn
package to ensure accelerated steam penetration and also removes the atmospheric
oxygen in order to prevent oxidation. The conditioning process makes use of the
physical properties of saturated steam or wet steam (100% moisture in gas-state). The
yarn is uniformly moistened by the gas. The great advantage of this process is that the
moisture in the form of gas is very finely distributed throughout the yarn package and
does not cling to the yarn in the form of drops. This is achieved in any cross-wound
bobbins, whether the yarn packages are packed on open pallets or in cardboard boxes.

Fig.: XORELLA CONDITIONING SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES OF CONTEXXOR PROCESS:

saturated steam throughout the process

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 even penetration of steam and distribution of moister
lowest energy consumption with XORELLA ECO-SYSTEM
short process time
absolute saturated steam atmosphere of 50 degree C to 150 degreees C.
no additional boiler required, the steam is generated in the system
minimum energy consumption(approx. 25 KWh for 1000 kgs of yarn)No tube
buckling in case of mad-made yarns
treatment of all natural yarns, blends, synthetics and microfibre yarns.
low installation and maintenance cost
preheating for trollys and plastic tubes to avoid drops (Wool)
standardize sizes
length up to 20 meters (66 feet) and max. temperature deviation of 1C
various loading and unloading facilities
no contamination of the treated packages
energy recovery option offered by indirect heating system using steam or hot
water
no special location required, the systems can be operated next to the production
machines.

BENEFITS ACHIEVED OUT OF CONDITIONING:

FOR KNITTING:

The treatment temperature for knitting yarn is held below the melting point of the wax.
Temperatures for unwaxed yarn are coordinated to the compatibility fo each individual
type of yarn

Upto 20% greater efficiency due to a reduction in the unwinding tension

fewer needle breaks
uniform moisture content and friction values
regular stitch formation
no change in size of finished articles

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 no extra dampening required
free from electrostatic
less fly hence less problems. It helps if the yarn is running on a closer gauge
machines

NOTE: Please note that the wax applied should be able to withstand min 60 degree
centigrade. If low quality wax is used, it will result in major problem. Conditioning
should be done at 55 to 60 degree centigrade.

FOR WEAVING:

upto 15% fewer yarn breaks due to greater elongation

less fly, resulting in a better weaving quality
increased strength
increased take-up of size, enhanced level of efficiency in the weaving plant
softer fabrics

Pic: improved strength Pic: improved elongation

FOR TWISTING:

Conditioning and fixing of the twist at the same time in a single process.

FOR DYEING:

no streaks

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 better dye affinity

Fig.: dye pick up of conditioned and unconditoned yarn

PROCESS PARAMETER IN BLOW ROOM

With all harvesting methods, however, the cotton seed, together with the fibers, always
gets into the ginning plant where it is broken up into trash and seed-coat fragments.
This means that ginned cotton is always contaminated with trash and dust particles and
that an intensive cleaning is only possible in the spinning mill.

Nep content increases drastically with mechanical harvesting, ginning and subsequent
cleaning process. The reduction of the trash content which is necessary for improving
cotton grade and apperance unfortunately results in a higher nep content level.

The basic purpose of blow room is to supply

small fibre tufts

clean fibre tufts
homogeneously blended tufts if more than one variety of fibre is used

to carding machine without increasing fibre rupture, fibre neps, broken seed particles
and without removing more good fibres.

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The above is achieved by the following processes in the blowroom

1. pre opening
2. pre cleaning
3. mixing or blending
4. fine opening
5. dedusting

CLEANING EFFICIENCY:

Cleaning efficiency of the machine is the ratio of the trash removed by the machine to
that of total trash fed to the machine, expressed as percentage

Cleaning efficieny % = ((trash in feed % - trash in del %) x 100) / (trash in feed %)

Following are the basic parameters to be considered in Blowroom process.

no of opening machines
type of beater
type of beating
Beater speed
setting between feed roller and beater
production rate of individual machine
production rate of the entire line
thickness of the feed web
density of the feed web
fibre micronaire
size of the flocks in the feed
type of clothing of the beater
point density of clothing
type of grid and grid settings
air flow through the grid
position of the machine in the sequence

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 amount of trash in the material
type of trash in the material
temp and relative humidity in the blow room department

PREOPENING:

Effective preopening results in smaller tuft sizes, thus creating a large surface area for
easy and efficient removal of trash particles by the fine openers.

If MBO (Rieter) or BOW (Trutzschler) type of machine is used as a first machine

the tuft size in the mixing should be as small as possible. Normally it should be
less than 10 grams

since this machine does not take care of long term blending, mixing should be
done properly to maintain the homogenous blending

the inclined lattice speed and the setting between inclined lattice and clearer
roller decides the production of the machine

the setting between inclined lattice and clearer roller decides the quality of the
tuft

if the setting is too close, the tuft size will be small, but the neps in the cotton will
be increased due to repeated action of the inclined lattice pins on cotton.

the clearance should be decided first to confirm the quality, then inclined lattice
speed can be decided according to the production required

the setting of inclined lattice depends upon the fibre density, fibre micronaire and
the tuft size fed. If smaller tuft is fed to the feeding conveyor, the fibre tufts will
not be recycled many times; hence the neps will be less.

if the machine is with beater, it is advisable to use only disc type beater. Saw
tooth and Pinned beaters should not be used in this machine, becasue the fibre

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 damage at this stage will be very high and heavier trash particles will be broken
in to small pieces.

the beater speed should be around 500 to 800 rpm depending upon the
rawmaterial. Coarser is the fibre, higher is the speed

the setting between feed roller to beater should be around 4 to 7 mm

this machine is not meant to remove trash, hence the fibre loss should also be
less

trash removal in this machine will result in breaking the seeds, which is very
difficult to remove

It is easier to remove the bigger trash than the smaller trash, therefore enough
care should be taken to avoid breaking the trash particles

this machine is just to open the tufts into small sizes so that cleaning becomes
easier in the next machines.

the fibre tuft size from this machine should be preferably around 100 to 200
milligrams.

If tuft size is small, removing trash particles becomes easier, because of large
surface area

If Uniflco 11(Rieter) or Blendomat BDT 019(Trutzschler) is used as a first machine

It helps to maintain the homogeneity of the long term blending

cotton is opened gently without recyling as it is done in manual bale openers

with the latest automatic bale opening machines, the tuft size can be as small as
50 to 100 grams without rupturing the fibres

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 the opening roller speed should be around 1500 to 1800 rpm.

the depth of penetration of the opening should be as minimum as possible for

better quality

It is better to use this machine with one mixing or maximum two mixing at the
same.

If the production per feeding machine is less than 150 kgs, then four mixings can
be recommended

production rate of this machine depends upon the no of mixings working at the
same time

production rate depends upon opening roller depth, traverse speed and the fibre
tuft density

in general , the machine parameters should be set in such a way that maximum
number of take-off points are available per unit time.

with the latest machines (Rieter -Unifloc A11), around 60% of take-off points are
more compared to earlier machines

PRECLEANING:

Precleaning should be gentle. Since removing finer trash particles is difficult, seeds and
bigger trash particles should not be broken. Finer trash particles require severe
treatment in Fine openers. This will lead to fibre damage and more nep generation.
Therefore, precleaning should be as gentle as possible and no compromise on this. If
preopening and precleaning are done properly, consistency in trash removal by fine
openers is assured. Dust removal should be started in this machine. Enough care
should be taken remove dust in this process.

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Rieter's Uniclean B11 and Trutzschler's Axiflow or Maxiflow are the machines which
does this work

the fibre treatment in this machine is very gentle because the fibres are not
gripped by the feed roller during beating. Fibre tufts treated by the pin beater
when it is carried by air medium

all heavy trash particles fall down before it is broken

cleaning efficiency of this machine is very high in the blow room line

Mostly all heavy seeds( full seeds) fall in this machine without any problem

around 50 pascal suction pressure should be maintained in the waste chamber

for better cleaning efficiency

beater speed, air velocity through the machine, grid bar setting and gap between
grid bars will affect the cleaning efficiency

higher the cleaning efficiency, higher the good fibre loss, higher the nep
generaion and higher the fibre rupture

the optimum cleaning means maximum cleaning performance, minimum loss of

good fibres, a high degree of fibre preservation and minimum nep generation

Rieter has a unique concept called "VARIOSET". With this machine, selective
trash removal is possible. Waste amount can be changed in a range of 1:10.

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 Fig.: from Rieter which shows , degree of cleaning, fibre loss, neps, fibre damage.

with normal machines like Monocylinder or axiflow, a lot of trials to be conducted

to arrive at optimum beater speed, air velocity(fan speed), grid bar setting and
grid bar gap.

in general the beater speed is around 750 and minimum 50 pascal suction
pressure to be maintained in the suction chamber

BLENDING:

Barre or streakiness is due to uneven mixing of different cottons. Hence mixing

technology is a decisive factor in spinning mill technology

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 bigger the differences of cotton parameters like fineness, color and staple length,
the greater the importance of mixing

if the cotton has honeydew, the intenisive mixing of the rawmaterial is a

precondition for an acceptable running behavior of the complete spinning mill

Following fig is given by trutzschler for different mixing requirements

Standard standar-plus high high-end

Trutzschler's tandem mixing concept is an ultimate solution, if the mixing

requirement is very high. This principle guarantees a maximum homogeneous of
the mix

FIG.Tandem mixing concept from TRUTZSCHLER:

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FINE CLEANING:

Fine cleaning is done with different types of machines. Some fine cleaners are with
single opening rollers and some are with multiple opening rollers.

If single roller cleaning machines are used, depending upon the amount and type
of trash in the cotton, the number of fine cleaning points can be either one or two.

If the production rate is lower than 250 kgs and the micronaire is less than 4.0, it
is advisable to use single roller cleaning machines instead of multiple roller
cleaning machine.

Saw tooth beaters can be used, if trash particles are more and the machine is not
using suction and deflector blades. i.e beater and regualar grid bar arrangements

Normal beater speeds with sawtooth beater depends upon the production rate,
fibre micronaire and trash content

TYPE OF COTTON COTTON PROUDCTION BEATER

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 MICRONAIRE RATE kgs/hr SPEED rpm

more trash 3.5 to 4.0 200 to 300 kgs /hr 600 to 750

less trash 3.5 to 4.0 200 to 300 kgs/hr 600 to 750

more trash 4.0 to 4.5 200 to 300 kgs 700 to 850

less trash 4.0 to 4.5 350 to 500 kgs 1000 and above

the number of wire points depends on the proudction rate and trash.

setting between feed roller and beater depends on the production rate and
micronaire. The setting should be around 2 to 3 mm. Wider setting always result
in higher rawmaterial faults, if carding does not take care.

closer the setting between beater and moteknives, higher the waste collected. It
is advisable to keep around 3 mm.

If it is a Trutzschler blowroom line, it is better to use CVT1 ( single opening roller

machine) if roller ginned cotton is used.

CVT3 or CVT4 machines with 3 or 4 opening rollers can be used for saw ginned
cotton.

The cleaning points in CVT1, CVT3, CVT4 etc consists of opening roller,
deflector blades, moteknives and suction hood. Trash particles released due to

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 centrifugal forces are separated at the moteknives and continuously taken away
by the suction. This gives better cleaning

FIG: trash removal concept in CVT cleaners:

suction plays a major role in these machines. If suction is not consistent, the
performance will be affected badly. Very high suction will result in more white
fibre loss and less suction will result in low cleaning efficiency.

The minimum recommended pressure in the waste chamber (P2) is 700 pascals.
It can be upto 1000 pascals.

material suction (P1) should be around 500 pascals

Whenever the suction pressure is changed, the deflector blade settings should
be checked

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 Deflector blade setting can not be same for all the three rollers or four rollers.
The setting for deflector blades in the panel looks like this 3, 12, 30 for 1st, 2nd
and 3rd deflector blades.

The deflector blade setting should be done in such a way that the setting should
be opened till the fibres start slipping on the deflector blade.

wider the deflector blade setting, higher the waste. If the setting is too wide, white
fibre loss will be very high.

for saw ginned cottons, the above concepts helps a lot because of constant
suction concentrated directly at the moteknives, ensures much removal of dust
from the cotton.

DEDUSTING:

Apart from opening cleaning of rawmaterial, dedusting is the very important process in
blowroom process.

normally dedusting starts with precleaning

it is always better to have a separate machine like DUSTEX of TRUTZSCHLER

for effecive dedusting

dedusting keeps the atmospheric air clean

dedusting in machines like unimix , ERM of Rieter is good

stationary dedusting condensers can be used for this purpose

in exhausts of unimix , condensers , ERM etc, positive pressure of 100 pascal

should be maintained. Exhaust fan speed and volume should be accordingly
selected

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 DUSTEX should be installed before feeding to the cards, because better the fibre
opening better the dedusting

fine opners like ERM, CVT cleaners also help in dedusting

It is always better to feed the material through condenser for a feeding machine
of cards. Because condenser continuously removes the dust from a small
quantity of fibres and the material fed to the feeding machine is opened to some
extent.

Since material is not opened well in Unimix, the dedusting may not be very
effective, eventhough dedusting concept in Unimix is very good

for rotor spinning dedusting is very important. It is better to use a machine like
DUSTEX after the fine opener.

OTHERS:

setting between feed rollers is different for different types. It should be according
to the standard specified by the manufacturer. For Unimix it should be around 1
mm.

it is advisable to run the fans at optimum speeds. Higher fan speeds will increase
the material velocity and will create turbulance in the bends.This will result in
curly fibres which will lead to entanglements.

If the feeding to cards is not with CONTI-FEED, the efficiency of the feeding
machine should be minimum 90 % and can not be more than 95%.

if the cards are fed by CONTI-FEED system, the feed roller speed variation
should not be more than 10%. If the variation is more, then the variation in tuft
size also will be more. Hence the quality will not be uniform

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 If two feeding machines feed to 10 cards and the no of cards can be changed
according the requirement, then frequent changes will affect the tuft size which
will affect the quality, if the line is fixed with CONTI-FEED.

if contifeed system is tuned properly and there are no machine stoppages,

continuous material flow will result in better opening and even feeding to the
cards

If the production rate per line is high, the reserve chamber for the feeding
machine should be big enough to avoid long term feed variations.

it is advisable to reduce the number of fans in the line.

fan speeds, layout of machines should be selected in such a way that material
choking in the pipe line, beater jamming etc will not happen. This will lead to
quality problems

all blowroom machines should work with maximum efficiency. The feed roller
speeds should be selected in such a way that it works atleast 90% of the running
time of the next machine.

blow room stoppages will always affect the sliver quality both in terms of linear
density and tuft size. Blow room stoppages should be nil in a mill

heavy particles like metal particles, stones should be removed using heavy
particle removers , double magnets etc, before they damage the opening rollers
and other machine parts.

Number of cleaning points is decided based on type of ginning (whether roller

ginned or sawginned), the amount of trash, and the number of trash particles and
the type of trash particles.

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 machinery selection should be based on the type of cotton and proudction
requirement. If the production requirement of a blowroom line is less than 200
kgs, CVT-4 cleaner can not be recommended, instead CVT-1 can be used.

Since blow room requires more space and power, it is better to make use of the
maximum production capacity of the machines

material level in the storage chambers should be full and it should never be less
than 1/4 th level.

grid bars should be inspected periodically, damaged grid bars should be

replaced.

grid bars in the front rows can be replaced earlier

if the cotton is too sticky, the deposits on the machine parts should be cleaned
atleast once in a week, before it obstruct the movement of the fibre

fibre rupture should be checked for each opening point. 2.5 % span length should
not drop by more than 3%. If the uniformity ratio drops by more than 3%, then it
is considered that there is fibre rupture.

high fan speed, which will result in high velocity of air will increase neps in cotton

nep is increased in the blowroom process. The increase should not be more than
100%.

the nep increase in each opening machine should be checked with different
beater speeds and settings, and the optimum parameters should be selected.
But please remember that everything should be based on yarn quality checking.
e.g. if nep increase in blow room is more and the beater speed or feed roller
setting is changed, the tuft size will become more. This may result in bad carding
quality. Sometimes if the neps are slightly more and the fibre is well opened, the

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 neps can be removed by cards and combers and the yarn quality may be better.
Therefore all trials should be done upto yarn stage.

No of neps and trash particles after different processes is given below.(an approximate
value)

Blow room machinery lay out should be desined in such a way that there should
be minimum number of bends, and there should not be sharp bends to avoid
fibre entanglements.

fibre traveling surface should be smooth and clean

temperature should be around 30 degrees and the humidity is around 55 to 60%.

A best blowroom can be achieved by selecting the following machines:

1.RIETER UNIFLOC- A11 ( pre opening)

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2.RIETER UNICLEAN B11 ( pre cleaning)

3.TRUTZSCHLER MPM 6 + MPM6 ( two mixers for blending)

4.TRUTZSCHLER CVT-1 ( for roller ginned cotton) CVT-3 ( for saw ginned)

5.CONTAMINATION DETECTOR from either BARCO OR JOSSI

6.TRUTZSCHLER DUSTEX-DX ( for dedusting)

7.TRUTZSCHLER CONTI-FEED and others

But enough care should be taken to synchronise the machines for better performace,
and to run the line without any electrical system breakdowns.

PROCESS PARAMETERS IN CARDING

INTRODUCTION:

Carding is the most important process in spinning. It contributes a lot to the yarn quality.
The following process parameters and specfications are to be selected properly to
prodce a good quality yarn with a lower manufacturing cost.

cylinder wire(wire angle, height, thickness and population) flat tops specification licker-in
wire specification doffer wire specification feed weight draft between feed roller and
doffer cylinder grinding doffer grinding flat tops grinding cylinder, falt tops, doffer wire life
Licker-in wire life Cylinder speed flat speed Licker-in speed setting between cylinder
and flat tops setting between licker-in and feed plate setting between licker-in and
undercasing elements like , mote knife,combing segement etc. setting between cylinder
and doffer setting between cylinder and back stationary flats setting between cylinder
and front stationary flats setting between cylinder and cylinder undercasing

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CYLINDER WIRE AND CYLINDER SPEED Cylinder wire selection is very very
important , it depends upon cylinder speed ,the raw material to be processed and the
production rate. The following characteristics of cylinder wire should be considered.

wire angle
tooth depth
wire population
rib thickness
tooth profile
tooth pitch
tooth point
overall wire height
Wire front angle depends on mainly cylinder speed and coefficient of friction of
raw material.Higher the cylinder speed, lower the angle for a given fibre. The
cylinder speed in turn depends upon the production rate.
Higher production means more working space for the fibre is required. It is the
wire that keeps the fibre under its influence during carding operation.Therefore
the space within the wire should also be more for higher production. Higher
cylinder speed also increase the space for the fibre. Therefore higher cylinder
speed is required for higher production.
In the case of high production carding machines, the cylinder surface is very
much higher, therefore even with higher number of fibres fed to the cylinder, the
cylinder is renewing the carding surface at a faster rate.
Higher the cylinder speed, higher the centrifugal force created by the cylinder,
this tries to eject the fibre from the cylinder, along with the trash.It is the cylinder
wire's front angle which overcomes the effect of this force. Low front angle With
too low cylinder speed and with high frictional force, will result in bad quality,
because the fibre transfer from cylinder to doffer will be less. Hence recyling of
fibres will take place, whihc result in more neps and entanglements.
The new profile with less free blade avoids loading of the cylinder with fibre
and/or trash. This helps in keeping the fibres at the tip of the tooth. The

145
 movement of the fibres towards the tip of the tooth, coupled with centrifugal
action demands an acute front angle to hold the fibre in
place during carding.

Lack of stiffness associated with fine and/or long fibres necessitates more control
during the carding process.This control is obtained by selecting the tooth pitch,
which gives the correct ratio of the number of teeth to the fibre length. Tooth pitch
reduction is therefore required for exceptionally short fibres and those lack
stiffness.
Number of points across the carding machine is decided by the rib width. It is
selected based on the production rate and fibre dimensions. Finer the fibre, finer
the rib width. The trend is to finer rib width for higher production.
The population of a wire is the product of the rib thickness and tooth pitch. The
general rule is higher populations for higher production rates, but it depends
upon the application.
Sharp tooth points penetrate the fibre more easily and help to intensify the
carding action. Cut-to-point wires are sharp and they have no land at all.
The effective working depth of a cylinder wire tooth for cotton is approximately
0.2mm and for synthetic materials approx.0.4mm. Manmade fibres require more
space in their cylinder wire than does cotton.More tooth depth allows the fibre to
recyle, resulting in damaged fibres and neps. If tooth depth is insufficient, there
will be loss of fibre contro. This will result in even greater
nep generaion. Looking into the above details, the following specifications can be
used as a guideline

PRODUCTION RIB
MATERIAL
RATE WIDTH ANGLE(degrees) POPULATION

Cotton low
low 0.6 65 700
grade

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 Cotton low
high 0.5 55 840
grade

Cotton Medium low 0.6 60 800

Cotton Medium high 0.4 to 0.5 55 840 to 950

Cotton fine low 0.5 60 840

Cotton long high 0.4 to 0.5 55 900 to 1100

Synth.coarse low 0.7 to 0.5 70 550 to 650

synth.coarse high 0.6 65 760

Synth.medium low 0.7 65 700

synth.medium high 0.5 65 760

Synth.fine low 0.6 65 700

synth.fine high 0.5 60 840

MATERIAL PRODCUTION RATE CYLINDER SPEED

cotton low 360 to 400

cotton medium 430 to 470

cotton high 500 to 550

synthetic low 300

synthetic medium 380

synthetic high 460

DOFFER, LICKER-IN AND FLAT TOPS:

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 The basic funtion of doffer is to strip the fibres from Cylinder. Please remember
that the action between cylinder and doffer is carding action (or combing action
or point to point action).
The doffer wire's front angle plays a very important role in releasing the fibre from
the cylinder. For most carding applications the optimum angle is 60 degrees.
Increased population over 400 ppsi does not give any advantage in the
production of quality yarn. For smaller doffers, 5 mm doffer wire height helps in
tranferring the fibres from cylinder to doffer.
If the fibre holding capacity of the doffer wire is less due to fibre friction or due to
very high doffer speed, it is better to use a doffer wire with striations. For high
production carding it is always better to use doffer wire with striations.
Licker-in plays a major role in opening the fibre tufts. In general 85 degrees is
used both for synthetic and medium and long cottons. For coarse and dirty
cottons 80 degrees can be used.
Strength, hardness and sharpness are very important for Lickerin wire. Licker-in
wires should neverbe ground. Thinner blades penetrate the fibres more efficiently
and increase the wire life.
Higher number of rows per inch gives better results. Now upto 12 rows per inch
is being used. This is always better compared to 8 rows per inch.
If the wire pitch is not sufficient, it can be compensated by increasing the licker-in
speed. Higher licker-in speeds for fine and long cottons will rupture the fibres.
Licker-in speed depends upon the fibre type and the production rate.
It is better to use a flat top with more than one population. The general
combination is 280/450. This is suitable for both cotton and synthetics. Please
remember that the rigidity of the fillets is different for cotton and synthetic. If
cotton flat tops are used for synthetic processing, the load on the cylinder will be
more, more heat will be produced and hence the probability of cylinder loading
due to electrostatic charge will be high.
Instead of using Rigid type flat tops, it is better to use semi-rigid type flat tops
while processing synthetic fibres.

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 SETTINGS:

The setting between cylinder and doffer is the closest setting in the card. This
setting mainly depends upon the cylinder speed, hank of the delivered sliver and
the type of wire. Cylinder speed upto 360, the setting should be 0.1mm. For
cylinder speeds more than 450, the setting ranges from 0.125 to 0.15.
If the setting between cylinder and doffer is very close, the wires will get polished
and this will affect the fibre transfer. If the setting is too wide, the fibres will not be
transferred to doffer from the cylinder, hence cylinder will get loaded. While
processing synthetic fibres cylinder loading will badly affect the yarn quality.
Moreover, it is difficult to improve the wire condition if the loading is severe. The
only solution would be to change the wire. Therefore enough care should be
taken while processing synthetic fibres.
The most critical setting in a carding machine is between cylinder and flat tops.
While processing cotton, it can be as close as 0.175 mm provided the
mechanical accuracy of flat tops is good. Since most of the cards are with
stationary flats at the licker-in side, the setting from the back to front for flats can
be 0.25, 0.2. 0.2, 0.2, 0.2 mm.
Closer the setting between cylinder and flats, better the yarn quality. Neps are
directly affected by this setting. Of course, very close setting increase the flat
waste. For processing cotton the setting can be 0.25, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2 mm. For
synthetic fibres it can be 0.3, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25 mm
Most of the cards are with 6 to 11 stationary flats at the licker-in side. This setting
can start with 0.4 mm and end with 0.25mm.
The wire points can start with 140 ppsi and end with 320 ppsi. The work done by
the first few stationary flats is very high, therefore the wear of these flats is also
high. It would be better if the first 50% of the flats are changed after 100000 kgs
of production and the rest after 150000 kgs of production.
These stationary flats open the material so that, the setting between cylinder and
flats can be as close as possible.

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 The setting between feed plate and Licker-in depends upon the type of feed
plate. Conventional feed plate setting is decided mainly by the feed weight and to
some extent by the fibre length and type. With the latest feed plate and feed
roller arrangements, the setting is decided mainly by the fibre length and to some
extent by the feed weight.
Normally the setting between the feed plate and Lickr-in is around 0.45 to 0.7
mm, depending upon the feed weight and fibre type.
The setting between Licker-in and the first mote knife is around 0.35 to 0.5 mm.
This helps to remove the heavier trash particles and dust. Closer the setting,
higher the waste% ge. The setting between Licker-in and combing segments is
around 0.45 to 0.6. This helps to open the material.
Some cards have two mote knifes in the Licker-in undercasing. The setting is
around 0.4 to 0.5mm. This helps to remove the smaller trash and dust particles.
The setting between the cylinder and stationary flats at Doffer side, helps to
transfer the fibres to doffer by stripping the fibres to the top of the cylinder wire.
This setting can be as close as 0.15mm. The number of wire points on stationary
flats also play a major role. It is normally around 300 to 400. For a high
production application it can be as high as 600.
For cotton processing, the stationary flats are fixed with a knife attachement. The
setting should be as close as possible, i.e. around 0.15mm. This helps to remove
the trash particles of very small size.
The setting between cylinder and cylinder undercasing should be as per the
manufacturer's recommendation. The design of undercasing is different for
different manufacturers. This setting is very important, as wrong settings will
affect the fibre transfer and can also create air turbulance.

SPEEDS:

Higher cylinder speed helps fibre transfer. Higher the production, higher should
be the cylinder speed.
Higher cylinder speed improves carding action, thereby imperfections are
reduced.

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 Higher Licker-in speed for coarse fibres and diry cotton helps to remove the trash
and improves ,br> the yarn quality.For fine and long cottons, higher speed results
in fibre ruputre, therefore, flat waste and comber noil will be more.
Higher flat speed, improves yanr quality and at the same time increases the flat
waste
With the same flat speed, higher the carding production, lower the flat waste and
vice-versa.
Very high tension drafts will affect carding U%. It is better to keep the draft
between feed roller to doffer around 75 to 95. The results are found better with
these drafts.

WIRE MAINTENANCE:

For a modern cylinder wire of 2mm height, grinding with the normal grinding
stone is not recommended. It is better to use TSG grinder from GRAF. It is better
to grind the wire every 2nd or 3rd month, so that the sharpness of the wire is
always maintained.
TSG grinde does not grind the wire, therefore if the wire is worn out very badly
the quality mprovement using this grinding machine will be nil. Frequent
grindings are recommended. If TSG grinder is not availbale, it is better not to
grind 2mm wires.
The number of traverse should increase depending upon the life of the wire. The
number of traverse for successive grindings should be like this 3, 5, 10, 17 etc.
Anyway the best method is to confirm with the microscope. If the grinding is not
sufficient, the number of traverse should be increased.
Doffer is still working with a concept of Land formation. A normal grinding
machine will be good for doffer grinding. All the wire points should be touched by
the grinding stone. A slow and gradual grinding with the grind-out concept will
give the best results. Harsh grindings will result in burr formation on the land.
This will increase the number of hooks in the fibre, thereby the effective length of
the fibre from this card will be reduced.

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 Flat tops grinding is very important. Everytime a flat top is ground, yarn quality is
improved. It is better to use a grinding machine with the emery fillet. Frequent flat
tops grinding will result in less neps and the yarn quality will be consistent.
Some mills increase the life of the flat tops compared to cylinder wire. But it is
better to change flat tops and cylinder wire together for better and consistent yarn
quality.
It is a good practice to check the individual card quality before changing the wire.
Licker-in wire should be changed for every 150000 kgs. Earlier changes will
further improve the yarn quality.
Stationary flats should be changed for every 150000 kgs. But it is a good practice
to change the first 3 or 6 stationary flats at Licker-in side for every 100000 kgs.
This helps to maximise the carding effect between cylinder and doffer which is
critical for better yarn quality.

OTHERS:

Lower the feed variation, better the carding quality. Even if the card is with an
autoleveller, feed variations should be kept as low as possible (plus or minus
10%). With the latest chute feed systems, it is easy to control the feed variation
with in 5%. Lower the feed variation, lower the draft deviation, therefore yarn
quality will be consistent.
If the card is with autoleveller, the nominal draft should be selected properly.
Improper selection will affect sliver C.V% and yarn quality.
Improper feed roller loading and the setting between feed roller and feed plate
will affect the quality, especially C.V% and neps.
Before mounting, the eccentricity of cylinder and doffer should be checked.
Eccentric cylinder and doffer will affect the U% and will affect C.V.% also.
Defective bearings, gears and timing belts will affect U%.
Uneven distribution of tension drafts will affect U%.
Selvedge of feeding bat should be good. It should not be folded and double. This
will increase the neps and sometimes it may result in cylinder loading. Lap fed to
the carding machine should be narrower than the nominal width of the machine.

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 For processing cotton, minimum 800 pascal suction pressure should be
maintained at trash master (at knife) for effective removal of trash and dust
particles.
Worn or damaged scraper blades will lead to web sticking to crush rollers.
Insufficient pressure between scraper blade and crush roller will also result in
web sticking. If the calender roller pressure is too high web sticking will also be
high.
If Cylinder undercasing nose at doffer side is too long for the type of fibre being
carded web disappearing problem will arise. If the nose is set too close to the
cylinder, web disappearing problem will arise. Damaged and dull doffer wire also
will result in web disappearing problem.

PROCESS PARAMETERS IN COMBING

INTRODUCTION

Combing is a process which is meant for upgrading the cotton raw material so that the
following yarn properties will improve compared to the normal carded yarn. U% of yarn
tenacity gms/tex trash in the yarn (or kitties in the yarn) Lustre and visual appearance

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED

Following parameters are very critical as far as the yarn quality of combed yarn is
concerned

Noil percentage(waste percentage)

Type of feed
feed length
feed wight in grams per meter
Piecing length
Top comb penetration depth
The distance between unicomb to nipper
unicomb specification

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 Number of needles in top comb
The cleaning of unicomb
Variation in nipper grip
Variation in noil percentage
type of lap preparation
total draft between carding and comber i.e total draft employed in lap preparation
Drafting roller settings in comber
Drafting roller settings in lap prepartion machines
No of doublings in lap preparation
Short fibre content
Fibre micronaire
the type and the amount of trash in the card sliver

WASTE PERCENTAGE

The noil percentage from a comber depends upon the following

short fibre content

detaching distance
feed length
top comb penetration
The distance between unicomb to top comb
The basic idea of removing the waste is to remove the short fibres i.e to improve
50% span length or mean length.
The two impartant basic parameters to be considered in deciding the waste
percentage are, 1.Yarn quality requirement and 2.Short fibre content in the raw
material
Let us assume that the following cotton is used

2.5 span lenth = 28 to 30 mm

uniformity ratio = 50 to 53%

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FFI % = 6 to 14

Micronaire = 3.8 to 4.2

fibre strength = 24 to 28 gms/tex

and the quality requirement for counts 30s to 40s, is to meet 5% uster standards in
U%, imperfection, strength and classimate faults.

To meet this quality requirement with the above rawmaterial, the amount of noil
to be extracted may be around 16 to 18% if E7/4(RIETER MAKE) comber is used
or 15 to 16 % if E-62(RIETER MAKE) comber is used. The above example is
given to highlight the effect of noil removed and the quality achieved. This is just
an approximate figure, the parameters may vary depending upon the application.

Combing efficiency is calculated based on the improvement in 50% span length,

expressed as a percentage over 50% span length of the lap fed to the comber
multplied with waste percentage. i.e.

((S-L)/(L*W))*100

Where

S- 50% span length of comber sliver

L- 50% span length of comber lap

W- waste percentage

Higher the noil %ge , lower will be the combing efficiency.

Given a chance, it is better to remove waste more from top comb penetration
than increasing the waste percentage by increasing the detaching distance.
When the detaching distance is more the control during detaching will be less.

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 Given a chance, it is better to work with backward feed than forward feed for the
same waste percentage.Nep removal will be better, loss of long fibres in the
waste during detaching will be less.
With backward feed, top comb penetrates into the fibre fringe which is already
combed by the unicomb, therefore combing action done by top comb will be
better and there will not be longer fibres in the waste
Waste percentage depends upon the feed length and type of feed. In backward
feed, higher the feed ength, higher the waste percentage. In forward feed, higher
the feed length, lower the waste percentage.
With backward feed, the detaching distance will be less for the same waste
percentage compared to forward feed. Therefore fibre control during detaching
and during top comb action will be better.
Higher the noil, higher the yarn strength. But this is true upto certain level of
waste. Further increase may not increase the yarn strength. Very high %ge of
noil will reduce the yarn strength and will increase the breakage rate in ring
frames.

TOP COMB AND UNICOMB

The number of needles in Top comb depends on the Fibre micronaire, the lap
weight and fibre parallelization in the lap. If the fibre Micronaire is less than 3.6,
number of needles per cenitmeter in top comb can be 30.In general for fibres
above 3.8 Micronaire, 26 needles per centimeter is used.
Top comb plays a major role in removing the waste. Around 40 to 60% of noil is
removed by top comb. But top comb will get damaged very fast. Top comb
damage will result in slubs in the sliver. Even 4 ro 5 needle damages will result in
bad webs. Top comb maintenance is very very important to produce good qyality
yarn.
Different types of unicombs are used in different combers. The circumference of
unicombs, the number of wire points and its variation in the unicomb are
different. It is not true that 110 degree unicomb will produce good quality yarn
compared to 90 degree unicomb.

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 In most of the cases, 75 degree unicomb has given better results compared to 90
degree unicomb in E7/4 combers, for different types of cottons.
Rieter has standardised 90 degree unicomb for its E-62 combers. 110 degree
unicomb can not be used in this comber.
Unicomb action will be effective as long as nipper and unicomb moves in
opposite direction.If unicomb and nipper move in the same direction, unicomb
can not do its work properly. Moreover the finer needles will not be utilised
properly. That may be the reason why 90 degrees unicomb do not produce a
good qyality yarn compared to 75 degrees unicomb.
The setting between unicomb and nipper should be same. When nipper is loaded
with the the feed roller, the setting may be around .4 to .5 for E7/4 combers and
.5 to .7 for E-62 combers. This setting can be corrected by fixing spacers
between unicomb and unicomb body. Some unicomb manufacturers supply the
spacers along with the unicombs.

LAP PREPARATION:

There are different types of lap preparation. The best combination is drawframe
and unilap combination. Lap piecing will be less in this combination compared to
sliver lap and ribbon lap combination. Every lap piecing is a major fault compared
to sliver piecing. If number of lap piecings is less, top comb damages will also be
less.
The total draft for sliver lap and ribbon lap combination should be around 9.
If Micronaire is less than 3.8, the lap licking tendency will be more. For such
fibres, the total draft between card and comber should be kept as low as
possible, i.e around 8.5.
For drawframe and unicomb preparation the total draft can be from 9.5 to 11,
depending upon the fibre and lap weight.
Fibre parallelisaion in a lap should be reasonably good, to avoid long fibres in the
noil. With the modern cards, the fibre parallelisation is improved because of the
stationary flats.

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 The self cleaning effect of the lap sheet arises from the retaining power of the
fibres relative to the impurities. This depends on the lap weight. If lap weight is
more, the unicomb efficiceny may not be good. But the nipper grip will be good
for heavier lap weight. Therefore an optimum lap weight should be decided, It
depends on
Fibre micronaire(the number of fibres present to the nipper)
Nipper type
For E7/4 comber, lap weight of 52 to 60 gms per meter can be selected to
produce a fairly good quality yarn. In case of E-62 comber (latest from RIETER),
it can range from 65 to 75 grams per meter to produce a fairly good yarn.
Lesser the number of piecings in comber, better the quality. Every piecing in
comber is a defect. Therefore, it is better to increase the lap weight as high as
possible. For modern lap preparation it is around 20 to 23 kgs/lap and for older
lap preparation, it is around 12 to 13 kgs per lap.

OTHERS

Piecing is a distinct source of fault in comber operation. It is a periodic variation.

The amplitude of this fault should be as low as possible. The following affect this
fault - detaching roller timing - arranging this fault before entering tthe draft zone,
so that this faults cancel each other (by adjusting the delivery guide.)
Detaching roller timing depends upon the index setting and feed length. This
setting should be selected in such a that with the minimum length of overlapping
comber works without any problem.
Drafting setting should be done according to the recommendation. Trials can be
taken with different setting to optimise the same.(both in lap preparation and in
comber)
Lower the feed length, lower the production. But better the yarn quality.
But in some application, lower feed length with forward feed(concurrent feed) has
resulted in inferior quality.But in general lower feed will improve the yarn quality.
It is always better to take a trial and confirm this. Feed length to some extent
depends on the fibre staple length also.

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 With backward feed, the unicomb penetrates thro the fibre fringe more often than
in the case of forward feed. Therefore the quality of the combing operation is
increased in the case of backward feed.
In combing operation, the hank of the sliver will not affect the comber production.
Therefore, if old type of combers are used, where the drafting is not good, lower
drafts can be preferred in comber and the draft can be increased in a good
drawframe like RSB-951 OR RSB-D-30 if it is used as a finisher.

PROCESS PARAMETERS IN DRAW FRAME

INTRODUCTION:

Drawframe is a very critical machine in the spinning process. It's influence on quality,
especially on evenness is very big.If drawframe is not set properly, it will also result in
drop in yarn strength and yarn elongation at break.The faults in the sliver that come out
of drawframe can not be corrected . It will pass into the yarn.

The factors that affect the yarn qulity are

1. the total draft

2. no of drawframe passages
3. break draft
4. no of doublings
5. grams/meter of sliver fed to the drawframe
6. fibre length
7. fibre fineness
8. delivery speed
9. type of drafting
10. type of autoleveller
11. autoleveller settings

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 The total draft depends upon
1. material processed
2. short fibre content
3. fibre length

following are some facts derived from trials

1. wider back roller setting will result in lower yarn strength
2. wider back roller setting will affect yarn evenness
3. wider back roller setting will increase imperfections
4. higher back top roller loading will reduce yarn strength
5. higher back top roller loading will reduce end breakage rate
6. wider front roller setting will improve yarn strength

Higher draft in drawframe will reduce sliver uniformity, but will imrprove fibre
parallelisation. Somtimes the improvement in fibre parallelisation will overcome
the detrimental effects of sliver irregularity.

Most of the improvement in fibre parallelization and reduction in hooks takes

place at first drawframe passage than at second passage.

Better fibre parallelisation generally results in more uniform yarns and a lower
end breakage rate in spinning.

Higher the weight of sliver fed to drawframe, lower the yarn strength, yarn
evenness, and it leads to higher imperfections in the yarn and more end
breakages in ring spinning

Irregularities arise owing to the instability of the acceleration point over time. The
aprons and rollers are used in the drafting zone to keep the fibre at the back
roller velocity until the leading end is firmly gripped by the front roller, but
individual fibre control is not achieved.

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 Drafting wave is caused primarily not by mechanical defects as such but by the
uncontrolled fibre movement of a periodic type resulting from the defects. As the
fibre-accelerating point moves towards the front rollers, the draft increases (and
vice versa), so that a periodic variation in linear density inevitably results.

With variable fibre-length distribution (with more short fibre content), the drafting
irregularity will be high.

More the number of doublings, lower the irregularity caused due to random
variations. Doublings does not normally eliminate periodic faults.But it reduces
the effects of random pulses. Doubling does not have any effect on Index of
Irregularity also, since both the irregularities are reduced by square root of the
number of doublings.

Fibre hooks influences the effective fibre length or fibre extent. This will affect the
drafting performance. For carded material normally a draft 7.5 in both breaker
and finisher drawframe is recommended. Seven of a draft can be tried in breaker,
since it is a carded material.

For combed material, if single passage is used, it is better to employ draft of 7.5
to 8.

If combers with four doublings are used, it is better to use two drawframe
passages after combing. This will reudce long thick places in the yarn.

In case of two drawframe passage, first drawframe passage will reduce the
periodic variation due to piecing. Therefore the life of servomotor and servo
amplifier will be more, if two drawframe passage is used. Quality of sliver will also
be good, because of less and stable feed variation.

For synthetic fibres (44 mm to 51 mm), 8 of a total draft can be employed both in
breaker and finisher passage.

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 The number of doublings depends upon the feeding hank and the total draft
employed. Most of the modern drawframes are capable of drafting the material
without any problem, even if the sliver fed is around 36 to 40 grams per meter.

Especially for synthetic fibres with very high drafting resistance, it is better to feed
less than 38 grams per meter to the drawframe.

Break draft setting for 3/3, or 4/3, drafting system is as follows

1. For cotton, longest fibre +(8 to 12 mm)
2. For synthetic fibre, fibre length + (20 to 30% of fibre length)

Break draft for cotton processing is normally 1.16 to 1.26. For synthetics it is
around 1.42 to 1.6

To meet the present quality requirements, finisher drawframe should be an

autoleveller drawframe.

Since the drawframe delivery speed is very high the top roller shore hardness
should be around 80 degrees. It should not be less than that.

It is advisable to buff the rubber cots once in 30 days (minimum) to maintain

consistent yarn quality.

Coiler size should be selected depending upon the material processed. For
synthetic fibres, bigger coiler tubes are used. This will help to avoid coiler
choking and kinks in the slivers due to coiling in the can.

Speed of the coiler will also affect the coiling. Speed of the coiler should be
selected properly. In drawframes like RSB D-30(RIETER) , any coiler speed can
be selected through the variator type pully. Since, the option is open, there is
also more probability for making mistakes. One should take enough care to set
the coiler speed properly.

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 Whenever coiler speed is adjusted, the diameter of the coil is also changed.
Hence it is necessary to check the gap between the sliver and can. If it is more
than 5 mm, then turn table position (can driving unit) should be altered so that the
gap between coil outer and can inner is around 5 mm.

Pressure bar depth plays a major role in case of carded mixing and OE mixings.
If it is open, U% will be affected very badly.It should always be combined with
front roller setting. If the pressure bar depth is high, Creel height should be fixed
as low as possible (esepcially for combed material).

Top roller condition should be checked properly. While processing 100%

polyester fibres, fibre scum should be removed by a wet cloth from the top roller
atleast once in a shift.

Sliver funnel size should be selected properly. Very wide funnel will affect the
U%. But very small funnel will end up in more sliver breaks at the front.

If the department humidity variation is very big, then corresponding correction to

be made for checking the wrapping of sliver ( sliver weight). Otherwise, there will
be unwanted changes in the drawframe which will affect the count C.V.% of yarn.

Most of the Autoleveller drawframes are working on the principle of OPEN LOOP
control system. Sliver monitor should be set properly. Whenever there is a
problem in sliver weight, this will stop the machine. Sometimes sliver monitor
may malfunction. If it is found malfunctioning, it should be calibrated immediately.

AUTOLEVELLING:

Most of the modern autolevllers are open loop autolevellers. This system is
effective on short, medium and to some extent long tem variations.

Mechanical draft should be selected properly in autoleveller drawframes. To

decide about the mechanical draft, drawframe should be run with autoleveller
switched off.If the sliver weight is correct, then the mechanical draft selected is

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 correct. Otherwise, the gears should be changed so that the sliver is weight is as
per the requirement without autolevller.

Intensity of levelling and timing of correction are two important parameters in

autolevellers.

Intensity of levelling indicates the amount of correction. i.e If 12% variation is fed
to the drawframe the draft should vary 12% , so that the sliver weight is constant.

Timing of correction indicates that if a thick place is sensed at scanning roller, the
correction should take place exactly when this thick place reaches the correction
point(levelling point)

Higher the feed variation, higher the correction length. e.g. if feed variation is 1
%, and if the correction length is 8 mm, if feed variation is 5% the correction
length will be between 10 to 40 mm depending upon the speed and type of the
autoleveller.

Higher the speed, higher the correction length

Whenever the back roller setting, guide rails setting, delivery speed, break draft
etc are changed, the timing of correction should also be changed.

U% of sliver will be high, if timing of correction is set wrongly

If intensity of levelling selected is wrong, then 1 meter C.V % of sliver will be

high.

Most of the modern autolevellers can correct 25% feed variation. It is a general
practice to feed 12% varition both in plus and minus side to check A%. This is
called as Sliver test. The A% should not be more than 0.75%. A% is calculated
as follows

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 If no of sliver fed to drawframe is N, Check the output sliver weight with "N",
"N+1", "N-1" slivers. then

A% = ((gms/mt(N-1) - gms/mt(N))/ gms/mt(N) ) x 100

A% = ((gms/mt(N+1) - gms/mt(N))/ gms/mt(N)) x 100

Life of servo motor and servo amplifier will be good, if

1. it is used for carded material
2. feed variation is less
3. motor is checked for carbon brush damages, bearing damages etc
periodically
4. if the delivery speed is less

PROCESS PARAMETERS IN SPEED FRAME

INTRODUCTION

Roving machine is complicated, liable to faults, causes defects, adds to production

costs and delivers a product that is sensitive in both winding and unwinding.The
following parameters are very important in SPEED FRAME. They are

1. Feed hank
2. Delivery hank
3. Roving tension
4. break draft
5. Drafting system
6. Bottom roller setting
7. Top roller setting
8. condensers and spacers
9. Twist in the roving

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 10. Bobbin content
11. flyer speed
12. Creel and creel draft
13. Drawframe sliverand can
14. Bobbin height
15. Breakage rate
16. Piecings

DRAFTING SYSTEM

Since modern Ringframes are capable of handling higher drafts in ringframe without
quality deterioration. It is better to have coarser hanks in the speed frame. This helps to
increase the prodction in speed frame. Investment cost will also be less,because the
number of speedframes required will be less and the cost per mchine is also high. The
following table can be a guidle line for speed frame delivery hank.

MATERIAL YARN COUNT HANK TOTAL DRAFT

COTTON combed 36s to 40s 1.2 10

Cotton combed 24s to 30s 1.0 10

Cotton combed 14s to 24s 0.7 to 0.8 9

Cotton karded 36s to 40s 1.3 9

Cotton karded 24s to 36s 1.1 8

Poly/cotton 36s to 45s 1.2 11

Poly/cotton 24s to 36s 1.0 10

Poly/viscose 36s to 40s 1.0 11

Poly/viscose 24s to 36s 0.85 10

Poly/viscose 16s to 20s 0.7 8

The above said details are for producing a good quality yarn. This is suitable for 4 over
4 draftingn system with front zone as a condensing zone without a draft.

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 With 4 over 4 drafting system, the toal draft can be upto 13, whereas in the case
of 3 over 3 drafting system, the draft can not be more than 11.
The Roving thickness and Roving hairiness (yarn hairiness) will be less with 4
over 4 drafting system compared to 3 over 3 drafting system.
In 4 over 4 drafting system, since the fully drafted material is just condensed in
the front zone, if the stikiness in case of cotton or static in case of synthetic is
high, then the lapping tendency will be very high on second top roller or second
bottom roller. But in case of front roller, since the twist is penetrating upto the nip,
lapping on the front bottom or top roller will be less.
As long as stickiness, honey dew in cotton and static in synthetic fibres is less, 4
over 4 drafting system with front zone as condensing zone, will give better results
upto even 51 mm fibre.Of course the humidity conditions should be good.
4 over 4 drafting system can be described as follows
1. bottom roller diameter is 28.5 mm
2. Top roller diameter is 28 mm
3. Break draft is between 4th roller and 3rd roller
4. Main draft is between 3rd roller and 2nd roller
5. Bottom apron is run by a 3 rd roller
6. between front roller and 2nd roller is a condesning zone
7. front zone setting 35 mm( even for 51 mm fibre)
8. Main draft zone setting is 48 mm
9. Back zone setting depends on break draft, but it is normally 5o mm for
cotton and T/c and 55 mm for synthetic fibres(44 to 51mm)
3 over 3 drafting system is good for fibres longer than 51 mm. 30 or 32 mm
bottom roller diameters will be used with this system.
Feed hank depends upon the total draft in speed frame. The drafts mentioned in
the above table can be consdiered as a guide line.
While processing 51 mm synthetic fibres, if the delivery hank is coarser,and the
delivery speed is very high, the break draft and the back zone setting to be
widened. Break draft and break draft setting does not depend only on T.M and
fibre properties, it depends on the total production also. If the total production is

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 very high, with low break draft and closer setting, roving breaks due to undrafted
strand will increase.
Therefore, for very high production rate, higher break draft and wider break draft
setting is required. This will result in very high "H" and "I" classimat faults (long
thin faults). Therefore the breakage rate in spinning will increase.
Break draft setting and break draft should be nominal. Abnormal break drafts and
wider break draft settings indicate that there is a major problem in the process.
Some times draw frame coiling is a very big problem with synthetic fibres. If kinks
are formed in the sliver, the kink has to be removed before entering the draft
zone.
Kinks in the drawframe sliver depends upon
1. drawframe delivery speed
2. delivery can diameter
3. coiler type
Higher the delivery speed, more the chances for kinks to be formed in the sliver.
Lower the can diameter more the kinks. If a coiler which is meant for cotton is
used, the kinks in the sliver will increase in case of synthetic fibres.
While processing synthetic fibres if kinks are more, it would be better if the creel
is stopped. Sometimes it would be recommeded to use a rod between top arm
and the first creel roll, so that the sliver takes a 90 degree bend before entering
the top arm. This will help to remove the the kinks in the sliver. Otherwise, slubs
in the roving will be more and the breakage rate in speed frame due to undrafted
strand in the drafting zone will be more.

ROVING TENSION

The roving tension depends on the delivery rate and the difference between
peripheral speeds of flyer and the bobbin.
If the delivery length and the peripheral speed difference are same, then the
tension is ideal.If delivered length is more than the difference in peripheral speed
, then the roving tension will be loose If the delivered length by the front bottom

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 roller is less than the difference in pheripheral speeds of flyer and the bobbin, the
roving tension will be tight.
Roving tension can be of three types
1. Roving tension at the starting. It depends upon the Bare bobbin diamter
and the Cone drum belt position
2. Roving tension during build-up. It depends upon the Ratchet wheel and
lifter wheel. The difference between peripheral speeds of flyer and bobbin
should be same and it should be slightly more than the length delivered by
the front roller.
3. Roving tension during up and down movement of the bobbin rail should be
same. It depends upon the half tooth movement of the ratchet. If it is not
exactly half tooth, then the tension will be different during up and down
movement of the bobbin rail

With modern machines, cone drum is removed. Bobbin speed, bobbin rail
speed and flyer speed is determined by the computer depending upon the
tension settings.In some machines, it can be programmed and the tension
sensor helps to control a bit.In some makes, the tension setting totally
depends upon the sensing by sensors.The sensing accuracy depends
upon the twist cap type, twist cape fixing, oil on top of twist cap etc. If only
one roving tension is different due to various other reasons, then the entire
machine tension will be altered.This is very dangerous. Enough care
should be taken to avoid this problem.

4. If lifter wheel is changed, then tension during build up will also change, the
ratchet has to be selected accordingly. For a particular roving hank,
ratchet wheel depends on Lifter wheel also.
5. If the tension is low but unfiorm through out the bobbin, then the bobbin
will be soft. Bobbin content will also be less. Chances of roving damages
will be high.
6. If the roving tension is more, then the stretch on the roving will be more,
thin places will be more.But it is better to increase the TPI little bit and

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 increase the roving tension so that the bobbin content is more, roving
damages are less, and creel stretch in the ring frame will also be less,
because of higher TPI in the roving.

OTHERS

It is better to adopt group creeling in speed frame. Because every piecing of

sliver will result in a thin and thick place. Therefore it is preferable to change 30
upto 60 cans together and remove the sliver piecing from the roving.
Care should be taken so that no sliver piecing and roving piecing enters the
ringframe and results in yarn.This yarn always results in thin and thick places
from .6 to 2 meters length. This will not be cut by the yarn clearers if the
difference in size is less.
Roving Breaks in speed frame should not be more 1 to 2 per 100 spindle hours.If
it is more than that, the reasons should be analysed and corrective action should
be taken immediately.
Spacers should be as small as possible, to improve yarn quality. If slubs and
roving breaks due to undrafted is more, it would be better to use a bigger spacer
(distance clip) instead of increasing the break draft and break draft zone setting
to an abnormal level.
It is better to use good quality apron and rubber cots , since the quantity
produced by one apron and top roller is very high compared to ringframe. If the
apron breaks and top roller damages are under control,It is always better to use
the best apron and rubber cots available in the market. One should not think
about cost saving in this machine. Cost saving for apron and cots can be
considered for ringframes.
Buffing should be done once in 3 months and the top roller shore hardness is
around 80 to 85 degrees After buffing, it is better to treat with acid or some
special liquids which are being supplied to reduce lapping
Bottom and top clearers should rotate and should touch the top and bottom roller
properly.

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 While processing cotton combed material, flyer speed is very critical. When the
bobbin diamter is big because of the centrifugal tension, surfact cuts will
increase. i.e. roving breaks may occur at presser or in strand that have just been
wound on the top surface of the package. To avoid this problem, it is better to
use inverter drive system, to reduce the flyer speed, when the bobbin diameter is
big. Otherwise the overall speed should be less for the entire doff, this will reduce
the production of speedframe. Sometimes, higher Twist will also reduce the
surface cuts.

PROCESS PARAMETER IN SPINNING

INTRODUCTION Ringframe Technology is a simple and old technology, but the
production and quality requirements at the present scenario puts in a lot of pressure on
the Technologist to select the optimum process parameters nd machine parameters, so
that a good quality yarn can be produced at a lower manufacturing cost.

Following are the points to be considered in a ringframe

Draft distribution and settings

Ring and travellers
spindle speed
Twist
lift of the machine
creel type
feed material
length of the machine
type of drive, above all
Raw material chracteristic plays a major role in selecting the above said process
parameters

Technical information and guidelines are given below based on the learnings from
personal experience and discussions with Technologists. This could be used as a

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guideline and can be implemented based on the trials taken at site. Some of this
information can be disproved in some other applications because many of the
parameters are affected by so many variables. A same machine or rawmaterial cannot
perform in the same way in two different factories. This is because of the fact that no
two factories can be identical.

DRAFTING:

The break draft should depend upon the following,

fibre type
fibre length
roving T.M
main draft

Some examples are given below

Normally 1.13 to 1.18 break draft is used for

100%cotton , Poly/cotton blend, 100% synthetic

roving T.M. upto 1.3 for cotton and .80 for Poly/cotton blend, 0.5 to0.7 for
synthetic
ring frame back zone setting of 60mm for fibres upto 44mm and 70mm for fibres
upto 51mm
total draft in ringframe upto 35

1.24 to 1.4 break draft is used for

100%cottton, poly/cotton blend, 100%synthetic fibre

strongly twisted roving i.e higher than the above mentioned T.M.s
total draft from 33 to 45
back zone setting(R.F) around 52mm for fibres upto 44mm and 60mm for fibres
upto 51mm

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If the total draft is more than 45 or the fibre length is more than 51 and the fibre is
a fine fibre(i.e more number of fibres in the cross section)with a very high
interfibre friction, break draft more than 1.4 is used.

Please note that for most of the application, lower break draft with wider setting is
used. With higher break drafts, roller setting becomes very critical. Higher is the
break draft, higher is the chances for thin places i.e. H1 classimat faults.

Higher draft with improper back zone setting will lead to thin places and hence
more end breaks even though more twist flows into the thin yarn.

MAIN DRAFT ZONE:

Mostly for cotton fibres, short cradles are used in the top arm. Front zone setting
is around 42.5 mm to 44 mm depending upon the type of drafting system. The
distance between the front top roller and top apron should be around 0.5to
0.7mm when correct size top roller is used. This is normally taken care of by the
machinery manufcturer. If a technician changes this setting, this will surely result
in more imperfections, especially with karded count the impact will be more.
Therefore when processing cotton fibres, care should be taken that the front
zone setting should be according to the machinery manufacturers
recommendation.

For synthetic fibres upto 44 mm , it is better to use short cradles. Even with 42.5
mm bottom roller setting, 44 mm fibre works well without any problem. Because,
the clamping distance will be around 52 mm or 50 mm. The imperfections and
U% achieved with short cradle is better than with medium cradle (52mm setting).

Instead of using medium cradle for processing 44mm synthetic fibre, it is always
better to use short cradle with 1 or 2mm wider setting than the recommended to
avoid bottom apron damages. If a mill has got a problem of bottom roller lapping,
the apron damages are extremely high, it is better to use short cradle for 44 mm

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 fibre and widen the setting by 1 or 2mm. This will minimise the complaints and
improve the basic yarn quality also.

Please note that if the bottom apron breakages are high, then the mill is working
with a lot of bottom apron which is defective and with a lot of top roller which is
defective. Both the defective parts produces a defective yarn, which can not
rejected by older version of yarn clearers, and improperly set new type of
clearers. This yarn will very badly affect the fabric appearance.

Therefore it is always advisable to use a wider front zone setting upto 2mm , if
the mill faces a problem of excessive bottom roller lappings. Please note that the
defective bottom apron and top roll will not only affect the quality, but also the
production, because the defective bottom apron and top roll make the spindle a
sick spindle which will be prone to end breaks. A wider front zone setting will
increase the imperfection and uster, but there will not be major deviations of yarn
quality.

Nose bar height setting is very important. Depending upon the design, it is
0.7mm or .9 mm. Variation in heigh setting will affect the yarn quality and the
apron movement. The distance between nose bar and middle bottom roller
should be less than apron thick ness or more than 3 mm to avoid apron buckling
if there is any diturbance in apron movement.

RING AND TRAVELLER

Ring diameter, flange width and ring profile depends upon the fibre, twist per
inch, lift of the machine ,maximum spindle speed, winding capacity etc.
Operating speed of the traveller has a maximum limit, because the heat
generated between ring and traveller should be dissipated by the low mass of the
traveller with in a short time available.
If the cotton combed yarn is for knitting, traveller speed will not be a limiting
factor. Since yarn TPI is less, the yarn strand is not strong enough. Therefore the
limiting factor will be yarn tension.Following points to be considered

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 1. for 12s to 24s , 42mm ring with 180 mm lift can be used
2. for 24s to 36s, 40 mm ring with 180 lift can be used
3. for 36s to 60s , 38 mm ring with 170 mm lift can be used
4. for 70s to 120s, 36 mmring with 160 mm lift can be used.
5. If winding is a problem, it is better to go for reduced production with bigger
ring dia.
6. Anti-wedge ring profile is better, because of better heat dissipation
7. Elliptical traveller should be used, to avoid start-up breaks in hosiery
counts
8. special type of travller clearer can be used to avoid accumulation of fibre
on the traveller as traveller with waste does not perform well during start-
up.
For polyester/cotton blends and cotton weaving counts yarn strength is not a
problem. The limiting factor will be a traveller speed. For a ring diameter of 40
mm, spindle speed upto 19500 should not be a problem. Rings like Titan(from
Braecker), NCN(bergosesia) etc, will be able to meet the requirements.
For spindle speeds more than 20000 rpm, ORBIT rings or SU-RINGS should be
used. As the area of contact is more with this rings, with higher speeds and
pressure, the heat produced can be dissipated without any problem. Normal ring
and traveller profile will not be able to run at speeds higher than 20000 to
produce a good quality yarn.
ORBIT rings will be of great help, to work 100% polyester at higher spindle
speeds. Because of the tension, the heat produced between ring and traveller is
extremely high. But one should understand, that ,the yarn strength of polyester is
very high. Here the limiting factor is only the heat dissipation. Therefore ORBIT
RINGS with high area of contact will be able to run well at higher spindle speeds
when processing 100% polyester.
While running 100% cotton, the fibre dust in cotton, acts like a lubricant. All the
cottons do not form same amount of lubricating film. If there is no fibre
lubrication, traveller wears out very fast. Because of this worn out or burn out

175
 travellers, microwelding occurs on the ring surface, which results in damaged
ring surface, hence imperfections and hairiness increases in the yarn.
Lubrication is good with west african cottons. It may not be true with all the
cottons from West africa. In general there is a feeling, cottons from Russia, or
from very dry places, lubrication is very bad. If the fibre lubrication is very bad, it
is better to use lighter travellers and change the travellers as early as possible.
Traveller life depends upon the type of raw material, humidity conditions,
ringframe speeds the yarn count, etc. If the climate is dry , fibre lubrication will be
less while processing cotton.
Traveller life is very less when Viscose rayon is processed especially semi dull
fibre, because of low lubrication. Traveller life is better for optical bright fibres.
Traveller life is better for Poly/cotton blends, because of better lubricatiion
between ring and traveller.
Because of the centrifugal force excerted by the traveller on the yarn, the
particles from the fibre fall on the ring where the traveller is in contact. These
particles act like a lubricating film between ring and traveller.

RUBBER COTS AND APRON

For processing combed cotton, soft cots (60 to 65 degree shorehardness) will
result in lower U% thin and thick places.

There are different types of cores (inner fixing part of a rubber cot)available from
different manaufacturers Aluminimum core,PVC core,etc. It is always better to
use softer cots with aluminium core.

When softer cots are used, buffing frequency should be reduced to 45 to 90 days
depending upon the quality of the rubber cots, if the mill is aiming at very high
consistent quality in cotton counts.
If the lapping tendency is very high when processing synthetic fibres for non
critical end uses,It is better to use 90 degree shore harness cots, to avoid cots

176
 damages. This will improve the working and the yarn quality compared to
working with 83 degree shore hardness.
If rubber cots damages are more due to lapping, frequent buffings as high as
once in 30 days will be of great help to improve the working and quality. Of
course,one should try to work the ringframe without lapping.

The basic reasons for lapping in the case of processing synthetic fibre is

End breaks
Pneumafil suction
rubber cots type
fibre fineness
Oil content(electrostatic charges)
department temprature and humidity
Almost all the lappings orginate after an end break. If a mill has an abnormally
high lapping problem the first thing to do is to control the end breaks,
1. after doffing
2. during speed change
3. during the maximum speed

by optimising the process paramters.

It is obvious that fine fibres will have a stronger tendency to follow the profile of
the roller. Therefore lapping tendency will be more.
If the fibre is fine, the number of fibres in the cross section will be more, therefore
lapping frequency will be more.
If the pressure applied on the roller is more, then lapping tendancy will be more.
Hence fine and longer fibres will have more tendency for lapping because of high
top roller pressure required to overcome the drafting resistance.
If the pneumafil suction is less, the lapping tendency will be more both on top and
bottom roller.But the pneumafil suction depends on the fan diamater, fan type,
fan speed, duct design, length of the machine, profile of the suction tube etc. If

177
 any one of the above can be modified and the suction can be improved, it is
better to do that to reduce the lappin
The closer the setting between the suction nozzle and the bottom roller, the
higher the suction efficiency and lower the lapping propensity.
Higher roving twist will reduce the lapping tendency to some extent. Therefore it
is better to have a slightly higher roving twist, provided there is no problem in
ringframe drafting, when the lapping tendency is more
With Softer rubber cots lapping tendency will be more due to more surface
contact.
The most minute pores, pinholes in the rubber cots or impurities in the cots can
cause lapping. Therefore the quality of buffing and the cots treatment after
buffing is very important. Acid treatment is good for synthetic fibres and
Berkolising is good for cotton.
Electrostatic charges are troublesome especially where relatively large amount of
fibre are being processed in a loose state e.g drawframe, card etc.Lapping
tendency on the top roll increases with increasing relative humidity. The
frequently held opinion is that processing performace remains stable at a steady
absolute relative humidity, i.e. at a constant moisture content per Kg of dry air.

TWIST :The strength of a thread twisted from staple fibres increases with
increasing twist, upto certain level. Once it reaches the maximum strength,
further increase in twist results in reduction in yarn strength

Coarser and shorter fibres require more Twist per unit length than finer and
longer fibres.
Twist multiplier is a unit which helps to decide the twist per unit length for
different counts from the same raw material.This is nothing but the angle of
inclination of the helical disposition of the fibre in the yarn. This is normally
expressed as

TWIST PER INCH = TWIST MULTIPLIER * SQRT(Ne)

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 If the two yarns are to have the same strength, then the inclination angles must
be the same.
For 40s combed knitting application, if the average micronaire of cotton is 3.8
and the 2.5% span length is around 29 mm, Twist multiplier of 3.4 to 3.5 is
enough . If the average micronaire is around 4.3 it should be around 3.6 to have
better working in Ring frame.
cotton combed knitting T.M. = 3.4 to 3.6
cotton combed weaving T.M. = 3.7 to 3.8
cotton carded knitting T.M. = 3.8 to 4.0
cotton carded weaving T.M. = 3.9 to 4.2

The above details are for cottons of 2.5% span length of 27 to 30 mm and the
average Micronaire of 3.7 to 4.4. For finer and longer staple, the T.M. will be
lower than the above.

In general for processing poly/viscose , the T.M. is as follows

51 mm, 1.4 denier fibre : T.M. = 2.7 to 2.9 for knitting application
51 mm, 1.4 denier fibre : T.M. = 2.9 to 3.1 for weaving application
44 mm, 1.2 denier fibre : T.M. = 2.9 to 3.0 for knitting application
44 mm, 1.4 denier fibre : T.M. = 3.0 to 3.1 for knitting application
38 mm, 1.2 denier fibre : T.M. = 3.1 to 3.3 for knitting application The above
detail is self explanatory

OTHERS:

The following ROVING parameters will affect the ring frame process parameters

Roving T.M.
Bobbin weight
Bobbin height

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 Higher the roving T.M., wider the back bottom roller setting or higher the break
draft in ring frame.
For combed material the creel height should be as low as possible in ringframe.
Very long creel heights in ringframe, lower roving T.M. and heavier roving
package will result in many long thin places in the yarn.(especially in combed
hosiery counts)
In general 16 x 6 " bobbins are used. This helps to increase the spare rovings per
machine with higher creel running time. Therefore one should aim at increasing
the bobbin weight as well as increasing the number of spare rovings in the ring
frame.
Normally 6 row creels are used in modern ring frames. Six row creels will
accomodate more spare rovings compared to 5 row creels.(around 150 rovings
for 1000 spindle machine.) Creel height should be as low as possible for cotton
combed counts.Spare rovings will improve the operators efficiency.
Shorter machines are always better compared to longer machines. But the cost
per spindle will go up. For cotton , polyester/cotton blends, poly/viscose (upto
44mm length), number of spindles upto 1200,br> should not be a problem. But
maintenance is more critical compared to shorter machines.
For synthetic fibres with very high drafting resistance, it is better to use shorter
machines because the load on break draft gears and on second bottom rollers
will be extremely high. If long machines are used and the maintenance is not
good for such application, the bearing damages, gear damages, bottom roller
damages etc. will increase. This will result in coarse counts, higher count C.V.,
long thin and thick places.
Four spindle drive is always better compared to Tangential belt drive. Because
small variation in machining accuracy of bolster, spindle beam etc will affect the
spindle speeds, thereby the twist per inch. Waste accumulation between contact
rollers, bent contact rollers, damaged contact rollers, oil spilling from any one
spindle etc. will affect the spindle speeds and thereby TPI. The spindle speed
variation between spindles in a 5 year old ringframe will be verh high incase of
tangential belt drive compared to 4 spindle drive.

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 Noise level and energy consumption will be low in 4 spindle drive compared to
Tangential belt drive.
Compared to Contact rollers, Jockey pully damages are nil. I have worked with
20 year old ring frames with Jocky pulleys,but the variations in spindle speed
between spindles is very less compared to a 5 year old ringframe with Tangential
belt drive. I have made this comment based on my personal experience.
When processing coarse counts at higher speeds, the air current below the
machine is a big problem with 4 spindle drive . This is due to the more running
parts like tinrollers and jockey pullys. This will lead to more fluff in the yarn, if
humidification system is not good enough to suck the floating ,br> fluff.
If spindle speeds is high for cotton counts, every end breaks will result in more
fluff in the department due to the free end of the yarn getting cut by the traveller
when the distance between traveller and the bobbin with the yarn is less. Higher
the delay in attending the end break , higher the fly liberation.If the number of
openings of return air system for a ringframe is less and the exhaust air volume
is not sufficient enough, then fly liberation from an end break will increase the
endbreaks and thereby will lead to multiple breaks. End break due to a fly
entering the traveller will get struck with the traveller and will result in heavier
traveller weight and that particular spindle will continue to work bad.
Multiple breaks are very dangerous, as it will result in big variation in yarn
hairiness and the ringframe working will be very badly affected due to heavier
travellers because of the fluff in the traveller.
Dry atmosphere in ringframe department will result in more yarn hairiness, more
fly liberation and more end breaks.
It is a good practice to change spindle tapes once in 24 months. Worn out
spindle tapes will result in tpi variations which is determinetal to yarn quality.

CONSTANTS AND CALCULATIONS:

FIBRE FINENESS, YARN COUNTS AND CONVERSIONS:

181
Micronaire value (cotton) : The unit is micrograms per inch. The average weight of one
inch length of fibre, expressed in micrograms(0.000001 gram).

Denier (man-made fibres): Weight in grams per 9000 meters of fibre.

Micron :(wool): Fineness is expressed as fibre diameter in microns(0.001mm)

Conversions:

Denier = 0.354 x Micronaire value

Micronaire value = 2.824 x Denier

YARN COUNTS:

It is broadly classified into 1. DIRECT and 2.INDIRECT system.

DIRECT SYSTEM:

English count (Ne)

French count(Nf)
Metric count(Nm)
Worsted count

Metric system: Metric count (Nm) indicates the number of 1 kilometer(1000 meter)
lengths per Kg.

Nm = length in Km / weight in kg (or)

Nm = length meter / weight in grams

INDIRECT SYSTEM:

Tex count
Denier

CONVERSION TABLE FOR YARN COUNTS:

182
 tex Ne den Nm grains/yd

tex den/9 1000/Nm gr.yd x 70.86

Ne 590.54/tex 5314.9/den Nm x .5905 8.33 / gr/yd

den tex x 9 9000/Nm gr/yd x 637.7

Nm 1000/tex 9000/den 14.1 / gr/yd

grains/yd tex / 70.86 den / 637.7 14.1/Nm

Where, Nm - metric count, Nec - cottoncount

CONVERSION TABLE FOR WEIGHTS:

ounce grains grams kilograms pounds

ounce 437.5 grains 28.350 grams

0.03527
grains 0.0648 grams
ounces

grams 0.03527 grains 15.432 grains 0.001 kgs

2.2046
kilograms 35.274 ounces 15432 grains 1000 grams
pounds

pounds 16.0 ounces 7000 grains 453.59 grams 0.4536 kgs

CONVERSION TABLE FOR LINEAR MEASURES:

yard feet inches centimeter meter

0.9144
yard 3 feet 36 inches 91.44 cms
meter

0.3048
feet 0.3333 yards 12 inches 30.48 cms
meter

0.254
inches 0.0278 yards 0.0833 feet 2.54 cms
meter

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 centimeter 0.0109 yards 0.0328 feet 0.3937 inches 0.01meter

meter 1.0936 yards 3.281 feet 39.37 inches 100 cms

CALCULATIONS:

grams per meter = 0.5905 / Ne

grams per yard = 0.54 / Ne
tex = den x .11 = 1000/Nm = Mic/25.4
Ne = Nm/1.693
DRAFT = (feed weight in g/m) / (delivery weight in g/m)
DRAFT = Tex (feed) / Tex(delivery)
DRAFT = delivery roll surface speed / feed roll surface speed
No of hanks delivered by m/c = (Length delivered in m/min) / 1.605

CARDING:

(1). P = (L x 1.0936 x 60 x effy ) / (hank (Ne) x 36 x 840 x 2.2045)

P - production in kgs / hr

L - delivery speed in m/min

effy- efficiency

Ne - English count ( number of 840 yards in one pound)

840 - constant

2.2045- to convert from lbs to kilograms

(2).production in kgs / hr = (L x Ktex x 60 x effy) / ( 1000)

L - delivery speed in m/min

Ktex- sliver count in Ktex (kilotex)

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effy - efficiency

1000- to convert to kilograms from grams

(3). production in kgs / 8 hrs = (0.2836 x L x effy) / (Ne)

L - delivery speed in m/min

effy - efficiency

Ne - English count

(4).prodn / 8 hrs = (Hank x Nd) /( Ne x 2.2045)

Hank = no of hank (840 yards) delivered by the machine

Nd = no of deliveries

Ne = hank of the material

(4).Total draft in card = (feed weight in g/m) / (sliver weight in g/m)

DRAWFRAME:

(1.) Break draft = surface speed of 2nd roller / surface speed of back roller

(2).Main draft = surface speed of 1st roller / surface speed of 2nd (middle) roller

(3).Total draft = surface speed of delivery roller / surface of feed roller

(4).production in kgs / 8 hrs = (0.2836 x L x effy x Nd) / (Ne)

L - delivery speed in m/min

effy - efficiency

Ne - english count

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Nd - No of delvieries

(5.).prodn in kgs / hr = (FRD x FRrpm x 3.14 x 60 x effy x Nd) / (Ne x 840 x 36 x

2.2045)

FRD - front roller dia in inches

FRrpm - front roller rpm

effy - efficiency

Ne - Sliver hank

Nd - number of deliveries

SPEEDFRAME + RINGFRAME

(1).Twist / Inch (TPI) = Spindle speed / FRS

FRS - front roller surface speed in inches/min

(2).FRS = FRrpm x 3.14 x FRD

FRS - Front roller surface speed

FRD - front roller diameter

(3).T.P.I = T.M. x sqrt(count or hank)

T.M. - Twist multiplier

sqrt - square root

(4).prodn in kgs / 8 hrs = (7.2 x SS x effy) / (TPI x Ne x 1000)

SS - spindle speed

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(5).Spindle speed = m/min x TPI x 39.37

(6).hank delivered = spindle speed / ( tpi x 62.89)

(7).Ring traveller speed in m/sec =( spindle speed x ring dia in mm x 3.14) / (60 x 1000)

WINDING:

(1). production in kgs / 8 hrs = (0.2836 x L x effy x Nd) / (Ne)

L delivery speed in m/min

effy - efficiency

Ne English count

Nd - No of delvieries

(2). P = (L x 1.0936 x 60 x effy ) / (hank (Ne) x 36 x 840 x 2.2045)

P production in kgs / hr

L delivery speed in m/min

Effy - efficiency

Ne - English count (number of 840 yards in one pound)

840 - constant

2.2045- to convert from lbs to kilograms

FIBRE TESTING

IMPORTANCE OF RAWMATERIAL IN YARN MANUFACTURING:

187
Raw material represents about 50 to 70% of the production cost of a short-staple yarn.
This fact is sufficient to indicate the significance of the rawmaterial for the yarn
producer. It is not possible to use a problem-free raw material always , because cotton
is a natural fibre and there are many properties which will affect the performance. If all
the properties have to be good for the cotton, the rawmaterial would be too expensive.
To produce a good yarn with this difficulties, an intimate knowledge of the raw material
and its behaviour in processing is a must.

Fibre characteristics must be classified according to a certain sequence of importance

with respect to the end product and the spinning process. Moreover, such quantified
characteristics must also be assessed with reference to the following

what is the ideal value?

what amount of variation is acceptable in the bale material?
what amount of variation is acceptable in the final blend

Such valuable experience, which allows one to determine the most suitable use for the
raw material, can only be obtained by means of a long, intensified and direct association
with the raw material, the spinning process and the end product.

Low cost yarn manufacture, fulfilling of all quality requirements and a controlled fibre
feed with known fibre properties are necessary in order to compete on the world's textile
markets. Yarn prodcution begins with the rawmaterial in bales, whereby success or
failure is determined by the fibre quality, its price and availability. Successful yarn
producers optimise profits by a process oriented selection and mixing of the
rawmaterial, followed by optimisation of the machine settings, production rates,
operating elements, etc. Simultaneously, quality is ensured by means of a closed loop
control system, which requires the application of supervisory system at spinning and
spinning preparation, as well as a means of selecting the most sutable bale mix.

BASIC FIBRE CHARACTERISTICS: A textile fibre is a peculiar object. It has not truly
fixed length, width, thickness, shape and cross-section. Growth of natural fibres or

188
prodction factors of manmade fibres are responsible for this situation. An individual
fibre, if examined carefully, will be seen to vary in cross-sectional area along it length.
This may be the result of variations in growth rate, caused by dietary, metabolic,
nutrient-supply, seasonal, weather, or other factors influencing the rate of cell
development in natural fibres. Surface characteristics also play some part in increasing
the variablity of fibre shape. The scales of wool, the twisted arrangement of cotton, the
nodes appearing at intervals along the cellulosic natural fibres etc.

Following are the basic chareteristics of cotton fibre

fibre length
fineness
strength
maturity
Rigidity
fibre friction
structural features

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE FOR TESTING: The atmosphere in which physical tests

on textile materials are performed. It has a relative humidity of 65 + 2 per cent and a
temperature of 20 + 2 C. In tropical and sub-tropical countries, an alternative standard
atmosphere for testing with a relative humidity of 65 + 2 per cent and a temperature of
27 + 2 C may be used.

FIBRE LENGTH: The "length" of cotton fibres is a property of commercial value as the
price is generally based on this character. To some extent it is true, as other factors
being equal, longer cottons give better spinning performance than shorter ones. But the
length of a cotton is an indefinite quantity, as the fibres, even in a small random bunch
of a cotton, vary enormously in length. Following are the various measures of length in
use in different countries

mean length
upper quartile

189
 effective length
Modal length
2.5% span length
50% span length

Mean length: It is the estimated quantity which theoretically signifies the arithmetic
mean of the length of all the fibres present in a small but representative sample of the
cotton. This quantity can be an average according to either number or weight.

Upper quartile length: It is that value of length for which 75% of all the observed values
are lower, and 25% higher.

Effective length: It is difficult to give a clear scientific definition. It may be defined as the
upper quartile of a numerical length distribution eliminated by an arbitrary construction.
The fibres eliminated are shorter than half the effective length.

Modal length: It is the most frequently occurring length of the fibres in the sample and it
is related to mean and median for skew distributions, as exhibited by fibre length, in the
follwing way.

(Mode-Mean) = 3(Median-Mean)

Where , Median is the particular value of length above and below which exactly 50% of
the fibres lie.

2.5% Span length: It is defined as the distance spanned by 2.5% of fibres in the
specimen being tested when the fibres are parallelized and randomly distributed and
where the initial starting point of the scanning in the test is considered 100%. This
length is measured using "DIGITAL FIBROGRAPH".

50% Span length: It is defined as the distance spanned by 50% of fibres in the
specimen being tested when the fibres are parallelized and randomly distributed and
where the initial starting point of the scanning in the test is considered 100%. This
length is measured using "DIGITAL FIBROGRAPH".

190
The South India Textile Research Association (SITRA) gives the following empirical
relationships to estimate the Effective Length and Mean Length from the Span Lengths.

Effective length = 1.013 x 2.5% Span length + 4.39

Mean length = 1.242 x 50% Span length + 9.78

FIBRE LENGTH VARIATION: Eventhough, the long and short fibres both contribute
towards the length irregularity of cotton, the short fibres are particularly responsible for
increasing the waste losses, and cause unevenness and reduction in strength in the
yarn spun. The relative proportions of short fibres are usually different in cottons having
different mean lengths; they may even differ in two cottons having nearly the same
mean fibre length, rendering one cotton more irregular than the other.It is therefore
important that in addition to the fibre length of a cotton, the degree of irregularity of its
length should also be known. Variability is denoted by any one of the following attributes

1. Co-efficient of variation of length (by weight or number)

2. irregularity percentage
3. Dispersion percentage and percentage of short fibres
4. Uniformity ratio

Uniformity ratio is defined as the ratio of 50% span length to 2.5% span length
expressed as a percentage. Several instruments and methods are available for
determination of length. Following are some

shirley comb sorter

Baer sorter
A.N. Stapling apparatus
Fibrograph

uniformity ratio = (50% span length / 2.5% span length) x 100

uniformity index = (mean length / upper half mean length) x 100

191
SHORT FIBRES: The negative effects of the presence of a high proportion of short
fibres are well known. A high percentage of short fibres is usually associated with,

- Increased yarn irregularity and ends dddown which reduce quality and increase
processing costs

- Increased number of neps and slubs whiiich is detrimental to the yarn appearance

- Higher fly liberation and machine contttamination in spinning, weaving and knitting
operations.

- Higher wastage in combing and other oppperations.

While the detrimental effects of short fibres have been well established, there is still
considerable debate on what constitutes a 'short fibre'. In the simplest way, short fibres
are defined as those fibres which are less than 12 mm long. Initially, an estimate of the
short fibres was made from the staple diagram obtained in the Baer Sorter method

Short fibre content = (UB/OB) x 100

While such a simple definition of short fibres is perhaps adequate for characterising raw
cotton samples, it is too simple a definition to use with regard to the spinning process.

192
The setting of all spinning machines is based on either the staple length of fibres or its
equivalent which does not take into account the effect of short fibres. In this regard, the
concept of 'Floating Fibre Index' defined by Hertel (1962) can be considered to be a
better parameter to consider the effect of short fibres on spinning performance. Floating
fibres are defined as those fibres which are not clamped by either pair of rollers in a
drafting zone

Floating Fibre Index (FFI) was defined as

FFI = ((2.5% span length/mean length)-1) x (100)

The proportion of short fibres has an extremely great impact on yarn quality and
production. The proportion of short fibres has increased substantially in recent years
due to mechanical picking and hard ginning. In most of the cases the absolute short
fibre proportion is specified today as the percentage of fibres shorter than 12mm.
Fibrograph is the most widely used instrument in the textile industry , some information
regarding fibrograph is given below.

FIBROGRAPH:Fibrograph measurements provide a relatively fast method for

determining the length uniformity of the fibres in a sample of cotton in a reproducible
manner.

Results of fibrograph length test do not necessarily agree with those obtained by other
methods for measuring lengths of cotton fibres because of the effect of fibre crimp and
other factors.

Fibrograph tests are more objective than commercial staple length classifications and
also provide additional information on fibre length uniformity of cotoon fibres. The cotton
quality information provided by these results is used in research studies and quality
surveys, in checking commercial staple length classifications, in assembling bales of
cotton into uniform lots, and for other purposes.

193
Fibrograph measurements are based on the assumptions that a fibre is caught on the
comb in proportion to its length as compared to toal length of all fibres in the sample
and that the point of catch for a fibre is at random along its length

FINENESS: Fibre fineness is another important quality characteristic which plays a

prominent part in determining the spinning value of cottons. If the same count of yarn is
spun from two varieties of cotton, the yarn spun from the variety having finer fibres will
have a larger number of fibres in its cross-section and hence it will be more even and
strong than that spun from the sample with coarser fibres.

194
Fineness denotes the size of the cross-section dimensions of the fibre. AS the cross-
sectional features of cotton fibres are irregular, direct determination of the area of croo-
section is difficult and laborious. The Index of fineness which is more commonly used is
the linear density or weight per unit length of the fibre. The unit in which this quantity is
expressed varies in different parts of the world. The common unit used by many
countries for cotton is microgrammes per inch and the various air-flow instruments
developed for measuring fibre fineness are calibrated in this unit.

Following are some methods of determining fibre fineness

gravimetric or dimensional measurements

air-flow method
vibrating string method

Some of the above methods are applicable to single fibres while the majority of them
deal with a mass of fibres. As there is considerable variation in the linear density from
fibre to fibre, even amongst fibres of the same seed, single fibre methods are time-
consuming and laborious as a large number of fibres have to be tested to get a fairly
reliable average value.

It should be pointed out here that most of the fineness determinations are likely to be
affected by fibre maturity, which is an another important characteristic of cotton fibres.

AIR-FLOW METHOD (MICRONAIRE INSTRUMENT): The resistance offered to the

flow of air through a plug of fibres is dpendent upon the specific surface area of the
fibres. Fineness tester have been evolved on this principle for determininG fineness of
cotton. The specific surface area which determines the flow of air through a cotton plug,
is dependent not only upon the linear density of the fibres in the sample but also upon
their maturity. Hence the micronaire readings have to be treated with caution particularly
when testing samples varying widely in maturity.

In the micronaire instrument, a weighed quantity of 3.24 gms of well opened cotton
sample is compressed into a cylindrical container of fixed dimensions. Compressed air

195
is forced through the sample, at a definite pressure and the volume-rate of flow of air is
measured by a rotometer type flowmeter. The sample for Micronaire test should be well
opened cleaned and thoroughly mixed (by hand fluffing and opening method). Out of
the various air-flow instruments, the Micronaire is robust in construction, easy to operate
and presents little difficulty as regards its maintenance.

FIBRE MATURITY:

Fibre maturity is another important characteristic of cotton and is an index of the extent
of development of the fibres. As is the case with other fibre properties, the maturity of
cotton fibres varies not only between fibres of different samples but also between fibres
of the same seed. The causes for the differences observed in maturity, is due to
variations in the degree of the secondary thickening or deposition of cellulose in a fibre.

A cotton fibre consists of a cuticle, a primary layer and secondary layers of cellulose
surrounding the lumen or central canal. In the case of mature fibres, the secondary
thickening is very high, and in some cases, the lumen is not visible. In the case of
immature fibres, due to some physiological causes, the secondary deposition of
cellulose has not taken sufficiently and in extreme cases the secondary thickening is
practically absent, leaving a wide lumen throughout the fibre. Hence to a cotton breeder,
the presence of excessive immature fibres in a sample would indicate some defect in
the plant growth. To a technologist, the presence of excessive percentage of immature
fibres in a sample is undesirable as this causes excessive waste losses in processing
lowering of the yarn appearance grade due to formation of neps, uneven dyeing, etc.

An immature fibre will show a lower weight per unit length than a mature fibre of the
same cotton, as the former will have less deposition of cellulose inside the fibre. This
analogy can be extended in some cases to fibres belonging to different samples of
cotton also. Hence it is essential to measure the maturity of a cotton sample in addition
to determining its fineness, to check whether the observed fineness is an inherent
characteristic or is a result of the maturity.

196
DIFFERENT METHODS OF TESTING MATURITY MATURITY RATIO The fibres after
being swollen with 18% caustic soda are examined under the microscope with suitable
magnification. The fibres are classified into different maturity groups depending upon
the relative dimensions of wall-thickness and lumen. However the procedures followed
in different countries for sampling and classification differ in certain respects. The
swollen fibres are classed into three groups as follows

1. Normal : rod like fibres with no convolution and no continuous lumen are classed
as "normal"
2. Dead : convoluted fibres with wall thickness one-fifth or less of the maximum
ribbon width are classed as "Dead"
3. Thin-walled: The intermediate ones are classed as "thin-walled"

A combined index known as maturity ratio is used to express the results.

Maturity ratio = ((Normal - Dead)/200) + 0.70 where N - %ge of Normal fibres D - %ge
of Dead fibres

MATURITY CO-EFFICIENT Around 100 fibres from Baer sorter combs are spread
across the glass slide(maturity slide) and the overlapping fibres are again separated
with the help of a teasing needle. The free ends of the fibres are then held in the clamp
on the second strip of the maturity slide which is adjustable to keep the fibres stretched
to the desired extent. The fibres are then irrigated with 18% caustic soda solution and
covered with a suitable slip. The slide is then placed on the microscope and examined.
Fibres are classed into the following three categories

1. Mature : (Lumen width "L")/(wall thickness"W") is less than 1

197
 2. Half mature : (Lumen width "L")/(wall thickness "W") is less than 2 and more than
1
3. Immature : (Lumen width "L")/(wall thickness "W") is more than 2

About four to eight slides are prepared from each sample and examined. The results
are presented as percentage of mature, half-mature and immature fibres in a sample.
The results are also expressed in terms of "Maturity Coefficient"

Maturity Coefficient = (M + 0.6H + 0.4 I)/100 Where

M is percentage of Mature fibres H is percentage of Half mature fibres I is percentage of

Immature fibres

If maturity coefficient is

less than 0.7, it is called as immature cotton

between 0.7 to 0.9, it is called as medium mature cotton
above 0.9, it is called as mature cotton

AIR FLOW METHOD FOR MEASURING MATURITY

There are other techniques for measuring maturity using Micronaire instrument. As the
fineness value determined by the Micronaire is dependent both on the intrinsic
fineness(perimeter of the fibre) and the maturity, it may be assumed that if the intrinsic
fineness is constant then the Micronaire value is a measure of the maturity

DYEING METHODS Mature and immature fibers differ in their behaviour towards
various dyes. Certain dyes are preferentially taken up by the mature fibres while some
dyes are preferentially absorbed by the immature fibres. Based on this observation, a
differential dyeing technique was developed in the United States of America for
estimating the maturity of cotton. In this technique, the sample is dyed in a bath
containing a mixture of two dyes, namely Diphenyl Fast Red 5 BL and Chlorantine Fast
Green BLL. The mature fibres take up the red dye preferentially, while the thin walled

198
immature fibres take up the green dye. An estimate of the average of the sample can be
visually assessed by the amount of red and green fibres.

FIBRE STRENGTH:The different measures available for reporting fibre strength are

1. breaking strength
2. tensile strength and
3. tenacity or intrinsic strength

Coarse cottons generally give higher values for fibre strength than finer ones. In order,
to compare strength of two cottons differing in fineness, it is necessary to eliminate the
effect of the difference in cross-sectional area by dividing the observed fibre strength by
the fibre weight per unit length. The value so obtained is known as "INTRINSIC
STRENGTH or TENACITY". Tenacity is found to be better related to spinning than the
breaking strength.

The strength characteristics can be determined either on individual fibres or on bundle

of fibres.

SINGLE FIBRE STRENGTH The tenacity of fibre is dependent upon the following
factors

chain length of molecules in the fibre orientation of molecules size of the

crystallites distribution of the crystallites gauge length used the rate of loading
type of instrument used and atmospheric conditions

The mean single fibre strength determined is expressed in units of "grams/tex".

As it is seen the the unit for tenacity has the dimension of length only, and hence
this property is also expressed as the "BREAKING LENGTH", which can be
considered as the length of the specimen equivalent in weight to the breaking
load. Since tex is the mass in grams of one kilometer of the specimen, the
tenacity values expressed in grams/tex will correspond to the breaking length in
kilometers.

199
BUNDLE FIBRE STRENGTH :In practice, fibres are not used individually but in
groups, such as in yarns or fabrics. Thus, bundles or groups of fibres come into
play during the tensile break of yarns or fabrics. Further ,the correlation between
spinning performance and bundle strength is atleast as high as that between
spinning performance and intrinsic strength determined by testing individual
fibres. The testing of bundles of fibres takes less time and involves less strain
than testing individual fibres. In view of these considerations, determination of
breaking strength of fibre bundles has assumed greater importance than single
fibre strength tests.

200
FIBRE TESTING

FIBRE ELONGATION: There are three types of elongation

Permanent elongation: the length which extended during loading did not recover
during relaxation
Elastic elongation:The extensions through which the fibres does return
Breaking elongation:the maximum extension at which the yarn breaks
i.e.permanent and elastic elongation together Elongation is specified as a
percentage of the starting length. The elastic elongation is of deceisive
importance, since textile products without elasticity would hardly be usable. They
must be able to deforme, In order to withstand high loading, but they must also
return to shatpe. The greater resistance to crease
for wool compared to cotton arises, from the difference in their elongation. For
cotton it is 6 -10% and for wool it is aroun 25 - 45%. For normal textile goods,
higher elongation are neither necessary nor desirable. They make processing in
the spinning mill more difficult, especially in drawing operations.

FIBRE RIGIDITY:

The Torsional rigidity of a fibre may be defined as the torque or twisting force required
to twist 1 cm length of the fibre through 360 degrees and is proportional to the product
of the modulus of rigidity and square of the area of cross-section, the constant of
proportionality being dependent upon the shape of the cross-section of the fibre. The
torsional rigidity of cotton has therefore been found to be very much dependent upon
the gravimetric fineness of the fibres. As the rigidity of fibres is sensitive to the relative
humidity of the surrounding atmosphere, it is essential that the tests are carried out in a
conditional room where the relative humidity is kept constant.

THE SLENDERNESS RATIO: Fibre stiffness plays a significant role mainly when
rolling, revolving, twisting movements are involved. A fibre which is too stiff has difficulty
adapting to the movements. It is difficult to get bound into the yarn, which results in
higher hairiness. Fibres which are not stiff enough have too little springiness. They do

201
not return to shape after deformation. They have no longitudinal resistance. In most
cases this leads to formation of neps. Fibre stiffness is dependent upon fibre substance
and also upon the relationship between fibre length and fibre fineness. Fibres having
the same structure will be stiffer, the shorter they are. The slendernesss ratio can serve
as a measure of stiffness,

slender ratio = fibre length /fibre diameter

Since the fibres must wind as they are bound-in during yarn formation in the ring
spinning machine, the slenderness ratio also determines to some extent where the
fibres will finish up.fine and/or long fibres in the middle coarse and/or short fibres at the
yarn periphery.

TRASH CONTENT: In additon to usuable fibres, cotton stock contains foreign matter of
various kinds. This foreign material can lead to extreme disturbances during processing.
Trash affects yarn and fabric quality. Cottons with two different trash contents should
not be mixed together, as it will lead to processing difficulties. Optimising process
paramters will be of great difficulty under this situation, therefore it is a must to know the
amount of trash and the type of trash before deciding the mixing.

SHIRLEY TRASH ANLAYSER: A popular trash measuring device is the Shirley

Analyser, which separates trash and foreign matter from lint by mechanical methods.
The result is an expression of trash as a percentage of the combined weight of trash
and lint of a sample. This instrument is used

to give the exact value of waste figures and also the proportion of clean cotton
and trash in the material
to select the proper processing sequence based upon the trash content
to assess the cleaning efficiency of each machine
to determine the loss of good fibre in the sequence of opening and cleaning.

Stricter sliver quality requirements led to the gradual evolution of opening and cleaning
machinery leading to a situation where blow room and carding machinery were

202
designed to remove exclusively certain specific types of trash particles. This
necessitated the segregation of the trash in the cotton sample to different grades
determined by their size. This was achieved in the instruments like the Trash Separator
and the Micro Dust Trash Analyser which could be considered as modified versions of
the Shirley Analyser.

The high volume instruments introduced the concept of optical methods of trash
measurement which utilised video scanning trash-meters to identify areas darker than
normal on a cotton sample surface. Here, the trash content was expressed as the
percentage area covered by the trash particles. However in such methods,
comparability with the conventional method could not be established in view of the non-
uniform distribution of trash in a given cotton sample and the relatively smaller sample
size to determine such a parameter. Consequently, it is yet to establish any significant
name in the industry.

RAW MATERIAL AS A FACTOR AFFECTING SPINNING: Fineness determines how

many fibres are present in the cross-section of a yarn of particular linear density. 30 to
50 fibres are needed minimum to produce a yarn fibre fineness influences

1. spinning limit
2. yarn strength
3. yarn evenness
4. yarn fullness
5. drape of the fabric
6. lustre
7. handle
8. productivity

productivity is influenced by the end breakage rate and twist per inch required in the
yarn

Immature fibres(unripe fibres) have neither adequate strength nor adequate longitudinal
siffness. They therefore lead to the following

203
 1. loss of yarn strength
2. neppiness
3. high proportion of short fibres
4. varying dyeability
5. processing difficulties at the card and blowroom

Fibre length is one among the most important characteristics. It influnces

1. spinning limit
2. yarn strength
3. handle of the product
4. lustre of the product
5. yarn hairiness
6. productivity

It can be assumed that fibres of under 4 - 5 mm will be lost in processing(as waste and
fly). fibres upto about 12 - 15 mm do not contribute to strength but only to fullness of the
yarn. But fibres above these lengths produce the other positive characteristics in the
yarn.

The proportion of short fibres has extremely great influence on the following parameters

1. spinning limit
2. yarn strength
3. handle of the product
4. lustre of the product
5. yarn hairiness
6. productivity

A large proportion of short fibre leads to strong fly contamination, strain on personnel,
on the machines, on the work room and on the air-conditioning, and also to extreme
drafting difficulties.

204
A uniform yarn would have the same no of fibres in the cross-section, at all points along
it. If the fibres themeselves have variations within themselves, then the yarn will be
more irregular.

If 2.5% span length of the fibre increases, the yarn strength also icreases due to the fact
that there is a greater contribution by the fibre strength for the yarn strength in the case
of longer fibres.

Neps are small entanglements or knots of fibres. There are two types of neps. They are
1.fibre neps and 2.seed-coat neps.In general fibre neps predominate, the core of the
nep consists of unripe and dead fibres. Thus it is clear that there is a relationship
between neppiness and maturity index. Neppiness is also dependent on the fibre
fineness, because fine fibres have less longitudinal stiffness than coarser fibres.

Nature produces countless fibres, most of which are not usable for textiles because of
inadequate strength.

The minimum strength for a textile fibre is approximately 6gms/tex ( about 6 kn breaking
length).

Since blending of the fibres into the yarn is achieved mainly by twisting, and can exploit
30 to 70% of the strength of the material, a lower limit of about 3 gms/tex is finally
obtained for the yarn strength, which varies linearly with the fibre strength.

Low micronaire value of cotton results in higher yarn tenacity.In coarser counts the
influence of micronaire to increase yarn tenacity is not as significant as fine count.

Fibre strength is moisture dependent. i.e. It depends strongly upon the climatic
conditions and upon the time of exposure. Strength of cotton,linen etc. increases with
increasing moisture content.

The most important property inflencing yarn elongation is fibre elongation.Fibre strength
ranks seconds in importance as a contributor to yarn elongation. Fibre fineness
influences yarn elongation only after fibre elongation and strength. Other characters

205
such as span length, uniformity ratio, maturity etc, do not contribute significantly to the
yarn elongation.Yarn elongation increases with increasing twist. Coarser yarn has
higher elongation than finer yarn. Yarn elongation decreases with increasing spinning
tension. Yarn elongation is also influenced by traveller weight and high variation in twist
insertion.

For ring yarns the number of thin places increases, as the trash content and uniformity
ratio increased For rotor yarns 50%span length and bundle strength has an influence on
thin places.

Thick places in ringyarn is mainly affected by 50%span length, trash content and shor
fibre content.

The following expression helps to obtain the yarn CSP achievable at optimum twist
multiplier with the available fibre properties.

Lea CSP for Karded count = 280 x SQRT(FQI) + 700 - 13C Lea CSP for combed count
= (280 x SQRT(FQI) + 700 - 13C)x(1+W)/100 where FQI = LSM/F L = 50% span
length(mm)
S = bundle strength (g/tex) M = Maturity ratio measured by shirly FMT F = Fibre
fineness (micrograms/inch)C = yarn count W = comber waste%

Higher FQI values are associated with higher yarn strength in the case of carded counts
but in combed count such a relationship is not noticed due to the effect of combing

Higher 2.5 % span length, uniformity ratio, maturity ratio and lower trash content results
in lower imperfection. FQI does not show any significant influence on the imperfection.

The unevenness of carded hosiery yarn does not show any significant relationships with
any of the fibre properties except the micronaire value. As the micronaire value
increases, U% also increases. Increase in FQI however shows a reduction in U%.

206
Honey-dew is the best known sticky substance on cotton fibres. This is a secretion of
the cotton louse. There are other types of sticky substances also. They are given below.

honey dew - secretions

fungus and bacteria - decomposition products
vegetable substances - sugars from plant juices, leaf nectar, overprodcution of
wax,
fats, oils - seed oil from ginning
pathogens
synthetic substances - defoliants, insecticides, fertilizers, oil from harvesting
machines

In the great majority of cases, the substance is one of a group of sugars of the most
variable composition, primarily but not exclusively, fructose, glucose, saccharose,
melezitose, as found, for example on sudan cotton. These saccharides are mostly, but
not always, prodced by insects or the plants themselves, depending upon the influence
on the plants prior to plucking. Whether or not a fibre will stick depends, not only on the
quantity of the sticky coating and it composition, but also on the degree of saturation as
a solution. Sugars are broken down by fermentation and by microorganisms during
storage of the cotton. This occurs more quickly the higher the moisture content. During
spinning of sticky cotton, the R.H.% of the air in the production are should be held as
low as possible.

The following table shows the degree of correlation between the various cotton fibre
quality characteristics and those of the yarns into which these fibres are spun - RING
SPUN YARNS

207
 imperfection
breaking breaking
yarn evenness and classimat hairiness
tenacity elongation
faults

fibre length

micronaire
value

nep, trash, leaf,

microdust, fibre
fragments

1/8" breaking
strength

1/8" elongation

colot/reflectance

significant correlation

good correlation

little or no correlation

208
The following table shows the degree of correlation between the various cotton fibre
quality characteristics and those of the yarns into which these fibres are spun - ROTOR
SPUUN YARNS.

imperfections
yarn and breaking breaking
hairiness
evenness classimat tenacity elongation
faults

fibre length

micronaire
value

nep, leaf,
trash,microdust,
fibre fragments

1/8" breaking
strength

1/8" breaking
elongation

color/
reflectance

significant correlation

good correlation

209
little or no correlation

FIBRE TESTING

FIBRE ELONGATION: There are three types of elongation

Permanent elongation: the length which extended during loading did not recover
during relaxation
Elastic elongation:The extensions through which the fibres does return
Breaking elongation:the maximum extension at which the yarn breaks
i.e.permanent and elastic elongation together Elongation is specified as a
percentage of the starting length. The elastic elongation is of deceisive
importance, since textile products without elasticity would hardly be usable. They
must be able to deforme, In order to withstand high loading, but they must also
return to shatpe. The greater resistance to crease for wool compared to cotton
arises, from the difference in their elongation. For cotton it is 6 -10% and for wool
it is aroun 25 - 45%. For normal textile goods, higher elongation are neither
necessary nor desirable. They make processing in the spinning mill more difficult,
especially in drawing operations.

FIBRE RIGIDITY:

The Torsional rigidity of a fibre may be defined as the torque or twisting force required
to twist 1 cm length of the fibre through 360 degrees and is proportional to the product
of the modulus of rigidity and square of the area of cross-section, the constant of
proportionality being dependent upon the shape of the cross-section of the fibre. The
torsional rigidity of cotton has therefore been found to be very much dependent upon
the gravimetric fineness of the fibres. As the rigidity of fibres is sensitive to the relative
humidity of the surrounding atmosphere, it is essential that the tests are carried out in a
conditional room where the relative humidity is kept constant.

210
THE SLENDERNESS RATIO: Fibre stiffness plays a significant role mainly when
rolling, revolving, twisting movements are involved. A fibre which is too stiff has difficulty
adapting to the movements. It is difficult to get bound into the yarn, which results in
higher hairiness. Fibres which are not stiff enough have too little springiness. They do
not return to shape after deformation. They have no longitudinal resistance. In most
cases this leads to formation of neps. Fibre stiffness is dependent upon fibre substance
and also upon the relationship between fibre length and fibre fineness. Fibres having
the same structure will be stiffer, the shorter they are. The slendernesss ratio can serve
as a measure of stiffness

slender ratio = fibre length /fibre diameter

Since the fibres must wind as they are bound-in during yarn formation in the ring
spinning machine, the slenderness ratio also determines to some extent where the
fibres will finish up.fine and/or long fibres in the middle coarse and/or short fibres at the
yarn periphery.

TRASH CONTENT: In additon to usuable fibres, cotton stock contains foreign matter of
various kinds. This foreign material can lead to extreme disturbances during processing.
Trash affects yarn and fabric quality. Cottons with two different trash contents should
not be mixed together, as it will lead to processing difficulties. Optimising process
paramters will be of great difficulty under this situation, therefore it is a must to know the
amount of trash and the type of trash before deciding the mixing.

SHIRLEY TRASH ANLAYSER: A popular trash measuring device is the Shirley

Analyser, which separates trash and foreign matter from lint by mechanical methods.
The result is an expression of trash as a percentage of the combined weight of trash
and lint of a sample. This instrument is used

to give the exact value of waste figures and also the proportion of clean cotton
and trash in the material
to select the proper processing sequence based upon the trash content
to assess the cleaning efficiency of each machine

211
 to determine the loss of good fibre in the sequence of opening and cleaning.

Stricter sliver quality requirements led to the gradual evolution of opening and cleaning
machinery leading to a situation where blow room and carding machinery were
designed to remove exclusively certain specific types of trash particles. This
necessitated the segregation of the trash in the cotton sample to different grades
determined by their size. This was achieved in the instruments like the Trash Separator
and the Micro Dust Trash Analyser which could be considered as modified versions of
the Shirley Analyser.

The high volume instruments introduced the concept of optical methods of trash
measurement which utilised video scanning trash-meters to identify areas darker than
normal on a cotton sample surface. Here, the trash content was expressed as the
percentage area covered by the trash particles. However in such methods,
comparability with the conventional method could not be established in view of the non-
uniform distribution of trash in a given cotton sample and the relatively smaller sample
size to determine such a parameter. Consequently, it is yet to establish any significant
name in the industry.

RAW MATERIAL AS A FACTOR AFFECTING SPINNING: Fineness determines how

many fibres are present in the cross-section of a yarn of particular linear density. 30 to
50 fibres are needed minimum to produce a yarn fibre fineness influences

1. spinning limit
2. yarn strength
3. yarn evenness
4. yarn fullness
5. drape of the fabric
6. lustre
7. handle
8. productivity

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productivity is influenced by the end breakage rate and twist per inch required in the
yarn

Immature fibres (unripe fibres) have neither adequate strength nor adequate
longitudinal siffness. They therefore lead to the following,

1. loss of yarn strength

2. neppiness
3. high proportion of short fibres
4. varying dyeability
5. processing difficulties at the card and blowroom

Fibre length is one among the most important characteristics. It influnces

1. spinning limit
2. yarn strength
3. handle of the product
4. lustre of the product
5. yarn hairiness
6. productivity

It can be assumed that fibres of under 4 - 5 mm will be lost in processing (as waste and
fly). fibres upto about 12 - 15 mm do not contribute to strength but only to fullness of the
yarn. But fibres above these lengths produce the other positive characteristics in the
yarn.

The proportion of short fibres has extremely great influence on the following parameters

1. spinning limit
2. yarn strength
3. handle of the product
4. lustre of the product
5. yarn hairiness

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 6. productivity

A large proportion of short fibre leads to strong fly contamination, strain on personnel,
on the machines, on the work room and on the air-conditioning, and also to extreme
drafting difficulties.

A uniform yarn would have the same no of fibres in the cross-section, at all points along
it. If the fibres themeselves have variations within themselves, then the yarn will be
more irregular.

If 2.5% span length of the fibre increases, the yarn strength also icreases due to the fact
that there is a greater contribution by the fibre strength for the yarn strength in the case
of longer fibres.

Neps are small entanglements or knots of fibres. There are two types of neps. They are
1.fibre neps and 2.seed-coat neps.In general fibre neps predominate, the core of the
nep consists of unripe and dead fibres. Thus it is clear that there is a relationship
between neppiness and maturity index. Neppiness is also dependent on the fibre
fineness, because fine fibres have less longitudinal stiffness than coarser fibres.

Nature produces countless fibres, most of which are not usable for textiles because of
inadequate strength.

The minimum strength for a textile fibre is approximately 6gms/tex ( about 6 kn breaking
length).

Since blending of the fibres into the yarn is achieved mainly by twisting, and can exploit
30 to 70% of the strength of the material, a lower limit of about 3 gms/tex is finally
obtained for the yarn strength, which varies linearly with the fibre strength.

Low micronaire value of cotton results in higher yarn tenacity.In coarser counts the
influence of micronaire to increase yarn tenacity is not as significant as fine count.

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Fibre strength is moisture dependent. i.e. It depends strongly upon the climatic
conditions and upon the time of exposure. Strength of cotton,linen etc. increases with
increasing moisture content.

The most important property inflencing yarn elongation is fibre elongation.Fibre strength
ranks seconds in importance as a contributor to yarn elongation. Fibre fineness
influences yarn elongation only after fibre elongation and strength. Other characters
such as span length, uniformity ratio, maturity etc, do not contribute significantly to the
yarn elongation.Yarn elongation increases with increasing twist. Coarser yarn has
higher elongation than finer yarn. Yarn elongation decreases with increasing spinning
tension. Yarn elongation is also influenced by traveller weight and high variation in twist
insertion.

For ring yarns the number of thin places increases, as the trash content and uniformity
ratio increased For rotor yarns 50%span length and bundle strength has an influence on
thin places.

Thick places in ringyarn is mainly affected by 50%span length, trash content and shor
fibre content.

The following expression helps to obtain the yarn CSP achievable at optimum twist
multiplier with the available fibre properties.

Lea CSP for Karded count = 280 x SQRT (FQI) + 700 - 13C Lea CSP for combed count
= (280 x SQRT (FQI) + 700 - 13C)x(1+W)/100 where FQI = LSM/FL = 50% span
length(mm)

S = bundle strength (g/tex) M = Maturity ratio measured by shirly FMT F = Fibre

fineness (micrograms/inch)C = yarn count W = comber waste%

Higher FQI values are associated with higher yarn strength in the case of carded counts
but in combed count such a relationship is not noticed due to the effect of combing

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Higher 2.5 % span length, uniformity ratio, maturity ratio and lower trash content results
in lower imperfection. FQI does not show any significant influence on the imperfection.

The unevenness of carded hosiery yarn does not show any significant relationships with
any of the fibre properties except the micronaire value. As the micronaire value
increases, U% also increases. Increase in FQI however shows a reduction in U%.

Honey-dew is the best known sticky substance on cotton fibres. This is a secretion of
the cotton louse. There are other types of sticky substances also. They are given below

honey dew - secretions

fungus and bacteria - decomposition products
vegetable substances - sugars from plant juices, leaf nectar, overprodcution of
wax,
fats, oils - seed oil from ginning
pathogens
synthetic substances - defoliants, insecticides, fertilizers, oil from harvesting
machines

In the great majority of cases, the substance is one of a group of sugars of the most
variable composition, primarily but not exclusively, fructose, glucose, saccharose,
melezitose, as found, for example on sudan cotton. These saccharides are mostly, but
not always, prodced by insects or the plants themselves, depending upon the influence
on the plants prior to plucking. Whether or not a fibre will stick depends, not only on the
quantity of the sticky coating and it composition, but also on the degree of saturation as
a solution. Sugars are broken down by fermentation and by microorganisms during
storage of the cotton. This occurs more quickly the higher the moisture content. During
spinning of sticky cotton, the R.H. % of the air in the production are should be held as
low as possible.

The following table shows the degree of correlation between the various cotton fibre
quality characteristics and those of the yarns into which these fibres are spun - RING
SPUN YARNS

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 imperfection
breaking breaking
yarn evenness and classimat hairiness
tenacity elongation
faults

fibre length

micronaire
value

nep, trash, leaf,

microdust, fibre
fragments

1/8" breaking
strength

1/8" elongation

colot/reflectance

significant correlation

good correlation

little or no correlation

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The following table shows the degree of correlation between the various cotton fibre
quality characteristics and those of the yarns into which these fibres are spun - ROTOR
SPUN YARNS.

imperfections
yarn and breaking breaking
hairiness
evenness classimat tenacity elongation
faults

fibre length

micronaire
value

nep, leaf,
trash,microdust,
fibre fragments

1/8" breaking
strength

1/8" breaking
elongation

color/
reflectance

significant correlation

good correlation

little or no correlation

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COTTON FIBRE

COTTON FIBRE GROWTH:

Iimprovements in cotton fiber properties for textiles depend on changes in the

growth and development of the fiber.
Manipulation of fiber perimeter has a potential to impact the length, micronaire,
and strength of cotton fibers. The perimeter of the fiber is regulated by biological
mechanisms that control the expansion characteristic of the cell wall and
establish cell diameter.
Improvements in fiber quality can take many different forms. Changes in length,
strength, uniformity, and fineness In one recent analysis, fiber perimeter was
shown to be the single quantitative trait of the fiber that affects all other traits.
Fiber perimeter is the variable that has the greatest affect on fiber elongation and
strength properties. While mature dead fibers have an elliptical morphology,
living fibers have a cylindrical morphology during growth and development.
Geometrically, perimeter is directly determined by diameter (perimeter = diameter
). Thus, fiber diameter is the only variable that directly affects perimeter. For
this reason, understanding the biological mechanisms that regulate fiber
diameter is important for the long-term improvement of cotton.
A review of the literature indicates that many researchers believe diameter is
established at fiber initiation and is maintained throughout the duration of fiber
development. A few studies have examined, either directly or indirectly, changes
in fiber diameter during development. Some studies indicate that diameter
remains constant; while others indicate that fiber diameter increases as the fiber
develops.
The first three stages occur while the fiber is alive and actively growing. Fiber
initiation involves the initial isodiametric expansion of the epidermal cell above
the surface of the ovule. This stage may last only a day or so for each fiber.
Because there are several waves of fiber initiation across the surface of the ovule
, one may find fiber initials at any time during the first 5 or 6 d post anthesis. The
elongation phase encompasses the major expansion growth phase of the fiber.

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 Depending on genotype, this stage may last for several weeks post anthesis.
During this stage of development the fiber deposits a thin, expandable primary
cell wall composed of a variety of carbohydrate polymers. As the fiber
approaches the end of elongation, the major phase of secondary wall synthesis
starts. In cotton fiber, the secondary cell wall is composed almost exclusively of
cellulose. During this stage, which lasts until the boll opens (50 to 60 d post
anthesis), the cell wall becomes progressively thicker and the living protoplast
decreases in volume. There is a significant overlap in the timing of the elongation
and secondary wall synthesis stages. Thus, fibers are simultaneously elongating
and depositing secondary cell wall.
The establishment of fiber diameter is a complex process that is governed, to a
certain extent, by the overall mechanism by which fibers expand. The expansion
of fiber cells is governed by the same related mechanisms occurring in other
walled plant cells. Most cells exhibit diffuse cell growth, in which new wall and
membrane materials are added throughout the surface area of the cell.
Specialized, highly elongated cells, such as root hairs and pollen tubes, expand
via tip synthesis where new wall and membrane materials are added only at a
specific location that becomes the growing tip of the cell. While the growth
mechanisms for cotton fiber have not been fully documented, recent evidence
indicates that throughout the initiation and early elongation phases of
development, cotton fiber expands primarily via diffuse growth. Later in fiber
development, late in cell elongation, and well into secondary cell wall synthesis
(35 d post anthesis), the organization of cellular organelles is consistent with
continued diffuse growth. Many cells that expand via diffuse growth exhibit
increases in both cell length and diameter; but cells that exhibit tip synthesis do
not exhibit increases in cell diameter. If cotton fiber expands by diffuse growth,
then it is reasonable to suggest that cell diameter might increase during the cell
elongation phase of development.
Cell expansion is also regulated by the extensibility of the cell wall. For this
reason, cell expansion most commonly occurs in cells that have only a primary
cell wall . Primary cell walls contain low levels of cellulose. Production of the

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 more rigid secondary cell wall usually signals the cessation of cell expansion.
Secondary cell wall formation is often indicated by the development of wall
birefringence.
Analyses of fiber diameter and cell wall birefringence show that fiber diameter
significantly increased as fibers grew and developed secondary cell walls. Both
cotton species and all the genotypes tested exhibited similar increases in
diameter; however, the specific rates of change differed. Fibers continued to
increase in diameter during the secondary wall synthesis stage of development,
indicating that the synthesis of secondary cell wall does not coincide with the
cessation of cell expansion.

GINNING

The generally recommended machinery sequence at gins for spindle-picked

cotton is rock and green-boll trap, feed control, tower drier, cylinder cleaner, stick
machine, tower drier, cylinder cleaner, extractor feeder, gin stand, lint cleaner,
lint cleaner, and press.
Cylinder cleaners use rotating spiked drums that open and clean the seedcotton
by scrubbing it across a grid-rod or wire mesh screen that allows the trash to sift
through. The stick machine utilizes the sling-off action of channel-type saw
cylinders to extract foreign matter from the seedcotton by centrifugal force. In
addition to feeding seedcotton to the gin stand, the extractor feeder cleans the
cotton using the stick machine's sling-off principle.
In some cases the extractor-feeder is a combination of a cylinder cleaner and an
extractor. Sometimes an impact or revolving screen cleaner is used in addition
to the second cylinder cleaner. In the impact cleaner, seedcotton is conveyed
across a series of revolving, serrated disks instead of the grid-rod or wire mesh
screen.
Lint cleaners at gins are mostly of the controlled-batt, saw type. In this cleaner a
saw cylinder combs the fibers and extracts trash from the lint cotton by a
combination of centrifugal force, scrubbing action between saw cylinder and grid
bars, and gravity assisted by an air current

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 Seedcotton-type cleaners extract the large trash components from cotton.
However, they have only a small influence on the cotton's grade index, visible
liint foreign-matter content, and fiber length distribution when compared with the
lint cleaning effects. Also, the number of neps created by the entire seedcotton
cleaning process is about the same as the increase caused by one saw-cylinder
lint cleaner.
Most cotton gins today use one or two stages of saw-type lint cleaners. The use
of too many stages of lint cleaning can reduce the market value of the bale,
because the weight loss may offset any gain from grade improvement. Increasing
the number of saw lint cleaners at gins, in addition to increasing the nep count
and short-fiber content of the raw lint, causes problems at the spinning mill.
These show up as more neps in the card web and reduced yarn strength and
appearance.
Pima cotton, extra-long-staple cotton, is roller ginned to preserve its length and to
minimize neps. To maintain the highest possible quality bale of pima cotton, mill-
type lint cleaners were for a long time the predominant cleaner used by the roller-
ginning industry. Today, various combinations of impacts, incline, and pneumatic
cleaners are used in most roller-ginning plants to increase lint-cleaning capacity.

COTTON FIBER QUALITY:

Two simple words, fiber quality, mean quite different things to cotton growers and
to cotton processors.No after-harvest mechanisms are available to either
growers or processors that can improve intrinsic fiber quality.Most cotton
production research by physiologists and agronomists has been directed toward
improving yields, so the few cultural-input strategies suggested for improving
fiber quality during the production season are of limited validity. Thus, producers
have limited alternatives in production practices that might result in fibers of
acceptable quality and yield without increased production costs.Fiber processors
seek to acquire the highest quality cotton at the lowest price, and attempt to meet
processing requirements by blending bales with different average fiber
properties. Of course, bale averages for fiber properties do not describe the fiber-

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 quality ranges that can occur within the bales or the resulting blends. Further, the
natural variability among cotton fibers unpredictably reduces the processing
success for blends made up of low-priced, lower-quality fibers and high-priced,
higher-quality fibers Blends that fail to meet processing specifications show
marked increases in processing disruptions and product defects that cut into the
profits of the yarn and textile manufacturers. Mill owners do not have sufficient
knowledge of the role classing-office fiber properties play in determining the
outcome of cotton spinning and dyeing processes.Even when a processor is able
to make the connection between yarn and fabric defects and increased
proportions of low-quality fibers, producers have no way of explaining why the
rejected bales failed to meet processing specifications when the bale averages
for important fiber properties fell within the acceptable ranges.If, on the other
hand, the causes of a processing defect are unknown, neither the producer nor
the processor will be able to prevent or avoid that defect in the future. Any future
research that is designed to predict, prevent, or avoid low-quality cotton fibers
that cause processing defects in yarn and fabric must address the interface
between cotton production and cotton processing.Every bale of cotton produced
in the USA crosses that interface via the USDA-AMS classing offices, which
report bale averages of quantified fiber properties. Indeed, fiber-quality data
reports from classing offices are designed as a common quantitative language
that can be interpreted and understood by both producers and processors. But
the meaning and utility of classing-office reports can vary, depending on the
instrument used to evaluate.

Fiber maturity: is a composite of factors, including inherent genetic fineness

compared with the perimeter or cross section achieved under prevailing growing
conditions and the relative fiber cell-wall thickness and the primary -to-
secondary fiber cell-wall ratio, and the time elapsed between flowering and boll
opening or harvest. While all the above traits are important to varying degrees in
determining processing success, none of them appear in classing-office reports

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 Micronaire, which is often treated as the fiber maturity measurement in classing-
office data, provides an empirical composite of fiber cross section and relative
wall thickening. But laydown blends that are based solely on bale-average
micronaire will vary greatly in processing properties and outcomes.Cotton
physiologists who follow fiber development can discuss fiber chronological
maturity in terms of days after floral anthesis. But, they must quantify the
corresponding fiber physical maturity as micronaire readings for samples pooled
across several plants, because valid micronaire determinations require at least
10 g of individualized fiber.

Some fiber properties, like length and single fiber strength, appear to be simple
and easily understood terms. But the bale average length reported by the
classing office does not describe the range or variability of fiber lengths that must
be handled by the spinning equipment processing each individual fiber from the
highly variable fiber population found in that bale.Even when a processing
problem can be linked directly to a substandard fiber property, surprisingly little is
known about the causes of variability in fiber shape and maturity. For example:
Spinners can see the results of excessive variability in fiber length or strength
when manifested as yarn breaks and production halts.Knitters and weavers can
see the knots and slubs or holes that reduce the value of fabrics made from
defective yarns that were spun from poor-quality fibre
Inspectors of dyed fabrics can see the unacceptable color streaks and specks
associated with variations in fiber maturity and the relative dye-uptake success.
The grower, ginner, and buyer can see variations in color or trash content of
ginned and baled cotton.

But there are no inspectors or instruments that can see or predict any of the above
quality traits of fibers while they are developing in the boll. There is no definitive
reference source, model, or database to which a producer can turn for information on
how cultural inputs could be adapted to the prevailing growth conditions of soil fertility,
water availability, and weather (temperature, for example) to produce higher quality
fiber.

224
The scattered research publications that address fiber quality, usually in conjunction
with yield improvement, are confusing because their measurement protocols are not
standardized and results are not reported in terms that are meaningful to either
producers or processors. Thus, physiological and agronomic studies of fiber quality
frequently widen, rather than bridge, the communication gap between cotton producers
and processors.

This overview assembles and assesses current literature citations regarding the
quantitation of fiber quality and the manner in which irrigation, soil fertility, weather, and
cotton genetic potential interact to modulate fiber quality. The ultimate goal is to provide
access to the best answers currently available to the question of what causes the
annual and regional fiber quality variations

From the physiologist's perspective, the fiber quality of a specific cotton genotype is a
composite of fiber shape and maturity properties that depend on complex interactions
among the genetics and physiology of the plants producing the fibers and the growth
environment prevailing during the cotton production season.

Fiber shape properties, particularly length and diameter, are largely dependent on
genetics. Fiber maturity properties, which are dependent on deposition of photosynthate
in the fiber cell wall, are more sensitive to changes in the growth environment. The
effects of the growth environment on the genetic potential of a genotype modulate both
shape and maturity properties to varying degrees.

Anatomically, a cotton fiber is a seed hair, a single hyperelongated cell arising from the
protodermal cells of the outer integument layer of the seed coat. Like all living plant
cells, developing cotton fibers respond individually to fluctuations in the macro- and
microenvironments. Thus, the fibers on a single seed constitute continua of fiber length,
shape, cell-wall thickness, and physical maturity .

Environmental variations within the plant canopy, among the individual plants, and
within and among fields ensure that the fiber population in each boll, indeed on each

225
seed, encompasses a broad range of fiber properties and that every bale of cotton
contains a highly variable population of fibers.

Successful processing of cotton lint depends on appropriate management during and

after harvest of those highly variable fiber properties that have been shown to affect
finished-product quality and manufacturing efficiency . If fiber-blending strategies and
subsequent spinning and dyeing processes are to be optimized for specific end-uses
and profitability, production managers in textile mills need accurate and effective
descriptive and predictive quantitative measures of both the means and the ranges of
these highly variable fiber properties .

In the USA, the components of cotton fiber quality are usually defined as those
properties reported for every bale by the classing offices of the USDA-AMS, which
currently include length, length uniformity index, strength, micronaire, color as
reflectance (Rd) and yellowness (+b), and trash content, all quantified by the High
Volume Instrument (HVI) line. The classing offices also provide each bale with the more
qualitative classers' color and leaf grades and with estimates of preparation (degree of
roughness of ginned lint) and content of extraneous matter.

The naturally wide variations in fiber quality, in combination with differences in end-use
requirements, result in significant variability in the value of the cotton lint to the
processor. Therefore, a system of premiums and discounts has been established to
denote a specified base quality. In general, cotton fiber value increases as the bulk-
averaged fibers increase in whiteness (+Rd), length, strength, and micronaire; and
discounts are made for both low mike (micronaire less than 3.5) and high mike
(micronaire more than 4.9).

Ideal fiber-quality specifications favored by processors traditionally have been

summarized thusly:"as white as snow, as long as wool, as strong as steel, as fine as
silk, and as cheap as hell." These specifications are extremely difficult to incorporate
into a breeding program or to set as goals for cotton producers. Fiber-classing
technologies in use and being tested allow quantitation of fiber properties, improvement

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of standards for end-product quality, and, perhaps most importantly, creation of a fiber-
quality language and system of fiber-quality measurements that can be meaningful and
useful to producers and processors alike GENE AND ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABILITY:

Improvements in textile processing, particularly advances in spinning technology, have

led to increased emphasis on breeding cotton for both improved yield and improved
fiber properties Studies of gene action suggest that, within upland cotton genotypes
there is little non-additive gene action in fiber length, strength, and fineness ; that is,
genes determine those fiber properties. However, large interactions between combined
annual environmental factors (primarily weather) and fiber strength suggest that
environmental variability can prevent full realization of the fiber-quality potential of a
cotton genotype More recently, statistical comparisons of the relative genetic and
environmental influences upon fiber strength suggest that fiber strength is determined
by a few major genes, rather than by variations in the growth environment . Indeed,
spatial variations of single fertility factors in the edaphic environment were found to be
unrelated to fiber strength and only weakly correlated with fiber length .

Genetic potential of a specific genotype is defined as the level of fiber yield or quality
that could be attained under optimal growing conditions. The degree to which genetic
potential is realized changes in response to environmental fluctuations such as
application of water or fertilizer and the inevitable seasonal shifts such as temperature,
day length, and insolation

In addition to environment-related modulations of fiber quality at the crop and whole-

plant levels, significant differences in fiber properties also can be traced to variations
among the shapes and maturities of fibers on a single seed and, consequently, within a
given boll.

EFFECT ON FIBER LENGTH: Comparisons of the fiber-length arrays from different

regions on a single seed have revealed that markedly different patterns in fiber length
can be found in the micropylar, middle, and chalazal regions of a cotton seed - at either
end and around the middle . Mean fiber lengths were shortest at the micropylar (upper,

227
pointed end of the seed) . The most mature fibers and the fibers having the largest
perimeters also were found in the micropylar region of the seed. After hand ginning, the
percentage of short fibers less than 0.5 inch or 12.7 mm long on a cotton seed was
extremely low.

It has been reported that, in ginned and baled cotton, the short fibers with small
perimeters did not originate in the micropylar region of the seed. MEasurements of
fibers from micropylar and chalazal regions of seeds revealed that the location of a seed
within the boll was related to the magnitude of the differences in the properties of fibers
from the micropylar and chalazal regions Significant variations in fiber maturity also can
be related to the seed position (apical, medial, or due to the variability inherent in cotton
fiber, there is no absolute value for fiber length within a genotype or within a test sample
. Even on a single seed, fiber lengths vary significantly because the longer fibers occur
at the chalazal (cup-shaped, lower) end of the seed and the shorter fibers are found at
the micropylar (pointed) end. Coefficients of fiber-length variation, which also vary
significantly from sample to sample, are on the order of 40% for upland
cotton.Variations in fiber length attributable to genotype and fiber location on the seed
are modulated by factors in the micro- and macroenvironment . Environmental changes
occurring around the time of floral anthesis may limit fiber initiation or retard the onset of
fiber elongation. Suboptimal environmental conditions during the fiber elongation phase
may decrease the rate of elongation or shorten the elongation period so that the
genotypic potential for fiber length is not fully realized. Further, the results of
environmental stresses and the corresponding physiological responses to the growth
environment may become evident at a stage in fiber development that is offset in time
from the occurrence of the stressful conditions Fiber lengths on individual seeds can be
determined while the fibers are still attached to the seed , by hand stapling or by
photoelectric measurement after ginning. Traditionally, staple lengths have been
measured and reported to the nearest 32nd of an inch or to the nearest millimeter. The
four upland staple classes are: short (<21 mm), medium (22-25 mm), medium-long (26-
28 mm) and long (29-34 mm). Pima staple length is classed as long (29-34 mm) and

228
extra-long (>34 mm). Additionally, short fiber content is defined as the percentage of
fiber less than 12.7 mm.

Cotton buyers and processors used the term staple length long before development of
quantitative methods for measuring fiber properties. Consequently, staple length has
never been formally defined in terms of a statistically valid length distribution In
Fibrograph testing, fibers are randomly caught on combs, and the beard formed by the
captured fibers is scanned photoelectrically from base to tip.. The amount of light
passing through the beard is a measure of the number of fibers that extend various
distances from the combs. Data are recorded as span length (the distance spanned by
a specific percentage of fibers in the test beard). Span lengths are usually reported as
2.5 and 50%. The 2.5% span length is the basis for machine settings at various stages
during fiber processing.

The uniformity ratio is the ratio between the two span lengths expressed as a
percentage of the longer length. The Fibrograph provides a relatively fast method for
reproducibility in measuring the length and length uniformity of fiber samples.
Fibrograph test data are used in research studies, in qualitative surveys such as those
checking commercial staple-length classifications, and in assembling cotton bales into
uniform lots. ince 1980, USDA-AMS classing offices have relied almost entirely on high-
volume instrumentation (HVI) for measuring fiber length and other fiber properties
(Moore, 1996). The HVI length analyzer determines length parameters by
photoelectrically scanning a test beard that is selected by a specimen loader and
prepared by a comber/brusher attachment

The fibers in the test beard are assumed to be uniform in cross-section, but this is a
false assumption because the cross section of each individual fiber in the beard varies
significantly from tip to tip. The HVI fiber-length data are converted into the percentage
of the total number of fibers present at each length value and into other length
parameters, such as mean length, upper-half mean length, and length uniformity. This
test method for determining cotton fiber length is considered acceptable for testing

229
commercial shipments when the testing services use the same reference standard
cotton samples.

All fiber-length methods discussed above require a minimum of 5 g of ginned fibers and
were developed for rapid classing of relatively large, bulk fiber samples. For analyses of
small fiber samples , fiber property measurements with an electron-optical particle-sizer,
the Zellweger Uster AFIS-A2 have been found to be acceptably sensitive, rapid, and
reproducible. The AFIS-A2 Length and Diameter module generates values for mean
fiber length by weight and mean fiber length by number, fiber length histograms, and
values for upper quartile length, and for short-fiber contents by weight and by number
(the percentages of fibers shorter than 12.7 mm). The AFIS-A2 Length and Diameter
module also quantifies mean fiber diameter by number.

Although short-fiber content is not currently included in official USDA-AMS classing

office reports, short-fiber content is increasingly recognized as a fiber property
comparable in importance to fiber fineness, strength, and length. The importance of
short-fiber content in determining fiber-processing success, yarn properties, and fabric
performance has led the post-harvest sector of the U.S. cotton industry to assign top
priority to minimizing short-fiber content, whatever the causes The perceived
importance of short-fiber content to processors has led to increased demands for
development and approval of a standard short-fiber content measurement that would be
added to classing office HVI systems. This accepted classing office-measurement
would allow inclusion of short-fiber content in the cotton valuation system.
Documentation of post-ginning short-fiber content at the bale level is expected to reduce
the cost of textile processing and to increase the value of the raw fiber. However,
modulation of short-fiber content before harvest cannot be accomplished until the
causes of increased short-fiber content are better understood.

Fiber length is primarily a genetic trait, but short-fiber content is dependent upon
genotype, growing conditions, and harvesting, ginning, and processing methods.
Further, little is known about the levels or sources of pre-harvest short-fiber content

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It is essential that geneticists and physiologists understand the underlying concepts and
the practical limitations of the methods for measuring fiber length and short-fiber content
so that the strong genetic component in fiber length can be separated from
environmental components introduced by excessive temperatures and water or nutrient
deficiencies. Genetic improvement of fiber length is fruitless if the responses of the new
genotypes to the growth environment prevent full realization of the enhanced genetic
potential or if the fibers produced by the new genotypes break more easily during
harvesting or processing. The reported effects of several environmental factors on fiber
length and short-fiber content, which are assumed to be primarily genotype-dependent
are discussed in the subsections that follow.

FIBER LENGTH AND TEMPERATURE:

Maximum cotton fiber lengths were reached when night temperatures were around 19
to 20 C, depending on the genotype. Early-stage fiber elongation was highly
temperature dependent; late fiber elongation was temperature independent. Fiber
length (upper-half mean length) was negatively correlated with the difference between
maximum and minimum temperature.

Modifications of fiber length by growth temperatures also have been observed in

planting-date studies in which the later planting dates were associated with small
increases in 2.5 and 50% span lengths. If the growing season is long enough and other
inhibitory factors do not interfere with fiber development, early-season delays in fiber
initiation and elongation may be counteracted by an extension of the elongation period.

Variations in fiber length and the elongation period also were associated with relative
heat-unit accumulations. Regression analyses showed that genotypes that produced
longer fibers were more responsive to heat-unit accumulation levels than were
genotypes that produced shorter fibers. However, the earliness of the genotype was
also a factor in the relationship between fiber length (and short-fiber content by weight)
and accumulated heat units.

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As temperature increased, the number of small motes per boll also increased.
Fertilization efficiency, which was negatively correlated with small-mote frequency, also
decreased. Although fiber length did not change significantly with increasing
temperature, the percentage of short-fibers was lower when temperatures were higher.
The apparent improvement in fiber length uniformity may be related to increased
assimilate availability to the fibers because there were fewer seeds per boll.

FIBER LENGTH AND WATER:

Cotton water relationships and irrigation traditionally have been studied with respect to
yield . Fiber length was not affected unless the water deficit was great enough to lower
the yield to 700 kg ha-1. Fiber elongation was inhibited when the midday water potential
was -2.5 to -2.8 mPa. Occurrence of moisture deficits during the early flowering period
did not alter fiber length. However, when drought occurred later in the flowering period,
fiber length was decreased.

Severe water deficits during the fiber elongation stage reduce fiber length, apparently
due simply to the direct mechanical and physiological processes of cell expansion.
However, water availability and the duration and timing of flowering and boll set can
result in complex physiological interactions between water deficits and fiber properties
including length.

FIBRE LENGTH AND LIGHT:

Changes in the growth environment also alter canopy structure and the photon flux
environment within the canopy. For example, loss of leaves and bolls from unfavorable
weather (wind, hail), disease, or herbivory and compensatory regrowth can greatly
affect both fiber yield and quality. The amount of light within the crop canopy is an
important determinant of photosynthetic activity and, therefore, of the source-to-sink
relationships that allocate photoassimilate within the canopy. Eaton and Ergle (1954)
observed that reduced-light treatments increased fiber length. Shading during the first 7
d after floral anthesis resulted in a 2% increase in the 2.5% span length.

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Shading (or prolonged periods of cloudy weather) and seasonal shifts in day length also
modulate temperature, which modifies fiber properties, including length.

Commercial cotton genotypes are considered to be day-length neutral with respect to

both flowering and fruiting. However, incorporation of day-length data in upland and
pima fiber-quality models, based on accumulated heat units, increased the coefficients
of determination for the length predictors from 30 to 54% for the upland model and from
44 to 57% for the pima model.

It was found that the light wavelengths reflected from red and green mulches increased
fiber length, even though plants grown under those mulches received less reflected
photosynthetic flux than did plants grown with white mulches. The longest fiber was
harvested from plants that received the highest far red/red ratios.

FIBER LENGTH AND MINERAL NUTRITION:

Studies of the mineral nutrition of cotton and the related soil chemistry usually have
emphasized increased yield and fruiting efficiency. More recently, the effects of nutrient
stress on boll shedding have been examined. Also, several mineral-nutrition studies
have been extended to include fiber quality.

Reports of fiber property trends following nutrient additions are often contradictory due
to the interactive effects of genotype, climate, and soil conditions. Potassium added at
the rate of 112 kg K ha-1yr-1 did not affect the 2.5% span length , when genotype was a
significant factor in determining both 2.5 and 50% span lengths . Genotype was not a
significant factor in Acala fiber length, but an additional 480 kg K ha-1yr-1 increased the
mean fiber length . K ha-1yr-1 increased the length uniformity ratio and increased 50%,
but not 2.5% span length. Genotype and the interaction, genotype-by-environment,
determined the 2.5% span length.

As mentioned above, fiber length is assumed to be genotype-dependent, but growth-

environment fluctuations - both those resulting from seasonal and annual variability in
weather conditions and those induced by cultural practices and inputs - modulate the

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range and mean of the fiber length population at the test sample, bale, and crop levels
Quantitation of fiber length is relatively straightforward and reproducible, and fiber
length (along with micronaire) is one of the most likely fiber properties to be included
when cotton production research is extended beyond yield determinations. Other fiber
properties are less readily quantified, and the resulting data are not so easily
understood or analyzed statistically. This is particularly true of fiber-breaking strength,
which has become a crucial fiber property due to changes in spinning techniques

FIBER STRENGTH:

The inherent breaking strength of individual cotton fibers is considered to be the most
important factor in determining the strength of the yarn spun from those fibers . Recent
developments in high-speed yarn spinning technology, specifically open-end rotor
spinning systems, have shifted the fiber-quality requirements of the textile industry
toward higher-strength fibers that can compensate for the decrease in yarn strength
associated with open-end rotor spinning techniques.Compared with conventional ring
spinning, open-end rotor-spun yarn production capacity is five times greater and,
consequently, more economical. Rotor-spun yarn is more even than the ring-spun, but
is 15 to 20% weaker than ring-spun yarn of the same thickness. Thus, mills using open-
end rotor and friction spinning have given improved fiber strength highest priority.
Length and length uniformity, followed by fiber strength and fineness, remain the most
important fiber properties in determining ring-spun yarn strength Historically, two
instruments have been used to measure fiber tensile strength, the Pressley apparatus
and the Stelometer . In both of these flat-bundle methods, a bundle of fibers is combed
parallel and secured between two clamps. A force to try to separate the clamps is
applied and gradually increased until the fiber bundle breaks. Fiber tensile strength is
calculated from the ratio of the breaking load to bundle mass. Due to the natural lack of
homogeneity within a population of cotton fibers, bundle fiber selection, bundle
construction and, therefore, bundle mass measurements, are subject to considerable
experimental error .

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Fiber strength, that is, the force required to break a fiber, varies along the length of the
fiber, as does fiber fineness measured as perimeter, diameter, or cross section Further,
the inherent variability within and among cotton fibers ensures that two fiber bundles of
the same weight will not contain the same number of fibers. Also, the within-sample
variability guarantees that the clamps of the strength testing apparatus will not grasp the
various fibers in the bundle at precisely equivalent positions along the lengths. Thus, a
normalizing length-weight factor is included in bundle strength calculations.

In the textile literature, fiber strength is reported as breaking tenacity or grams of

breaking load per tex, where tex is the fiber linear density in grams per kilometer. Both
Pressley and stelometer breaking tenacities are reported as 1/8 in. gauge tests, the 1/8
in. (or 3.2 mm) referring to the distance between the two Pressley clamps. Flat-bundle
measurements of fiber strength are considered satisfactory for acceptance testing and
for research studies of the influence of genotype, environment, and processing on fiber
(bundle) strength and elongation.

The relationships between fiber strength and elongation and processing success also
have been examined using flat-bundle strength testing methods. However cotton fiber
testing today requires that procedures be rapid, reproducible, automated, and without
significant operator bias. Consequently, the HVI systems used for length
measurements in USDA-AMS classing offices are also used to measure the breaking
strength of the same fiber bundles (beards) formed during length measurement
Originally, HVI strength tests were calibrated against the 1/8-in. gauge Pressley
measurement, but the bundle-strengths of reference cottons are now established by
Stelometer tests that also provide bundle elongation-percent data. Fiber bundle
elongation is measured directly from the displacement of the jaws during the bundle-
breaking process, and the fiber bundle strength and elongation data usually are
reported together (ASTM, 1994, D 4604-86). The HVI bundle-strength measurements
are reported in grams-force tex-1 and can range from 30 and above (very strong) to 20
or below (very weak). In agronomic papers, fiber strengths are normally reported as kN
m kg-1, where one Newton equals 9.81 kg-force.

235
The HVI bundle-strength and elongation-percent testing methods are satisfactory for
acceptance testing and research studies when 3.0 to 3.3 g of blended fibers are
available and the relative humidity of the testing room is adequately controlled. A 1%
increase in relative humidity and the accompanying increase in fiber moisture content
will increase the strength value by 0.2 to 0.3 g tex-1, depending on the fiber genotype
and maturity.

Further, classing-office HVI measurements of fiber strength do not adequately describe

the variations of fiber strength along the length of the individual fibers or within the test
bundle. Thus, predictions of yarn strength based on HVI bundle-strength data can be
inadequate and misleading. The problem of fiber-strength variability is being addressed
by improved HVI calibration methods and by computer simulations of bundle-break
tests in which the simulations are based on large single-fiber strength databases of
more than 20 000 single fiber long-elongation curves obtained with MANTIS .

Fiber Strength, Environment, and Genotype:

Reports of stelometer measurements of fiber bundle strength are relatively rare in the
refereed agronomic literature. Consequently, the interactions of environment and
genotype in determining fiber strength are not as well documented as the corresponding
interactions that modulate fiber length. Growth environment and genotype response to
that environment play a part in determining fiber strength and strength variability.

Early studies showed fiber strength to be significantly and positively correlated with
maximum or mean growth temperature, maximum minus minimum growth temperature,
and potential insolation. Increased strength was correlated with a decrease in
precipitation. Minimum temperature did not affect fiber strength. All environmental
variables were interrelated, and a close general association between fiber strength and
environment was interpreted as indicating that fiber strength is more responsive to the
growth environment than are fiber length and fineness. Other investigators reported that
fiber strength was correlated with genotype only.

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Square removal did not affect either fiber elongation or fiber strength. Shading, leaf-
pruning, and partial fruit removal decreased fiber strength. Selective square removal
had no effect on fiber strength in bolls at the first, second, or third position on a fruiting
branch. Fiber strength was slightly greater in bolls from the first 4 to 6 wk of flowering,
compared with fibers from bolls produced by flowers opening during the last 2 wk of the
flowering period.

In that study, fiber strength was positively correlated with heat unit accumulation during
boll development, but genotype, competition among bolls, assimilatory capacity, and
variations in light environment also helped determine fiber strength. Early defoliation, at
20% open bolls, increased fiber strength and length, but the yield loss due to earlier
defoliation offset any potential improvement in fiber quality.

FIBER MATURITY:

Of the fiber properties reported by USDA-AMS classing offices for use by the textile
industry, fiber maturity is probably the least well-defined and most misunderstood. The
term, fiber maturity, used in cotton marketing and processing is not an estimate of the
time elapsed between floral anthesis and fiber harvest. However, such chronological
maturity can be a useful concept in studies that follow fiber development and maturation
with time. On the physiological and the physical bases, fiber maturity is generally
accepted to be the degree (amount) of fiber cell-wall thickening relative to the diameter
or fineness of the fiber.

Classically, a mature fiber is a fiber in which two times the cell wall thickness equals or
exceeds the diameter of the fiber cell lumen, the space enclosed by the fiber cell walls .
However, this simple definition of fiber maturity is complicated by the fact that the cross
section of a cotton fiber is never a perfect circle; the fiber diameter is primarily a genetic
characteristic.

Further, both the fiber diameter and the cell-wall thickness vary significantly along the
length of the fiber. Thus, attempting to differentiate, on the basis of wall thickness,

237
between naturally thin-walled or genetically fine fibers and truly immature fibers with thin
walls greatly complicates maturity comparisons among and within genotypes.

Within a single fiber sample examined by image analysis, cell-wall thickness ranged
from 3.4 to 4.9 m when lumen diameters ranged from 2.4 to 5.2 m. Based on the
cited definition of a mature fiber having a cell-wall thickness two times the lumen
diameter, 90% of the 40 fibers in that sample were mature, assuming that here had
been no fiber-selection bias in the measurements.

Unfortunately, none of the available methods for quantifying cell-wall thickness is

sufficiently rapid and reproducible to be used by agronomists, the classing offices, or
fiber processors. Fiber diameter can be quantified, but diameter data are of limited use
in determining fiber maturity without estimates of the relationship between lumen width
and wall thickness. Instead, processors have attempted to relate fiber fineness to
processing outcome Estimating Fiber Fineness:

Fiber fineness has long been recognized as an important factor in yarn strength and
uniformity, properties that depend largely on the average number of fibers in the yarn
cross section. Spinning larger numbers of finer fibers together results in stronger, more
uniform yarns than if they had been made up of fewer, thicker fibers. However, direct
determinations of biological fineness in terms of fiber or lumen diameter and cell-wall
thickness are precluded by the high costs in both time and labor, the noncircular cross
sections of dry cotton fibers, and the high degree of variation in fiber fineness.

Advances in image analysis have improved determinations of fiber biological fineness

and maturity , but fiber image analyses remain too slow and limited with respect to
sample size for inclusion in the HVI-based cotton-classing process.

Originally, the textile industry adopted gravimetric fiber fineness or linear density as an
indicator of the fiber-spinning properties that depend on fiber fineness and maturity
combined . This gravimetric fineness testing method was discontinued in 1989, but the
textile linear density unit of tex persists. Tex is measured as grams per kilometer of fiber
or yarn, and fiber fineness is usually expressed as millitex or micrograms per meter.

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Earlier, direct measurements of fiber fineness (either biological or gravimetric)
subsequently were replaced by indirect fineness measurements based on the
resistance of a bundle of fibers to airflow.

The first indirect test method approved by ASTM for measurement of fiber maturity,
lineardensity, and maturity index was the causticaire method. In that test, the resistance
of a plug of cotton to airflow was measured before and after a cell-wall swelling
treatment with an 18% (4.5 M) solution of NaOH (ASTM, 1991, D 2480-82). The ratio
between the rate of airflow through an untreated and then treated fiber plug was taken
as indication of the degree of fiber wall development. The airflow reading for the treated
sample was squared and corrected for maturity to serve as an indirect estimate of linear
density. Causticaire method results were found to be highly variable among
laboratories, and the method never was recommended for acceptance testing before it
was discontinued in 1992.

The arealometer was the first dual-compression airflow instrument for estimating both
fiber fineness and fiber maturity from airflow rates through untreated raw cotton (ASTM,
1976, D 1449-58; Lord and Heap, 1988). The arealometer provides an indirect
measurement of the specific surface area of loose cotton fibers, that is, the external
area of fibers per unit volume (approximately 200-mg samples in four to five replicates).
Empirical formulae were developed for calculating the approximate maturity ratio and
the average perimeter, wall thickness, and weight per inch from the specific surface
area data. The precision and accuracy of arealometer determinations were sensitive to
variations in sample preparation, to repeated sample handling, and to previous
mechanical treatment of the fibers, e.g., conditions during harvesting, blending, and
opening. The arealometer was never approved for acceptance testing, and the ASTM
method was withdrawn in 1977 without replacement.

The variations in biological fineness and relative maturity of cotton fibers that were
described earlier cause the porous plugs used in air-compression measurements to
respond differently to compression and, consequently, to airflow . The IIC-Shirley
Fineness/Maturity Tester (Shirley FMT), a dual-compression instrument, was developed

239
to compensate for this plug-variation effect (ASTM, 1994, D 3818-92). The Shirley FMT
is considered suitable for research, but is not used for acceptance testing due to low
precision and accuracy. Instead, micronaire has become the standard estimate of both
fineness and maturity the USDA-AMS classing offices.

Fiber Maturity and Environment:

Whatever the direct or indirect method used for estimating fiber maturity, the fiber
property being as sayed remains the thickness of the cell wall. The primary cell wall and
cuticle (together 0.1 m thick) make up about 2.4% of the total wall thickness ( 4.1
m of the cotton fiber thickness at harvest) . The rest of the fiber cell wall ( 98%) is the
cellulosic secondary wall, which thickens significantly as polymerized photosynthate is
deposited during fiber maturation. Therefore, any environmental factor that affects
photosynthetic C fixation and cellulose synthesis will also modulate cotton fiber wall
thickening and, consequently, fiber physiological maturation

Fiber Maturity and Temperature and Planting Date:

The dilution, on a weight basis, of the chemically complex primary cell wall by
secondary-wall cellulose has been followed with X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. This
technique determines the decrease, with time, in the relative weight ratio of the Ca
associated with the pectin-rich primary wall. Growth-environment differences between
the two years of the studies cited significantly altered maturation rates, which were
quantified as rate of Ca weight-dilution, of both upland and pima genotypes. The rates
of secondary wall deposition in both upland and pima genotypes were closely correlated
with growth temperature; that is, heat-unit accumulation.

Micronaire (micronAFIS) also was found to increase linearly with time for upland and
pima genotypes. The rates of micronaire increase were correlated with heat-unit
accumulations. Rates of increase in fiber cross-sectional area were less linear than the
corresponding micronaire-increase rates, and rates of upland and pima fiber cell-wall
thickening were linear and without significant genotypic effect .

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Environmental modulation of fiber maturity (micronaire) by temperature was most often
identified in planting- and flowering-date studies. The effects of planting date on
micronaire, Shirley FMT fiber maturity ratio, and fiber fineness (in millitex) were highly
significant in a South African study (Greef and Human, 1983). Although genotypic
differences were detected among the three years of that study, delayed planting
generally resulted in lower micronaire. The effect on fiber maturity of late planting was
repeated in the Shirley FMT maturity ratio and fiber fineness data.

Planting date significantly modified degree of thickening, immature fiber fraction, cross-
sectional area, and micronaire (micronAFIS) of four upland genotypes that also were
grown in South Carolina. In general, micronaire decreased with later planting, but early
planting also reduced micronaire of Deltapine 5490, a long-season genotype, in a year
when temperatures were suboptimal during the early part of the season.

Harvest dates in this study also were staggered so that the length of the growing
season was held constant within each year. Therefore, season-length should not have
been an important factor in the relationships found between planting date and fiber
maturity.

Fiber Maturity and Source-Sink Manipulation:

Variations in fiber maturity were linked with source-sink modulations related to flowering
date , and seed position within the bolls. However, manipulation of source-sink
relationships by early-season square (floral bud) removal had no consistently significant
effect on upland cotton micronaire in one study. However, selective square removal at
the first, second, and third fruiting sites along the branches increased micronaire,
compared with controls from which no squares had been removed beyond natural
square shedding. The increases in micronaire after selective square removals were
associated with increased fiber wall thickness, but not with increased strength of
elongation percent. Early-season square removal did not affect fiber perimeter or wall
thickness (measured by arealometer). Partial defruiting increased micronaire and had
no consistent effect on upland fiber perimeter in bolls from August flowers.

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Fiber Maturity and Water:

Generous water availability can delay fiber maturation (cellulose deposition) by

stimulating competition for assimilates between early-season bolls and vegetative
growth. Adequate water also can increase the maturity of fibers from mid-season
flowers by supporting photosynthetic C fixation. In a year with insufficient rainfall,
initiating irrigation when the first-set bolls were 20-d old increased micronaire, but
irrigation initiation at first bloom had no effect on fiber maturity. Irrigation and water-
conservation effects on fiber fineness (millitex) were inconsistent between years, but
both added water and mulching tended to increase fiber fineness. Aberrations in cell-
wall synthesis that were correlated with drought stress have been detected and
characterized by glycoconjugate analysis.

An adequate water supply during the growing season allowed maturation of more bolls
at upper and outer fruiting positions, but the mote counts tended to be higher in those
extra bolls and the fibers within those bolls tended to be less mature. Rainfall and the
associated reduction in insolation levels during the blooming period resulted in reduced
fiber maturity. Irrigation method also modified micronaire levels and distributions among
fruiting sites.

Early-season drought resulted in fibers of greater maturity and higher micronaire in bolls
at branch positions 1 and 2 on the lower branches of rainfed plants. However, reduced
insolation and heavy rain reduced micronaire and increased immature fiber fractions in
bolls from flowers that opened during the prolonged rain incident. Soil water deficit as
well as excess may reduce micronaire if the water stress is severe or prolonged
Fiber Maturity and Genetic Improvement:

Micronaire or maturity data now appear in most cotton improvement reports. In a five-
parent half-diallel mating design, environment had no effect on HVI micronaire.
However, a significant genotypic effect was found to be associated with differences
between parents and the F1 generation and with differences among the F1 generation.
The micronaire means for the parents were not significantly different, although HVI

242
micronaire means were significantly different for the F1 generation as a group. The HVI
was judged to be insufficiently sensitive for detection of the small difference in fiber
maturity resulting from the crosses.In another study, F2 hybrids had finer fibers (lower
micronaire) than did the parents, but the improvements were deemed too small to be of
commercial value. Unlike the effects of environment on the genetic components of
other fiber properties, variance in micronaire due to the genotype-by-environment
interaction can reach levels expected for genetic variance in length and strength .
Significant interactions were found between genetic additive variance and
environmental variability for micronaire, strength, and span length in a study of 64 F2
hybrids .

The strong environmental components in micronaire and fiber maturity limit the
usefulness of these fiber properties in studies of genotypic differences in response to
growth environment. Based on micronaire, fiber maturity, cell-wall thickness, fiber
perimeter, or fiber fineness data, row spacing had either no or minimal effect on okra-
leaf or normal-leaf genotypes. Early planting reduced micronaire, wall-thickness, and
fiber fineness of the okra-leaf genotype in one year of that study. In another study of leaf
pubescence, nectaried vs. no nectaries, and leaf shape, interactions with environment
were significant but of much smaller magnitude than the interactions among traits
Micronaire means for Bt transgenic lines were higher than the micronaire means of
Coker 312 and MD51ne when those genotypes were grown in Arizona. In two years out
of three, micronaire means of all genotypes in this study, including the controls,
exceeded 4.9; in other words, were penalty grade. This apparent undesirable
environmental effect on micronaire may have been caused by a change in fiber testing
methods in the one year of the three for which micronaire readings were below the
upper penalty limit. Genotypic differences in bulk micronaire may either be emphasized
or minimized, depending on the measurement method used GRADE:

In U.S. cotton classing, nonmandatory grade standards were first established in 1909,
but compulsory upland grade standards were not set until 1915. Official pima standards
were first set in 1918. Grade is a composite assessment of three factors - color, leaf,
and preparation. Color and trash (leaf and stem residues) can be quantified

243
instrumentally, but traditional, manual cotton grade classification is still provided by
USDA-AMS in addition to the instrumental HVI trash and color values. Thus, cotton
grade reports are still made in terms of traditional color and leaf grades; for example,
light spotted, tinged, strict low middling Preparation:

There is no approved instrumental measure of preparation - the degree of

roughness/smoothness of the ginned lint. Methods of harvesting, handling, and ginning
the cotton fibers produce differences in roughness that are apparent during manual
inspection; but no clear correlations have been found between degree of preparation
and spinning success. The frequency of tangled knots or mats of fiber (neps) may be
higher in high-prep lint, and both the growth and processing environments can modulate
nep frequency. However, abnormal preparation occurs in less than 0.5% of the U.S.
crop during harvesting and ginning.

Trash or Leaf Grade:

Even under ideal field conditions, cotton lint becomes contaminated with leaf residues
and other trash . Although most foreign matter is removed by cleaning processes during
ginning, total trash extraction is impractical and can lower the quality of ginned fiber. In
HVI cotton classing, a video scanner measures trash in raw cotton, and the trash data
are reported in terms of the total trash area and trash particle counts (ASTM, D 4604-
86, D 4605-86). Trash content data may be used for acceptance testing. In 1993,
classer's grade was split into color grade and leaf grade. Other factors being equal,
cotton fibers mixed with the smallest amount of foreign matter have the highest value.
Therefore, recent research efforts have been directed toward the development of a
computer vision system that measures detailed trash and color attributes of raw cotton .

The term leaf includes dried, broken plant foliage, bark, and stem particles and can be
divided into two general categories: large-leaf and pin or pepper trash. Pepper trash
significantly lowers the value of the cotton to the manufacturer, and is more difficult and
expensive to remove than the larger pieces of trash.Other trash found in ginned cotton
can include stems, burs, bark, whole seeds, seed fragments, motes (underdeveloped

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seeds), grass, sand, oil, and dust. The growth environment obviously affects the amount
of wind-borne contaminants trapped among the fibers. Environmental factors that affect
pollination and seed development determine the frequency of undersized seeds and
motes.

Reductions in the frequencies of motes and small-leaf trash also have been correlated
with semi-smooth and super-okra leaf traits. Environment (crop year), harvest system,
genotype, and second order interactions between those factors all had significant
effects on leaf grade. Delayed harvest resulted in lower-grade fiber. The presence of
trash particles also may affect negatively the color grade.

Fiber Color:

Raw fiber stock color measurements are used in controlling the color of manufactured
gray, bleached, or dyed yarns and fabrics . Of the three components of cotton grade,
fiber color is most directly linked to growth environment. Color measurements also are
correlated with overall fiber quality so that bright (reflective, high Rd), creamy-white
fibers are more mature and of higher quality than the dull, gray or yellowish fibers
associated with field weathering and generally lower fiber quality . Although upland
cotton fibers are naturally white to creamy-white, pre-harvest exposure to weathering
and microbial action can cause fibers to darken and to lose brightness.

Premature termination of fiber maturation by applications of growth regulators, frost, or

drought characteristically increases the saturation of the yellow (+b) fiber-color
component. Other conditions, including insect damage and foreign matter
contamination, also modify fiber color.

The ultimate acceptance test for fiber color, as well as for finished yarns and fabrics, is
the human eye. Therefore, instrumental color measurements must be correlated closely
with visual judgment. In the HVI classing system, color is quantified as the degrees of
reflectance (Rd) and yellowness (+b), two of the three tri-stimulus color scales of the
Nickerson-Hunter colorimeter.

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Fiber maturity has been associated with dye-uptake variability in finished yarn and
fabric, but the color grades of raw fibers seldom have been linked to environmental
factors or agronomic practices during production.Other Environmental Effects on Cotton
Fiber Quality:

Although not yet included in the USDA-AMS cotton fiber classing system, cotton
stickiness is becoming an increasingly important problem . Two major causes of cotton
stickiness are insect honeydew from whiteflies and aphids and abnormally high levels of
natural plant sugars, which are often related to premature crop termination by frost or
drought. Insect honeydew contamination is randomly deposited on the lint in heavy
droplets and has a devastating production-halting effect on fiber processing.

The cost of clearing and cleaning processing equipment halted by sticky cotton is so
high that buyers have included honeydew free clauses in purchase contracts and have
refused cotton from regions known to have insect-control problems. Rapid methods for
instrumental detection of honeydew are under development for use in classing offices
and mills

FIBER QUALITY OR FIBER YIELD?

Like all agricultural commodities, the value of cotton lint responds to fluctuations in the
supply-and-demand forces of the marketplace. In addition, pressure toward specific
improvements in cotton fiber quality - for example, the higher fiber strength needed for
today's high-speed spinning - has been intensified as a result of technological advances
in textile production and imposition of increasingly stringent quality standards for
finished cotton products.

Changes in fiber-quality requirements and increases in economic competition on the

domestic and international levels have resulted in fiber quality becoming a value
determinant equal to fiber yield . Indeed, it is the quality, not the quantity, of fibers
ginned from the cotton seeds that decides the end use and economic value of a cotton
crop and, consequently, determines the profit returned to both the producers and
processors Wide differences in cotton fiber quality and shifts in demand for particular

246
fiber properties, based on end-use processing requirements, have resulted in the
creation of a price schedule, specific to each crop year, that includes premiums and
discounts for grade, staple length, micronaire, and strength . This price schedule is
made possible by the development of rapid, quantitative methods for measuring those
fiber properties considered most important for successful textile production . With the
wide availability of fiber-quality data from HVI, predictive models for ginning, bale-mix
selection, and fiber-processing success could be developed for textile mills Price-
analysis systems based on HVI fiber-quality data also became feasible . Quantitation,
predictive modeling, and statistical analyses of what had been subjective and qualitative
fiber properties are now both practical and common in textile processing and marketing.

Field-production and breeding researchers, for various reasons, have failed to take full
advantage of the fiber-quality quantitation methods developed for the textile industry.
Most field and genetic improvement studies still focus on yield improvement while
devoting little attention to fiber quality beyond obtaining bulk fiber length, strength, and
micronaire averages for each treatment . Indeed, cotton crop simulation and mapping
models of the effects of growth environment on cotton have been limited almost entirely
to yield prediction and cultural-input management.

Plant physiological studies and textile-processing models suggest that bulk fiber-
property averages at the bale, module, or crop level do not describe fiber quality with
sufficient precision for use in a vertical integration of cotton production and processing.
More importantly, bulk fiber-property means do not adequately and quantitatively
describe the variation in the fiber populations or plant metabolic responses to
environmental factors during the growing season. Such pooled or averaged descriptors
cannot accurately predict how the highly variable fiber populations might perform during
processing.

Meaningful descriptors of the effects of environment on cotton fiber quality await high-
resolution examinations of the variabilities, induced and natural, in fiber-quality
averages. Only then can the genetic and environmental sources of fiber-quality

247
variability be quantified, predicted, and modulated to produce the high-quality cotton lint
demanded by today's textile industry and, ultimately, the consumer.

Increased understanding of the physiological responses to the environment that

interactively determine cotton fiber quality is essential. Only with such knowledge can
real progress be made toward producing high yields of cotton fibers that are white as
snow, as strong as steel, as fine as silk, and as uniform as genotypic responses to the
environment will allow

COTTON

WHAT IS COTTON?:

COTTON is defined as white fibrous substance covering seeds harvested from Cotton
Plant.

SEED COTTON (called Kapas in India - Paruthi in Tamil) harvested from Cotton Plant.

LINT COTTON (RUIA in Hindi, PANJU in Tamil) is obtained by removing the seeds in a
ginning machine.

LINT COTTON is spun into Yarn, which is woven or knitted into a Fabric. Researchers
have found that cotton was grown more than 9000 years ago. However large scale
cultivation commenced during middle of 17th Century AD.

Many varieties of Cotton are cultivated mainly from 3 important genetic species of
Gossipium.

G. HIRSUTUM - 87% Grown in America, Africa, Asia, Australia Plant grows to a height
of 2 Meters.

G. BARBADENSE- 8% Grown in America, Africa & Asia. Plant grows to a height of 2.5
Meters with yellow flowers, long fibers with good quality, fibers with long staple and
fineness

248
G. Arboreum - 5% Perennial plant grows up to 2 meters with red flowers, poor quality
fibers in East Africa and South East Asia.

There are four other species grown in very negligible quantities. Cotton harvested from
the Plant by hand - picking or machine picking is ginned to remove seeds and the lint is
pressed into Bales for delivery to Spinning Mills. Cotton is Roller Ginned (RG) or Saw
Ginned (SG) depending varieties and ginning practices.

Cotton is cultivated in 75 Countries with an area of 32 Million Hectares. Cultivation

period varies from 175 days to 225 days depending on variety. Cotton is harvested in
two seasons, summer and winter seasons.

Saw ginned cotton is more uniform and cleaner than Roller Ginned Cotton. But fibers
quality is retained better quality in Roller Ginning than Saw Ginning which has high
productivity.

Cotton Fiber is having a tubular structure in twisted form. Now. researchers have
developed coloured cotton also. As on date, percentage of Cotton fiber use is more than
synthetic fibers. But, its share is gradually reducing. Cotton is preferred for under
garments due its comfort to body skin. Synthetics have more versatile uses and
advantage for Industrial purposes.

PROPERTIES OF COTTON

No other material is quite like cotton. It is the most important of all natural fibres,
accounting for half of all the fibres used by the world's textile industry.Cotton has many
qualities that make it the best choice for countless uses Cotton fibres have a natural
twist that makes them so suitable for spinning into a very strong yarn The ability of
water to penetrate right to the core of the fibre makes it easy to remove dirt from the
cotton garments, and creases are easily removed by ironing. Cotton fabric is soft and
comfortable to wear close to skin because of its good moisture absorption qualities
Charges of static electricity do not build up readily on the clothes.

249
HISTORY OF COTTON

Nobody seems to know exactly when people first began to use cotton, but there is
evidence that it was cultivated in India and Pakistan and in Mexico and Peru 5000 years
ago. In these two widely separated parts of the world, cotton must have grown wild.
Then people learned to cultivate cotton plants in their fields.In Europe, wool was the
only fiber used to make clothing. Then from the Far East came tales of plants that grew
"wool". Traders claimed that cotton was the wool of tiny animals called Scythian lambs,
that grew on the stalks of a plant. The stalks, each with a lamb as its flower, were said
to bend over so the small sheep could graze on the grass around the plant. These
fantastic stories were shown to be untrue when Arabs brought the cotton plant to Spain
in Middle Ages.

In the fourteenth century cotton was grown in Mediterranean countries and shipped
from there to mills in the Netherlands in western Europe for spinning and weaving. Until
the mid eighteenth century, cotton was not manufactured in England, because the wool
manufacturers there did not want it to compete with their own product. They had
managed to pass a law in 1720 making the manufacture or sale of cotton cloth illegal.
When the law was finally repealed in 1736, cotton mills grew in number. In the United
States though, cotton mills could not be established, as the English would not allow any
of the machinery to leave the country because they feared the colonies would compete
with them. But a man named Samuel Slater, who had worked in a mill in England, was
able to build an American cotton mill from memory in 1790.

GROWING THE COTTON

Cotton plant's leaves resemble maple leaves and flowers look very much like pink
mallow flowers that grow in swampy areas. They are relatives and belong in the same
plant family.

Cotton is grown in about 80 countries, in a band that stretches around the world
between latitudes 45 North to 30 South. For a good crop of cotton a long, sunny
growing season with at least 160 frost-free days and ample water are required. Well

250
drained, crumbly soils that can keep moisture well are the best. In most regions extra
water must be supplied by irrigation. Because of it's long growing season it is best to
plant early but not before the sun has warmed the soil enough.

Seedlings appear about 5 days after planting the seeds. Weeds have to be removed
because they compete with seedlings for water, light and minerals and also encourage
pests and diseases. The first flower buds appear after 5-6 weeks, and in another 3-5
weeks these buds become flowers.Each flower falls after only 3 days leaving behind a
small seed pot, known as the boll. Children in cotton-growing areas in the South
sometimes sing this song about the flowers:First day white, next day red, third day from
my birth - I'm dead Each boll contains about 30 seeds, and up to 500 000 fibres of
cotton. Each fibre grows its full length in 3 weeks and for the following 4-7 weeks each
fiber gets thicker as layers of cellulose build up the cell walls. While this is happening
the boll matures and in about 10 weeks after flowering it splits open. The raw cotton
fibres burst out to dry in the sun. As they lose water and die, each fibre collapses into
what looks like a twisted ribbon. Now is time for harvesting. Most cotton is hand-picked.
This is the best method of obtaining fully grown cotton because unwanted material,
called "trash", like leaves and the remains of the boll are left behind. Also the cotton that
is too young to harvest is left for a second and third picking. A crop can be picked over a
period of two months as the bolls ripen. Countries that are wealthy and where the land
is flat enough usually pick cotton with machines - cotton harvesters.

GLOBAL COTTON - VATIETIES - PLANTING AND HARVESTING PERIODS

SNo Country Planting Period Harvesting Staple-mm Mike Variety

1 AFGHANISTAN APRIL-MAY OCT-DEC 26-28 4.0 ACALA

3.9-
2 ARGENTINA SEPT-OCT FEB-JUNE 24-28 TOBA
4.1

3 AUSTRALIA SEPT-NOV MAR-JUNE 24-29 3.2- DPL

251
 4.9

3.2-
4 BRAZIL OCT-NOV MAR-JUNE 26-28 IAC
4.0

3.2-
BRAZIL PERENNIAL 32-35 MOCO
4.8

3.6-
5 BURKIN JUNE-JULY NOV-DEC 25-28 ALLEN
4.8

3.8-
6 CAMERRON JUNE NOV-DEC 25-28 ALLEN
4.3

3.8-
7 CENTRAL AFRICA JUN-JULY NOV-DEC 25-28 ALLEN
4.2

3.8-
8 CHAD JUNE NOV-DEC 25-28 ALLEN
4.4

3.5-
9 CHINA APRIL-JUNE SEP-OCT 22-28 SHANDONG
4.7

XINJIANG

MNH-93

2.6-
10 COTED IVORIE JUN-AUG OCT-JAN 24-28 ALLEN
4.6

11 EGYPT MARCH SEP-OCT 31-40 3.24.6 GIZA

3.8-
12 GREECE APRIL SEPT-OCT 26-28 4S
4.2

2.8-
13 INDIA APRIL-NOV SEP-NOV 16-38 SEPARATE LIST
7.9

INDIA SEPT-NOV FEB-APR

3.9-
14 IRAN MAR-APR SEP-NOV 26-28 COKER
4.5

252
 3.5-
15 ISRAEL APRIL SEP-OCT 26-37 ACALA
4.3

PIMA

16 KAZAKSTAN APR-MAY SEP-NOV

3.7-
17 MALI JUN-JUL OCT-NOV 26-27 BJA
4.5

3.5-
18 MEXICO MAR-JUNE AUG-DEC 26-29 DELTAPINE
4.5

3.6-
19 MOZAMBIQUE NOV-DEC APR-MAY 25-29 A637
4.2

2.5-
20 NIGARIA JUL-AUG DEC-FEB 24-26 SAMARU
4.0

3.5-
21 PAKISTAN APR-JUN SEP-DEC 12-33
6.0

3.3-
22 PARAGUAY OCT-DEC MAR-APR 26-28 EMPIRE
4.2

3.3-
23 PERU JUL-NOV FEB-AUG 29-.8 TANGUIS
4.2

PIMA

3.3-
24 SPAIN APR-MAY SEP-NOV 25-28 CAROLINA
4.9

3.8-
25 SUDAN AUG JUN-APR 27-E0 BARAKAT
4.2

ACALA

3.8-
26 SYRIA APR-MAY SEP-NOV 25-29 ALEPPO
4.8

27 TAZIKSTAN APR-MAY SEP-NOV

253
 4.3-
28 TOGO JUN-JUL NOV-DEC 28-29 ALLEN
5.5

3.5-
29 TURKMENISTAN APR-MAY SEP-NOV 24-29 DELTAPINE
5.5

COKER

3.5-
30 TURKEY APR-MAY SEP-NOV 24-28 DELTAPINE
5.5

3.3-
31 UGANDA APR-JUN NOV-FEB 26-28 BAP-SATU
4.8

3.5-
32 UZBEKISTAN APR-MAY SEP-NOV 24-41
4.7

3.8-
33 USA APR-MAY SEP-DEC 26-40 VARIETIES
4.5

3.0-
28-30 ACALA 151T
4.0

3.8-
28-29 DELTAPINENC
4.6

3.2- PAYMASTER
25-28
4.6 280

3.7- STONOVILLE
27-28
4.7 ST

3.5-
35-40 PIMA S7
4.5

3.5-
34 YEMEN AUG-SEP JUN-APR 36-40 K4
4.9

254
COTTON AND YARN QUALITY CO-RELATION:

Instead of buying any cotton available at lowest price, spinning it to produce yarn of
highest count possible and selling Yam at any market in random, it is advisable to locate
a good market where Yarn can be sold at highest price and select a Cotton which has
characteristics to spin Yarn of desired specifications for that market.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS of cotton quality and characteristics of Yarn quality of

Yarn are given from detailed experimental investigations. Some of the important
conclusions which help to find co-relation between Yarn quality and Cotton quality are
given below

STAPLE LENGTH: If the length of fiber is longer, it can be spun into finer counts
of Yarn which can fetch higher prices. It also gives stronger Yarn.

STRENGTH : Stronger fibers give stronger Yarns. Further, processing speeds

can be higher so that higher productivity can be achieved with less end-
breakages.

FIBER FINENESS: Finer Fibers produce finer count of Yarn and it also helps to
produce stronger Yarns.

FIBER MATURITY: Mature fibers give better evenness of Yarn. There will be
less end-breakages. Better dyes' absorbency is additional benefit.

UNIFORMITY RATIO: If the ratio is higher. Yam is more even and there is
reduced end-breakages.

255
 ELONGATION : A better value of elongation will help to reduce end-breakages in
spinning and hence higher productivity with low wastage of raw material.

NON-LINT CONTENT: Low percentage of Trash will reduce the process waste in
Blow Room and cards. There will be less chances of Yarn defects.

SUGAR CONTENT: Higher Sugar Content will .create stickiness of fiber and
create processing problem of licking in the machines.

MOISTURE CONTENT: If Moisture Content is more than standard value of 8.5%,

there will be more invisable loss. If moisture is less than 8.5%, then there will be
tendency for brittleness of fiber resulting in frequent Yarn breakages.

FEEL: If the feel of the Cotton is smooth, it will be produce more smooth yarn
which has potential for weaving better fabric.

CLASS: Cotton having better grade in classing will produce less process waste
and Yarn will have better appearance.

GREY VALUE: Rd. of calorimeter is higher it means it can reflect light better and
Yam will give better appearance.

YELLOWNESS: When value of yellowness is more, the grade becomes lower

and lower grades produce weaker & inferior yarns.

NEPPINESS: Neppiness may be due to entanglement of fibers in ginning

process or immature fibers. Entangled fibers can be sorted out by careful
processing But, Neps due to immature fiber will stay on in the end product and
cause the level of Yarndefects to go higher.

An analysis can be made of Yarn properties which can be directly attributed to cotton
quality.

256
1. YARN COUNT: Higher Count of Yarn .can be produced by longer, finer and stronger
fibers.

2. C.V. of COUNT: Higher Fiber Uniformity and lower level of short fiber percentage will
be beneficial to keep C.V. (Co-efficient of Variation) at lowest.

3. TENSILE STRENGTH: This is directly related to fiber strength. Longer Length of fiber
will also help to produce stronger yarns.

4. C.V. OF STRENGTH: is directly related CV of fiber strength.

5. ELONGATION: Yam elongation will be beneficial for weaving efficiently. Fiber with
better elongation have positive co-relation with Yarn elongation.

6. C.V. OF ELONGATION: C.V. of Yarn Elongation can be low when C.V. of fiber
elongation is also low.

7. MARS VARIATION: This property directly related to fiber maturity and fiber
uniformity.

8. HAIRINESS: is due to faster processing speeds and high level of very short fibers,

9. DYEING QUALITY: will defend on Evenness of Yarn and marketing of cotton fibers.

10. BRIGHTNESS: Yarn will give brighter appearance if cotton grade is higher.

COTTON QUALITY SPECIFICATIONS:

The most important fiber quality is Fiber Length

Length

Staple classification Length mm Length inches Spinning Count

Short Less than 24 15/16 -1 Coarse Below 20

257
 Medium 24- 28 1.1/132-1.3/32 Medium Count 20s-34s

Long 28 -34 1.3/32 -1.3/8 Fine Count 34s - 60s

Extra Long 34- 40 1.3/8 -1.9/16 Superfine Count 80s - 140s

Notes:

Spinning Count does not depend on staple length only. It also depends on
fineness and processing machinery.
Length is measured by hand stapling or Fibrograph for 2.5% Span Length
2.5%SL (Spun Length) means at least 2.5% of total fibers have length exceeding
this value.
50% SL means at least 50% of total fibers have length exceeding this value.

LENGTH UNIFORMITY

Length Uniformity is calculated by 50SL x 100 / 2.5 SL

Significance of UR (Uniformity Radio) is given below:

UR% Classification 50-55 Very Good 45-50 Good 40-45 Satisfactory 35-40 Poor Below
30 Unusable M= 50% SL UHM SL - Average value of length of Longest of 50% of
Fibers UI Uniformity Index UI M/UHM

Interpretation of Uniformity Index

U.INDEX CLASSIFICATION UHM CLASSIFICATION

Below 77 Very low Below 0.99 Short

77-99 Low 0.99-1.10 Medium

80-82 Average 1.11-1.26 Long

83-85 High Above 1.26 Extra Long

Above 85 Very High

258
Now Uniformity is measured by HVI

Fiber Strength

Fiber Strength, next important quality is tested using Pressley instrument and the value
is given in Thousands of Pounds per Square inch. (1000 psi) For better accuracy,
Stelometer is used and results are given in grams / Tex.

Lately, strength is measured in HVI (High Value Instrument) and result is given in terms
of grams/tex.

Interpretation of Strength value is given below

G/tex Classification

Below 23 Weak

24-25 Medium

26-28 Average

29-30 Strong

Above 31 Very Strong

Strength is essential for stronger yarns and higher processing speeds.

Fiber Fineness Fiber Fineness and maturity are tested in a conjunction using
Micronaire Instrument.
Finer Fibers give stronger yarns but amenable for more neppiness of Yarn due to
lower maturity.
Micronaire values vary from 2.6 to 7.5 in various varieties.

FINENESS AND MATURITY

Usually Micronaire value is referred to evaluate fineness of Cotton and its suitability for
spinning particular count of Yarn. As the value is a combined result of fineness and
maturity of Cotton fiber, it cannot be interpreted, property for ascertaining its spinning

259
Value. This value should be taken in conjunction with standard value of Calibrated
Cotton value.

The following table will explain that micronaire value goes up along with maturity but
declines with thickness of fiber. An Egyptian variety of Cotton, three samples of High
maturity. Low maturity and Medium maturity were taken and tested. Test results are
given below,

Maturity Micronaire Perimeter Maturity Maturity Ratio

High 4.3 52.9 85.1 1.02

Medium 4.0 54.4 80.1 0.96

Low 3.9 54.7 79.3 0.95

Here, Micronaire Value of 4.3 is higher than 3.9 of low maturity cotton Another Greek
Cotton was tested and results are give below

High 3.8 57.0 75.1 0.88

Medium 3.5 54.9 70.7 0.84

Low 3.2 55.2 65.8 0.80

Micronaire Value of 3.8 is higher than 3.2 of low maturity cotton. Another American
Cotton was tested and results are as follows

High 4.1 64.4 75.9 0.87

Medium 3.4 62.1 68.0 0.80

Low 2.7 59.8 56.1 0.67

Hence, it is essential to know what Micronaire value is good for each variety of Cotton.

260
 Maturity Ratio Classification

1.00 and above Very Mature

0.95 - 1.0 Above Average

0.85 - 0.95 Mature

0.80 - 0.85 Below Average

Less than 0.80 immature

COTTON GRADE

Cotton grade is determined by evaluating colour, leaf and ginning preparation. Higher
grade cottons provide better yarn appearance and reduced process waste.

Colour is determined by using Nickerson-Hunter Calorimeter. This gives values Rd

(Light or Dark) and +b (Yellowness).

AMERICAN UPLAND COTTONS ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO GRADES AS

GIVEN BELOW

WHITE COLOUR

S.NO GRADE SYMBOL CODE

1 GOOD MIDDLING GM 11

2 STRICT MIDDLING SM 21

3 MIDDLING M 31

4 STRICT LOW MIDDLING SLM 41

5 LOW MIDDLING LM 51

6 STRICT GOOD ORDINARY SGO 61

7 GOOD ORDINARY GO 71

8 BELOW GRADE

261
Similar grading is done for Light Spotted, Spotted, Tinged and Yellow Stained Cottons.
PIMA cottons are graded I to 9

HOW TO BUY COTTON?

COTTON BUYING is the most important function that will contribute to optimum profit of
a Spinning Mill.

EVALUATION of cotton quality is generally based more on experience rather than

scientific testing of characteristics only.

TIMING of purchase depends on comprehensive knowledge about various factors

which affect the prices.

CHOOSING the supplier for reliability of delivery schedules and ability to supply cotton
within the prescribed range of various parameters which define the quality of Cotton.

BARGINING for lowest price depends on the buyer's reputation for prompt payment and
accept delivery without dispute irrespective of price fluctuations.

ORGANISING the logistics for transportation of goods and payment for value of goods
will improve the benefits arising out of the transaction.

PROFIT depends on producting high quality Yarn to fetch high prices. Influence of
quality of raw material is very important in producing quality Yarn. But, quality of yam is
a compound effect of quality of raw material, skills of work-force, performance of
machines,- process know-how of Technicians and management expertise.

A good spinner is one who produces reasonably priced yarn of acceptable quality from
reasonably priced fiber. Buying a high quality, high priced cotton does not necessarily
result in high quality Yarn or high profits.

GUIDELINES FOR COTTON CONTRACTS:

Buyer and seller should clearly reach correct understanding on the following factors.

262
1. Country of Origin, Area of Growth, Variety, Crop year

2. Quality - Based on sample or

Description of grade as per ASTM standard or sample For grade only and specifying
range of staple length Range of Micronaire, range of Pressley value,
uniformity,Percentage of short fiber, percentage of non-lint content,Tolerable level of
stickiness

3. Percentage of Sampling at destination

4. Procedure for settling disputes on quality or fulfillment of contract obligations

5. Responsibility regarding contamination or stickiness

6. Price in terms of currency, Weight and place of delivery.

7. Shipment periods

8. Certified shipment weights or landing Weights

9. Tolerances for Weights and Specifications

10. Port of Shipment and port of destination, partial shipments allowed or not,
transshipment allowed or not, shipments in containers or Break-bulk carriers

11. Specifications regarding age of vessels used for shipment, freight payment in
advance or on delivery

12. Responsibility regarding Import & Export duties

13. Terms of Insurance cover

14. Accurate details of Seller, Buyer and Broker

263
15. Terms of Letter of. Credit regarding bank .negotiation, reimbursement and special
conditions, if any

Choose Correct Supplier or Agent:

Apart from ensuring correct terms of Contract, Buyer should ensure that purchase is
made from Reliable Supplier or through a Reliable Agent. Some suppliers evade
supplies under some pretext if the market goes up. Otherwise, they supply inferior
quality Either way buyer suffers.

By establishing long term relationship will reliable Suppliers, Buyers can have
satisfaction of getting correct quality, timely deliveries and fair prices.

CHOOSING SUPPLIER:

It is good to establish long term relationship with a few Agents who represent reputed
Trading Companies in various Cotton Exporting Countries. They usually give reliable
market information on quality, prices and market trends so that buyer can take
intelligent decision. As cotton is not a manufactured Commodity, it is good to buy from
dependable suppliers, who will ensure supply of correct quality with a variation within
acceptable limits at correct price and also deliver on due date.

CHOOSING QUALITY:

In a market with varying market demand situation, Buyers should decide which counts
of Yarn to spin. Buyer can call for samples suitable for spinning Yarn counts
programmed for production. Many spinners plan to do under-spinning. For Example,
cotton suitable for 44s is used for spinning 40s. Some spinners do over-spinning. They
buy cotton suitable for 40s and spin 44s count. But, is advisable to spin optimum count
to ensure quality and also keep cost of raw material at minimum level as for as possible.
Some spinners also buy 2 or more varieties and blend them for optimum spinning. For'
this purpose, a good knowledge to evaluate cotton quality and co-relate with yarn
properties of required specifications. Cotton buyer should develop expertise in

264
assessing cotton quality. Machine tests must be done only to confirm manual
evaluation.

TAKING RIGHT OPTION:

It is not advisable just to look at price quoted by supplier. Correct costing should be
done to work out actual cost when the cotton arrives at Mills. Further lowest price does
not always mean highest profit for buying. Profitability may be affected by anyone or
more of the following factors.

If the trash is higher, more waste will be produced reducing the Yarn out- turn
and hence profit.
If the uniformity is less, end - breakages will be more reducing productivity and
profitability.
If grade is poor or more immature fibers are found in cotton, the yarn appearance
will be affected and Yarn will fetch lesser price in the market.
If the transit period for transport of cotton is longer, then also profitability will be
reduced due blocking of funds for a longer period and increased cost of Interest.
Rate of Sales Tax varies from State to State. This must be taken in to account.
Hence, thorough costing should be worked out before deciding on the quoted
pnce onlv

The margin of profit in spinning cotton should be calculated before deciding on The
various options available depending on market conditions should be studied.

The factors to be considered for taking options are as follows.

Count for which demand is good in market

Prices for various counts for which demand exists.
Cost of manufacturing various counts.
Adequacy of machinery for the selected count.
Various varieties of cotton available for spinning the selected count.
Profit margin for each count using different varieties.

265
 Price quoted by different Agents for same variety of selected cotton.
Reliability of supplier for quality and timely delivery.

Cost Consideration:

Apart from the price quoted by the seller, other incidental costs must be taken into
consideration before buying.

a) Duration for goods to reach Buyer's godown from the seller's Warehouse. If the
duration is longer, buyer will incur higher interest charges.

b) Cost of Transportation and taxes.

Resolution of differences

If any discrepancy arises in the quality, weight and delivery periods, sellers should be
willing to resolve the differences amicably and quickly. In case the matter is referred to
Arbitrator, the award of the Arbitrator must be immediately enforced.

Bench Marks for Easy Reference

It is better if quality bench marks are established for different varieties so that buying
decisions are easy for buyers Following standards have been found to be appropriate
for Strict Middling Grade Cotton of staple 1.3/32".

1. Staple Length ( 2.5% Spun Length) - Minimum 1.08" or 27.4 mm

2. Micronaire : Minimum 3.8, Maximum-4.6 Variation within bulk sample should not
be more than _ 0.1
3. Colour : Rd not less than 75 not more than 10
4. Nep Content: Less than 150 per gram
5. Strength : More than 30 grams/tex
6. Length Uniformity Ratio: Not less than 85%
7. Elongation : More than 8%
8. Short Fiber Content: Less than 5%

266
 9. Seed Count Fragments : Less than 15 per grams
1. Commercial Bench marks can be given as follows:
1. Price Competitiveness
2. Price Stability
3. Easy Availability throughout year
4. Uniform Classing and Grading system
5. Even- running Cotton in all Characteristics
6. Reliable deliveries r Respect for sanctity of contract.

QUALITY EVALUATION:

The need for quality evaluation is for following purposes

a) To get optimum quality at lowest price b) To decide whether cotton bought will can be
processed to spin Yarn of desired specifications. c) To check the quality of sample
cotton with quality of delivered cotton. d) To decide about correct machine settings and
speeds for processing the cotton e) To estimate profitability of purchase decisions.

Knowing the cotton properties is only half the battle for profits. It needs expertise to
know how to get best of its value.

Currently popular instrument called HVI gives ready information on various parameters
to make correct purchase decisions.

If may not be possible to get all the desired qualities in one variety or one lot of Cotton.
In such case, an intelligent decision to select best combination of different varieties or
lots to get desired Yam quality is necessary to get optimum yarn quality at optimum
cost.

If correct evaluation is made, profits are large. Hence, evaluation of quality is essential
for optimum profit making and also make the customers happy with supply of correct
quality of Yarn.

267
Expert classers can manage to achieve reasonable level of correct evaluation. Now,
with availability of better instruments, it is better to check qualities to make sure that
desired quality of cotton is procured. These details should give cotton buyer reasonable
guidance to make correct evaluation of cotton quality and ensure its suitability for
producing required quality of yarn.

CHARACTERISTICS CO-RELATION TO
QUALITY EVALUATION
YARN

1. Staple Length Spinning Potential

2. Fiber Strength Yarn strength, less Breakages

3. Fineness Finer Spinning Potential

4. Maturity Yarn Strength and even ness, better dyeing

5. Non-Lint.content (Trash) Reduced Waste

6, Uniformity Ratio Better productivity and Evenness

7. Elongation Less end Breakages

8, Friction Cohesiveness

9. Class Yarn Appearance

Spinning problem by lapping & Dyeing

10.Stickiness
quality

11. Grey Value Yarn lustre

12. Yellowness Yarn Appearance

13.Neppiness Yarn neppiness

8.5% moisture content optimum for

14. Moisture Content
spinning at 65%

QUALITY TESTING INSTRUMENTS:

268
 Instrument Measurements

Fibrogaph Length

Pressley Apparatres Fiber Bundle Strength

Length, Strength, Uniformity, Elongation,

HV I Instrument
Micronaire, Color and Trash

Stelometer Instrument Strength, Elongation

Micronaire Combined test of fineness & maturity

Shirley Trash Analyser Trash Content

Manual Test Class & staple length

Moisture Meter Moisture

Colorimeter Grey value & yellow ness. Brightness

Polarised light Microscope or

Maturity
Casricaire test

Photographic film Neppiness

COTTON - LENGTH RELATED PROPERTIES

The "length" of cotton fibres is a property of commercial value as the price is generally
based on this character. To some extent it is true, as other factors being equal, longer
cottons give better spinning performance than shorter ones. But the length of a cotton is
an indefinite quantity, as the fibres, even in a small random bunch of a cotton, vary
enormously in length.

Cotton is the shortest of the common textile fibers, hence, other things being equal, it
makes the most irregular yarns and fabrics. Accordingly the market pays a premium for
good length.

The various methods of measuring length may be classified according to whether they

measure the staple length only, or other parameters

269
 work by aligning the fiber ends, e.g comb sorters,
measure only length, or use the tuft for other measurements, such as strength
etc

The importance of fiber length to textile processing is significant. Longer fibers produce
stronger yarns by allowing fibers to twist around each other more times. Longer fibers
can produce finer yarns to allow for more valuable end products. Longer fibers also
enable higher spinning speeds by reducing the amount of twist necessary to produce
yarn.

The variability in fiber length can be explained 70-80 percent by genetics , so variety
selection is very important. Fiber elongation begins at bloom and continues for about 21
days. Moisture stress during the fiber elongation period will reduce fiber length in all
varieties. Starting with a variety that has better genetic potential for fiber length will
minimize the probability of producing fiber length in the discount range. Severe
weathering after bolls have opened can reduce fiber length because more breakage can
be expected in the ginning process. Besides variety, water management and
maintaining good plant-water relations is probably the most important factor affecting
fiber length

Length Uniformity and Short Fiber Content.

Length uniformity is now part of the premium/discount valuation of cotton. Short fibers
within a process mix of cotton cannot wrap around each other and contribute little or
nothing to yarn strength. Short fibers are virtually uncontrolled in the manufacturing
process, indirectly causing product defaults and directly contributing to higher waste and
lower manufacturing efficiency.

Since short fiber content and length uniformity are derived from length, they are
influenced by the same factors as length. Length uniformity can be more influenced by
environment than effective length because temperature is involved in the regulation of
genes, which cause epidermal cells to differentiate into fibers. Crop management
practices that influence where bolls are located on the plant can impact short fiber

270
content levels. Uniform fruit retention patterns encourage better length uniformity.
Disruption to the natural length distribution is most often caused by mechanical
damage, so maintaining recommended moisture levels at the gin is important.

SHORT FIBER

The original theory of the fibrogram as developed by Hertel more than fifty years ago
has served as the basis of all subsequent cotton length measurements. The major
assumptions Hertel made in deriving the theory of the fibrogram are embodied in the
statement "The fiber is to be selected at random and every point on every fiber is
equally probable." This statement translates to:

A sampled fiber is held at a random point along its length.

The probability of sampling a particular fiber is proportional to its length.

Since the longer fibers have a greater probability of being sampled, this results in the
length distribution in the fiber beard becoming biased toward the longer fibers.. Using
Suter-Webb data and assuming uniform fiber fineness, it is possible to calculate the
distributions for the length biased samples.

To investigate the validity of the second assumption, we measured the length

distribution of a few fiber samples in their original forms and of fiber beards made from
these samples. The selected samples for the experiment were two staple standard
cotton samples (SS28 and SS40). Length measurements were performed on the
samples in their original forms using standard Suter-Webb Array (SWA) methods and
the Advanced Fiber Information System Length and Diameter module (AFIS-L/D) made
by Zellweger Uster, Inc. In addition, the AFIS was used to measure the length
distributions of fiber beards prepared using a model 192 fibrosampler with and without
allowing the beards to pass over the carding section of the fibrosampler. All AFIS-L/D
results are the averages of three repetitions with three thousands fibers were measured
in each repetition. The experimental results along with the calculated results based on a
length biased sample are listed in Table 1..

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Table I. Suter-Webb Array (SWA) and AFIS Length data.

Sample: Staple Standard 28

SWA SWA AFIS AFIS AFIS

Raw Expected Raw Uncarded Carded

By Weight

<<<<<;<<<1.19 <<<<<;<<<1.27 <<<<<;<<<1.10 <<<<<;<<<1.09 <<<<<;<<<1.08

Mean Length in.
<<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Length 29.9 23.7 32.7 31.5 29.9

CV% <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Short 14.2 6.6 13.6 13.6 13.3

Fiber % <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Upper 0.92 0.96 0.89 0.89 0.88

Quartile in.
<<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<
<<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<By <<<<<;<<< <<<<<;<<< <<<<<;<<< <<<<<;<<< <<<<<;<<<

Number <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Mean <<<<<;<<<0.63 <<<<<;<<<0.75 <<<<<;<<<0.64 <<<<<;<<<0.64 <<<<<;<<<0.65

Length in. <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<
<<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Length <<<<<;<<<44.7 <<<<<;<<<29.9 <<<<<;<<<43.1 <<<<<;<<<41.8 <<<<<;<<<39.3

CV% <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Short <<<<<;<<<31.6 <<<<<;<<<14.2 <<<<<;<<<28.7 <<<<<;<<<28.3 <<<<<;<<<26.7

Fiber % <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Upper <<<<<;<<<0.84 <<<<<;<<<0.92 <<<<<;<<<0.81 <<<<<;<<<0.81 <<<<<;<<<0.81

Quartile in. <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<
<<<;<<<

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 Sample: Staple Standard 40

SWA SWA AFIS AFIS AFIS

Raw Expected Raw Uncarded Carded

By Weight

<<<<<;<<<1.19 <<<<<;<<<1.27 <<<<<;<<<1.10 <<<<<;<<<1.09 <<<<<;<<<1.08

Mean Length in.
<<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Length <<<<<;<<<19.5 <<<<<;<<<31.2 <<<<<;<<<31.4 <<<<<;<<<31.2

CV% <<<;<<< 25.7 <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Short <<<<<;<<<4.0 <<<<<;<<<1.1 <<<<<;<<<4.6 <<<<<;<<<4.9 <<<<<;<<<4.6

Fiber % <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Upper <<<<<;<<<1.41 <<<<<;<<<1.44 <<<<<;<<<1.31 <<<<<;<<<1.31 <<<<<;<<<1.3

Quartile in. <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<
<<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<
<<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<By <<<<<;<<< <<<<<;<<< <<<<<;<<< <<<<<;<<< <<<<<;<<<

Number <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Mean <<<<<;<<<1.0 <<<<<;<<<1.2 <<<<<;<<<0.9 <<<<<;<<<0.9 <<<<<;<<<0.9

Length in. <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<
<<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Length <<<<<;<<<44.0 <<<<<;<<<25.7 <<<<<;<<<40.3 <<<<<;<<<40.3 <<<<<;<<<38.9

CV% <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Short <<<<<;<<<17.3 <<<<<;<<<4.0 <<<<<;<<<14.0 <<<<<;<<<14.3 <<<<<;<<<13.0

Fiber % <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<

<<<<<;<<<Upper <<<<<;<<<1.34 <<<<<;<<<1.41 <<<<<;<<<1.22 <<<<<;<<<1.21 <<<<<;<<<1.19

Quartile in. <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<< <<<;<<<
<<<;<<<

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A comparison of the Suter-Webb array data and the AFIS data for the raw stock shows
good agreement between the methods with small differences characteristic of this
version of AFIS. Of more importance is a comparison of the AFIS data between the raw,
uncarded and carded samples. The mean lengths and length distributions as indicated
by the coefficient of variation are almost identical to those in their original forms. Even if
some fiber damage occurs in the AFIS, the damage would be very similar for a given
sample and allow us to detect differences in the samples due to the sampling or carding
process. Since the differences of the length distributions and the calculated mean
lengths between fiber beards and the original fiber samples are small, this would
indicate that the second assumption should be modified such that each fiber in the
original sample has equal probability to be caught in forming the fiber beard. This in turn
would indicate fibers are sampled in clumps rather than individually. Thus the fibrogram
theory derived by Hertel should not be applied to the fiber beards prepared from the
fibrosampler. However, his theory appears to apply to those fiber beards prepared from
sliver by using sliver clamp.

The short fiber algorithm as developed by Zellweger Uster is based on the assumption
that the fibers are sampled in clumps and integrates the optical response of the fibers
over the width of the lens. The first few length groups are estimated by the character of
the fibrogram in the form of a quadratic since the HVI is not able to scan in front of the
0.150 in position. This allows us to calculate a complete fiber distribution from the
fibrogram, This data is then treated as Suter-Webb data and various length parameters
calculated including short fiber content.

The cotton set with which the short fiber algorithm was originally verified at Zellweger
Uster includes international cottons collected by sales agents from around the world
along with all available ICC cottons. This set of cottons was tested on two different AFIS
instruments. Suter-Webb tests were performed at Zellweger Uster and at the University
of Tennessee. The results are shown in figures 1.2 and 3.. The AFIS shows its usual
excellent correlation (r=0.97) with Suter-Webb data. In addition, the short fiber value
developed by the distribution calculated by the HVI using the new short fiber algorithm
correlates well with both AFIS (r=0.93) and with Suter-Webb (r=0.94).

274
FIG 1

FIG.2

FIG.3

275
The USDA crop samples from 1990 to 1994 were obtained from Clemson and tested on
three HVIs. The agreement between two of the HVIs is shown in figure 4 (r=0.97). As
stated before, the entire fiber distribution is obtained. This allows us to calculate not only
short fiber values but also other fiber length parameters such as the upper quartile
length based on the complete fibrogram rather than a small section of the fibrogram.
The relationship of the upper quartile length calculated from Suter-Webb data and the
fibrogram is shown in figure 5 (r=0.90).

FIG.4

276
FIG .5

The USDA, AMS, Cotton Program has been evaluating two methods for determining
short fiber content using the Zellweger Uster HVI system. The first method utilizes a
short fiber index algorithm, developed by Zellweger Uster, to derive a fibrogram based
short fiber index measurement (Riley, 1993). This method has been under evaluation by

277
the Cotton Program for the past two classing seasons (Gibson, 1999). The accuracy of
the measurement has improved during this time with the addition of a cotton calibration
routine.

The second method being evaluated utilizes a prediction model to derive short fiber
index from the HVI measurements of length and uniformity index. This model was
designed to predict the short fiber measurement provided by the HVI short fiber index
algorithm. Development of the predicted short fiber index measurement began in early
1998. Final revisions to the model, followed by a preliminary evaluation were carried out
during the 1998 classing season. Results indicated a strong correlation (R2 = 97%)
between the two HVI short fiber measurement methods. Overall reproducibility between
HVIs, with a tolerance of 1.0, was 75.1% for the predicted short fiber index
measurement compared to 58.7% for the HVI short fiber index algorithm.

Introduction

Short fiber content is defined as the percentage of fibers in a sample, by weight, less
than one half inch in length (Bargeron, 1991). Direct short fiber content measurements
can be made with methods such as the Suter-Webb Array and AFIS. Although methods
such as these provide useful information, testing speed is slow and the short fiber
measurement accuracy is questionable. Another option for obtaining a measurement of
short fiber is through the HVI system.

All HVI length related measurements such as length and uniformity index are derived
from the HVI length fibrogram. Similarly, information exists in the fibrogram to provide a
measure of a cottons short fiber content. The short fiber measurement provided by the
HVI is technically defined as a short fiber index since the HVI is capable of only an
indication of the true short fiber content. Since many of the short fibers in a sample are
too short to extend from the HVIs specimen holding clamp into the optical scanning
device, a direct short fiber content measurement is not possible.

HVI Short Fiber Index

278
The addition of the Zellweger Uster HVI Short Fiber Index measurement did not require
any HVI hardware modifications. Since this measurement is derived from the same
fibrogram used in the determination of length and uniformity index measurements, the
only change was the addition of the short fiber algorithm to the HVIs operating
software. The first version of the HVI short fiber index measurement was evaluated in
1997. This early version did not use cotton standards as a basis for calibration. The
calibration routine relied on hardware settings which were not successful in providing a
common level of testing between multiple instruments (Ramey, 1998). In 1998, a short
fiber cotton calibration was developed and added to the existing strength, length and
uniformity index cotton calibration routine. Short fiber index values were established on
an initial set of calibration cottons using an AFIS instrument.

Subsequent value establishment on replacement standards was performed by the

Quality Assurance Unit on HVIs calibrated to the initial set. Results of the 1998
evaluation showed a reduction in level differences in addition to improved reproducibility
between HVI systems (Gibson, 1999). Table 1 is a summary of some of the 1998
evaluation results. Reproducibility (single test versus single test) between each classing
office and Quality Assurance is given along with overall classing office averages.

Predicted Short Fiber Index

279
Considerable research has shown the predictability of short fiber content from HVI
measurements of length and uniformity index (Zeidman, 1991; Bragg, 1994; Ramey
1998; Rowland, 1999). The concept of predicting short fiber content from the HVI
measurements of length and uniformity index was investigated in 1989 (Zeidman,
1991). This work resulted in a first order prediction model known as the "Zeidman
equation." More recent work has shown that an improved prediction model can be
developed with the help of a second order prediction model (Rowland, 1999). The
advantage of the second order model over the first is the ability to provide accurate
short fiber predictions over a wider range of fiber lengths.

The Cotton Program began development of a short fiber prediction equation during the
evaluations of the HVI short fiber index measurement. Several equation revisions were
made as more HVI short fiber index data was collected. The data used for developing
the final prediction equation came from 31,000 samples tested two times in 1998 by the
Cotton Programs Quality Assurance check lot program. These samples are
representative of all the major U.S. cotton growing areas and therefore have a very wide
range of fiber lengths and short fiber contents.

In addition, the data contained the necessary measurements of HVI length, uniformity
index and short fiber index for development of a prediction equation. In order to give the
proper weighting to the data, average short fiber indexes were calculated for every
combination of length and uniformity index. A total of 269 combinations of length and
uniformity index along with the averaged short fiber indexes were computed. Table 2 is
a sampling of the combination data used in deriving the short fiber prediction equation.
The sample count shows the data distribution for the given length grouping.

280
The regression analysis of the combination data set resulted in an R2 of 0.97 and
produced the second order equation given below:

Z = a + bX + cY + dX2 + eY2 +fXY where

Z = Predicted Short Fiber Index

X = HVI Length

Y = Uniformity Index

a = 384.39664 b = -120.3791 c = -6.700362

d = 12.490109 e = 0.0295697 f = 1.0305676

Applying the equation back to the original data set resulted in favorable predicted short
fiber reproducibility between the two tests made on each of the 31,000 samples.
Reproducibility was 75.1% with a tolerance of 1.0 between the two predicted
measurements. A reproducibility of 58.7% was calculated for the HVI

short fiber index on the same test data. In order to evaluate the agreement between the
predicted and HVI short fiber index measurements, reproducibility was calculated within

281
one test of the 31,000 samples. In other words, a comparison was made between the
two short fiber measurement methods within the same sample fibrogram. Variability due
to between test differences is therefore eliminated. The resulting reproducibility was
77.5%.

The predicted short fiber measurement provides the simplest method for obtaining HVI
short fiber information. Obtaining short fiber information is simply a matter of plugging
length and uniformity index measurements into the equation. Since the short fiber
measurement is derived from these well established measurements, additional
calibration routines and calibration standards are not required. In addition, evaluations
show that the predicted measurement not only agree extremely well with the HVI short
fiber measurement, but is also more repeatable.

Any new HVI measurement should provide meaningful information regarding its
subsequent use (Ramey, 1997). Good progress is being made in the HVI
determination of a cottons short fiber content. Both of the short fiber measurement
methods presented in this report are showing their potential. Studies are underway in
mill processing environments to assess the utility value of short fiber measurements
provided by both methods. In addition, the Cotton Program plans to continue evaluating
and comparing these short fiber measurement methods during the upcoming classing
season.

EFFECT OF COTTON FIBER LENGTH DITSTRIBUTION ON YARN QUALITY

Eric Hequet and Dean Ethridge

International Textile Center, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX

The prediction of yarn quality based on the technological characteristics of the raw
material has been improved by the use of the AFIS. Unfortunately, information about
distributions of fiber properties that are measured by the AFIS is generally not used.

282
The studies carried out at the ITC show that the AFIS length distribution is variety
related. In addition, the percentages of both the shortest and the longest fibers have an
important impact on yarn quality.

Introduction

During recent years, the Uster AFIS (Advanced Fiber Information System) has been
increasingly used in the research projects carried out at the International Textile Center
(ITC), Texas Tech University. The prediction of yarn quality based on the technological
characteristics of the raw material has been improved by the use of the AFIS. The ITC
has shown in the past few months the value of AFIS measurements such as the short
fiber content or the standard fineness (Ethridge et. al., 1998; Hequet, 1999).
Unfortunately, information about distributions of fiber properties that are measured by
the AFIS are generally not used, because the data are not available in an electronic file.
This makes the use of these data extremely unfriendly. Nevertheless, we decided to
investigate the value of the distribution information with a focus on the influence of the
fiber length distribution on the yarn quality.

Procedures

First Experiment

Fourteen USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) standards cottons were used
in this first experiment. The following measurements were performed on fiber. AFIS with
5 replications of 3,000 fibers, Sutter Web Fiber Array with 3 replications per technician
and two technicians, Peyer AL 101 with 6 replications

Second Experiment

Variety evaluation tests were performed at the ITC during the 1998-99 crop year.
Eighteen U.S. Upland cotton varieties were represented. Each variety was grown in
three locations and two replicated samples were taken at each location. Therefore, a
total of 108 cotton samples were collected (18 x 3 x 2). The cotton fibers from each

283
variety were processed through the Short Staple Spinning Laboratory at the ITC and
were made into both ring-spun (36 and 50 Ne carded, 50 Ne combed) and rotor-spun
yarns (36 Ne carded). The following measurements were performed on fiber and yarn:

Fiber Tests:

. Zellweger Uster HVI 900A: 4 mike measurements, 4 color-grade measurements, 10

length and strength measurements.

. Zellweger Uster AFIS Multidata: 5 replications of 3,000 fibers

Yarn Tests:

. Zellweger Uster Tensorapid: 10 breaks per bobbin and 10 bobbins

. Zellweger Uster UT3: 400 yards per bobbin and 10 bobbins

The printout from the AFIS provides us with a distribution of the length by weight. The
histogram is built based upon the percentage of fibers in each of the 40 length
categories, from 0 to 2.5 inches with an increment of 1/16th of an inch. In order to get a
first look at the data provided on those 108 cotton samples, we limited the number of
length categories to 10 by aggregating 4 categories together; therefore, the length
category increment became 0.25 inch. A brief statistical summary of fiber properties is
given in Tables 2 and 3, showing the mean, minimum and maximum values for each
characteristic. An examination of this data reveals that all of the cottons exhibit relatively
good fiber properties, with a low short fiber content, good length and maturity and high
strength levels. The percentages in the last two AFIS length categories are very low, for
this reason they have been aggregated for all the following analysis.

284
285
Third Experiment

Two commercial cotton bales were selected. A very low amount of ELS cotton was
added (2% and 5%) in order to check if the addition of a very small amount of long
fibers would increase significantly the CSP. The same measurements used in the
second experiment were taken on the fibers and yarns.

Results and Discussion

286
The first experiment grew out of an anomaly with AFIS measurements. Figure 1 shows
a typical AFIS length distribution by weight for Acala- type cotton.

During the past few years, thousands of cotton samples have been analyzed at the ITC
using the AFIS. Results for most of the cottons indicate a very small percentage of
fibers in the length categories of 2 inches and longer. We can postulate either that those
very long fibers really exist or that the AFIS over- estimates the length of the longest
fibers. To investigate this, 14 USDA standard cottons were tested on the AFIS, Sutter
Web Fiber Array and Peyer AL 101. Results showed that the instruments correlate very
well for the shortest fiber percentages (Figures 2 and 3), although the levels are
different.

287
For the very short-staple cotton (staple 26), the length distributions obtained are very
similar (Figure 4).

For the short-staple cotton (staple 32), AFIS and Peyer are in good agreement, but the
Array method tends to get higher percentages for the longest fibers (Figure 5).

288
For the medium (staple 35) and long (staple 40) fibers, the discrepancy between
instruments is clear (Figures 6 and 7).

289
Neither the Peyer nor the Array showed any fibers to the longer than 2 inches, but the
AFIS did indicate some of these for most of the samples. This suggests that the AFIS
tends to over- estimate the length of the longest fibers. One hypothesis to explain this
result is that the speed of the fibers passing trough the sensing device is not constant;
i.e., the longer the fiber, the higher the friction forces for the air-to-fiber interface. This
could lower the speed, resulting in a longer electronic signal. Given this anomalous
result with the AFIS, the question arises whether it is a useless artifact or if it has

290
predictive power. This led to the second experiment involving 18 upland varieties grown
in 3 locations with 2 field replications per location. Using the AFIS multidata, for each
length category, defined, an analysis of variance was done. Figures 8, 9 and 10 give the
variety and location effects for the three length categories. For the length category
[0.25; 0.50], the variety effect is highly significant, but the location effect and the
interaction effect are not statistically significant. For the length category [1.25; 1.50]
both the variety and the location effects are highly significant, but the interaction effect
location*variety is not. For the fibers longer than 2 inches, the variety effect is highly
significant, the location effect significant and the interaction effect location*variety non-
significant. These results suggest at least two very important things. First the length
distribution by weight is variety related; this implies that breeders could modify the
length distribution. Second, the longest fibers measured with the AFIS, although a very
small percentage of total fibers, are also variety related. This means that the fibers
measured as too long by the AFIS cannot be dismissed as meaningless.

291
To investigate further, we calculated the coefficients of correlation between major yarn
characteristics and the percentages of fibers in the different length categories. For
Count Strength Product (CSP), these correlations are quite similar for all the types of
yarns.ring or rotor, carded or combed (Figure 11).

292
For the fibers shorter than one inch the correlation coefficients are negative in all cases;
therefore, the larger the share of these length categories, the lower the CSP. For fibers
in the 1.00-to-1.25 category the correlation coefficients are still negative but are near
zero. As the length categories increase above this level, the correlations become
positive and large. The category longer than 2 inches exhibits the highest positive
correlation of all. The calculation of the correlation coefficients between the CSP and
the various fiber properties used for prediction is given in Table 4.

It shows that the AFIS percent of fibers longer than 2 inches is the best length
parameter to predict CSP. In fact, it performs better than the HVI strength and the AFIS
standard fineness. This is even more startling given that the percentage of fibers longer
than 2 inches averages only 1 percent on the 108 samples tested .

Figure 12 shows the coefficients of correlation between the UT3 non-uniformity (CV%)
and the percentages of fiber in the different length categories. Note the following: . The
carded ring spun yarns exhibit very similar behavior. The length categories giving the
best correlation coefficients with the yarn uniformity are: [0.00;0.25], [0.25;0.50] and
[>2.00], with a positive correlation for the shorter fibers and a negative correlation for the
longer fibers. Therefore, the higher the short fiber content, the higher is the yarn CV%;
and the higher the long fiber content, the lower is the yarn CV%. . The UT3 CV% of the
combed ring-spun yarn exhibits a very good correlation with the percentage of fibers
longer than 2 inches and a quite poor correlation with the shorter fibers. This is logical
because a large part of the shorter fibers has been removed during the combing

293
operation. . For the rotor spun yarn, the negative effect on the yarn uniformity of the
shorter fibers is limited. But the fibers between 1.75 and 2 inches exhibit the highest
correlation with the yarn CV%. The fibers longer than two inches give a lower
correlation, probably because a part of them (the extremely long fibers) wrap around the
yarn and create imperfections. This is likely related to the rotor diameter and it will be
necessary to test different rotor diameters to confirm this hypothesis.

Figures 13 and 14 show the coefficient of correlation between the UT3 thin and thick
places, respectively, and the percentages of fiber in the different length categories. The
figures look very similar to the UT3 CV% and similar conclusions can be made.

294
295
Figure 15 shows the correlation coefficients between the UT3 neps and the percentages
of fiber in the different length categories. The correlation levels are generally lower than
were exhibited for the previous parameters. However, for the carded ring-spun yarns of
36 Ne and 50 Ne, correlations of neps with the length category [1.00;1.25] are fairly
high. We currently have no coherent hypothesis to explain this.

Figure 16 shows the correlation coefficients between the UT3 hairiness and the
percentages of fiber in the different length categories. The shapes of the curves are
quite similar for all the types of yarns.ring vs. rotor and carded vs. combed. For the
fibers shorter than 1/4 inch, the correlation coefficients have positive signs and are very
high in all cases. Therefore, these very short fibers are important contributors toward
increased yarn hairiness. Conversely, correlation coefficients for the fibers longer than
two inches are also high but with negative signs; therefore, these fibers, which measure
very long, are important contributors toward decreased yarn hairiness.

296
Figure 17 shows the correlation coefficients between levels of the combing noils and the
percentages of fiber in the different length categories. As expected, the correlation
coefficients very high for the three shortest length categories but low for the other length
categories.

297
Table 5 shows the multiple regression coefficients between the fiber and yarn
parameters and the percentages of fiber in the different length categories (Forward
Stepwise regression with Sigma-restricted parameterization). These results reveal that
the only statistically significant length parameter related to the CSP is the percent of the
fibers longer than 2 inches. For the yarn regularity (CV%, thin places and thick places)
the important parameters are the very short fibers (shorter than inch) and the very
long fibers (longer than 2 inches).

298
The third experiment was done to obtain some confirmation of effects of the longest
fibers on the yarn strength. Using two commercial bales of Upland cotton, ring-spun 30
Ne yarns were made. Then very small amounts (2% and 5%) of ELS cotton fibers were
mixed with the Upland cotton and also ring spun into 30 Ne yarns. Figure 18 gives
results on CSP and Figure 19 gives results on tenacity. They both show a tendency for

299
increased strength with small additions of ELS. On average for the two bales, adding
2% ELS increased the CSP 3.8% and the tenacity 7.7%. Adding 5% ELS results in
average increases of 7.3% in CSP and 8.5% in tenacity. These limited results give
encouragement to design a more complete study using larger samples and optimizing
the spinning parameters for each mix tested.

Conclusions

300
The length distribution data available with the AFIS appears to contain information that
is useful to both the cotton breeders and the spinners. Since the length distribution
clearly appears to be variety related, it may provide a new tool for cotton breeders in
their efforts to reduce short fiber content. The causes for the AFIS measuring some
fibers as longer than 2 inches are not understood; nevertheless, this measurement
exhibits the highest correlation with the yarn CSP. For the carded ring-spun yarns, the
shortest fibers and the longest fibers exhibit the highest correlation with the yarn CV%,
the number of thin places, and the number of thick places. For the combed ring-spun
yarns and the rotor-spun yarns, the longest fibers exhibit the highest correlation with the
yarn CV%, the thin places, and the thick places. The correlation coefficients between
the different length categories and the number of neps are generally low. The shortest
and the longest fibers are highly correlated with the hairiness for all the types of yarns.
The shortest fibers increase hairiness and the longest fibers decrease hairiness. The
three shortest length categories are highly correlated with increased combing noils.

PROCESSING STICKY COTTTON

The following article was published in Journal of Cotton Science volume 2002.

By Mr.Eric Hequet and

Mr.Noureddine Abidi, Ph.D.

In spinning mills, sticky cotton can cause serious problems. It contaminates the textile
machineries like blow room , card, drawing, roving, and spinning frames. These
contaminants are mainly sugar deposits produced either by the cotton plant itself
(physiological sugars) or by feeding insects (entomological sugars), the latter being the
most common source of stickiness.

Seventeen mixes having a moderate level of stickiness were evaluated in both ring and
rotor spinning. High-performance liquid chromatography tests were performed on
residues collected from the textile machinery to identify the types of sugars present. It
was shown that among the sugars identified on raw fiber, only trehalulose exhibits

301
higher percentages in the residues than on the fiber. During the fibers-to-yarn
transformation, the flow of lint is submitted to different friction forces; consequently, the
temperature of some mechanical elements may increase significantly and affect the
thermal properties of the contaminated lint. After a sugar becomes sticky, the other
sugars present on the lint, as well as other substances such as dusts, silica, etc., will
stick to the lint and could cause unevenness in the flow of lint being drawn, such as
lapping up on the rolls, nep-like structures, and ends-down.

Therefore, the thermal properties of the five sugars identified on the contaminated fiber
and on the residues collected on the textile equipment were investigated. Among the
sugars tested, trehalulose is the only one having a low melting point, around 48degre
C. In addition, trehalulose is highly hygroscopic. After passive conditioning of
dehydrated trehalulose at 65% 2% relative humidity and 21 degree C 1 degree C for
24 h, the quantity of adsorbed water at equilibrium was found to be approximately
17.5%. This corresponds to three molecules of water adsorbed for each molecule of
trehalulose. The combination of low melting point and high hygroscopicity could be the
cause of the selective accumulation of this sugar on the textile equipment.

Stickiness is primarily due to sugar deposits produced either by the cotton plant
itself(physiological sugars) or by feeding insects(entomological sugars) .Insects have
been documented as the most common source of contamination in some studies . The
analysis of honeydew from thecotton aphid and cottonwhitefly has shown that aphid
honeydew contains 138.3% melezitose(C18H32O16) plus 1.1% trehalulose
(C12H22O11),whereas whitefly honeydew contains 43.8%trehalulose plus 16.8%
melezitose . Otherrelative percentages may occur, depending on the environmental or
feeding conditions. Furthermore, stickiness is related to the type of sugars present on
the lint. The authors showed that trehalulose and
sucrose(C12H22O11),bothdisaccharides, were the stickiest sugars when added to
clean cotton, while melezitose(trisaccharide), glucose (C6H12O6), and
fructose(C6H12O6) (both monosaccharides) were relatively non-sticky.

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Previous investigations wereconducted to elucidate the factors affecting the behavior of
cotton contaminated with stickiness. In textile mills, the method mainly used to reduce
the impact of stickiness is blending sticky cotton with non-stickycotton . Stickiness
caused by honeydew depends on the relative humidity, which is a function of both
water content and air temperature, in which the contaminated cotton is processed.
Stickiness measured with the thermodetector is dependent on the relative
humidity.Sticky cotton (with 1.2% reducing sugarcontent), when stored in high relative
humidity(70degree F, 80% relative humidity, caused moreproblems during processing
than the same stickycotton stored at low relative humidity 75degree F, 55% relative
humidity. However, at low relativehumidity, the fibers are more rigid and will increase
the friction forces creating static electricity. . Therefore, it will require more energy to
draw the lint.

Stickiness has been reported to cause a build-up of residues on textile machinery,

which may result in irregularities or excessive yarn breakage. When processing low to
moderately contaminated cotton blends, residues will slowly build up, decreasing
productivity and quality, and forcing the spinner to increase the cleaning schedule.
Consequently, we decided to study the origin of the residues collected on the textile
equipment after processing sticky cotton blends with low to moderate levels of
contamination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

We selected 12 commercial bales contaminated with insect honeydew on the basis of

their insect sugar (trehalulose and melezitose) content and their stickiness as measured
with the high-speed stickiness detector . In addition, five non-sticky bales from one
module were purchased for mixing with the contaminated cotton, so that alternative
stickiness levels in the mixes could be obtained. The 12 contaminated bales were
broken and layered. Ten samples per bale were taken. Each sample was tested with a

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high-volume instrument (Model 900 Automatic, Zellweger Uster, ) and high-performance
liquid chromatography

High-Speed Stickiness Detector

The high-speed stickiness detector is derived from the sticky cotton thermodetector ,
which was approved as a reference test by the International Textile Manufacturers
Federation in 1994 . This thermomechanical method combines the effect of heat and
pressure applied to a sample of cotton placed between two pieces of aluminum foil.
When the temperature increases, moisture in the cotton vaporizes and is absorbed by
the sticky spots, making them stick to the foil. The high-speed stickiness detector is an
automated version of the sticky cotton thermodetector . Three replications were
performed on each sample (10 samples per bale x three replications = 30 readings per
bale).

Spinning Trials

The mechanical process used in this study is described in Fig. 1. Opening, carding,
drawing, roving, ring spinning, and rotor spinning machines used were all industrial
equipment. In the ring spinning trial, the yarns were spun to a 19.68 x 10-6 kg m-1
(19.68-tex or 30 English number) count. Fourteen spindles were used for each mix
spun, and each mix was run for 72 h. For the open-end spinning trials, the yarn
produced was 26.84 x 10-6 kg m-1 (26.84-tex or 22 English number); 10 positions were
used, and each mix was run for 20 h.

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We ran preliminary tests on ring spinning before testing the mixes. A 13.6 kg sample of
lint from each bale was carded and drawn. If noticeable problems occurred at the draw
frame, the process was stopped. If not, the drawing slivers were transformed into
roving. If noticeable problems occurred at the roving frame, the process was stopped. If
not, the roving was transformed into yarn at the ring spinning frame. If noticeable
problems occurred at the ring spinning frame, the process was stopped. If not, 45.4 kg

305
of lint was processed for the large-scale test. If noticeable problems occurred at any
step of the process, the cotton was mixed with 50% non-sticky cotton and the process
was repeated. This procedure was used for 17 large-scale tests. Four bales were spun
without mixing the lint with the non-sticky cotton. Four bales were spun after mixing the
lint with 50% non-sticky cotton. Four bales were spun after mixing the lint with 75%
nonsticky cotton. Three bales were spun after mixing the lint with 87.5% non-sticky
cotton. Finally, two baleswere spun after mixing the lint with 93.75% nonsticky cotton.
Card slivers, flat wastes, draw frame residues, and sticky deposits collected at the end
of each test on the rotor spinning and ring spinning frames were analyzed by high-
performance liquid chromatography. These tests quantify the amount of sugars,
expressed as a percentage of total sugars present. In addition, high-speed stickiness
detector measurements were made on card slivers. After each spinning test was
completed, the opening line and the card were purged by processing a non-
contaminated cotton, then all the equipment was washed with wet fabric and thoroughly
dried.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

on Sticky Deposits

Residues on textile equipment were collected using wet wipes . Each wipe was
identified, placed into a plastic bag, and frozen. After the spinning trials, sugars were
extracted from the wipes using 20 mL of 18.2- megohm water. High-performance liquid
chromatography tests were performed following the same procedure used for the bale
samples. Three replications were performed on each sample. The results for each
sugar were expressed as a percentage of total sugars identified.

Dust Test

Dust was collected from 20 rotors after a 4-h run. The spinning equipment for this test
was an Elitex BD200M , because it has no auto-cleaning devices to remove dust.
Collected dust was frozen. We extracted the sugars from the dust using 20 mL of 18.2-
megohm water. High-performance liquid chromatography tests were performed

306
following the same procedure used for the bale samples. Three replications were
performed on each sample. The results for each sugar were expressed as a percentage
of total sugars identified.

Water Adsorption

The selected sugars were fructose, glucose, sucrose, trehalulose, and melezitose.
Trehalulose was obtained from Cornell University; the other sugars were from Sigma
Chemical Company (St. Louis, MO). The sugars first were dehydrated at room
temperature under vacuum for 48 h. They were weighed immediately in tightly closed
weighing containers in a controlled atmosphere (65% 2% relative humidity,
21degreeC 1degreeC. Recorded weight, m0 (dry weight), at time, t0 = 0, was used for
calculation of weight-gain. Since the stickiness tests were done at 65% 2% relative
humidity and 21degree C 1degreeC, the open containers containing sugar samples
were stored at these conditions and weighed (weight mt) over time until the weight
stabilized (14 wk). The percentage of adsorbed water on each sugar was then
calculated as [(mt - m0)/m0] x 100 and plotted against time.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry

The differential scanning calorimetry technique is widely used to examine and

characterize substances. The principle of this method is based on measuring the heat
flux between the sample and a reference while the temperature is rising. The sample
and the reference are deposited into two different pans and heated at the same rate. In
this work, the reference was an empty pan. The analysis of the differential scanning
calorimetry profiles indicates the thermal properties of the substances being tested;
specific values such as melting point and decomposition point are obtained. The
differential scanning calorimetry profiles were recorded by heating at the rate of
5degreeeC min-1 between 25degreeC and 250degreeC.

Scanning Electron Microscope

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Following the processing of the 17 mixes, yarn neps were identified and collected. The
samples were mounted in the stub and coated with a layer of gold by means of thermal
evaporation in a vacuum coating unit. They were then examined in the scanning
electron microscope using an accelerating voltage of 20 KV.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sucrose is virtually the only sugar in the phloem sap of the cotton plant . Insects
produce trehalulose and melezitose by isomerization and polymerization of sucrose;
neither of these sugars occurs in the cotton plant . Therefore, their presence on cotton
lint demonstrates honeydew contamination. Stickiness can cause a build-up of residues
on the textile machinery, which may result in irregularities or excessive yarn breakage.
When cotton is very sticky, it cannot be processed through the card; however, with low
to moderate stickiness levels, yarn can generally be produced. For this reason we
decided to work with mixes having a very moderate level of stickiness so that residue
would build-up slowly on the textile equipment. Performing the spinning test this way is
more representative of industrial practice. Indeed, a spinner will not run a very, or even
moderately, sticky blend. Rather, the spinner will mix the sticky cotton in such a way
that no short-term effect will be noticed. Nevertheless, residues will build up over time
and translate into a slow decrease in productivity and quality, forcing the spinner to
increase the cleaning schedule. In this article, we present only the results of the study
on the composition of residues found on the textile equipment after processing of sticky
cotton blends.

The productivity and yarn quality analysis will be presented in a future article. With
trehalulose content ranging from 0.003% to 0.188% and melezitose content ranging
from 0.025% to 0.227% (Table 1), the 12 commercial bales selected were all
contaminated with insect honeydew to some degree.

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This was confirmed by the high-speed stickiness detector readings ranging from 1.9 to
69.9 sticky points. The fiber properties of the 12 contaminated bales and of the non-
sticky control are presented in Table 2.

309
The range of fiber properties is fairly typical for upland cottons. From the 12
contaminated and the five nonsticky bales, 17 mixes were evaluated. The spinning trials
were performed using the protocol outlined in Fig. 1. The high-performance liquid
chromatography and high-speed stickiness detector results obtained on the card slivers
are presented in Table 3.

Testing was performed on card slivers because of the intimate blend between the two
bales composing the mix at this stage. As expected, sugar contents and highspeed
stickiness detector readings on the mixes indicated slight to moderate stickiness. During
the processing of the 17 mixes, sticky deposits were noticed on the textile equipment,
as shown in Figs. 2 to 4. Figure 5a shows average high-performance liquid
chromatography results obtained on the 17 mixes for the fiber, the flat waste, and the
residues collected on the draw frame and the drawing zone of the ring spinning frame.
In this figure, the high performance liquid chromatography results are

310
311
normalized, the base being the high-performance liquid chromatography results on the
fiber. It shows that trehalulose content is always higher in the residues collected than
on the original fiber while the other sugars are not. The same behavior was observed in
rotor spinning (Fig. 5b).

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Fig. 5. Normalized high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) results averaged
for fiber and flat waste on 17 mixes and residues collected from the draw frame and
drawing zone of the ring spinning frame (a) and from the draw frame of the rotor
spinning frame (b). Base used for normalization was HPLC results from fiber. A, card

313
flat; B, draw frame - drafting zone; C, ring spinning frame - back rubber rolls; D, ring
spinning frame - back steel rolls; E, ring spinning frame - belt; F, ring spinning frame -
center rubber rolls; G, ring spinning frame - front rubber rolls; H, ring spinning frame -
front steel rolls; I, rotor spinning frame - face plate; J, rotor spinning frame - feed table;
K, rotor spinning frame - rotor groove; L, rotor spinning frame - rotor housing; M, rotor
spinning frame - rotor ledge; N, dust test.

Among the sugars identified in contaminated cotton, only trehalulose exhibits higher
concentration in the residues. Coefficients of correlation between the logarithms of the
percentage of each individual sugar, expressed as a percentage of total sugars
identified on the fiber, and the percentage of each individual sugar, expressed as a
percentage of the total sugars on the flat strips and residues collected, are shown in
Table 4.

Table 4. Coefficients of correlation (r)between the logarithms of sugar content on the

fiber and on the flat strips and residues collected on textile equipment. Specific sugars
(fructose, glucose, melezitose, sucrose, and trehalulose) are expressed as a
percentage of total sugars. Codes denote: A) card flat; B) draw frame drafting zone;
C) ring spinning frame - back rubber rolls; D) ring spinning frame - back steel rolls; E)
ring spinning frame - belt; F) ring spinning frame - center rubber rolls; G ) ring spinning
frame - front rubber rolls; H) ring spinning frame - front steel rolls; I) rotor spinning
fframe - face plate; J) rotor spinning frame - feed table; K) rotor spinning frame - rotor
groove; L) rotor spinning frame - rotor housing; M) rotor spinning frame - rotor ledge; N)
dust test.

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The logarithm transformation was chosen because of the clear nonlinearrelationship
between the variables. The percentage of each individual sugar identified, expressed as
a percentage of the total sugars, is calculated as follows:

% Individual Sugar = [Individual Sugar/*(Fructose + Glucose + Melezitose + Sucrose +

Trehalulose)] x 100

The correlations between fiber and flat strips are significant for all sugars except
sucrose, showing that the individual sugar contents in the flat strips increase when the
sugar content on the fibers increases. Trehalulose is the only sugar having a higher
percentage in the flat strips than in the fibers, as shown in Fig 5a. . For the residues
collected, only glucose and trehalulose have significant correlations with fiber.
Nevertheless, Figs. 5a and b show that the percentages of glucose in the residues are
equal or lower than the percentages of glucose on the fiber, while there is a marked
increase in trehalulose content on the residues when compared with fiber.

315
316
Figures 6a to show the nonlinear relationship between trehalulose on the fibers and
trehalulose on the residues for some selected locations on the textile equipment. This
figure shows that during the processing of mixes having trehalulose content above 5%
of the total sugars, trehalulose content has a clear tendency to increase in the residues
collected. Consequently, we decided to investigate the sugarsproperties to understand
why trehalulose content increases in the residues collected while the others sugars do
not. The temperature of the textile equipment increases during processing. Therefore,
the temperatures on carding, drawing, roving, ring spinning, and rotor spinning frames
were recorded after machine warming in a controlled environment (Table 5).

317
The temperature readings were all above 25degree C. The highest temperature range
was recorded on the drawing frame (from 38degree C to 53degreeC) and the rotor
spinning frame( from 31degree C to 38degree C). The lowest temperature was recorded
on the ring spinning frame (from 25degreeC to 28degreeC). The effects of these
temperatures should vary according to the thermal properties of the sugars. Therefore,
we decided to investigate the thermal properties of the five sugars identified on the
contaminated fiber and on the residues collected on the textile equipment.

Differential scanning calorimetry was chosen to study the thermal properties of the
following sugars: fructose, glucose, trehalulose, sucrose, and melezitose. The

318
differential scanning calorimetry profiles were recorded between 25degree C and
250degree C with a heat rate of 5degree C min-1.

319
Figures 7 a through c show the differential scanning calorimetry profiles.Each sugar
has two characteristic peaks corresponding to melting points and decomposition (or
carbonization) points (Table 6).

Among the selected sugars, trehalulose has the lowest melting point (48degrees C). It
begins to melt immediately when the temperature starts rising. The other sugars remain
stable when the temperature rises to 116 degree C (melting point of fructose).
Therefore, any increase in the temperature of the textile processing equipment will first
affect trehalulose, causing it to either stick to the mechanical parts or become the
precursor of nep formation.

320
Figure 8 shows one example of a sticky nep. Resulsts showed an excellent
relationship between ring-spun yarn neps and stickiness measurements on the raw
material using the manual thermodetector. In this study, the authors showed that, on
average, each sticky spot counted on the thermodetector translated into 2.8 additional
neps on ring spun yarn (20 x 10-6 kg m-1 or 20-tex).

The build-up of residues on the textile equipment may have long-term effects, first
sticking to surfaces, then catching dust, silica etc., increasing the friction forces within
the machinery and leading to excessive wear and temperature increase.Sugars are
carbohydrates that are hydrophilic because of several hydroxyl groups (OH-) that
interact with water molecules, allowing many hydrogen bonds to be established.
Therefore, several authors investigated the relationship between stickiness and relative
humidity. It was generally reported that contaminated cottons are less sticky at low
relative humidity than at high relative were investigated.

The stickiness tests (thermodetector or high-speed stickiness detector) were always

performed in a standard textilelaboratory atmosphere,Thus, the quantity of water
adsorbed on each sugar was evaluated at 65% 2% relative humidity and 21degrees
C 1degreesC.

321
Fig. 9. (a) Hydration kinetic of selected sugars at 65% 2% relative humidity and 21(C
1(C from 0 to 12.6 h. (b) Hydration kinetic of selected sugars at 65% 2% relative
humidity and 21(C 1(C from 0 to 650 h.

Figure 9a shows the percentage weight gain during the first 12 h of hydration. No sugar
showed any significant variation within this time period except trehalulose, which picked
up about 12% of moisture - corresponding to two molecules of water per molecule of
trehalulose. The weight gain of the sugar samples was recorded until plateaus were
reached. Trehalulose continued to pick up moisture, while fructose began to pick up
moisture after 12 h of exposure to the laboratory conditions (Fig. 9b). The hydration
kinetic was very fast for trehalulose - equilibrium was reached after 80 h, but slow for

322
fructose - the plateau was reached after 500 h. The total amount of weight gain
corresponds to three molecules of water per molecule of trehalulose and three
molecules of water per molecule of fructose.

If we assume that trehalulose accumulates more on the spinning equipment than other
sugars because of its hygroscopicity, then fructose should accumulate in a similar way,
but this was not the case. The high performance liquid chromatography tests performed
on the residues collected on the textile equipment did not show any increase in fructose
content, even if fructose content was high in some mixes. In the 17mixes tested, the
fructose content, expressed as a percentage of the fiber weight, ranged from 0.012% to
0.101%, which corresponds to 10.6% to 33.6% when expressed in the percentage of
the total sugars identified. Thus, the fact that trehalulose is highly hygroscopic does not
explain why this sugar has the tendency to accumulate more on the textile equipment
than other sugars. The combination of trehalulose renders it stickier than the other
sugars, allowing its higher concentration on the textile equipment.

CONCLUSIONS

Stickiness caused by honeydew contamination has been reported to cause residue

build-up on textile machinery, which may cause subsequent irregularities or yarn
breakage. We evaluated 17 mixes having a moderate level of stickiness. In both ring
and rotor spinning, trehalulose content had the tendency to increase in the residues
collected on the equipment while the other sugars did not. The study of the thermal
properties of the identified sugars present on contaminated lint shows that among the
selected sugars, trehalulose has the lowest melting point 48 degree C . It begins to
melt as soon as the temperature starts rising. Therefore, any increase in the
temperature of the textile processing equipment will first affect trehalulose. In addition,
trehalulose is highly hygroscopic. The combination of high hygroscopicity and low
melting point could explain the higher concentration of trehalulose in the residues
collected on the textile equipment than on the original fiber.

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REFERENCES

American Society for Testing and Materials. 2001. D1776- Practice for conditioning
textiles for testing. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.

Budavari, A. (ed.) 1989. Merck Index, 11th ed. Merck & Co., Rahway, NJ.

Frydrych, R., E. Goze, and E. Hequet. 1993. Effet de lhumidite relative sur les resultats
obtenus au thermodetecteur. Cotton et Fibres Trop. 48(4):305-311.

Frydrych, R., and E. Hequet. 1998. Standardization proposal: The thermodetector and
its methodology. p. 97-102. In Proc. Int. Comm. Cotton Testing Methods, Bremen,
Germany. Int. Textile Manuf. Fed. Zurich, Switzerland.

Frydrych, R., E. Hequet, and G. Cornuejols. 1994. A high speed instrument for
stickiness measurement. p. 83-91. In 22nd Int. Cotton Conference Int. Textile
Manufacturers Federation. Bremen, Germany. 3-5 March 1994. Faserinstitut, Bremen,
Bermany.

Gutknecht, J., J. Fournier, and R. Frydrych. 1986. Influence de la teneur en eau et de la

temperature de lair sur les tests du collage des cottons a la minicarde de laboratoire.
Cotton et Fibres Tropicales. 41(3):179-190.

POLYESTER FIBRE:

Fibre manufacturing process:

Today over 70 to 75% of polyester is produced by CP( continuous polymerisation)

process using PTA(purified Terephthalic Acid) and MEG. The old process is called
Batch process using DMT( Dimethy Terephthalate) and MEG( Mono Ethylene Glycol).

Catalysts like 5b3O3 (ANTIMONY TRIOXIDE) are used to start and control the reaction.
TiO2 (Titanium di oxide) is added to make the polyester fibre / filament dull. Spin
finishes are added at melt spinning and draw machine to provide static protection and

324
have cohesion and certain frictional properties to enable fibre get processed through
textile spinning machinery without any problem.

PTA which is a white powder is fed by a screw conveyor into hot MEG to dissolve it.
Then catalysts and TiO 2 are added. After that Esterification takes place at high
temperature. Then monomer is formed . Polymerisation is carried out at high
temperature (290 to 300 degree centigrade) and in almost total vacuum. Monomer gets
polymerised into the final product, PET (Poly ethylene Terephthalate).

This is in the form of thick viscous liquid. This liquid is them pumped to melt spinning
machines. These machines may be single sided or double sided and can have 36/48/64
spinning positions. At each position , the polymer is pumped by a metering pump-which
discharges an accurate quantity of polymer per revolution ( to control the denier of the
fibre) through a pack which has sand or stainless steel particles as filter media and a
spinnerette which could be circular or rectangular and will have a specific number of
holes depending on the technology used and the final denier being produced. Polymer
comes out of each hole of the spinnerette and is instantly solidified by the flow of cool
dry air. This process is called quenching. The filaments from each spinnerette are
collected together to form a small ribbon, passed over a wheel which rotates in a bath of
spin finish: and this ribbon is then mixed with ribbon coming from other spinning
positions, this combined ribbon is a tow and is coiled in cans. The material is called
undrawn TOW and has no textile properties.

At the next machine ( the draw machine), undrawn tows from severl cans are collected
in the form of a sheet and passed through a trough of hot water to raise the
temperature of polymer to 70 degrees C which is the glass transition temperature of this
polymer so that the polymer can be drawn. In the next two zones, the polymer is drawn
approximately 4 times and the actual draw or the pull takes place either in a steam
chamber or in a hot water trough. After the drawing is complete, each filament has the
required denier, and has all its sub microscopic chains aligned parallel to the fibre axis,
thereby improving the crystallinity of the fibre structure and imparting certain strength.

325
Next step is to set the strength by annealing the filaments by passing them under
tension on several steam heated cylinders at temperatures 180 to 220 degrees C. Also
the filaments may be shrunk on the first zone of annealer by over feeding and imparting
higher strength by stretching 2% or so on the final zone of the annealer. Next the fibre
is quenched in a hot water bath, then passed through a steam chest to again heat up
the tow to 100 degree C so that the crimping process which takes place in the stuffer
box proceeds smoothly and the crimps have a good stability. Textile spin finish is
applied either before crimping by kiss roll technique or after crimping by a bank of
hollow cone sprays mounted on both sides of the tow. The next step is to set the crimps
and dry the tow fully which is carried out by laying the tow on a lattice which passes
through a hot air chamber at 85degree C or so.

The two is guided to a cutter and the cut fibres are baled for despatch. The cutter is a
reel having slots at intervals equal to the cut length desired 32 or 38 or 44 or 51mm.
Each slot has a sharp stainless steel or tungsten carbide blade placed in it. The tow is
wound on a cutter reel, at one side of the reel is a presser wheel which presses the tow
on to the blades and the tow is cut. The cut fibre falls down by gravity and is usually
partially opened by several air jets and finally the fibre is baled. Some, balers have a
preweighting arrangement which enables the baler to produce all bales of a pre
determined weight.

The bale is transported to a ware house where it is "matured" for a minimum of 8/10
days before it is permitted to be despatched to the spinning mill.

FIBRE SPECIFICATION:

DENIER: Usually the actual denier is a little on the finer side i.e for 1.2 D, it will be 1.16
and for 1.4 , it could be 1.35. The tolerance normally is +- 0.05 and C.V% of denier
should be 4 to 5%. Denier specifies the fineness of fibre and in a way controls the
spinning limit. Theory tells us that in order to form yarn on ring spinning (and also in air
jet) there must be minimum of 60 to 62 ifbres in the yarn cross section. Therefor the
safe upper spinning limit with different denier is

326
 DENIER COUNT(Ne)

1.0 90

1.2 80

1.4 62

2.0 40

3.0 32

The limit is for 38 mm fibre. The limit rises for a longer fibres.

When spinning on open end system, the minimum no of fibres in the yarn cross section
is 110. So all the fibre producers recommend finer denier fibres for OE spining . Here
the safe upper spinning limit is

DENIER COUNT(Ne)

1.0 50

1.2 40

1.4 30

2.0 24

3.0 16

However in actual practice , 30s is an upper limit with OE AND 1.2 Denier is being used,
in USA and other countries, even for 10s count in OE.

Deniers finer than 1.0 are called micro-denier and commercially the finest polyester
staple fibre that can be worked in a mill is 0.7 D.

327
CUT LENGTH: Cut lengths available are 32, 38, 44, 51 and 64mm for cotton type
spinning and a blend of 76, 88 and 102 mm - average cut length of 88m for worsted
spinning. The most common cut length is 38 mm.

For blending with other manmade fibres, spinners preferred 51mm to get higher
productivity, because T.M. will be as low as 2.7 to 2.8 as against 3.4 to 3.5 for 38mm
fibre. If the fibre legnth is more, the nepping tendency is also more , so a crompromise
cutlength is 44 mm. With this cut length the T.M. will be around 2.9 to 3.0 and yarns with
35 to 40% lower imprfections can be achieved compared a to similar yarn with 51 mm
fibre. In the future spinners will standardise for 38 mm fibre when the ringspinning
speed reaches 25000 rpm for synthetic yarns.

For OE spinning , 32 mm fibre is preferred as it enables smaller dia rotor(of 38mm) to

be used which can be run at 80000 to 100000 rpm.

Air jet system uses 38 mm fibre.

TENSILE PROPERTIES: Polyester fibres are available in 4 tenacity levels.

Low pill fibres- usuall in 2.0 / 3.0 D for suiting enduse with tenacities of 3.0 to 3.5
gpd(grams per denier). These fibres are generally used on worsted system and
1.4D for knitting
Medium Tenacity - 4.8 to 5.0 gpd
High tenacity 6.0 to 6.4 gpd range and
Super high tenacity 7.0 gpd and above

Both medium and high tenacity fibres are used for apparel enduse. Currently most fibre
producers offer only high tenacity fibres. Spinners prefer them since their use enables
ring frames to run at high speeds, but then the dyeablity of these fibres is 20 to 25%
poorer, also have lower yield on wet processing, have tendency to form pills and
generally give harsher feel.

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The super high tenacity fibres are used essentially for spinning 100% polyester sewing
threads and other industrial yarns. The higher tenacities are obtained by using higher
draw ratios and higher annealer temperatures upto 225 to 230 degree C and a slight
additional pull of 2% or so at the last zone in annealing.

Elongation is inversely proportional to tenacity e.g

ELONGATION AT T10
TENACITY
BREAK VALUES

LOW PILL 3.0 - 3.5 45 - 55% 1.0 - 1.5

MEDIUM 4.8 - 5.0 25 - 30% 3.5 - 4.0

HIGH 6.0 - 6.4 16 - 20% 5.2 - 5.5

SUPER
7.0 plus 12 - 14% 6.0 plus
HIGH

All the above values of single fibre. Testing polyester fiber on Stelometer @ 3mm
guage is not recommended.

The T10 or tenacity @ 10% elongation is important in blend spinning and is directly
related to blend yarn strength. While spinning 100% polyester yarns it has no
significance. Tenacity at break is the deciding factor.

CRIMP PROPERTIES :Crimps are introduced to give cohesion to the fibre assembly
and apart from crimps/cm. Crimp stability is more important criterion and this value
should be above 80% to provide trouble free working. A simple check of crimp stability
is crimps/inch in finisher drawing sliver. This value should be around 10 to 11, if lower,
the fibre will give high fly leading to lappings and higher breaks at winding. Spin finish
also gives cohesion, but cohesion due to crimp is far superior to the one obtained by
finish. To give a concrete example, one fibre producer was having a serious problem of
fly with mill dyed trilobal fibre. Trilobal fibre is difficult to crimp as such, so it was with
great difficulty that the plant could put in crimps per inch of 10 to 11. Dyeing at 130
degrees C in HTHP dying machine reduced the cpi to 6 to 8. Mills oversprayed upto

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0.8% did not help. Card loading took place yet fly was uncontrolled, ultimately the fibre
producer added a steam chest to take the two temperature to 100degrees plus before
crimping and then could put in normal cpcm and good crimp stability. Then the dyed
fibre ran well with normal 0.15 to 0.18 % added spin finish.

SPIN FINISH: Several types of spin finishes are available. There are only few spin finish
manufacturers - Takemoto, Matsumoto, Kao from Japan, Henkel, Schill &Scheilacher,
Zimmer & Schwarz and Hoechst from Germany and George A.Goulston from USA. It is
only by a mill trial that the effectiveness of a spin finish can be established.

A spin finish is supposed to give high fibre to fibre friction of 0.4 to 0.45, so as to control
fibre movement particularly at selvedges , low fibre-metal friction of 0.2 to 0.15 to enable
lower tensions in ring spinning and provide adequate static protection at whatever
speed the textile machine are running and provide enough cohesion to control fly and
lapping tendencies and lubrication to enable smoother drafting.

Spin finish as used normally consists of 2 components - one that gives lubrication /
cohesion and other that gives static protection. Each of these components have upto 18
different components to give desired properties plus anti fungus, antibacterial anti
foaming and stabilisers.

Most fibre producers offer 2 levels of spin finishes. Lower level finish for cotton blends
and 100% polyester processing and the higher level finish for viscose blend. The reason
being that viscose has a tendecy to rob polyester of its finish. However in most of the
mills even lower spin finish works better for low production levels and if the production
level is high, high level spin finish is required if it is mixed with viscose.

For OE spinning where rotor speeds are around 55000 to 60000 rpm standard spin
finish is ok, but if a mill has new OE spinning machines having rotors running @80000
rpm, then a totally different spin finish which has a significantly lower fibre - fibre and
fibre - metal friction gave very good results. The need to clean rotors was extended
from 8 hours to 24 hours and breaks dropped to 1/3rd.

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In conclusion it must be stated that though the amount of spin finish on the fibre is only
in the range 0.105 to 0.160, it decides the fate of the fibre as the runnability of the fibre
is controlled by spin finish, so it is the most important component of the fibre.

Effectiveness of spin finish is not easy to measure in a fibre plant. Dupont uses an
instrument to measure static behaviour and measures Log R which gives a good idea of
static cover. Also, there is s Japanese instrument Honest Staticmeter, where a bundle
of well conditioned fibre is rotated at high speed in a static field of 10000 volts. The
instrument measures the charge picked up by the fibre sample, when the charge
reaches its maximum value, same is recorded and machine switched off. Then the time
required for the charge to leak to half of its maximum value is noted. In general with this
instrument , for fibre to work well, maximum charge should be around 2000 volts and
half life decay time less than 40 sec. If the maximum charge of 5000 and half life decay
time of 3 min is used , it would be difficult to card the fibre , especially on a high
production card.

DRY HEAT SHRINKAGE :Normally measured at 180 degree C for 30 min. Values
range from 5 to 8 %. With DHS around 5%, finished fabric realisation will be around
97% of grey fabric fed and with DHS around 8% this value goes down to 95%.
Therefore it makes commercial sense to hold DHS around 5%.

L and B colour:L : colour for most fibres record values between 88 to 92. "b" colour is a
measure of yellowness/blueness. b colour for semidull fibre fluctuates between 1 to 2.8
with different fibre producers. Lower the value, less is the chemicals degradation of the
polymer. Optically brightened fibres give b colour values around 3 to 3.5. This with 180
ppm of optical brightner.

DYE TAKE UP:Each fibre producer has limits of 100 +- 3 to 100+-8. Even with 100+-3
dye limits streaks do occur in knitted fabrics. The only remedy is to blend bales from
different days in a despatch and insist on spinning mills taking bales from more than
one truck load.

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FUSED FIBRES: The right way to measure is to card 10 kgs of fibre. Collect all the flat
strips (95% of fused fibres get collected in flat strips). Spread it out on a dark plush, pick
up fused and undrawn fibres and weigh them. The upper acceptable limit is 30mgm
/10kgs. The ideal limit should be around 15mgm/10kgs. DUpont calls fused/undrawn
fibres as DDD or Deep Dyeing Defect.

LUSTRE: Polyester fibres are available in

bright : 0.05 to 0.10 % TiO2

Semil dull : 0.2 to 0.3 % TiO2

dull : 0.5 % TiO2

extra dull : 0.7% TiO2 and

in optically brightened with normally 180 ppm of OB, OB is available in reddish ,

greenish and bluish shades. Semi dull is the most popular lustre followed by OB (100
% in USA) and bright.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYESTER FIBRE:

1. DENIER: 0.5 - 15
2. TENACITY : dry 3.5 - 7.0 : wet 3.5 - 7.0
3. %ELONGATION at break : dry 15 - 45 : wet 15 45
4. %MOISTURE REGAIN: 0.4
5. SHRINKAGE IN BOILING WATER: 0 - 3
6. CRIMPS PER INCH: 12 -14
7. %DRY HEAT SHRINKAGE: 5 - 8 (at 180 C for 20 min)
8. SPECIFI GRAVITY: 1.36 - 1.41
9. % ELASTIC RECOVERY; @2% =98 : @5% = 65
10. GLASS TRANSITION TEMP: 80 degree C
11. Softening temp : 230 - 240 degree C
12. Melting point : 260 - 270 degree C

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 13. Effect of Sunlight : turns yellow, retains 70 - 80 % tenacity at long exposure
14. RESISTANCE TO WEATHERING: good
15. ROT RESISTENCE: high
16. ALKALI RESISTENCE: damaged by CON alkali
17. ACID RESISTENCE: excellent
18. ORGANIC CHEMICAL RESISTENCE: good

PROBLEMS WHICH OCCUR DURING MANUFACTURE OF POLYESTER STAPLE

FIBRE:

The manufacture of polyester fibre consists of 4 stps:

Polymerisation:Using PTA/DMT and MEG on either batch or continuous

polymerisation (cp_ - forming final polymer
Melt spinning :Here molten polymer is forced thorough spinnerette holes to form
undrawn filaments, to which spin finish is applied and coiled in can
Drawings: in which several million undrawn filaments are drawn or pulled
approximately 4 times in 2 steps, annealed, quenched, crimped and crimp set
and final textile spin finish applied and
Cutting: in which the drawn crimped tow is cut to a desired 32/38/44/51 mm
length and then baled to be transported to a blend spinning mill.

1.PROBLEMS FACED IN POLYMERISATION:

properties of Polymer: The polymer formed is tested mainly for intrinsic viscosity (i.v),
DEG content, % oligeomers and L and b colours. Intrinsic viscosity is an indirect
measure of degree of polymerisation and this value is around 0.63 for polymer meant
for apparel fibres. DEG or Di Ethylene Glycol gets formed during polymerisation and
varies from 1.2 to 1.8%. Oligomers are polymers of lower molecular weight and vary in
quantity from 1.2 to 1.8 %. L and b are measures of colour. L colour signifies whiteness
as a value of 100 for L is a perfect value. Most fibres have L colour values around 88 to
92. b colour denotes yellowness/blueness of polymer. the positive sign for b colour
indicates yellowness whilst negative sign shows blueness, only polymer which contain

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optical brightener has b of 3 - 3.5 whilst all semil dull polymers show b values of 1.0 to
2.4. Higher values indicate more yellowness, which indirectly shows chemical
degradation of the polymer.

Running a CP @ lower / higher throughput :Every CP is designed for a certain

throughput per day. Like say 180 tons/day or 240 tons/day. Sometimes due to
commercial constraints like high buildup of fibre stocks etc. , the CP may have to be
operated at lower capacityies. In that case the polymer that is produced has a higher "b"
colour and a lower DEG content.

Higher "b" colour of say 1.5 against normal value of 1.0 will show fibre to be yellowish
and has a little more chemical degradation; which gives higher fluorescence under UV
light. Most spinning mills have a practice of checking every cone wound under UV lamp
to find out whether there has been any mixup.

However if a mill is consistently receiving fibre with a "b"colour of say 1.0 and then if
one despatch comes of "b"colour of say 1.5 then in winding, ring bobbins of both "b"
colours will be received, and when cones are wound and checked under UV lamp, then
higher "b" colour material will give higher fluorescence compared to that of lower "b"
colour materials, and will cause rings under UV lamp. Fortunately a minor difference in
"b" colour of 0.4 to 0.5 does not give variation in dyeability.

What can spinning mills do to overcome this problem:

One way is to use a Uster Glow meter which measures the reflectance of fibre samples
under UV light. We understand that these values lie between 80 and 120 for samples
from different bales. so then divide bales with reflectance values of say 80 to 90 ,
another 91 to 100, third 101 to 110 and fourth 111 to 120. Then while issuing bales to
blow room, issue first group say 80 to 90 then issue the enxt group and so on. Bales
from different groups should not be mixed.

Second is to use bales from each truck separately.

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Third is to mix up bales from 4/5 trucks to do a blending

Changes in DEG: The amount of DEG in fibre is directly proportional to dye pick up or
dye ability of the fibre. Higher the DEG, higher is the dye ability, so much so that some
filament producers add DEG, but then higher DEG will lower tensile properties. So this
practice is not followed for fibre, where tensile properties are critical. So if the CP is run
at lower throughout, DEG drops down, so the dyeablity of the fibre goes down. Since
fibre production group is keen on maintaining merge, they resort to lowering of
annealer temperatures to maintain dye ability but in the process tensile properties
suffer, and mills will notice thread strength falling by 5-7% if annealer temperature is
lowered from say 210 degree C to 180 Degree C. If fibre production group does not do
this, then they will produce fibre with a different merge - which normally accumulates in
the warehouse and so is not appreciated by both marketing and top management.

Also when CP is run at higher than rated, then higher temperatures have to be used to
compensate lower residence time, here "b" colour actually improves

It must be emphasized that the "b"colour changes occur not only due to higher / lower
thorugh put but there are several other factors such as air leakags in valves / polymer
lines, failure of pumps to remove product from one reaction vessel to another etc.

There is yet one more problem in CP. It is a sudden increase in oligomer content. When
the amount of oligomers increase, it manifests itself in excessive white powder
formation on rings and ring rail.

Oligomers cause problems in spinning of dyed fibres. The surface oligomer content
almost doubles on dying dark and extra dark shades. The only way to control oligomers
is to use LEOMIN OR in 1 - 1.5 gms/litre in reduction clearing bath. All oligomers will go
into suspension in reduction clearing liquor and get removed when the liquor is drained.

Higher annealer temperature also cause higher surface oligomers

2. PROBLEMS FACED IN MELT SPINNING:

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Control of C.V% of Denier: A good international value of C.V.% of denier is 4 to 5.
However some fibre manufacturers get value as high as 10 to 12.

Denier is controlled by having uniform flow of polymer through each spinnerette hole.
However if a hole is dirty or has polymer sticking to it, its effective diameter is reduced;
and the filament that comes out becomes finer. IF the spinneretters have been used for
more than say 6 to 7 years , then some of the holes would be worn out more than
others and filament emerging out would be coarser

Currently sophisticated instruments are available to check the cleanliness and actual
hole diametrs of each and every hole automatically, but few producers have them.

Fused Fibres:These are caused mainly at melt spinning either due to breaks of
individual filaments or breakages of all the filaments(ribbon break) and polymer and
block temperatures are too high. Tying of broken position in the running thread line
should be as near to the broken position as possible, failure to do this will result in
trailing end leading to fused fibres. Other reasons could be impurities, choking of
polymer filters and non-uniform quenching or cooling of filaments.

The only way to control is to ensure that breaks at melt spinning are held at the
minimum.

3.PROBLEMS FACED AT DRAW LINE:

Draw line is the place where the fibre is born. All its major properties denier, tenacity ,
elongation at break , crimp properties, spin finish, shrinkage and dye ability are all
imparted here. For obtaining excellent runnability of the fibre in a blend spinning mill, the
two most important properties are - spin finish and crimp.

Spin finish:Finish is applied to the undrawn tow at melt spinning stage essentially to
provide cohesion and static protection. On the draw line, a major portion of this finish is
washed away, and a textile spin finish is put on the tow by either kiss roll or a spray
station. This textile finish consists of two components, one that gives cohesion and

336
lubrication and the other confers static protection, usually these 2 components are used
in 70/30 ratio. These spin finishes are complex and each may contain some 18
chemicals to not only control inter fibre friction ( should be high at 0.35 to 0.40), fibre
metal friction (should be low at 0.15-0.20), anti bacterial components, anti foaming
compund etc.

Finish is made in hot demineralise water and is sprayed on to tow after the crimper by a
series of spray nozzles mounted on both sides of the tow. The finish is pumped to the
spray unit by a motor driven metering pump, which is linked to the draw machine such
that when the machine stops, the pump motor stops. The percentage of finish on the
fibre is based on spin finish manufacturers recommendations and fine tuned by tech
service. Once set, the finish and its percentages are normally not changed.

The percentage spin finish is decided by the end use of the fibre. Mills blending
polyester with viscose need higher amount of spin finish and also mills running their
equipment at high speeds. 60 to 65% of problems faced in mills are due to uneven % of
spin finish on the fibre. IF a fibre producer desires to put say 0.120% spin finish on fibre,
then ideally the %finish should be maintained @ 0.120 +- 0.005 i.e from 0.115 to 0.125
only; then the fibre will run smoothly.

If the finish is on the lower side, card web will show high static, web will lap around
doffing rolls, sliver will not pass smoothly through coiler tube - causing coiler choking.
Sliver could be bulky and will cause high fly generation during drafting. On the other
hand if spin finish is on the higher side, fibres will become sticky and lap around the top
rollers, slivers will become very compact and could cause undrafted. Thus it is
extremely important to hold finish level absolutely constant. The reasons for non
uniformity is concentration of spin finish varies; sprayer holes are choked ; the tow path
has altered and so the spray does not reach it. Normally fibre producers check spin
finish% on the fibre quite frequently- even then in actual practice considerable variations
occur.

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Crimp: It is the most important to spin finish for smooth running of fibre. There are 3
aspects of crimp.

no of crimps per inch or per cm - usually 12 - 14 crimps per inch

crimp stability - be 80% plus and
crimp take up - be 27% on tow

crimps per inch can be measured by keeping a fibre in relaxed state next to a foot ruler
and counting the no of crimps or arcs.

Crimp stability refers to % retention of crimps after subjecting fibre to oscillating

straightening and relaxing. We can get an indication on how good crimp stability is in a
spinning mill by measuring crimps per inch in fibre from finisher drawing sliver. The
crimps per inch of drawing sliver should be atleast 10 to 11, if below this, then the
crimps stability is poor , so to compensate may be a cohesive compound like
Nopcostatt2151 P or Leomin CH be used in the overspary.

Fibres like trilobal and super h igh tenacity fibres are difficult to crimp. Trilobal because
of its shape and super high tenacity due to very high annealer temperature (220 degree
C) used which makes the fibre difficult to bend.

Also fibre dyeing particularly dark and extra dark shades reduces crimps per inch from
14 to 10 - 11 and in trilobal, as it is crimps per inch in fibre is 11 to 12, after dyeing it
goes further down to 8 to 9. In dyed trilobal fibre, crimps per inch in fibre at finisher
drawing may be around 6 to 7 so necessitating using almost 50% of cohesive
compound in the overspray.

Crimp take up is % difference between relaxed length and straightened length of fibre in
fibre stage. Normally this difference is around 18 to 20%. If the difference is much
smaller, then it means the crimps are shallow and would have lower cohesion.

After the tow is crimped , the crimps are set by passing tow through a hot air chamber.

338
If crimp per inch is low, then that could be due to lower stuffer box pressure, but if crimp
stability and/or crimp take up is low, it means the steam supply to crimper steam box is
low.

Undrawn fibre: As the draw line, 1.6 to 3.0 million filaments are drawn or pulled, if a
filament had a break at spinning and this is fed as a trailing end to the drawing, then
that end cannot be drawn fully, and causes plasticises and fused fibres.

Undrawn fibres are generated if the draw point is not uniform i.e not in a straight line.

Plasticised fibre:When drawline is running and if some filaments breaks then these
broken filaments wrap themselves around a rotating cylinder, since most of these
cylinders are steam heated, the wrapped portion solidifes. The operator then cuts out
the solid sheet and throws it away as waste but then usually picks up the plastic end
and uses it to thread the material and so a small piece of plastic material goes into the
cutter and falls into the baler.

Tenacity / Dye ability: Both these properties are controlled by acutal draw ratio and
annealer temperature. Draw ratio does not change in running, but annealer
temperature can fall due to problem of condensate water removal. Most drawlines have
temperature indicators - but then some buttons have to be pressed to see the
temperatures so if the annealer temperature falls, tenaciy will fall and dye ability will
increase which could lead to a change in merge.

PROBLEMS FACED IN CUTTING / BALING:

Nail Head / Tip Fusion: In the cutting process, a highly tensioned tow is first laid over
sharp blades and the pressed down by a Pressure Roll, resulting in filaments being cut.
However if some blades become blunt, then the pressing of tow on to those blades
creates high temperature and so tips of neighbouring fibres stick to each other and so
separating this cluster becomes impossible. If it is not getting removed in Lickerin it will
go into the yarn and cause a yarn fault. The tip fusion occurs when the blade is fully

339
blunt. If the blade is not very sharp, it does not give a straight edge, there could be
some rounding at the cut edge. Such fibres are called nail heads.

Tungsten carbide blades gives sharp cut

Opening of fibre cluster after opening:When fibres are cut, they fall down by gravity into
the baler. Because of crimping clusters get formed; and so those need to be opened
out; otherwise these can cause choking either in blowrrom pipes or in chute feed. This
opening is obtained by having a ring of nozzles below the cutter through which high
pressure air jets are pointed up; and these jets open up fibre clusters.

Over length / Multilength:Over length fibres are those whose length is greater than the
cut length plus 10mm and are casued by broken filaments which being broken cannot
be straightened by tensioning at the cutter. Multilength are fibre whose length is exactly
2 or 3 times the cut length and are caused by nicks in neighbouring blades.

SPECIALITY FIBRES IN POLYESTER:

HIGH/LOW SHRINK FIBRES: The high shrink fibre shrinks upto 50% at 100
degree C while that of low shrinkage is 1%. The high shrink fibre enable fabrics
with high density to be

YARN TESTING

INTRODUCTION:Yarn occupies the intermediate position in the manufacture of fabric

from raw material. Yarn results are therefore essential, both for estimating the quality of
rawmaterial and for controlling the quality of fabric produced. The important
characteristics of yarn being tested are

1. yarn twist

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 2. linear density
3. yarn strength
4. yarn elongation
5. yarn evenness
6. yarn hairiness etc.

SAMPLING:
In order that the results obtained are reproducible and give reliable information about
the material,the sampling must be true and representative of the bulk lot. The sampling
procedure should be designed to take account of and to minimise the known sources of
variability such as the variation between spindles, the variation along the length of the
bobbin, etc. The procedure for sampling and the number of test carried out are given
under each characteristic.

AMBIENT CONDITIONS FOR YARN TESTING: Some textile fibres are highly
hygroscopic and their properties change notably as a function of the moisture content.
Moisture content is particularly critical in the case of properties, i.e yarn
tenacity,elongation, yarn evenness, imperfections, count etc. Therefore conditioning and
testing must be carried out under constant standard atmospheric conditions. The
standard atmosphere for textile testing involves a temperature of 20+-2 degree C, and
65+-2% Rh. In tropical regions, maintaining a temperature of 27+-2 degree C,65+-
2%RH is legitimate. Prior to testing, the samples must be conditioned under constant
standard atmospheric to attain the moisture equillibrium. To achieve this it requires at
least 24 hours.

TWIST:"Twist is defined asthe spiral disposition of the components of yarn, which is

generally expressed as the number of turns per unit length of yarn, e.g turns per inch,
turns per meter, etc.

Twist is essential to keep the component fibres together in a yarn.

The strength, dyeing, finishing properties, the feel of the finished product etc. are
all dependent on the twist in the yarn.

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 With increase in twist, the yarn strength increases first , reaches a maximum and
then decreases.
Depending on the end use, two or more single yarns are twisted together to form
"plied yarns" or "folded yarns" and a number of plied yarns twisted together to
form "cabled yarn".
Among the plied yarns, the most commonly used are the doubled yarns, wherein
two single yarns of identical twist are twisted together in a direction opposite to
that of the single yarns.
Thus for cabled and plied yarns, the direction of twist and the number of turns per
unit length of the resultant yarn as well as of each component have to be
determined for a detailed analysis.
Direction of twist is expressed as "S"-Twist or "Z"-Twist. Direction depends upon
the direction of rotation of the twisting element.
Twist take up is defined as, "The decrease in length of yarn on twisting,
expressed as a percentage of the length of yarn before twisting.

LINEAR DENSITY OR COUNT OF YARN:

The fineness of the yarn is usually expressed in terms of its linear density or
count.
There are a number of systems and units for expressing yarn fineness. But they
are classified as follows

DIRECT SYSTEM:

1. English count(Ne)
2. Metric count(Nm)
3. French count(Nf)

INDIRECT SYSTEM:

4. Tex
5. Denier

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 6. Ne : No of 840 yards yarn weighing in One pound
7. Nm : No of one kilometer yarn weighing in One Kilogram
8. Nf : No of one kilometer yarn weighing in 0.5 kilogram
9. Tex : Weight in grams of 1000 meter(1 kilometer) yarn
10. Denier: Weight in grams of 9000 meter(9 kilometer) yarn
For the determination of the count of yarn, it is necessary to determine the weight
of a known length of the yarn. For taking out known lengths of yarns, a wrap-reel
is used. The length of yarn reeled off depends upon the count system used.
Another factor which determines the length of yarn taken for testing is the type of
balance used.Some balances like quadrant balance, Beesley's blanace have
been specially designed to indicate the yarn count directly from tests on specified
short lengths of yarn and are very useful for determining the counts of yarn
removed from the fabrics. The minimum accuracy of balance required is 0.001mg
One of the most important requirements for a spinner is to maintain the average
count and count variation within control. The term count variation is generally
used to express variation in the weight of a lea and this is expressed as C.V.%.
This is affected by the number of samples and the length being considered for
count checking. While assessing count variation, it is very important to test
adequate number of leas After reeling the appropriate length of yarn, the yarn is
conditioned in the standard atmosphere for testing before it's weight is
determined.
The minimum number of sample required per count is 20 and per machine is 2.

YARN STRENGTH AND ELONGATION:

Breaking strength, elongation, elastic modulus, resistance abrasion etc are some
important factors which will represent the performance of the yarn during actual
use or further processing. Strength testing is broadly classified into two methods
1. single end strength testing
2. skein strength or Lea strength

Tensile strength of single strands of yarn

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 During routine testing, both the breaking load and extension of yarn at break are
usually recorded for assessing the yarn quality. Most of the instruments record
the load-elongation diagram also.
Various parameters such as initial elastic modulus, the yield point, the tenacity or
elongation at any stress or strain, breaking load, breaking extension etc can be
obtained from the load-extension diagram.
Two types of strengths can be determined for a yarn
1. Tensile strength -load is applied gradually
2. Ballistic strength - applying load under rapid impact conditions
Tensile strength tests are the most common tests and these are carried out using
either a single strand or a skein containing a definite number of strands as the
test specimen.
An important factor which affects the test results is the length of the specimen
actually used for carrying out the test. The strength of a test specimen is limited
by that of the weakest link in it.If the test specimen is longer, it is likely to contain
more weak spots, than a shorter test specimen. Hence the test results will be
different for different test lengths due to the weak spots.
The amount of moisture in the yarn also influences the test results. Cotton yarn
when fully wet show higher strength than when dry, while opposite is the case
with viscose rayon yarns. Hence, to eliminate the effect of variation due to
moisture content of the yarn, all yarn strengrth tests are carried out,after
conditioning in a room where the standard atmospheric condition is maintained.
The rate of loading as determined by the "time-to-break", which is the time
interval between the commencement of the application of the load and the
rupture of the yarn, is an important factor , which determines the strength value
recorded by using any instrument. The same specimen will show a lower
strength when the time-to-break is high, or higher when the time-to-break is low.
The instruments used for determining the tensile strengh are classified into three
groups, based on the principle of working.
1. CRT - Constant rate of traverse
2. CRE - Constant rate of extension

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 3. CRL - Constant rate of loading
In the instruments of CRE type, the application of load is made in such a way that
the rate of elongation of the specimen is kep constant. In the instruments of the
CRL type,the application of load is made in such a way that the rate of loading is
constant througout the duration of the test. This type of instruments are usually
preferred for accurate scientific work. In the CRE and CRL types of instruments,it
is easy to adjust the "time-to-break" while this adjustment is not easy in the CRT
types of instruments.
The uster Tensorapid applies the CRE principle of tensile testing. Constant Rate
of Extension describes the simple fact that the moving clamp is displaced at a
constant velocity. As a result, the specimen between the staionary and the
moving clamp is extended by a constant distance per unit of time and the force
required to do so is measured. Apart fron single values, this instrument also
calculates mean value coefficient of variation and the 95% confidence range of
maximum force, tenacity,elongation and work done
The total coefficient of variation describes the overall variability of a tested lot, i.e
the within-sample variation plus the between-sample variation. If 20 individual
single-end tensile test are performed on each of ten bobbins or packages in a
sample lot, the total coefficient of variation is calculated from the pooled data of
the total number of tests that were carried out.
In tensorapid, the breaking tenacity is calculated from the peak force which
occurs anywhere between the beginning of the test and the final rupture of the
specimen. The peak force or maximum force is not identical with the force
measured at the very moment of rupture. The breaking elongation is calculated
from the clamp displacement at the point of peak force. The elongation at peak
force is no identical with the elongation at the very moment of rupture(elongation
at rupture).
The work to break is defined as the area below the stress/strain curve drawn to
the point of peak force and the corresponding elongation at peak force. The work
at the point of peak force is not identical with the work at the very moment of
rupture.

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 To compare tensorapid test results with other results,
1. a measurement must be performed according the CRE princple
2. testing speed must be exactly 5 m/min
3. the gauge length or the length of the specimen should be 500 mm
4. the pretension should be 0.5 cN/tex
There are two fundamental criteria which affect the compatibility between
different measurements of tensile yarn properties.
1. testing conditions, i.e the testing principle(CRE,CRL), testing speed,
gauge length, and pre-tensioning.
2. the second criteria,which also affects the magnitude of the differences,
relates to the specific stress/strain characteristic of the yarn itself, which is
determined by the fibrous materials, the blend ratio, and the yarn
construction.

Skein strength or Lea strength

The skein breaking strength was the most widely used measure of yarn quality in
the cotton textile industry.The measurement of yarn quality by this method has
certain drawbacks. Firstly, in most of the subsequent processing, such as
winding, warping or weaving, yarn is used as single strand and not in the form
ofa skein except occasionally when sizing ,bleaching, mercerising or dyheing
treatments are carrried out on hanks. Secondly, in the method used for testing
skein strength, the rupture of a single strand at a weak place affects the result for
the whole skein. Further, this method of test does not give an indication of the
extensibility and elastic properties of a yarn, the characters which play and
important role during the weaving operations. However, since a large size
sample is used in a skein test as against that in a single strand test, the sampling
error is less. The skein used for strength test can be used for determination of
the linar density of the yarn as well.

In addition to the factors influencing the yarn strength, the size of the skein(lea)
will affect to a large extent the strength recorded. The usual practice is to use a

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 lea(120 yards) of yarn prepared by winding 80 turns on a wrap-reel having a
perimeter of 1.5 yards(54 inches), so that during a test, there are 160 strands of
27 in.(") length. There are different systems in use. But the actual breaking
strength
recorded on the machine would depend on the type of skein used as both the
number of strands and test length may differ. The instruments most commonly
used for this test is CRT type, where the bottom hook moves at 12 inches per
min.
After findingout skein strength, broken skeins are also weighed to determine the
linear density.The most common skein used is the lea and the results of lea
strength tests are expressed as C.S.P.,which is the product of the linear
density(count)of the yarn in the English system (Ne) and the lea breking strength
expressed in lbs. In view of the fact that C.S.P. is much less dependent on yarn
count than on strength, especially when count diffferences are small, C.S.P. is
the mostg widely used measure of yarn qauality.

YARN EVENNESS

INTRODUCTION:

Non-uniformity in variety of properties exists in yarns. There can be variation twist.,bulk,

strength, elongation , fineness etc. Yarn evenness deals with the variation in yarn
fineness. Thisis the property, commonly measured as the variation in mass per unit
length along the yarn, is a basic and important one, since it can influence so samy
other properties of the yarn and offabric made from it. Such variations are inevitable,
because they arise from the fundamental nature of textile fibres and from their resulting
arrangement.

The spinner tries to produce a yarn with the highest possible degree of homogeneity. In
this connection, the evenness of the yarn mass is of the greatest importance. In order to
produce an absolutely regular yarn, all fibre characteristics would have to be uniformly
distributed over the whole thread. However, that is ruled out by the inhomogeneity of the

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fibre material and by the mechanical constraints Accordingly, there are limits to the
achievable yarn eveness.

IMPORTANCE OF YARNEVENNESS: Irregularity can adversely affect many of the

properties of textile materials. The most obvious consequence of yarn evenness is the
variation of strength along the yarn. If the average mass per unitlength of two yarns is
equal, but one yarn is less regular than the other, it is clear that the more even yarn will
be the stronger of the two.The uneven one should have more thin regions than the even
one as a result of irregularity, since the average linear density is the same. Thus, an
irregular yarn will tend to break more easily during spinning, winding, weaving, knitting,
or any other process where stress is applied.

A second qality-related effect of uneven yarn is the presence of visible faults on the
surface of fabrics. If a large amount of irregularity is present in the yarn, the variation in
fineness can easily be detected in the finished cloth. The problem is particularly serious
when a fault(i.e a thick or thin place) appears at precisely regular intervals along the
length of the yarn. In such cases, fabric construction geometry ensures that the faults
will be located in a pattern that is very clearly apparent to the eye, and defects such as
streaks, stripes, barre, or other visual groupings develop in the cloth. Such defects are
usually compounded when the fabric is dyed or finished, as a result of the twist
variation accompanying them.

Twist tends to be higher at thin places in a yarn. Thus , at such locations, the
penetration of a dye or finish is likely to be lowe than at the thick regions of lower twist.
In consequence, the thicker yarn region will tend to be deeper in shade than the thinner
ones and, if a visual fault appears in a pattern on the fabric, the pattern will tend to be
emphasized by the presence of colour or by some variation in a visible property, such
as crease-resistance controlled by a finish.

Other fabric properties, such as abrasion or pill-resistance, soil retention, drape,

absorbency, reflectance, or lustre, may also be directly influenced by yarn evenness.

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Thus, the effects of irregularity are widespread throughout all areas of the production
and use of textiles, and the topic is an important one in any areas of the industry.

"UNEVENNESS" OR "IRREGULARITY" :The mass per unit length variation due to

variation in fibre assembly is generally known as "IRREGULARITY" or
"UNEVENNESS". It is true that the diagram can represent a true relfection of the mass
or weight per unit length variation in a fibre assembly. For a complete analysis of the
quality, however, the diagram alone is not enough. It is also necessary to have a
numerical value which represents the mass variation. The mathematical statistics offer
2 methods

1. the irregularity U% : It is the percentage mass deviation of unit length of material

and is caused by uneven fibre distribution along the length of the strand.
2. the coefficient of variation C.V.%

In handling large quantities of data statistically, the coefficient of variation (C.V.%) is

commonly used to define variability and is thus well-suited to the problem of expressing
yarn evenness. It is currently probably the most widely accepted way of quantifying
irregulariy. It is given by

coefficient variation (C.V.%) = (standard deviation/average) x 100

The irregularity U% is proportional to the intensity of the mass variations around the
mean value. the U% is independent of the evaluating time or tested material length with
homogeneously distributed mass variation. the larger deviations from the mean value
are much more intensively taken into consideration in the calculation of the coefficient of
variation CV(squaring of the term) C.V.% has received more recognition in the modern
statistics than the irregularity value U. The coefficient of variation CV can be determined
extremely accurately by electronic means, whereas the calculation of the irregularity U
is based on an approximation method. It can be considered that if the fibre assembly
required to be tested is normally distributed with respect to its mass variation, a
conversion possibility is available between the two types of calculation.

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C.V.% = 1.25 * U%

INDEX OF IRREGULARITY": Index of irregularity expresses the ratio between the

measured irregularity and the so-called limiting irregularity of an ideal yarn. The manner
in which irregularity is assessed can lead to different ways of expressing the index.

In calculating the limit irregularity, the assumption is made that, in the ideal case, fibre
distribution in a yarn is completely random and a practical yarn can never improve upon
this situation.Thus, the measured irregularity will be an indication of the extent to which
fibre distribution falls short of complete randomness. If all fibres are uniform in cross-
sectional size, it can be shown that the limiting irregularity expressed in terms of C.V is
given by

C.V.(limit) = 100 / sqrt(N)

This expression also assumes a POISSON distribution in the values around "N"(the
mean number of fibres in the cross section)

Let
C.V.lim = the calculated limit irregularity C.V. = the actual irreglarityThen,Index of
Irregularity (I) = C.V / C.V.limit.

By calculating the limit irregularity and then measuring the actual irregularity, we can
judge the spinning performance.

DEVIATION RATE:

Deviation rate describes by what percentage a mass deviation exceeds or falls below a
certain limit. The cut length factor in m averages out the shorter, higher deviations

DR (xy) = (L1+l2..+Ln) x 100 / L tot

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DR = Total relative length in (%) of all deviations of the mass signal which surpass the
limit +/- x% over a total test length of L meters, with the cut length of curve being y
meters.

FORMULA FOR DR PERCENTAGE:

The standard DR used for yarn is 1.5 m cutlength at a +/- 5% limit. The application of
DR is similar to that of the CVm values. One has to take in to consideration that the DR
is based on threshhold values and changes more significantly than CV values when
higher mass deviations over long stretches of test material arise.

THe deviation rate is calculated by comparing all the deviations of the positive range
with the whole test length Ltot. The same is valid for all deviations in the negative
range. As the zero line corresponds to the median , the Deviation Rate (DR) can reach
the maximum of 5 0%.

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DETERIORATION IN EVENNESS DURING PROCESSING: In processing in the
spinning mill, the unevenness of the product increases from stage to stage after
drawframe. There are two reasons for this

1. The number of fibres in the cross section steadily decreases. Uniform

arrangement of the fibres becomes more difficult, the smaller their number.
2. Each drafting operation increases the unevenness

Each machine in the spinning process adds a certain amount to the irregularity of
finished yarn. The resultant irregularity at the output of any spinning process stage is
equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the irregularities of the material
and the irregularity introduced in the process.

Let us assume that, CVo - CV of output material CV1 - CV of input material CV -

irregularity introduced by machine

then,

CVo = sqart(CV1 + CV)

UNEVENNESS OVER DIFFERENT CUT LENGTHS: A length of yarn, for example of

10mm, contains only few fibres. Every irregular arrangement of only some of these
fibres has a strong influence on the unevenness. In a length of yarn of 10m, incorrect
arrangement of the same fibres would hardly be noticed against the background of the
large number of such fibres. Accordingly, the CV value of the same yarn can be, for
example, 14% based on, 8mm, and only 2% based on 100 m. The degree of irregularity
is dependent upon the regerence length.Unevenness is therefore discussed in terms of
short lengths(uster tester):medium lengths(seldom used):long lengths(count variation).

Fabric stripiness and barre have been problematic fabric defects in the textile industry
for many years. Though direct quantification has not been possible, the causes for such
fabric defects have been studied. It has been shown that raw material quality and yarn
mass variations (particularly medium and long term variations) contribute significantly to

352
the guidance of such faults. Of these causes, there has been a general neglect of the
control of medium term variations (variations over 1m, 3m,10m, etc). A mill needs to
control the cut length variations of the yarn produced in order to ensure a fault free
fabric.

If the variation of cut length C.V.% of 1 meter, 3 meters, 10 meters is high , when
different cops are tested , the fabric appearance will be very badly affected. It will result
in fabric defects such as stripiness.

IMPERFECTIONS:
Yarns spun from staple fibres contain "IMPERFECTIONS" . They are also referred to as
frequently occurring yarn faults. They can be subdivided into three groups

1. Think places
2. Thick places
3. Neps

The reasons for these different types of faults are due to rawmaterial or improper
preparation process. A reliable analysis of these imperfections will provide some
reference to the quality of the raw material used.

Thick places and thin places, lie in the range of +-100% with respect to the mean value
of yarn cross-sectional size.The Neps will overstep +100% limit.

Thick places over +100% are analysed by the CLASSIMAT system, are cut by the
clearers in winding depending upon the end use of the yarn.

Imperfection indicator record imperfections at different sensitive levels

1. Thin place
1. -30% : yarn cross section is only 70% of yarn mean value
2. -40% : yarn cross section is only 60% of yarn mean value
3. -50% : yarn cross section is only 50% of yarn mean value
4. -60% : yarn cross section is only 40% of yarn mean value

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 2. Thick place
1. +35% : the cross section at thick place is 135% of yarn mean value
2. +50% : the cross section at thick place is 150% of yarn mean value
3. +70% : the cross section at thick place is 170% of yarn mean value
4. +100%: the cross section at thick place is 200% of yarn mean value
3. Neps
1. 400%: the cross section at the nep is 500% of the yarn mean value
2. 280%: the cross section at the nep is 380% of the yarn mean value
3. 200%: the cross section at the nep is 200% of the yarn mean value
4. 140%: the cross section at the nep is 140% of the yarn mean value

Thick places and thin places which overstep teh minimum actuating sensitivity of +35%
and -30% , respectively, correspond to their length to approximately the mean fibre
length. Medium length or long thick and thin places are to be considred as mean value
variations and are not counted by the instrument.

The standard sensitive levels are as follows

Thin place : -50%

Thick place : +50%
Neps : 200% ( 280% for open-end yarns)

The reason for reducing the sensitivity of nep counting in rotor spun yarns is due
to the fact that with these yarns, the neps tend to be spun into the core of the
yarn and therefore are less visible to the human eye in the finished product. With
ring spun yarns, on the other hand, the neps, in general tend to remain on the
surface of the yarn. Due to the above reasons, while a nep is considered serious
for a ring spun yarn even if its size exceeds +200%, it becomes serious only after
its size exceeds +280% for open end yarns.

It is however worth mentioning here that, though the imperfection values at

standard sensitiviy levels i.e. +50% for thick places and -50% for thin places
indicate the acceptable quality levels in terms of fabric appearance, the quality of

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processing in terms of optimization of process parameters will be better
indicated by imperfections at higher sensitivity levels. It is commonly observed
that while the thin places may be '0' for any two mills at the standard sensitivity
level of -50%, the thin places at -40% sensitivity may show a big difference.

Thin places and thick places in a yarn can, on the one hand, quite consdierably
affect the appearance of a woven or knitted fabric. Furthermore, an increase in
the number of thin places and thick places refer to a particularly valuable
indication that the raw material or the method of processing has become worse.
On the other hand, it cannot be concluded from the increased number of thin
place faults that this yarn, the downtime of weaving or knitting machines will be
increased to a similar degree. Thin places usually exhibit a higher yarn twist,
because of fewer fibres in the cross-section resulting in less resistance to torsion.
The yarn tension does not become smaller proportionally with a reduced
numberof fibres. With thick plalce faults the contrary is the case. More fibres in
the cross-section result in a higher resistance to torsion. Thic places have
therefore, in many cases, a yarn twist which is lower than the average. The yarn
tension in the yarn at the position of the thick place is only in very few cases
proportional to the number of fibres. These considerations are valid primarily for
ring-spun yarns.

Neps can influence the appearance of woven or knitted fabrics quite

considerably. Furthermore neps of a certain size can lead to processing
difficulties, particularly in the knitting machines. Therefore the avoidance of neps
in the production of spun yarns is a fundamental textile technological problem.

Neps can be divided, fundamentally , into two catergories:-raw material neps-

processing neps

The rawmaterial neps in cotton yarn are primarily the result of vegetable matter
and immature fibres in the raw material. The influence of the rawmaterial with
wool and synthetic fibres in terms of nep production is negligible. Processing

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neps are produced at ginning and also in cotton , woollen and worsted carding.
Their fabrication is influenced by the type of card clothing, the setting of the card
flats, workers and strippers, and by the production speeds used.

SPECTROGRAM:
"DIAGRAM" is a representation of the mass variations in the time domain.
Whereas SPECTROGRAM is a representation of the mass variation in the
frequency domain. Spectrogram helps to recognize and analyse the periodic fault
in the sliver, roving and yarn.

For textile application, the frequency spectrum is not practical. A representaion

which makes reference to the wavelength is preferred. Wavelength indicatres
directly at which distance the periodic faults repeat. The more correct indication
of the curve produced by the spectrograph is the wave-length spectrum
Frequency and wavelength are related as follows

Frequency = (wavelength)/(material speed)

In the SPECTROGRAM, the X-axis represents the wavelength. Inorder to cover

a maximum range of wavelengths, a logrithmic scale is used for the wavelength
representation. The y-axis is without scale but represents the amplitude of the
faults in yarn.

The spectrogram consists of shaded and non-shaded areas. If a periodic fault

passes through the measuring head for a minimum of 25 times, then it is
considered as significant and it is shown in the shaded area. Wavelength ranges
which are not statistically significant are not shaded. In this range the faults are
displayed but not hatched. This happens when a fault repeats for about 6 to 25
times within the tests length of the material.

As far as those faults in the unshaded area is concerned, it is recommended to

first confirm the seriousness of the fault before proceeding with the corrective

356
 action. This can be done by testing a longer length of yarn. Faults which occur
less than 6 times will not appear in the spectrogram.

A spectrogram starts at 1.1 cm if the testing speed is 25 to 200 m.min. It starts at

2.0cm if the testing speed is 400 m/min and it starts at 4 cm if the speed is 800
m.min. For spun material the maximum wavelength range is 1.28 km. Maximum
number of channels is 80

Depending upon the wavelength of the periodic fault, the mass variations are
classified as

1. short-term variation( wavelength ranges from 1 cm to 50cm)

2. medium-term variation( wavlength ranges from 50cm to 5 m)
3. long-term variation(wavelength longer than 5 m)
periodic variations in the range of 1 cm to 50 cm are normally repeated a number
of times within the woven or knitted fabric width, which results in the fact periodic
thick places or thin places will lie near to each other. This produces, in most
cases, a "MOIRE EFFECT". This effect is particularly intensive for the naked
eyes if the finished product is observed at a distance of approx. 50 cm to 1m.
Periodic mass variations in the range of 50cm to 5m are not recognizable in
every case. Faults in this range are particularly effective if the single or double
weave width, or the length of the stretched out yarn one circumference of the
knitted fabric, is an integral number of wave-lengths of the periodic fault, or is
near to an integral number of wave-lengths. In such cases, it is to be expected
that weft stripes will appear in the woven fabric or rings in the knitted fabric.
Periodic mass variations with wave-lengths longer than 5m can result in quite
distinct cross-stripes in woven and knitted fabrics, because the wave-length of
the periodic fault will be longer than the width of the woven fabric or the
circumference of the knitted fabric. The longer the wavelength, the wider will be
the width of the cross-stripes.Such faults are quite easily recognizable in the
finished product, particularly when this is observed from distances further away
than 1 m.

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 A periodic mass variation in a fibre assembly does not always result in a
statistically significant difference in the U/V value. Nevertheless, such a fault will
result in a woven or knitted fabric and deteriorate the quality of the fabric. Such
patterning in the finished product can become intensified after dyeing. This is
particularly the case with uni-coloured products and products consisting of
synthetic fibre filament yarns.

The degree to which a periodic fault can affect the finished product is not only
dependent on its intensity but also on the width and type of the woven or knitted
fabric, on the fibre material, on the yarn count, on the dye up-take of the fibre,
etc. A considerable number of trials have shown that the height of the peak
above the basic spectrum should not overstep 50% of the basic spectrum height
at the wavelength position where the peak is available.

CHIMNEY TYPE FAULTS: The eccentricity roller results in a sinusoidal mass

variation whereby the periodicity corresponds to full circumference of the roller.
With one complete revolution of an OVAL roller, a sinusoidal mass variation also
results, but 2 periodic faults are available. Chimney type of faults are mainly due
to -mechanical faults -eccentric rollers, gears etc -

YARN EVENNESS

DIAGRAM
The mass variations or weight per unit length variations are recorded and printed as a
Diagram by the Evenness tester. The diagram is an extremely important part of
evenness testing. It contains a large amount of information which cannot be provided by
the wavelength spectrum, U% value, and the imperfections. Diagrams help to
understand the following seldom occuring events long wave-length variations periodic
mass variations with wave-lengths which are longer than 40m(which can not be
confimed by the spectrogram. extreme thick and thin places randomly occurring thick
and thin places which tend to be available in batches. slow changes in the mean value
step changes in the mean value with periodic faults, it can be determined whether the

358
fault is permanently availabe or occurs only in batches with measurements "within a
bobbin", seldom occurring events can be found and changes in the mean value taking
place over a number of kilometers can be confirmed. with unusual measured values, it
can be proved in many cases by means of the diagram whether these refer to a faulty or
to a correct measurement.

RELATIVE COUNT: It is a measure used to calculate the count variations using

capacitance method of USTER TESTER It calucalates a value called "Average Value
Factor AF". This factor is proportional to the mean count of the tested sample length.

The relative count describes the variation of count between separate measurements
within a sample. The single values are calculated such that they are in direct reference
to the mean value of the sample which is always considered to be 100%. The relative
count is always estimated with reference to a test length of 100m or 100 yards.

From the single-overall report, it is possible to recognize immediately which samples are
lying above or below the mean value. The standard deviation provides a reference to
the variation in count between samples. As the mean value is always 100%, the
standard deviation also provides a reference to the coefficient of variation. If the
samples are from the same bobbin this would indicate the "within bobbin"variation and if
the samples are from the same bobbin this would indicate the "within bobbin"
variationand if the samples are from different bobbins this would indicate "between
bobbin" variation.

VARIANCE LENGTH CURVE: The variance-length curve is generally regarded as the

most useful technique for expressing the yarn irregularity data. Any fibre assembly has
a TOTAL IRREGULARITY CV(T), and this coefficient of variation is made up of two
terms. These are the coefficient of variation within length, CV(L) and the coefficient of
variation between lengths CB(L).

The co-efficient of variation at different cut lengths provided by the evenness testers
provide invaluable information with regard to the variations prevalent at the specific cut
lengths. Therefore independently, the shor, medium and long term variations could be

359
studied by estimating the coefficient of variation of the required length. However, such
numerical values, cannot directly provide complete information on the source of faults.
The spectrogram provides a possibility of localizing the source of fault but with a
spectrogram, only faults of periodic nature could be identified and that too, in most
cases, only if proceeded by some other means of identifying the machine / processing
stage responsible for the fault. When the variations prevailing at different cut lengths are
simultaneously represented graphically, it provides the possibility of segregating cut
lengths at which abnormal variations occur and consequently identify the process stage
which is most likely to be responsible. This is made possible by the "Variance Length
Curve" which is a standard feature of most evenenss testers.

A variance-length curve can be set out in quite a simple manner by cutting a fibre
assembly into pieces and determining gravimetrically the mass of these pieces. The CV
value is then calculated from each of these separate values. If this procedure is
repeated for various cut lengths and the CV value drawn out one obtains the variance-
length curve. Uster tester can be used to obtain the curve in a much shorter time than is
possible by manual analysis. For constructing the variance length, the measuring field
length is taken as the basic cut length at which the CV is calculated and plotted. For
variations at other cut lengths, the mass of successive portion of material are added up
and the CV calculated

Strictly speaking, the variance-length curve is only a straight line on double logrithmic
paper in the medium length range of approx.1 cm to 100m. For cut lengths shorter than
1 cm and longer than 100m, the variance-length curve tends to become flatter. One can
easily comprehend that the curve for the same raw material and same ideal processing
conditions will always be a straight line with an unchanged angle of inclination.
Deviations from the straight line must therefore indicate porblems due to the machine or
the raw material.

THEORETICAL LIMIT FOR IRREGULARITY: The spinning process is based primarily

on a procedure which evenly mixes the fibre, separates each fibre from its neighbour,
lays the fibres parallel to each other and draws these out to produce a final count. The

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mixing leads, however, to the fact that each single fibre has the same probability of
appearing in any chosen section of the fibre mass. The fibres are therefore equally
distributed in the fibre assemblies. The number of fibres in any section considered is
dependent on random variations.The fibres overlap each other and result, even under
the best conditions, in a spun material which has a certain minimum irregularity. With
the natural fibres, in contrast to the synthetic staple fibres there is an additional
irregularity because the single fibres themselves have differences in their fibre corss
sectional size.

The theoretical investigations have helped to arrive at a formula which will help us to
calculate the limiting irregularity

CV(lim) = 100 /(sqrt(N) where,N = mean number of fibres in the cross section.

CALCULATION OF NUMBER OF FIBRES IN THE YARN CROSS-SECTION:

The number of fibres in the cross section of a yarn can be calculated if the fibre fineness
and yarn count in tex are available, or can be converted into tex(gram per 1000m)

N = T/Tf

where, N = number of fibres in the cross section T = count of the fibre material in TEX
Tf= Fibre fineness in TEX INERT TEST: The uster evenness testing installations offer
two possible modes of operation which are referred to as the

Normal test
Inert test With the "NORMAL TEST" , a signal is obtained from the tested
masterial which is in reference to the measuring field length of the applied
measuring slot.

In the operating mode "INERT TEST", the signal obtained from the test material
is passed through an electrical filter arrangement. Normally, the signal from the
test material consists of short and long-term variations which are superimposed
on each other. By means of this filter procedure, the shorter-term variations are

361
 suppressed in a certain manner, so that only the mean value variations, i.e the
long-term mass variations, will be traced out in the diagram. This testg serves
primarily to provide,

an indication of the random mean value variations in the test material

a means of localizing and indicating long term periodic variations in the test
material
a means of facilitating the setting of the mean value at the yarn signal instrument.

If medium-term varitaions appear in a diagram, one can make these more

distinctive by choosing a suitable diagram feed and suitable material speed and
operating with the mode Inert test.

YARN HAIRINE

INTRODUCTION
Yarn hairiness is a complex concept, which generally cannot be completely defined by a
single figure.The effect of yarn hairiness on the textile operations following spinning,
especially weaving and knitting, and its influence on the characteristics of the product
obtained and on some fabric faults has led to the introduction of measurement of
hairiness.

FACTS ABOUT YARN HAIRINESS: Hairiness occurs because some fibre ends
protrude from the yarn body, some looped fibres arch out from the yarn core and some
wild fibres in the yarn.

Pillay proved that there is a high correlation between the number of protruding
ends and the number of fibres in the yarn cross-section.

Torsion rigidity of the fibres is the most important single property affecting yarn
hairiness. Other factors are flexural rigidity, fibre length and fibre fineness.

Mixing different length cottons-No substantial gain in hairiness. Although the

hairiness of a yarn could be reduced to some extent by the addition of a longer

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 and finer cotton to the blend. The extent of reduction is not proportional to the
percentage of the longer and finer component. This is probably due to the
preferential migration of the coarser and shorter component, which has longer
protruding ends, from the yarn body. The addition of wastes to the mixing
increases the yarn hairiness; the effect of adding comber waste is greater than
that of adding soft waste.

Blending-not a solution to hairiness. The blended yarns are rather more hairy
than expected from the hairiness of the components; a result similar to that found
in cotton blends. This may be due to the preferential migration of the shorter
cotton fibers; a count of the number of protruding ends of both types of fiber
shows that there is more cotton fiber ends than expected, although the difference
is not very great.

The number of protruding ends is independent of twist, whereas the number of

loops decreases when the yarn twist increases because of a greater degreee of
binding between hte fibres owing to twist.The number of wild fibres decreases
only very slightly with twist because of their position on the yarn periphery.

The proportion of fiber ends that protrude from the yarn surface, counted
microscopically has been found to be about 31% of the actual number of ends
present in the yarn.
If the length of the protruding fibre ends as well as that of the loops is considered,
the mean value of the hairiness increases as the cross-sectional area increases
and decreases with the length of the loops. The hairiness is affected by the yarn
twist, since an increase in twist tends to shorten the fibre ends.
Wild fibres are those for which hte head alone is taken by the twist while the tail
is still gripped by the front drafting rollers.
Fibre length influences hairiness in the sense that a greater length corresponds
to less hairiness.
Cotton yarns are known to be less hairy than yarns spun from man-made fibres.
The possible reason for this is the prifile of the two fibres.Because of taper, only

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 one end, the heavier root part of the cotton fibre, tends to come out as a
protruding end in a cotton yarn. With man-made fibres, both ends have an equal
probability of showing up as protruding ends.
If the width of the fibre web in the drafting field is large, the contact and friction
with the bottom roller reduce the ability of the fibres to concentrate themselves
and hairiness occurs. This effect is found more in coarse counts with low TPI.
This suggests that the collectors in the drafting field will reduce yarn hairiness.
The yarn hairiness definitely depends on the fibres on the outer layer of the yarn
that do not directly adhere to the core. Some of them have an end in the core of
the yarn gripped by other fibres whereas others, because of the mechanical
properties of the fibre(rigidity, shape, etc.) emerge to the surface. During the
twisting of the yarn, other fibres are further displaced from their central position to
the yarn surface.
Greater the fibre parallelization by the drawframe, lower the yarn hairiness.
An increase in roving twist results in lower yarn hairiness, because of smaller
width of fibre web in the drafting field.

The number of fiber ends on the yarn surface remains fairly constant; the number
of looped fibers reduces in number and length on increasing twist.
Combed yarn will have low yarn hairiness, because of the extraction of shorter
fibres by the comber.
Yarn hairiness increases when the roving linear density increases . Yarn spun
from double roving will have more hairiness than the yarn spun from single
roving. This is due to the increased number of fibres in the web and due to higher
draft required to spin the same count.

Drafting waves increase hairiness. Irregularity arising from drafting waves

increases with increasing draft. Yarn hairiness also may be accepted to increase
with yarn irregularity, because fibers protruding from the yarn surface are more
numerous at the thickest and least twisted parts of the yarn.

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 The yarns produced with condernsers in the drafting field, particularsly if these
are situated in the principal drafting zone, are less hairy than those spun without
the use of condensers.

Higher spindle speed high hairiness. When yarns are spun at different spindle
speed, the centrifugal force acting on fibers in the spinning zone will increase in
proportion to the square of the spindle speed, causing the fibers ends as they are
emerging from the front rollers to be deflected from the yarn surface to a greater
extent. Further, at high spindle speed, the shearing action of the traveller on the
yarn is likely to become great enough to partially detach or raise the fibers from
the body of the yarn. As against the above factors, at higher spindle speeds the
tension in the yarn will increase in proportion to the square of the spindle speed,
and consequently more twist will run back to the roller nip, so that it is natural to
expect that better binding of the fibers will be achieved. The increase in hairiness
noticed in the results suggests that the forces involved in raising fibers from the
yarn surface are greater than those tending to incorporate them within the body
of the yarn at higher spindle speeds.

Higher draft before ring frame-less hairiness. There is a gradual reduction of

hairiness with increase in draft. In other word, as the fiber parallelization
increases hairiness decreases. Reversing the card sliver before the first drawing
head causes a reduction in hairiness, the effect being similar to that resulting
from the inclusion of an extra passage of drawing.

Smaller roving package-less hairiness. Yarn hairiness decreases with decrease

in roving (doff) size, and yarn spun from front row of roving bobbins is more hairy
and variable as compare to that spun from back row of rowing bobbins. It may be
noted that though the trends are consistent yet the differences are non-
significant:

The spinning tension has a considerable influence on the yarn hairiness. The
smaller the tension,the greater the hairiness. This is the reason why heavier

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 travellers result in low yarn hairiness If the traveller is too heavy also , yarn
hairiness will increase.
Spindle eccentricity leads to an increase in hairiness. Small eccentricities
influence hairiness relatively little, but, from 0.5 mm onwards, the hairiness
increases almost exponentially with eccentricity.

The increase in hairiness due to spindle eccentricity, will be influenced by the

diameter of ring, dia of bobbin, the shape of the traveller,the yarn tension, etc.
Yarn hairiness will increase if the thread guide or lappet hook is not centred
properly.

Heavier traveler- less hairiness. The reduced hairiness of yarns at higher

traveller weights can be explained by the combined effect of tension and twist
distribution in the yarn at the time of spinning. The spindle speed remains
constant, but the tension in the yarn will increase with increasing traveller weight,
and better binding of the fibers would be expected.

Parallel fibers-less hairiness. The improvement of yarn quality on combing is

mainly ascribed to the reduction in the number of short fiber improvement in
length characteristics, and fiber parallelization. There is a marked difference in
hairiness of the carded yarn and the combed yarns, even with a comber loss of
only 5%, but the effect on hairiness of increasing the percentage of comber
waste is less marked. Combing even at low percentage waste causes a marked
drop in hairiness relative to that of the carded yarn. In the case of combed cotton
yarns the average value of hairiness decreases with increase in count, whereas
in the case of polyester/ viscose blend yarns the hairiness increases with
increase in count. In the case of polyester/ cotton blend yarns trend is not clear.

Flat and round travellers do not influence yarn hairiness, but a greater degree of
hairiness was observed with elliptical travellers and anti-wedge rings.
Traveller wear obviously influences hairiness because of the greater abrasion on
the yarn Yarn hairiness increases with the life of the traveller.

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 Bigger the ring diameter, lower the yarn hairiness.
Yarn spun in a dry atmosphere is more hairy.
Hairiness variation between spindles is very detrimental. Because these variation
can lead to shade or appearance variaion in the cloth.
The variation in hairiness within bobbin can be reduced considerably by the use
of heavy travelers alone or by balloon-control rings with travellers of normal
weight. In both the cases yarn is prevented from rubbing against the separators.
Yarn hairiness is caused by protruding ends, by the presence of a majority of
fibre tails This suggests that these tails will become heads on unwinding and that
friction to which the yarn is subjected will tend to increase their length. It is
therefore logical that a yarn should be morehairy after winding.
Repeated windings in the cone widning machine will increase the yarn hairiness
and after three or four rewindings, the yarn hairiness remain same for cotton
yarns.
Winding speed influences yarn hairiness, but the most important increase in
hairiness is produced by the act of winding itself.
Because of winding, the number of short hairs increases more rapidly thatn the
number of long hairs.
In two-for-one twisters (TFO), more hairiness is produced because, twist is
imparted in two steps Yarn hairiness also depends upon the TFO speed,
because it principally affects the shortest fibre ends.
Hairiness varitions in the weft yarn will result in weft bars.

Hairiness Testing of Yarns

Hairiness of yarns has been discussed for many years,but it always remained a fuzzy
subject. With the advent of compact yarns and their low hairiness compared to
conventional yarns,the issue of measuring hairiness and the proper interpretation of the
values has become important again.Generally speaking,long hairs are undesirable,
while short hairs are desirable (see picture ). The picture shown below just give a
visual impression of undesirable and desirable hairiness at the edge of a cops.

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Figure:

RING YARN COMPACT YARN

There are two major manufacturers of hairiness testing equipment on the market,and
both have their advantages and disadvantages. Some detail is given below.

USTER

USTER is the leading manufacturer of textile testing equipment. The USTER hairiness
H is defined as follows .

H =total length (measured in centimeters) of all the hairs within one centimeter of yarn .

(The hairiness value given by the tester at the end of the test is the average of all these
values measured, that is,if 400 m have been measured,it is the average of 40,000
individual values) . The hairiness H is an average value,giving no indication of the
distribution of the length of the hairs. Let us see an example

0.1cm 0.2cm 0.3cm 0.4cm 0.5cm 0.6cm 0.7cm 0.8cm 0.9cm 1.0cm total

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yarn 1 100 50 30 10 5 6 0 2 1 0 398

yarn 2 50 10 11 5 10 0 5 10 0 11 398

Both yarns would have the same hairiness index H, even though yarn is more
desirable,as it has more short hairs and less long hairs,compared to yarn 2.

This example shows that the hairiness H suppresses information,as all averages do.
Two yarns with a similar value H might have vastly different distributions of the length of
the individual hairs.

The equipment allows to evaluate the variation of the value H along the length of the
yarn. The "sh value "is given, but the correlation to the CV of hairiness is somehow not
obvious.A spectrogram may be obtained.

2.ZWEIGLE

Zweigle is a somewhat less well known manufacturer of yarn testing equipment. Unlike
USTER,the Zweigle does not give averages. The number of hairs of different lengths
are counted separately, and these values are displayed on the equipment. In addition,
the S3 value is given,which is defined as follows:

S3 =Sum (number of hairs 3 mm and longer)

In the above example,the yarns would have different S3 values:

S3yarn 1 =2 .

S3yarn 2 =4 .

A clear indication that yarn 2 is "more hairy "than yarn 1. The CV value of hairiness is
given a histogram (graphical representation of the distribution of the hairiness) is given.

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The USTER H value only gives an average,which is of limited use when analyzing the
hairiness of the yarn.The Zweigle testing equipment gives the complete distributionof
the different lengths of the hairs. The S3 value distinguishes between long and short
hairiness, which is more informative than the H value.

HAIRINESS IN YARN

I am very happy to add this article written by Mr.Kamatchi Sundaram , All india Service
Manager of VOLTAS LTD. INDIA, in my site. He is one among the good technologists
who has indepth knowledge about textile technology and spinning machines. I hope this
information is of use to the technical people who browse through this site.

Hairiness is a measure of the amount of fibres protruding from the structure of the yarn.
In the past, hairiness was not considered so important. But with the advent of high-
speed looms and knitting machines, the hairiness has become a very important
parameter.

In general, yarn spun with Indian cotton show high level of hairiness due to the following
reasons.

1. High short fibre content in mixing.

2. Low uniformity ratio.

3. High spindle speeds.

Hence most of the Indian yarns have a hairiness index above 50% Uster standards.
However, as this parameter is becoming more and more important, Indian spinners are
concentrating more on this aspect and try to reach at least 25% standards by
conducting lot of trials. He has conducted a lot of such studies on hairiness and he is
pleased to share his learnings with you.

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Hairiness is measured in two different methods.

1. USTER HAIRINESS INDEX:

This is the common method followed in India. The hairiness index H corresponds to the
total length of protruding fibres within the measurement field of 1cm length of the yarn.

2. ZWEIGLE HAIRINESS INDEX:

This zweigle hairiness measurement (S3) gives the number of protruding fibres more
than 3 mm in length in a measurement length of one meter of the yarn.

From the above you can infer that Uster hairiness index give the total length of hairs
whereas zweigle hairiness testers give the absolute number of fibres. Though the later
measurement is more accurate, most of the Indian spinners are still following Uster
hairiness index only.

The factors effecting hairiness can be sub divided into 3 major components.

a) The fibre properties.

b) Yarn parameters.

c) Process parameters.

a)THE FIBRE PROPERTIES:

Fibre length, Uniformity ratio, Micronaire and short fibre content are the properties
exerting high influence on hairiness. Among the above the length and short fibre
content exerting major influence. For a particular count, higher length of fibre leads to
lesser hairiness and high short fibre content leads to high hairiness.

b)YARN PARAMETER:

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Hairiness is dependent on the number of fibres present in the cross section of the yarn.
Hence coarser yanrs have more hairiness compared to finer yarns.

The yarn twist is another major factor and higher twists lead to less hairiness up to a
certain extent. This is the main reason while hosiery yarns normally have high hairiness
compared to warp yarns.

However in a mill condition, the fibre parameters and yarn parameters cannot be
adjusted. Hence the next topic, process parameters, assumes very high significance,
as this is the only available option at the mill level to reduce the hairiness.

C) PROCESS PARAMETER:

The preparatory machines do not have a big influence on hairiness. The Speed
frame, Ring frame and the Cone winder are the only machines to be attended for
reduction in hairiness. I give below the various process parameters that can be
attended for reducing the hairiness.

a)SPEED FRAME:

1.Roving hank: It plays a major role in the reduction of hairiness. For a particular
count, the hairiness of the yarn goes down, as the roving hank is made finer and finer.

For example: If 30s yarn is spun with 0.8 and 1.0 hank, yarn made with 1.0 hank will
give lesser hairiness than the yarn made with the 0.8 hank. Hence please conduct a
trial with finer roving hank to reduce the hairiness. The results of the study conducted
recently at a leading mill are given below for your reference on this point.

TRIALS ON HAIRINESS

EFFECT OF ROVING HANK ON HAIRINESS

Ring rail bottom po Ring rail top postion

COUNT 24 ch 24 ch 24 ch 24 ch 24 ch 24 ch

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 ROVING
1.0 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.8
HK

SPACER 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0

U% 8.75 8.8 8.72 8.61 8.54 8.68

thin (-50%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

thick
10 15 15 9 11 14
(+50%)

Neps
12 18 21 12 14 18
(+200%)

Total IPI 22 33 36 21 25 32

Hairiness
7.52 7.86 8.45 6.4 6.48 7.09
Index

Sh(-) 1.31 1.3 1.48 1.19 1.27 1.41

You would note from the above that the hairiness as well as imperfections have
improved significantly by using finer hank of the roving.

2. Spacer Size: It is the normal tendency of the technicians to use spacer as thin as
possible to reduce the U% and imperfections. But thinner spacers lead to higher
hairiness. Hence please conduct a trial with a spacer, which is 1.0 to 1.5 mm thicker
than existing spacer.

b)RING FRAME:

1.Ring Traveller: It is generally opined by many technicians that the traveller plays a
major role in hairiness. Though selection of the traveller plays a small role in hairiness
(specially with reference to the yarn clearance), its effect is quite less. This is because
the yarn contact point with the traveller is quite far away from the ring and traveller
contact point. Hence even if the traveller is run for a long time, the hairiness will not
increase. But the breakage rate will increase.

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2.Ring: It is the general opinion of some technicians that imported rings give lesser
hairiness than Indian rings. It is also believed by technicians that older rings give more
hairiness. Recent studies / trials conducted by us recently at a leading mill indicate this
not to be true. Please refer the table below.

EFFECT OF RINGS ON HAIRINESS

RING COPS TRAIL (TOP POSITION OF THE RING RAIL)

PARAMETERS old lmw rings new lmw rings bracker rings

NOMINAL COUNT 30s CH 30s CH 30s CH

U% 9.37 9.59 9.59

Thin (-50%) 0 0 0

Thick (+50%) 24 28 24

Neps (+200%) 51 52 58

Total IPI 75 80 82

Hairiness Index 5.4 5.26 5.33

Sh(-) 1.18 1.13 1.17

RING COPS TRAIL (BOTTOM POSITION OF THE RING RAIL)

PARAMETERS old lmw rings new lmw rings bracker rings

NOMINAL COUNT 30s CH 30s CH 30s CH

U% 9.24 9.18 9.24

Thin (-50%) 0 0 0

Thick (+50%) 26 19 27

Neps (+200%) 49 44 46

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 Total IPI 75 63 73

Hairiness Index 6.11 6.06 6.22

Sh(-) 1.27 1.26 1.29

You would note from the above trials that:

a) There is no significant difference in hairiness between Imported & Indian rings.

b) There is also no significant difference in hairiness between a new and a one-year-old

ring However if the condition of the ring is highly worn out it will affect the hairiness. In
short the ring and traveller do not play a major role on hairiness compared to other
process parameters, which are explained below.

3) SPACER SIZE: Size of the spacer plays significant role in reducing the hairiness.
Many technicians have a tendency to use the thinnest spacer for reduction in U% and
imperfections. However it leads to significant increase in hairiness. A study conducted
recently at a leading mill proves this point. Please refer the table below for the above
study.

EFFECT SPACER SIZE ON HAIRINESS

Ring rail bottom position Ring rail Top position

COUNT 24s CH 24s CH 24s CH 24s CH

ROVING HK 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

SPACER 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0

U% 8.7 9.06 8.58 8.76

thin (-50%) 0 0 0 0

thick (+50%) 8 15 7 12

Neps (+200%) 14 16 16 19

Total IPI 22 31 23 31

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Hairiness Index 7.32 6.72 5.87 5.35

Sh(-) 1.27 1.19 1.07 1.06

You would note from the above that there is a significant reduction in hairiness by using
thicker spacer. However the imperfection has also increased. .

The spacer should be selected such that optimum results are achieved with respect to
imperfections as well as hairiness. We request you to conduct a trial with a spacer,
which is 0.5 to 1mm thicker than the existing spacer. It is needless to mention that
using thicker spacer will increase the imperfections. However if the reduction in
hairiness is more significant than increase in imperfections it can be allowed.

4) TPI IN THE YARN: Increasing the TPI leads to reduction in hairiness and this is more
significant in the case hosiery yarn. Hence if the hairiness is a bigger problem faced by
mill, trials can be conducted by increasing the TPI up to the allowable limit for achieving
reduction in hairiness.

5) LAPPET HEIGHT: Reduction in lappet height leads to direct reduction in hairiness.

However care should be taken to ensure that the yarn does not touch the tip of the
Empties. Please conduct trials with reduced lappet height (Formula: Lappet height =
2D+5mm).

6) SUCTION TUBE SETTING: The suction tube should be set such that the yarn does
not touch the tip of the suction tube in running. If the yarn touches the suction tube due
to improper setting, it will lead to increase in hairiness.

7) TRAVELLER SIZE: Usage of heavier traveller leads to reduction in hairiness.

For Example: If the breakage rate in 30s carded hosiery count is same with 4/O and 6/O
traveller, using 4/O traveller will give lesser hairiness than 6/O traveller.

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8) LIFT AND RING DIAMETER: Using lesser lift and lesser ring diameter will lead to
direct and significant reduction in hairiness.

For Example: If 30s carded hosiery count is spun with 170/38 and 180/40 combination,
spindle speeds remaining the same, the former combination will give much lesser
hairiness than the later combination because of a reduction in the height and diameter
of the yarn balloon while spinning.

C) CONE WINDER:

There will be a significant difference between the hairiness of the yarn at cop stage and
at cone stage. The cone winding process increases the hairiness by 15 to 20%, which
is unavoidable. However, if the modern AutoConers are not tuned properly, it will lead
to increase in hairiness of much more than 20%. In this case the following points need
attention.

1.WINDING SPEED: The speed of winding plays a significant role on increase in

hairiness. The increase in winding speed leads to direct increase in the hairiness. The
results of the study conducted recently at a leading mill are given below for your
reference on this point.

EFFECT OF WINDING SPEED ON HAIRINESS

winding
winding speed winding speed
speed
PARAMETERS Cop result
1200 m/min 1400 m/min
1600 m/min

NOMINAL COUNT 30 s CH 30 s CH 30 s CH 30 s CH

U% 9.37 9.59 9.6 9.53

Thin (-50%) 0 0 0 0

Thick (+50%) 16 14 15 17

Neps (+200%) 39 41 41 50

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 Total IPI 55 55 59 50

Hairiness Index 5.04 7.13 7.47 7.5

Sh(-) 1.08 1.59 1.66 1.73

You would note from the above that the hairiness increases more and more with the
increase in the winding speed. However it is not economically feasible to run the
AutoConer at slow speed just for achieving lesser hairiness. But all the AutoConers
have a provision to adjust the speed of winding according to the stage of the cop and
this is called variable speed arrangement. By selecting the right speeds at different
stage of the cop the increase in hairiness can be controlled to a great extent.

2 YARN TENSION DURING WINDING: By optimizing the yarn tension the increase in
hairiness can be controlled. The results of the study conducted recently at a leading
mill are given below for your reference on this point.

PARAMETERS tension 25 grams tension 32 grams

NOMINAL
30/1 CH 30/1 CH
COUNT

U% 9.73 9.68

Thin (-50%) 0 0

Thick (+50%) 23 19

Neps (+200%) 52 48

Total IPI 75 67

Hairiness
7.41 7.72
Index

Sh(-) 1.74 1.79

You would note from the above that the hairiness can be reduced by optimizing the
winding tension. This trial may be conducted at your mills for controlling the hairiness.

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3.WAX PICK UP: It is the normal practice of many mills to apply wax on the hosiery
yarn during winding. By controlling the wax pick up, the increase in hairiness can be
reduced. The detail of the study recently conducted at a leading mill is given below for
your reference.

EFFECT OF WAX PICK UP ON HAIRINESS

PARAMETERS wax pick up 0.8 gms/kg wax pick up 1.2 gms/kg

NOMINAL COUNT 30/1 s CH 30/1 s CH

U% 9.84 9.91

Thin (-50%) 0 1

Thick (+50%) 32 30

Neps (+200%) 89 112

Total IPI 121 1459

Hairiness Index 8.13 7.89

Sh(-) 1.84 1.87

We request you to conduct a study of this aspect at your mills for control of hairiness.
Thus, there are several process parameters that can be optimized for controlling the
hairiness. Unless the ring and traveller are in a worn out condition, the role played by
the ring and traveller on hairiness is quite negligible on modern ring frames like LG5/1
and LR/6.

BARRE IN FABRICS

INTRODUCTION
In textile industry, one of the most common and perplexing quality cotrol problems is
barre(repetitive yarn direction streaks). The factors which can cause or contribute to
barre are varied and diverse.

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Barre is defined as "unintentional, repetitive visual pattern of continuous bars or stripes
usually parallel to the filling of woven fabric or to the courses of circular knit fabric."

Barre is sometimes used as a synonym forr WARP STREAKS.

Barre can be caused by physical, optical or dye differences in the yarns,

geometric differences in the fabric structure or by any combination of these
differences.

Barre is basically a visual phenomenon and any property of yarn which makes it
'look' different from the adjacent yarn in a fabric would result in this defect.

Barre can be due to the following

1. fibre properties
2. yarn characterisitics
3. knitting parameters
In weft knit fabrics Barre is taken to include only those fabric defects
charecterised by coursewise (widthwise) repearing bars or stripes. In warp knits,
the warp (or length) direction. This is symptomatic of the way in which the fabrics
are produced.

CAUSES OF BARRE All barre is the consequence of subtle differences in yarn

reflectance between individual yarn in the knit structure. Any mechanism that can
change the reflectance of a yarn in a knit structure is a potential barre source.
Barre can be caused by physical, optical, or dye differences in the yarns,
geometric differences in the fabric structure, or by any combination of these
differences. A barre streak can be one course or end wide or it can be several - a
"shadow band"

It is not the inadequacy of the raw material property which results in Barre, It is
the inconsistency or the variability of the particular property which results in
Barre.
The properties which are the causes of Barre are given below.

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 1. Fibre Micronaire variation
2. Fibre color variation
3. Yarn linear density variation
4. Yarn twist variation
5. yarn hairiness variation
6. knitting tension variation
7. improper mixing of cotton from different origin
8. improper mixing of cotton from different varieties
9. improper mixing of cotton grown in different seasons

Zellweger Uster has published the following details regarding Barre

causes % ge of defect

fibre 70

yarn count variation 10

twist variation 10

hairiness 10

Micronaire:

The difference in Micronaire average of the mixings of the entire lot should not be
more than 0.2

The range of the Micronaire of the individual bales used in the mixings should be
same

the C.V.% of Micronaire of individual bales within the mixing should be less than
12 %

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 Same micronaire bales should not be placed side by side and a group should
be formed with the different micronaire bales and it should be repeated in the
bale laydown

David M. Clapp 5 , of Cotton Incorporated demonstrated that as the difference in

micronaire value increases, the intensity of the barre effect becomes more
serious. In the process, he observed that the cause of barre is not the difference
in dye uptake between the thin cell walls of the low micronaire fibres and the
thicker cell walls of the high micronaire fibres.He showed that per unit weight,
dye exhaustion / fixation is essentially the same for the low micronaire and high
micronaire fibres and also illustrated that at high micronairevalues, both the
maturity and fineness registered an increase. More importantly, he extended his
study and showed that by proper blending of the cottons, the occurrence of barre
due to differences of even upto 1.6 micronaire can be eliminated.

Fluorescence:

The difference in UV reading average of the mixings of the entire lot should be
same

Variation in UV readings within the bale should be less

out side storage of cotton should be avoided

UV readings increase over time if it is stored for a long time

should not mix high and low UV bales

Colour has been one of the primary factors of cotton quality for quite a long time.
Colour is particularly important as a measure of how well a yarn or fabric will dye
or bleach. Colour in general is expressed in trichromatic terms, such as L, a and
b (Reflectance, Redness/greenness and Yellowness / blueness). The
significance of these components with regard to cotton has been extensively

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 studied and is generally agreed upon that only reflectance and degree of
yellowness are important in assessing cotton colour

The influence of cotton colour on the dyeability characteristics of fabrics have

been studied and reported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture , which
revealed that a significant correlation exists between the colour characteristics of
raw cotton and the colour of washed and wash-dyed cotton fabrics. Since much
of the barre effects are due to the variations in dyeability characteristics within a
fabric, difference in colour properties could be expected to influence the
seriousness of any barre incidences in the fabric.

Yarn properties:

It has been widely accepted that it is the inconsistency or the variation aspect of
the yarn properties which is a prime cause for 'Barre"

Of the various quality characteristics tested, variation in hairiness count and twist
are considered to be three important properties which need proper control to
avoid barre.

Slippage of spindle tape is the main reason for the TPI variations. If the TPI is
more in yarn then the yarn diameter will reduce adn number of helical angle will
increase. If the diameter of the yarn is low then more light will pass through that
region of cloth because the gap between the two yarn is more.When more ridges
are present, then more light reflects from the surface of the yarn. Hence regions
with high TPI yarn appear light coloured after dying.

knitting:

A bar or stripe may be caused by several variables shown below

Tight loops: This may take the form of a shaddow ( several courses involved) or
a discreet line ( one course involved). It will normally show up as a dark or dense
line or shaddow

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 Slack loop: Similar to above, but it shows up as a sheer or light line.

improper stich length at a feed

improper tension at a feed

variation in fabric take-up from loose to tight

Worn needles, which generaly produce length direction streaks

Uneven cylinder height needles(wavy barre)

Uneven loops: In this the "average" stitch length is the same in all cases but the
distribution of the length of yarn between the dial and the cylinder of knitting
machine is not balanced on a particular course. Thus it will appear as a tight or
slack course on one side but analysis will not show up the fault.

Weaving:

Uneven warping tension

Uneven take-up tension

Uneven let-off motion

Uneven tension on filling

Scuffing or filling yarn on the beam

Bent beam gudgeons

VISUAL BARRE ANALYSIS:

The first step in Barre investigation is to observe and define the problem. Barre can be
the cause of physical causes which can usually be detected, or it can be casued by
dyeability differences which may be nearly impossible to isolate in fabric. Barre analysis

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methods that help to discriminate between physical barre and barre caused by
dyeability differences incluede Flat Table Examination, Light source Observation, and
the Atlas Streak analyser.

FLAT TABLE EXAMINATION:

For a visual barre analysis, the first step is to lay a full width fabric sample out on a table
and view both sides from various angles. Generally, if the streaky lines run in the yarn
direction, color differences can be seen by looking down at the fabric in a direct visual
line with the yarn direction, and the defect can be positively identified as a barre defect.
Viewing the fabric with a light source in the back ground will show if the barre is
physical.

LIGHT SOURCE OBSERVATION:

After completing an initial Flat Table Examination, a Light Source Examination may
provide further useful information. Full width fabric samples should be examined under
two light conditions, fluorescent and ultraviolet (UV) light. Observations that should be
made while viewing under lights are:

frequency and direction of the barre

whether streaks are dark or light and
total length of pattern repeat.

Ultraviolet light, commonly referred to as a "black light", allows the presence of mineral
iols to be more easily detected, due to their radiant energy (glow). When observed
under UV light, fabrics with streaks that exhibit glow suggest improper preparation. A
change in composition or content of oil/wax by the spinner or knitter without appropriate
adjustments in scouring can create this problem.

PHYSICAL BARRE ANALYSIS:

When the cause of barre is determined or presumed to be physical in nature, physical

fabric analysis should be done. Physical barre causes are generally considered to be

385
those which can be linked to yarn or machine differences. Methods of physical barre
analysis include fabric dissection, microscopy, and the Roselon Knit Extension Tester.

FABRIC DISSECTION:

To perform accurate fabric dissection analysis, a fabric sample which contains several
barre repetitions is required. First, the barre streak boundaries are marked by the
placement of straight pins and/or felt markers. Individual yarns are removed from light
and dark streak sections, and twist levels, twist direction, and cut length weight
determinations are made and recorded. For reliable mean values to be established,
data should be collected from at least two light/dark repeats. After compilation of yarn
information, the numbers can be compared individually to adjacent yarns as well as by
groupings of light and dark shades.

MICROSCOPY:

Microscopic examination is useful for verifying yarn spinning systems. Yarns from
different spinning systems can have different light reflectance and dye absorption
properties. Ring spinnning produces yarn that is smooth. Open end spinning produces
yarn with wrapper fibres at irregular intervals. Air jet spinning produces yarn with more
wrapper fibres than open end and inner fibres are more paralle. Microscopy can also
reveal a shift in loop formation in knitted fabrics when twist direction (S and Z)
differences are present.

Barre is noticed in a fabric when the visual perception of colour of a particular portion of
a fabric is different from that of an adjacent portion. Numerous attempts have been
made by research workers to arrive at a mathematical number which gives an equal
change when a change in perceptible colour difference exists.

Reflectance differences have been considered by many researches to be indication of

barre in fabrics. E.R.Cairns, H.A.Davis and J.W.Coryell 5 hypothesised that double knit
barre is caused by textured yarn reflectance differences in the knit structure. Depending

386
on the detailed arrangement of these differences, barre is seen as continuous or
random and either as single end streaks or bands. Based on studies made with a
research grade spectrophotometer, they also found that yarn reflectance differences are
caused by differences in key textured yarn properties like bulk, cross section, loop size
etc.

PREVENTION OF BARRE:

As outlined, Barre is caused by INCONSISTENCIES in materials, equipment, or

processing. To prevent Barre form occuring, consistency must be maintained through all
phases of textile production. Stock yarns should be properly and carefully labelled to
avoid mixups. Fugitive tints can be useful for accurate yarn segregation. Inventory
should be controlled on a First In/ First Out basis. All equipement should be properly
maintained and periodically checked. Before beginning full scale production, sample
dyeings can be done to check for Barre.

Salvaging a fabric lot with a Barre problem may be possible through careful dye
selection. Color differences can be masked by using shades with very low light
reflectance (navy blue, black) or high light reflectance (light yellow, orange, or finished
white). Dye suppliers should be able to offer assistance in this area. Also, if the cause of
the barre is an uneven distribution of oil or wax, a more thorough preparation of the
fabric prior to dyeing may result in more uniform dye coverage.

With close cooperation between production and quality control personnel, barre
problems can be successfully analysed and solved.

EXPERIMENT:

The experiments done by Mr.ANBARASAN of PREMIER POLYTRONICS is given

below.

FIBRE PROPERTY INFLUENCE ON FABRIC BARRE:

387
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE It was identified that the incidences of fabric barre was
more common in knitted fabrics. So one of the most commonly used hosiery counts -
30s Nec Combed Hosiery was chosen for the study

Preparation of basic yarn samples Preparation of samples with different yarn count: The
extent of influence of yarn count was studied by taking into consideration three levels of
count. To avoid any abnormal conditions of spinning, one of the levels was maintained
at the normal level used by mill for regular production. The other two samples were
obtained by spinning counts differing by 2 Nec(6.7%) from the normal. The three count
samples of 28, 30 and 32 Nec are designated as A, B and C respectively.

The raw material and the process parameters maintained in all departments upto ring
spinning were maintained the same for all the three samples. In ring frames, the count
change pinion was changed to obtain the required count. All the other process
parameters were maintained the same in ring frames as well.Preparation of samples
from different micronaire cottons:

The samples for studying the influence of fibre micronaire were prepared by spinning
yarn from cottons of micronaire values ranging from 3.8 to 4.32. The micronaire values
of the samples are given in Table 1 along with their designations. The cottons were
obtained by segregating samples of the same cotton variety to avoid influences of other
varietal factors.

Sample
Serial No. Micronaire
designation

1 P 3.8

2 Q 3.95

3 R 4.14

4 S 4.32

Table : Micronaire Values of Basic Samples

388
Cottons with difference in micronaire readings of less than 0.15 were not taken up since
0.15 represented the measurement accuracy of the micronaire instrument. The
spinnings were carried out using a miniature spinning system having the following
sequential processing stages:

- Carding Drawing- Sliver to Yarn Spinning About 50gms of cotton was processed from
each sample to obtain yarns sufficient for the subsequent knitting process.

Preparation of samples from cotton with different colour levels For studying the
influence of colour, the parameter 'Degree of yellowness(+b)' provided by the high
volume fibre testers was taken as the reference. Five spinnings were carried out with
cottons of different +b values. The values are shown below.

Serial Degree of Yellowness

Sample
No. (+b)

1 A1 9.2

2 B1 10.5

3 C1 11.6

4 D1 13.5

5 E1 14.7

Table : Degree of Yellowness (+b) for Basic Samples

The spinnings for these samples were also carried out using the miniature spinning
system.Fabric Preparation For all the trials to study the influence of count, fibre
micronaire and colour, to detect the presence or otherwise of the barre effect, different
combination of two levels were selected. The yarn samples were knit into single jersey
fabrics on a circular knitting machine with 2.5mm stitch length such that the two different
levels of the combination formed alternate portions of the fabric as shown below :

389
Fabric knitted with a combination of yarn samples.

The fabrics were knitted with 48 cones of each of the two levels feeding the machine.

Dyeing The fabrics for all the combinations were dyed using Procion Blue MR dye of
2.5% concentration. The same batch of dye bath was used to dye all the fabrics
pertaining to a particular property in order to eliminate the introduction of any possible
errors in the process of dyeing.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Influence of Yarn Count The intensity of the barre effect noticed for the various count
combinations in terms of the visual grading are represented in the following table.

count
combination difference in count average grade
1 2

AB 28 30 2 4.25

BC 30 32 2 4.5

AC 28 32 4 4.75

Table : Influence of Count on Barre Intensity The table clearly shows that the intensity
of barre is more severe as the difference in count levels increases. It can also be noted
that even if a count deviation of +2 Nec from the average is present, a grade of more
than 4.0 is recorded which indicates a reasonably high amount of barre.

Influence of Fibre Micronaire The four basic yarn samples obtained from cotton with
different micronaire values were used to knit fabrics in a total of 6 combinations with the
difference in micronaire values ranging from 0.15 to 0.52. The intensity of barre for
these combinations are tabulated below in terms of the average visual grade.

Micronaire value Difference in

Combination Average grade
Micronaire

390
 PQ 3.8 3.95 0.15 3

RS 4.14 4.32 0.18 2

OR 3.95 4.14 0.19 3

PR 3.8 4.14 0.34 2

QS 3.95 4.32 0.37 3

PS 3.8 4.32 0.52 2

Table : Influence of Micronaire on Barre Intensity

The table shows that, within the range of micronaire taken-up in the present study, the
intensity of Barre remains fairly constant. An important observation is that the intensity
of Barre is serious even with a micronaire difference of 0.15. Hence when preparing
mixings of single cotton variety, it should be ensured that the difference in average
micronaire between successive mixings is less than 0.15.

Influence of Fibre Colour From the basic 5 samples of yarn differing in terms of the
'Degree of Yellowness (+b)', a total of 10 combination of fabrics could be obtained, with
the colour difference ranging from 1.1 to 5.2. The details of the samples and the
intensity of barre noticed in these samples are tabulated below.Micronaire Value
Combination

difference in
Serial No Combination Degree of Yellowness visual grade
+b values

1 B1C1 10.5 11.6 1.1 1

2 D1E1 13.5 14.7 1.2 2

3 A1B1 9.2 10.5 1.3 3

4 C1D1 11.6 13.5 1.9 4

5 A1C1 9.2 11.6 2.4 3

6 B1D1 10.5 13.5 3.0 5

391
 7 C1E1 11.6 14.7 3.1 4

8 B1E1 10.5 14.7 4.2 5

9 A1D1 9.2 13.5 4.3 5

10 A1E1 9.2 14.7 5.5 4

Table : Influence of Degree of Yellowness on Barre Intensity

The influence of colour on the barre intensity is clearly seen from the last two columns
of the table where the visual barre grade shows a direct relationship with the difference
in +b values of the cottons used. An exclusive consideration of the +b value gave the
following best-fit equation for the Visual Grade (VG).VG = 5.101 - 0.078(+b) - ((4.393
)/square(+b)) A good correlation of 0.90 was obtained between actual and predicted
grades.

CONCLUSIONS The influence of three important parameters - yarn count, fibre

micronaire and fibre colour - on the intensity of the barre defect iin cotton knitted fabrics
are discussed. Of the fibre parameters, the degree of yellowness of cotton seems to
have a relatively more significant effect on the Barre intensity in fabrics than the
micronaire. However even deviation of micronaire value to the extent of +0.15 results in
a visible barre defect. Deviations in yarn count also shows up significantly as Barre
defects. Avoidance of the Barre effect, therefore, requires proper control on all these
parameters.

COMBED YARN FOR KNITTING

Yarn quality requirement is changing everyday. Quality requirement is different for

different end uses and it is different for different customers. It is easy to make the
highest qulity yarn just for the sake of achieving the best yarn results. But it is difficult to
produce a good quality yarn with a minimum deviations. Very high fluctuation in yarn
quality is an EVIL for any enduse. Some times it is better to keep same level of yarn
quality ( around 25% USTER STANDARDS) by strict quality control than achieving 5%

392
USTER STANDARD but without consistency. Consistent quality will be very much
appreciated by the clients.

"I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in
numbers, you know something about it. But when you cannot measure it, when you
cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind; it
may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced
to the stage of science, whatever the matter may be" (attributed to Lord Kelvin, 1883).

Hence it is advisable to fix the standards for different yarn characteristics for cotton
spun yarns for different end uses. The following table gives the quality requirement for
KNITTING YARNS.

Table: Quality Standard for4 Ringframe Cop

other
Yarn Characteristic required value for 30S Combed combed
counts

nominal
count
Average count 30 ( 29.6 to 30.4) plus or
minus
1.3%

less than
Count C.V% less than 1.5
1.5%

3.5 to
Twist Multiplier 3.5 to 3.6
3.6

less than
TPI C.V% less than 2.5
2.5%

5 to 10
U% 9.2 to 9.8
% Uster

393
 Stat .
value

5 to 10
% Uster
-50% thin place / 1000m less than 4
Stat .
value

5 to 10
% Uster
-30% thin place / 1000m less than 650
Stat .
value

5 to 10
% Uster
+50% thick place / 1000 m less than 30
Stat .
value

5 to 10
% Uster
+200 Neps / 1000m less than 50
Stat .
value

5 to 10
% Uster
Total Imperfection / 1000 m less than 85
Stat .
value

more
RKM ( tenacity) gms /tex more than 16.5 than
16.5

5 to 10
% Uster
RKM C.V% less than 7.5 %
Stat .
value

394
 more
Elongation % more than 5.5
than 5.5

< 50%
value of
Hairiness H 4.0 to 4.5
Uster
Statistics

25%
Uster
Hairiness Standard Deviation less than 1.5
stat
value

less than
Objectionable classimat faults(both
less than 1 per 100 km 1 per
short and long)
100 km

5 to 10
% Uster
Total classimat faults less than 150
Stat .
value

5 to 10
% Uster
H1- thin faults less than 5 per 100 km
Stat .
value

no
shade variation on cones in UV lamp no shade variation shade
variaition

GUIDE LINES TO ACHIEVE THE ABOVE:

RAWMATERIAL:

395
Raw material should be selected properly. There is a direct relationship between certain
quality characteristics of the fibre and those of the yarn. 70 to 80 % of basic yarn
quality is decided by cotton.

Short fibre content is very important for yarn quality. Uniformity Ratio should be
more than 47%. Fibres of length 4 to 5 mm will be lost in porcessing (as waste
and fly). Fibres upto 12 to 15mm do not contribute to strength but only to fullness
of the yarn. Only the fibres above these lengths produce the other positive
characteristics in the yarn.
2.5% span length should be more than 28 mm. Span length affects yarn strength
and yarn uniformity. End breakage rate also depends upon the fibre length.
Longer the fibre, lower the end breakage rate, better the yarn quality.
Average Microaire should be between 3.8 to 4.3 for counts 24s to 40s (Ne). It
can be between 4.1 to 4.7 for counts coarser than 24s.
If the micronaire is coarse, the number of fibres in the yarn cross section will be
less. This always results in lower strength and lower elongation. But it is easy to
process coarse micronaire fibres in blowroom and cards.
Nepping tendency is less for coarse micronaire fibres. On the contrary,
spinnability (in both speed frame and ringframe) is not good with coarser
micronaire fibres.
U% is affected by Micronaire. Coarser the micronaire, higher the U%. Coarser
the fibre , higher the end breakage rate in spinning.
Uster Thin place( -30%) in the yarn vary depending upon the fibre micronaire.
Lower the micronaire, lower the thin places vice versa
Strength of the fibre should be more than 23 grams/tex
Elongation of the fibre should be more than 6%.
No of neps per gram should be less than 250
should not mix two cottons with wide Reflectance value (Rd value) and yellow
ness value (+b)

396
 sticky cotton should not be used. If cotton is sticky, it is better to reduce the
percentage of sticky cotton in the mixing. Low humidity and high temperature
should be maintained in the departments
cottons with less contamination should be used (cottons like Andy, SJV, alto etc)

PROCESSING REQUIREMENTS:

MIXING:

Average Micronaire of the mixing should be same for the entire lot. The
difference in average micronaire of different mixings of the same lot should not
be more than 0.1
The micronaire C.V% of a mixing should be less than 10%
The micronaire Range should be same
Cottons with two different origins should not be mixed
Cottons with too wide micronaire range should not be mixed
Cottons with too wide reflectance value(Rd) and Yellowness value(+b) should not
be mixed
immature fibre content should be minimum as it will affect dyeiing and will result
in white-specks
If automatic bale openers are used, bale laydowns should be done properly, so
that different micronaire bales and colors are getting mixed up homogeneously
even if small quantity is being checked
If manual mixing is carried out, bales should be arranged and mixed properly so
that different micronaire bales and colors are getting mixed up homogeneously
even if small quantity is being chekced
for manual mixing, the tuft size should be as low as 10 grams
If cottons with contamination is used, the best way is to open the bales into small
tufts and segregate the contaminants. There are mills who employ around 60 to
80 persons to pick up contamination from a mixing of 20tons.
Japanese insist on mixing atleast 36 bales for one mixing to avoid Barre problem

397
BLOWROOM:

If the micronaire is low, blowroom process parameters become very critical.

It is better to do a perfect preopening and reduce the beater speeds in fine
opening. If required one more fine opener can be used with as low as beater
speed, instead of using very high speed in only one fine opener
If the micronaire is lower than 3.8, it is not advisable to use machines like CVT4
or CVT3
Nep increase in cotton after blowroom process should be less than 80%.(i.e 180
% of rawcotton nep)
If the nep increase is more, then beater speeds should be reduced instead of
feed roller to beater setting
If the trash percentage in cotton is less and the neps are more in the sliver, no of
beating points can be reduced. 3 beating points should be more than enough.
variation in feed roller speed should be as low as possible especially in the
feeding machine
beater types and specification should be selected properly based on the
positions of the beater and the type of raw material (fibre micronaire and trash
percentage)
the material pressure in the ducts should be as high as possible to reduce
feeding variation to the cards
feed rollers in the chute should work continuously without more speed variation if
pressure filling concept is used.(i.e. balancing of the chute should be done
properly). For others, the feed roller should work at the maximum speed for a
longer time.
material density between different chutes should be same. The difference should
not be more than 7%
The difference in duct pressure should not be more than 40 pascals in chute
feed system.
air loss should be avoided in the chute feed system, to reduce the fan speed and
material velocity

398
 blow room feeding should be set in such a way that the draft in cards is same
for all the cards and the variation in feed density is as low as possible
fibre rupture in blowrrom should be less than 2.5%

CARDING:

70% of the quality will be achieved in carding, if the wires are selected properly
following table can be used as a guide line for cylinder wire selection

angle of
carding production wire height points per square inch
wire(degrees)

less than 30 kgs/hr 2 mm 30 around 840

more than 30 kgs 2mm 35 to 40 900 to 1050

Flat tops with 400 to 500 points per square inch should be used
if the micronaire is lower than 3.5, the cylinder speed should be around 350rpm.
If the micronaire is between 3.5 to 4.0, it can be around 450 rpm. If the
micronaire is more than 4.0, it can be around 500 rpm.
Lower the micronaire, lower the lickerin speed. It should range from 800 to 1150
rpm depending upon the micronaire and proudction rate
pointed wires should be used for cyliner
TSG grinder should be used once in 2 months for consistent quality
Flat tops should be ground frequently (once in 3 months) for better yarn quality.
Because, flat tops plays a major role in reducing neps and kitties in the yarn.
Emery fillet rollers should be used for flat tops grinding, instead of using
grinding roller grinding stone
Licker-in wire should be changed for every 150000 kgs produciton in carding
stationary flats should be changed for every 150000 kgs production in carding
Individual card studies upto yarn stage should be conducted regularly, and if the
quality is deteriated by 25% from the average quality. card should be attended
(wire mounting, grinding, full-setting etc to be done)

399
 setting between cylinder and flat tops should be as close as possible, depending
upon the variation between cylinder and flat tops. Care should be taken so that ,
wires do not touch each other.
Card autolevellers should be set properly. Nominal draft should be correct. Draft
deviation should not be more than 5% during normal working.
card stoppages should be as low as possible
slow speed working of cards should be avoided. slivers produced during slow
speed should be removed
10 meters C.V% of card sliver should be less than 2.0
Sliver weight difference between cards should not be more than 2.5%
Sliver U% should be less than 3.5 and spectrogram peaks should be attended
cylinder loading should be nil. If cylinder is loaded, wire should be inspected. If
required grinding should be done or wire should be changed
sliver diameter difference should be less. Calender roller pressure should be
same in all the cards
trash in sliver should be less than 0.1%
uiformity ratio of sliver should be same or better than raw cotton
if kitties or seed coat fragments are more, higher flat speeds should be used and
as much as flat waste should be removed to reduce seed coat fragments in the
yarn
in general sliver hank varies from 0.12 to 0.14
individual card studies should be conducted upto yarn stage, if the quality from a
particular card is bad, immediate action to be taken to rectify the problem. Lower
the variation better the yarn quality.

COMBER:

In lap preparation, total draft, fibre parallelisation ,no of doublings, lap weight etc
should be decided properly(based on trial)
higher the lap weight(grams /meter) lower the quality. It depends upon the the
type of comber and the fibre micronaire

400
 if fine micronaire is used, lap weight can be reduced to imrpove the combing
efficiency
if coarse micronaire is used, lap weight can be increased
if fibre parallelisation is too much, lap sheets sticking to each other will be more(
It will happen if the micronaire is very low also). If the lap sheets are sticking to
each other, the total draft between carding and comber should be reduced
If the draft is less, fibre parallelisation will be less, hence loss of long fibres in the
noil will be more
top comb penetration should be maximum for better yarn quality. But care should
be taken so that top comb will not get damaged.
damaged top comb will affect the yarn quality very badly
setting between unicomb and top nipper should be same and it should be
around 0.4mm to 0.5 mm
feed weight is approximately 50 to 58 grams for combers like E7/4 and is 65 to
75 grams for combers like E62 or E7/6
lower the feed length, better the yarn quality. Trials to be conducted with
different feed lengths and it should be decided based on quality and production
requirement
required waste should be removed with the lowest detaching distance setting
for cottons with micronaire upto 3.5, top comb should have 30 needles/cm and
for cottons with more than 3.8 micronaire, the top comb should have 26
needles/cm
Trials to be conducted to standardise the waste percentage
piecing wave should be as low as possible. Piecing index should be decided
based upon cotton length and feed length
spectrograms should be attended. Comber sliver uster should be less than 3.5
head to head waste percentage should be as low as possible
variation in waste percentage between combers should be as low as possible(
less than 1.5%)
If cotton with low maturity coefficient is used, it is better to remove more noil to
avoid dyeing variation problem

401
DRAWFRAME:

Drawframe with a short term Autoleveller is a must

no of doubling should not be less than 7 and the total draft also should be more
than 7
U% should be around 1.5 to 1.8
1 meter C.V% (from Uster Evenness Testing machine ) should be less than 0.6
top roller lappings should be almost nil
If group creeling is used, all the sliver piecings from the creel should not enter
the tongue and groove roller at the same time
no sliver should be removed from the machine after the tongue and groove roller
(which is meant for sensing the feed variation) for any reason. Because, draft
correction will be done according to tongue and groove roller sensing and there
is a time lag between sensing and correction.
top rollers should be checked by the operators atleast once in a shift
top rollers should be checked by the operators , whenever there is a lapping
top roller buffing should be done once in 20 days(maximum 30 days)
If the top roller eccentricity is more than 0.05 mm, it should be buffed
top roller eccentricity should be zero after buffing.
diameter variation between top rollers should be less than 0.1mm
sliver test should be conducted atleast once in 15 days and the A% should be
less than 0.8
the delivery speed should be around 400 to 500 meters per minute depending
upon the make of the machine
whenever there is a top roller lapping, min 10meters of sliver should be removed
from the can
creel breaks should be as low as possible and it need to be piececd properly.
Trials should be taken to see the yarn made out of piecing. Piecings should not
be too thick and high twisted

SPEED FRAME:

402
 Total draft should be around 10 for 4 over 4 drafting system
better to use floating condenser in the front zone to reduce hairiness and the
diameter of the roving
cots buffing should be done once in two months. top roller runout to be checked
and it should be nil. There should not be any compromise on top roller quality.
Top roller cost for speed frame is negligible if it is compared with ringframe
If possible it should be treated with surface treatment like treatment with LIQIMIX
or treated with acid to reduce top clearer waste which is caused by top roller
surface
Twist Multplier should be high enough to reduce stretch in Ringframe. Higher
the T.M lower the classimat "H1" faults
If single speed for flyer is used, it is advisable to run less than 1000 rpm
When the speed frame bobbin is full, flyer speed should be less than 1000 rpm.
Otherwise surface cuts will increase and thin places also will increase
False twisters should be changed once in two years. Variation in false twister
will result in high count C.V%
Roving tension should be as low as possible and as uniform as possible. Higher
the roving tension, higher the count C.V% and higher the thin places
Density of all roving bobbins should be same. Higher the variation, higher the
count C.V%
Break draft should be around 1.18 to 1.24 depending upon the type of drafting
system and total draft
Roving hank should be decided in such a way that the ring frame draft is around
20 to 34 for different counts.
no sliver piecing or roving piecing from speedframe should be worked in
Ringframe. All sliver piecing and roving piecing will result in thin and thick yarn.
Some times it may be cut by the clearer, but all yarn faults created by piecings
are not cut by the clearers.

RINGFRAME:

403
 Front zone setting should be as close as possible
breakdraft of 1.14 and back zone setting of 60 mm is recommended
65 degree shore hardness for front top roller
buffing should be carried out once in 45 days
if the top roller diameter is less by 1.5 mm from the standard diamter, top roller
should be changed
the gap between front top roller and apron nip should be as low as
possible(around 0.5 to 1 mm). If it is more imperfections will be high
bottom and top aprons should be changed atleast once in 1.5 years
It is better to use lighter travellers instead of using heavier travellers. Enough
trials should be taken , because traveller size depends upon, speed, micronaire,
humidity condition, count, ringdiameter etc
It is advisable to use Eliptical travellers for hosiery counts
ring travellers should be changed before 1.5% of travellers burn out
whenever there is a multiple break, ring travellers should be changed
At any point of time, fluff accumulation on travellers should be less. Ring
traveller setting should be close enough to remove the waste accumulation but at
the same time it should not disturb the travller running
hariness varition between spindles should not be high. To achieve this, traveller
should be changed in time, bad workings (multiple breaks) should be avoided,
rings like TITAN rings (from Breaker) should be used, damaged rings should be
removed
Ring frame breaks should be as low as possible ( less than 10 breaks per 1000
spindle hours)
Start up breaks after doffing should be less than 3 %.
Overhead cleaners is a must for processing combed cotton
Exhaust trenches should be between machines and for every 200 spindles there
should be a trench
ring centering should be perfect. Abc rings and lappet hook centering should also
be done perfectly

404
 If ring diameter is more than 40 mm, ring centering plays a major role. If ring
centering is not done properly, hairiness variation within the chase will be very
high
good quality spindle tapes should be used and changed for every 24 months.
Spindle speed variaiton will affect yarn strength, tpi and hairiness

WINDING:

Winding speed should be around 1250 meters/ min

machines with tension management is preferred
Clearers settings should be as close as possible. Loephe Yarn master setting is
given below

N -4.0 (nep) : DS-2.0 (short) : LS-1.6 (short) : DL-1.18 (long) : LL-40 : (long) -DS-
14%(thin) : -DL-40(thin)

Since loephe has a facility of class clearing. "C"s to be added in such a way that the
following faults which are displayed in Loephe class clearing should be cleared.

A4,A3,B4,B3, B2(50%),C1,C2,C3,C4,D1,D2,D3,D4,E,F,G,H1(50%),H2,I1,I2

Count channel setting should be less than 7%

setting for cluster faults should be set such that, if a yarn produced without
bottom apron, or damaged rubber cots is fed, it should be cut by the clearer
long thick faults in the cone yarn should be zero
long thin faults should be zero
If the waxing attachment is below the clearers, the clearers should be cleaned
once in a day
splice strength should be more than 75% of yarn strength
splice apperance should be good and all the splicers should be checked atleast
once in a week
good qulity wax should be used
wax pick up should be around 0.1%

405
 uniform application of wax to ensure uniform coefficient of friction (0.125 to 0.15)
uniform moisture in the cones is important, because coefficient of friction varies
as a function of moisture
all wax rollers should rotate properly
repeaters should be as low as possible, because this will affect the package
quality
It is advisable to produce cones with 1.8 to 2.4 kgs
yarn tension in winding should not be very high
imperfection increase between ringframe and winding should not be more than
30% for cotton combed yarns

GENERAL:

finished garments rejection should be less than 1%

yarn faults contribute to 25% of the rejections. Major yarn faults are

contamination

thick and thinks

Unevenness

periodicity

Stiff yarn - Higher TPI ( holes)

higher friction

high hairiness variation

mixed properties of yarn - "Barre"

Neps

white specs(immature fibres)

406
Kitties ( vegetable matters, dust content)

Lower elongation and elasticity

It is better to use cottons with less contaminations like Andy, SJV, Alto, etc
contaminations of length more than 20 mm should be nil in the yarn
as per japanese standard, the no of contamination per Kg of fabric should be less
than 5
If cotton has contamination, it is compulsary to use manual picking on preopener
lattice, cotamination detectors at blowroom, visual clearer(siro) at winding.
It is advisable to go to the supplier(cotton ginner) for quality - a concept of
Japanese
10 meter C.V% of yarn should be controlled and it should be as low as possible.
This affects the fabric appearance

LINEAR PROGRAMMIN

PRODUCT MIX (USING LINEAR PROGRAMMING):

Linear programming is a quantitative tool for optimal allocation of limited resources

amongst competing activities. It is perhaps the most popular amongst OPERATIONS
RESEARCH techniques and has found application in several functional areas of
business- production, finance, marketing, distribution,advertising and so forth.

Any resource allocation problem is characterised by specification of an objective such

as minimising cost, or maximising profit. The constraints can be of a financial,
technological, marketing or anyother nature.

Linear programming involves formulating the problem in linear terms and solving it to
provide a plan for deploying the resources in an optimal manner.

407
This technique is being used by many managements to maximise the profit or to
minimise the cost.In earlier days, fomulating a linear programming model and solving
the same was a tedious process

frontsys software company has developed a tool called solver which will be used with
MICROSOFT EXCEL SPREADSHEETS to solve LINEAR PROGRAMMING MODELS.
This is a very simple tool which can be used by everyone who can use MICROSOFT
EXCEL and understand little about formulating the constraint

PRODUCT MIX USING LP FOR A SPINNING MILL

Let us assume C1,C2,C3 and C4 are quantities of four counts to be produced in cotton
TC1,TC2 and TC3 are quantities of three counts to be prodced in Poly/Cotton blend.

CX1,CX2,CX3 and CX4 are Contribution in US$/KG for four cotton

counts. TCX1,TCX2 and TCX3 are contribution IN US$/KG for three
POLY/COTTON counts correspondigly.

HOW TO FORMULATE A LP MODEL: EXAMPLE

TARGET FUNCTION: (TO MAXIMISE)

(C1*CX1)+(C2*CX2)+(C3*CX3)+(C4*CX4)+(TC1*TCX1)+(TC2*TCX2)+(TC3*TCX3) =
CONTBN. MAXIMUM

BY CHANGING : ( THE FOLLOWING QUANTITIES) C1,C2,C3,C4,TC1,TC2,TC3

CONSTRAINTS:
C1+C2+C3+C4 less than or equal to 180 tons TC1+TC2 less than or equal to 100
tons C1 should be 19.6 tons ( committed to the customer) TC2 more than 19.6 tons (
committed to the customer) C1+C2+C3+C4 no of m/cs allotted should not be more than
20 (m/c constraint) TC1+TC2+TC3 no of m/cs allotted should not be more than 10 (m/c
constraint) C1 less than or equal to 20 C2 less than or equal to 20 C3 less than or

408
equal to 20 C4 less than or equal to 20 TC1 less than or equal to 10 TC2 less than or
equal to 10 TC3 less than or equal to 10

HOW TO SOLVE THIS:

MICROSOFT EXCELL Spreadsheet has a tool called SOLVER. This can be used to
solve any LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS.

OPEN an EXCEL SHEET FEED the PARAMETERS in the Excell Sheet SELECT
SOLVER in the Tools Menu, Now Solver parameters are seen SET the TARGET cell
and it should contain the target function FEED the range of cells to be changed FEED
the constraints press SOLVE, THE RESULTS ARE ALREADY THERE

ISN'T IT SIMPLE?PLEASE TRY THIS. LP IS THE RIGHT SOLUTION FOR PRODUCT

MIX OF ANY INDUSTRY.

COSTING FOR A SPINNING MILL

INTTRODUCTION:

It is better to review the basics concepts, costing methods and techniques and
elements of costing before we work out a costing for a spinning mill.

Cost accounting is a system of determining the costs of products or services. It has

primarily developed to meet the needs of management. It provides detailed cost
information to various levels of management for efficient performance of their functions.

Financial accounting provides information about profit , loss, cost etc., of the collective
activities of the business as a whole. It does not give the data regarding costs by
departments, products, processes and sales territories etc. Financial accounting does
not fully analyse the losses due to idle time, idle plant capacity, inefficient labour, sub-
standard materials, etc. Cost accounting is not restricted to past. It is concerned with the
ascertainment of past, present and expected future costs of products manufactured or

409
services supplied. Cost accounting provides detailed cost information to various levels
of management for efficient performance of their functions.

"A cost is the value of economic resources used as a result of producing or doing the
things costed"

Cost is ascertained by cost centres or cost units or by both.

For the purpose of ascertaining cost, the whole organisation is divided into small parts
of sections. Each small section is treated as a cost centre of which cost is ascertained.
A cost centre is defined as " a location, person, or item of equipment(or group of these)
for which costs may be ascertained and used for the purpose of control. A cost
accountant sets up cost centres to enable him to ascertain the costs he needs to know.
A cost centre is charged with all the costs that relate to it. The purpose of ascertaining
the cost of cost centre is cost control. The person in charge of a cost centre is held
responsible for the control of cost of that centre.

Cost unit breaks up the cost into smaller sub-divisions and helps in ascertaining the
cost of saleable products or services. A cost unit is defined as a " unit of product ,
service or time in relation to which cost may be ascertained or expressed." For
example in a spinning mill the cost per kg of yarn may be ascertained. Kg of yarn is cost
unit. In short Cost unit is unit of measurement of cost.

METHODS OF COSTING:

Method of costing refers to the techniques and processes employed in the

ascertainment of costs. The method of costing to be applied in a particular concern
depends upon the type and nature of manufacturing activity. Basically there are two
methods of costing

1.Job costing: Cost unit in job order costing is taken to be a job or work order for which
costs are separetely collected and computed.

410
2.Process costing: This is used in mass production industries manufacturing
standardised products in continuous processes of manufacutring. Cost are accumulated
for each process or department. For spinning mills , process costing is employed.

TECHNIQUES OF COSTING:

These techniques may be used for special pupose of control and policy in any business
irrespective of the method of costing being used there.

Standard costing: This is the valuable technique to control the cost. In this technique,
standard cost is predetermined as target of performance and actual performance is
measured against the standard. The difference between standard and actual costs are
analysed to know teh reasons for the difference so that corrective actions may be taken.

Marginal costing: In this technique, cost is divided into fixed and variable and the
variable is of special interest and importance. This is because, marginal costing regards
only variable costs as the costs of products. Fixed cost is treated as period cost and no
attempt is made to allocate or apportion this cost to individual cost centres or cost
units.

Cost Ascertainment is concerned with computation of actual costs. Ascertainment of

actual costs reveals unprofitable activities losses and inefficiencies .

Cost Estimation is the process of predetermining costs of goods or services. The costs
are determined in advance of production and precede the operations. Estimated costs
are definitely the future costs and are based on teh average of the past actual costs
adjusted for future anticipated changes in future. Cost estimates are used in the
preparation of the budgets. It helps in evaulating performance. It is used in preparing
projected financial statements. Cost estimates may serve as targets in controlling the
costs.

CLASSIFICATION OF COSTS:

411
Costs are classified into direct costs and indirect costs on the basis of their identifiability
with cost units or processesses or cost centres.

DIRECT COST: These are the costs which are incurred for and conveniently indentified
with a particular cost unit, process or equipment. For a spinning mill, costs of
rawmaterial used, packing material, freight etc are direct costs

INDIRECT COST: These are general costs and are incurred for the benefit of a number
of cost units, processes or departments. These costs cannot be conveniently identified
with a particular cost unit or cost centre. In a spining mill, power cost, administrative
wages, managerial salaries, materials used in repairs etc are indirect costs.

The terms direct and indirect should be used in relation to the object of costing. An item
of cost may be direct cost in one case and the same may be indirect in the other case.It
is the nature of business and the cost unit chosen that will determine whether a
particular cost is direct or indirect.

FIXED AND VARIABLE COSTS; Costs behave differently when level of production rises
or falls. Certain costs change in sympathy with production level while other costs remain
unchanged. As such on the basis of behaviour or variability, costs are classifed into
fixed, variable and sem-variable.

FIXEDCOSTS; These costs remain constant in "total" amount over a wide range of
activity for a specified period of time. They do not increase or decrease when the
volume of production changes.

VARIABLE COSTS: These costs tend to vary in direct proportion to the volume of
output. In other words, when volume of output increases, total variable cost also
increases and vice-versa.

ELEMENTS OF COST: A cost is composed of three elements i.e. material , labour and
expense. Each of these elements may be direct or indirect.

412
 DIRECT COST INDIRECT COST

Direct material Indirect material

Direct labour Indirect labour

Direct expenses Indirect expenses

MATERIAL COST:

DIRECT MATERIAL is that which can be conveniently identified with and allocated to
cost units. Direct materials generally become a part of the finished product. For
example, cotton used in a spinning mill is a direct material.

INDIRECT MATERIAL is that which can not be conveniently identified with individual
cost units. In a spinning mill, engineering department spares, maintenance spares,
lubricating oils, greases, ring travellers etc

LABOUR COST:

DIRECT LABOUR cost consists of wages paid to workers directly engaged in

converting raw materials into finished products. These wages can be conveniently
identified with a particular product, job or process.

INDIRECT LABOUR is of general character and cannot be conveniently identified with

a particular cost unit. In other words, indirect labour is not directly engaged in the
production operations but only to assist or help in proudciton operations. For example
in a spinning mill, the number of maintenance workers, no of workers in utility
department etc

EXPENSES;All costs other than material and labour are termed as expenses.

413
DIRECT EXPENSES are those expenses which are specifically incurred in connection
with a particular job or cost unit. Direct expenses are also known as chargeable
expenses.

INDIRECT EXPENSES can not be directly identified with a particular job, process and
are common to cost units and cost centres.

PRIME COST = Direct material +Direct labour + Direct expenses

OVERHEAD = Indirect material + Indirect labour + Indirect expenses

TOTAL COST = PRIME COST + OVERHEAD

ADVANTAGES OF COST ACCOUNTING:

It reveals profitabale and unprofitable activities.

It helps in controlling costs with special techniques like standard costing and
budgetary control
It supplies suitable cost data and other related information for managerial
decision making such as introduction of a new product, replacement of
machinery with an automatic plant etc
It helps in deciding the selling prices, particularly during depression period when
prices may have to be fixed below cost
It helps in inventory control
It helps in the introduction of a cost reduction programme and finding out new
and improved ways to reduce costs
Cost audit system which is a part of cost accountancy helps in preventing
manipulation and frauds and thus reliable cost can be furnished to management

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEM:

The method of costing adopted. It should be suitable to the industry

It should be tailor made according to the requirements of a business. A ready
made system can not be suitable

414
 It must be fully supported by executives of various departments and every one
should participate in it
In order to derive maximum benefits from a costing system, well defined cost
centres and responsibility centres should be built within the organisation
controllable and uncontrollable costs of each responsiblity centre should be
separately shown
cost and financial accounts may be integrated in order to avoid duplication of
accounts
well trained and educated staff should be employed to operte the system
It should prepare an accurate reports and promptly submit teh same to
appropriate level of management so that action may be taken without delay
resources should not be wasted on collecting and compiling cost data not
required. Only useful cost information should be compiled and used whenever
required.

CASE 1. Project costing for a POLY/COTTON PLANT with autodoffing and link to
autoconer:(IN INDONESIA)

Following information is required to work out a costing for a new plant:

The average count of the plant

Capacity of the plant - No of spindles to be installed and the number of back
process and winding machines required
Investment on machineries
Investment on land
Investment on building
working capital required
product lay out, the count pattern
Selling price of individual counts
rawmaterial cost(including freight, duty etc)
packing cost per kg of yarn
freight per kg of yarn

415
 direct labour cost
indirect labour cost
fixed power cost
variable power cost
spares consumption
administration costs
selling overheads

Let us work out a project cost:

For this , i have used the details of the modern mill which is running in Indonesia from
year 2000

STEP NO.1: Contribution to be calculated. In general for a spinning mill ,contribution

per kg ofa particular count is calculated to work out the economics for a new project
as well as for a running mill.

Cotribution = selling price - direct cost

Direct cost for a spinning mill includes rawmaterial price, packing cost, freight. All other
costs are either fixed costs or semi variable costs. The other costs can not be
conveniently allocated to per kg of a particular count.

The basic idea of a new project or a running plant is to maximise this contribution.
Because once the plant is designed, spares cost, power cost, administration cost,labour
cost etc almost remain constant. There will not be significant changes in these costs for
different count patterns if the plant is utilisation is same.

The following table gives the details of count pattern, selling price, rawmaterial price,
packing cost and contribution per kg of different counts for a particular period ( year
2000). This is just an example , one should understand that the selling price,
rawmaterial price and all other costs keep changing. THis is the reason why costing is
important for a running mill. All the costs are changing. Some costs change every

416
month, some once in a year. Therefore costing plays a major role to run the plant
efficiently.

commn
raw selling
no. of no of prdn packing freight 2% on contribn
count prdn/mc material price /
spls mcs kgs/day cost /kg per kg selling per kg
cost/kg kg
price

20s
4480 4 1109 4436 1.456 0.046 0.051 0.04 2.2 2674
CVC

24s
4480 4 881 3525 1.456 0.046 0.051 0.05 2.3 2470
CVC

30s
5600 5 679 3394 1.456 0.046 0.051 0.05 2.4 2712
CVC

30s
4480 4 679 2716 1.240 0.046 0.051 0.04 2.15 2091
TC

36s
6720 6 552 3315 1.240 0.046 0.051 0.05 2.4 3365
TC

23 17385 contrbn/ day 13312

In the above table, all the costs are in US$. The ringframes are with 1120 spindles per
machine with automatic doffing and link to autoconer. Packing cost is based on
indonesian packing material prices for carton packing.

The ultimate aim of the project is to maximise the contribution. Looking into the
cotribution per kg of yarn, the project should produce only 36s TC. But in this project
they have considered 5 different counts. Because

yarn market is not stable. It needs a lot felxibility

customers are not same, the price depends on the customers
the end uses are not same, the price depends on the enduse

417
 this unit exports 80% of the yarn, it can not depend on one country, eg. 36sTc is
only for Philippines market, it can not be sold in Malaysia, eventhough the quality
is good
the count pattern depends upon the market requirement and the major counts in
the market, not only on the contribution
A linear programming technique can be used to maximise the contribution,
considering all market constraints, and production constraints.
flexibility needs more investment and more day to day expenses, if a project has
to be more flexible, it has to invest more money on infrastructure
the major factor which will make the project feasible with less felexibility is YARN
QUALITY in a spinning mill
Since this is a critical step for a new project, management should be clear about
their Yarn quality , Flexibility required for marketing and should make use of
Linear Programming Techniques to find out the best product mix to maximise
the contribution.

STEP NO. 2:To work out the Total Investment cost ( machineries, accessories, land and
builidng, humdification and electrical instruments)

The following table gives the requirement of produciton machines. To calculate the
number of back proess and winding drums required, a detailed spin plan should be
worked out with speeds and efficiencies to be achieved in each machine.

While calculating the no of machines required, m/c utilisation, m/c efficiency , waste
percentage, twist multipliers, delivery speeds etc should be considered properly.
These factors should be decided based on yarn quality required, end breakge rates and
the capacity of machine.

INVESTMENT ON MACHINERY

MACHINERY NO. OF MCS RATE / MC TOTAL COST

Trutzschler Blowrrom line for cotton 1 line 416,640 416,640

418
 Trutschler Blowrrom line for Polyester 1 Line 321,365 321,365

Trutshcler DK-903 cards 22 92,500 2,035,000

Rieter RSB-D30 draw frames (with

6
autoleveller)

Rieter double delivery drawframe 10 1,648,000

Rieter unilap 2

Rieter E62 combers 10

Howa speed frames with overhead

7 144530 1,011,710
blower

Ring frames with autodoffer 23 148,960 3,426,080

winding machines ( 26 drums per mc) 23 93,200 2,143,600

Roving transport ( manual) 1 150,000 150,000

Argus fire system 1 50,000 50,000

TOTAL 11,202,395

Some of the following points can be considered while deciding the machines.

From the above table it is clear that, 23 ringframes with 1120 spindles are working with
auto doffing and with link to autoconer. The major advantage of this automation is to
reduce labour and to reduce the problems related to material handling. One has to
really work out the benefits achieved because of this and the pay back for the extra
investment.

Drawframe contributes a lot to the yarn quality and the ringframe and winding machine
working. It is always better to go in for the best drawframes like RSB-D30 drawframes
with autoleveller. It is not wise to buy a cheaper drawframe and save money.

419
It is always better to keep excess carding and autoleveller drawframes, so that flexibility
of the project is also maintained. If the coarser counts contributes more and the market
is good, overall production can be increased. If the market is for finer count, both the
machines (carding and drawframes)can be run at slower speeds, which will surely
contribute to yarn quality.

Speeds of speedframe , combers and ringframes do not affect the yarn quality as it is
affected by card and drawframe speeds.

Blow room capacity should be utilised to the maximum, as it consumes a lot of power
,space and money.

Ringframe specification should be perfect, because the working performance and power
consumption of the ringframe depends on the specifications like, lift, ring dia, no of
spindles etc. Ring frame specification should be decided to get the maximum
production per spindle and to reduce the power consumed per kg of yarn produced by
that spindle. Because the investment cost and the power consumption for the ringframe
is the highest in a spinning mill.

INVESTMENT ON ACCESSORIES:

The following table gives the details of the accessories like cans for carding, drawframe,
bobbins, trollies etc

ACCESSORIES NO. OF MCS RATE / MC TOTAL COST

Carding cans 36" x 48" 120 160 19,200

comber cans 24" x 48" 350 85 29750

Drawframe cans 20" x 48" 1100 53 58,300

Identification bands 20" 400 1.2 480

Identification bands 24" 50 1.8 90

Roving and spinning bobbins 36,000

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 Plastic crates 400 6 2,400

trolleys 10,000

Cone trolly 80 200 16,000

Fork lift 1 27,000 27,000

hand truck 3 1000 3,000

TOTAL 202,220

SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENTS:

The following table gives the details about the investments required on service and
maintenance equipments

SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE NO OF TOTAL

RATE/MC
EQUIPEMENTS MCS PRICE

Cots buffing machine and accessories 1 20000 20000

Card room accessories 1 set 60,000 60,000

Spindle oil lubricator 1 4000 4000

Clearer roller cleaning machine 1 3000 3000

Vacuum cleaner 5 3000 15000

pneumatic cleaners 6 500 3000

Weighing balance 3 2000 6000

Strapping machine 2 2000 4000

Premier autosorter 1 2500 2500

Premier uster tester 1 45000 45000

Premier strength tester 1 45000 45000

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 premier fiber testing 1 45000 45000

Premier Classidata 1 25000 25000

Erection charges 150000

TOTAL 427500

Card service machines like Flat tops clipping machine and flats grinding machine are
very important for yarn quality. One should not look for cheaper machine. It is always
better to go for reputed manufacturers like GRAF, HOLLINGSWORTH etc.

Rubber cots contributes a lot to yarn quality. Bad buffing in ring frame can increase the
imperfections by 15%. Poor quality of buffing in drawframe and speedframes can affect
both production and quality. It is better to go for the best cots mounting machine and
cots buffing machine.

HUMIDIFICATION AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS:

The following table gives the details about the investments required on humdification
and electrical istruments

Electrical installation including transformer, incoming and

350,000
outgoing panels, bus duct, capacitor, etc for 3800 KVA

Cables 125,000

Compressor, Dryer and pipe lines 180,000

humidifaction system 767,000

chillers 176,000

Ducting and installation for humidification system 125,000

workshops, hydrant and other equipments 100,000

TOTAL 1,823,000

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In indonesia, most of the units use PLN power and some of the spinning mills use
Gensets. A detailed costing has to be done to compare the cost per unit to decide,
Whether to use the PLN power or to go in for Gensets. while working out the costing
finance cost on investment , overhauling cost, running cost, efficiency of the machine
should be considered for cost caluculation in the case of Genset. In case of PLN power,
the losses due to power interruption( based on the area data), finance cost on initial
investment, md charges, unit charges to be considered. It is better to use 50% PLN
and 50 % own generation

The following table gives the details about land and builiding investments

Land cost 200,000

Land development 40,000

Factory building Including Service ally 192 x 62

meters
1,405,440

11,712 Square meter @ 120 usd/sq meter

Road and others 40,000

TOTAL 1,445,440

STEP NO.3: To calculate the expenses ( labour, power, stores,working capital,

insurance etc)

Working capital = 3,000,000

LABOUR:The following table gives the details about labour requirement

No of people
DEPARTMENT
required

Production 140

423
 packing 15

maintenance 30

utility 17

administration and personal dept 20

Total no of people required per day 222

wages at 50 usd/month including

111,00
bonus and insurance

other facilities at 35 % 3,885

salaries for managerial staff 10000

Other facilities at 35 % 3500

Total labour cost / month 28485

POWER: The following table gives the details about the power

Total units(KWH) produced

69559
(consumed)per day

Unit cost (cost / KWH) 0.03

Total production in Kgs 17,390

KWH/ Kg of yarn 4.0

TOTAL POWER COST /DAY 2087

SPARES:The following table shows the spares cost, repair , and insurance

424
 spares cost at usd 8/1000 spindle
222,566
shift

repairs and other overheads 200,000

Insurance at 0.175% on investment

31320
and working capital

TOTAL cost per year 453886

STEP NO.4: PAY BACK CALCULATION

DETAILS IN USD

INVESTMENT:

Land and building 1,444,440

Machinery, accessories & service equipments 11,832,115

Electrical and Humidification ducts 1,823,000

TOTAL INVESTMENT 15,099,555

WORKING CAPITAL 3,000,000

GRAND TOTAL 18,099,555

RECURRING EXPENDITURES PER DAY

Salaries and Wages 949.5

Power cost 2087

Stores , repairs and insurance 1260.8

TOTAL 4297.3

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 INTEREST CALCULATION (per day)

On capital 8% 3355.5

on working capital 9% 750

TOTAL EXPENSES INCLUDING INTEREST 8402.8

TOTAL CONTRIBUTION PER DAY 13312

NET PROFIT( before depreciation & taxation) 4909.2

PAY BACK PERIOD 8.54 years

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OF A

Spinning Mill with 32400 spindles working on 100% cotton combed yarns
The data given below will help us to understand the impact on overall contribution by
1. Utilisation of the plant 2. Selling price increase
3. Cheaper rawmaterial for coarse counts 4. selling price increase for
coarse counts
5. Increased back process production 6. Increased spindleage
7. Increased grams per spindle 8. Working coarses counts
9. working finer counts 10.Raw material price

ASSUMPTIONS:
The selling prices is the actual net sales price for a reasonably good yarn produced in
Indonesia.
Product mix is decided by Linear programming which satisfies all the constraints given
below
Linear programming decides the maximum possible contribution meeting all the
constraints.

426
contrubution = Net sales price - clean raw material cost - packing and forwarding cost

grams per
market constraints spindle
24sc should be less than 60 tons per month 240 utilisation 97%
20sc should be less than 510 tons per month 280 no of RFs 45
30sc should be less than 90 tons per month 170 no spls/RF 720
32sc should be less than 20 tons per month 155
36sc should be less than 20 tons per month 135
40sc should be less than 300 tons per month 120
Total no of ring frames should not be more than 45

utilised total avg

count 24sc 20sc 30sc 32sc 36sc 40sc rfs cotrbn count
usd
sell price 1.96 1.90 2.10 2.14 2.30 2.40
raw mat 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30
packing 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
contrbn 0.62 0.56 0.76 0.8 0.96 1.06

12. 5 tons 20.5 0 90 20 20 225 44.3 354291 36.09

13.5 tons 60 22.9 77.5 0 20 225 45 366179 34.39
15 tons 60 137 7.99 0 20 225 45 377470 31.4
17 tons 0 303 0 0 0 207 45 389117 28.12
19 tons 0 408 0 0 0 162 45 400217 25.69
21 tons 3.39 510 0 0 0 117 45 411308 23.72

if the utilisation goes up by 1% I.e form 97% to 98%

15 tons 60 127 15.7 0 20 227 45 380179 31.68

17 tons 0 297 0 0 0 213 45 392156 28.36

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19 tons 0 402 0 0 0 168 45 403256 25.9

if grams per spindle is increased by 5%

15 tons 60 88.6 45.6 0 20 236 45 390605 32.74

17 tons 60 171 90 0 20 169 45 399811 29.5
19 tons 60 276 90 0 20 124 45 410911 26.92

if the selling price goes up 5%

15 tons 60 137 7.99 0 20 225 45 426494 31.4

17 tons 0 303 0 0 0 207 45 442743 28.12
19 tons 0 408 0 0 0 162 45 458418 25.69

if the raw material price comes down by 3 cents

15 tons 60 137 7.99 0 20 225 45 390970 31.4

17 tons 0 303 0 0 0 207 45 404417 28.12
19 tons 0 408 0 0 0 162 45 417317 25.69

if the rawmaterial for 20s, 24s and 30s is cheaper by 3 cents compared to other counts

15 tons 60 137 7.99 0 20 225 45 383634 31.4

17 tons 60 250 0 0 0 200 45 398281 28.3
19 tons 60 355 0 0 0 155 45 412531 25.84

if grams per spindle comes down by 3% bec of cheaper raw mat for 20s,24s and 30s

15 tons 51.3 154 0 0 20 225 45 381512 31.15

17 tons 0 310 0 0 0 200 45 394824 27.84
19 tons 0 418 0 0 0 152 45 407902 25.35

428
if grams per spindle comes down by 10% bec of cheaper rawmat for 20s,24s and 30s

15 tons 0 212 0 0 19.8 218 45 375491 30.41

17 tons 0 326 0 0 20 164 45 385255 27.05
19 tons 0 441 0 0 20 109 45 395018 24.39

if 40sc can not be sold more than 180 tons per month

15 tons 60 92.1 90 7.91 20 180 45 373479 31.45

17 tons 60 243 7.14 0 20 180 45 386071 28.3
19 tons 0 408 0 0 0 162 45 400217 25.69

if 20sc can not be sold more than 300 tons per month

15 tons 60 137 7.99 0 20 225 45 377470 31.4

17 tons 3.39 300 0 0 0 207 45 389108 28.13
19 tons 60 300 90 0 20 97 45 395617 26.0

if 20sc can not be sold more than 150 tons per month

15 tons 60 137 7.99 0 20 225 45 377470 31.4

16 tons 60 150 90 0 20 161 45 379760 29.79
17 tons 60 150 90 0 20 161 45 379760 29.79
19 tons 60 150 90 0 20 161 45 379760 29.79

pleease note in this case it has not considerd more than 16 tons , even thought the
option upto
19 tons is given to choose

if spindle installed is increased by 10%

429
15 tons 60 35.5 90 20 20 225 49 398660 33.76
17 tons 60 169 36.7 0 20 225 49.5 416621 30.62
19 tons 0 349 0 0 0 221 49.5 429693 27.75

if grams/spl goes up by 5% for 40sc

15 tons 60 109 25.3 0 20 236 45 386556 32.29
17 tons 0 284 0 0 0 226 45 398527 28.86
19 tons 0 393 0 0 0 177 45 407582 26.20

if grams/spl goes up by 5% for 20sc

15 tons 0 170 35.9 0 20 225 45 379457 31.49

17 tons 0 293 0 0 0 217 45 394340 28.53
19 tons 0 394 0 0 0 176 45 407251 26.18

PLEASE NOTE THAT WHATEVER CONCLUSIONS, STATEMENTS, OPINIONS

ARRIVED AT BASED ON
THE ABOVE DATA IS APPLICABLE ONLY FOR THE SAME DATA. CONCLUSIONS,
RESULTS MAY VARY
DEPENDING UPON THE PROUDCTIVITY OF DIFFERENT COUNTS, SELLING
PRICE COMBINATIONS
FOR DIFFERENT COUNTS, OVERALL QUANTITY ETC

COMPRESSED AIR

INTRODUCTION:

English word Pneumatic is derived from the greek word 'pneuma' meaning
"breath".Pneumatic control system operate on a supply of compressed air, which must
be made available in sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the

430
system. A compressor is a machine which takes in air, gas or vapors at a certain
pressure and delivers the fluid at a higher pressure.

Everything on earth is subjected to the absolute atmospheric pressure(pa), this

pressure cannot be felt.The prevailing atmospheric pressure is therefore regarded as
the base and any deviation is termed "gauge pressure"

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure

Absolute pressure is approximately one bar greater than the gauge pressure.

Charecteristics of interest on a compressor are,

1. Delivery volume or capacity of the compressor

2. Compression ratio

Compressor capacity is usually expressed as air volume at ambient conditions at the

compressor intake, namely in units of metercube per minute or litres per minute.

Compression ratio is expressed by the discharge pressure measured in the generally

accepted unit of bars. Compressors should be installed in a separate room. Special
care is required to ensure that the compressors will be able to take in air that is
preferably cool but above all dry and substantially dustfree.

At locations where clean suction air is not available, the installation of a separate intake
filter can answer this requirement. Piping leading from the filter to the compressor intake
should be amply dimensioned. In this way it is also possible for clean suction air to be
supplied to a multiple number of compressors via a common intake duct.

Unnecessary costs in the production of compressed

air can be avoided by functional and expert planning

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Clean condition of the suction air is one of the factors decisive to life of a compressor.
Warm and moist suction air will result in increased precipitation of condensate from the
compressed air.

The amount of moisture condensing out of compressed air is a function of the relative
humidity of the intake air and the temperature. Relative humidity is the amount of water
vapor present in a given volume of air, whereas the humidity at saturation is the total
amount of water vapor which that same volume of air can absorb at the given
temperature.

One metercube of compressed air is only capable of

holding the same amount of water vapor as one
metercube of atmospheric air.

Discharge pressure of the compressor should not be appreciably higher than the
working pressure required for operation of the pneumatic control devices.

Delivering air at higher pressure will cost more for compression and will cause higher
losses at leakage points.

Air receivers are instlaled directly downstream of the compressors to receive the
compressed air delivered, thereby balancing out pulsations in the air flow. Mostly they
are also intended to serve as storage reservoirs for the overall air mains, thus
additionally helping to cool the compressed air and separate condensate before it is
distributed further. In large compressor systems an aftercoller incorporating a moisture
separator will be installed between compressor and receiver so that a large part of the
condensate will be removed before the air enters the receiver. Size of the receiver is
governed by the rate at which compressed air is consumed and the capacity of the
compressor.

Volumetric capacity of the receiver in metercube equals the

432
 delivery capacity of the compressor in metercube per minute.But it
is cheaper to use an air receiver or accumulator whose capacity is
too large than one too small.

Pressure-volume product is calculated by multiplying the volumetric capacity of the

receiver in liters by multiplying the volumetric capacity of the receiver in liters by the
working pressure in bars

pressure-volume product = p * v

Air receivers should be installed outdoors(preferably on the shady side of the building).
This contributes to better cooling of the compressed air and thus better separation of
condensate, while avoiding overheating of an enclosed space that might be too small.
Good ventilation must be provided if the receiver is setup indoors.

Air accumulators are secondary receivers installed at intermediate locations to equalise

pressure variations within the system so as to ensure that operating pressure is as
constant as possible for all consumers. Such intermediate accumulators should be
provided for each of several consumers. Pressure drops in long lines are thus
compensated and flow velocity in the piping can be maintained at the optimum.

Without intermediate accumulator, sudden large consumption of air may cause

temporary breakdown of line pressure, resulting in abnormally high flow velocities in the
air main, excessive cooling of air, and thus increased condensation at these points.

AIR MAIN is the piping system into which the compressed air is led from the receiver. It
is permanently installed system of interconnected pipes carrying the air to the
connections for the various consumers. Main criteria to be considered are

1. flow velocities
2. pressure drop in piping
3. tight joints throughout the main

PIPE SIZE: Pipe sizing is governed by

433
 1. permissible flow velocity
2. permissible pressure drop;
3. working pressure
4. number of flow restrictors in piping
5. length of piping

"Rate of flow", that is the air consumption rate, is a quantity that must be determined in
advance by the planning engineer. Flow velocity and pressure drop are closely related
to one another. Roughness of the inside walls of piping and the number of fittings
installed will also affect pressure drop.

"Flow velocity" of compressed air in the mains should be between 6 and 10 m/sec.
Every effort should be made to keep the velocity below 10 m/sec. Pipe elbows, valves,
reducers and hose couplings cause the flow velocity to rise above the permissible
figures at many points. Temporary increase in flow velocity also on actuating devices
using air at a high rate.

"Pressure drop" should preferably not exceed 0.1 bar. Another measure used in
practice is 5% of wokring pressure.

"Flow restrictions" are formed in air mains by the valves, bends and tees installed. For
calculation of the inside pipe diameter such restrictions must therefore be converted to
the equivalent pipe length, which is then added to the remaining pipe length of the main.

Permanently installed air mains piping should be accessible from all sides. Horizontal
runs of air pipe should be slope downwards 1-2 % in the direction of flow. Vertical main
lines should not terminate at a consumer take-off, but should run further down so that
condensate precipitated in the main will collect at the lowest point of the branch line
where it can be drained off and will not pass to the consumer.

Air mains are preferably constructed of steel pipe with welded joints. In the long run
welds are more durable than any screwed joint. A drawback associated with welding is

434
the formation of scale during welding, with the tendency of the weld to rust in time. The
advantage of welding pipe lies in the tight sealing of joints and lower cost.

Isolating valves (gate valves) must be installed to divide the air main into sections so
that it will not be necessary to shutdown and depressurize the entire main when
maintenance or repairs become necessary.

WHAT IS THE COST PER CFM Let us assume that motor service factor = 110% power
factor = 0.9A typical compressor produces 4 CFM per 1 HP1 HP = 110% x 0.746
KW/0.9 = 0.912KW Therefore, 1 CFM =0.228KW At 0.06 $KW/HR, 1CFM = $0.0137/hr
Therefore, 10 CFM over 8000 hr will cost : 10 x 8000 x 0.137 = $1096 In a typical plant,
air leaks account for 20% of the total air usage !! One 1/4" air leak will result in 100 CFM
loss

IMPORTANCE OF DRY COMPRESSED AIR

The atmospheric air taken in by the compressor always contains a proportion of

moisture in the form of water vapour. The higher the air temperature, the greater the
quantity of water vapour which it can take up, expressed in percentage of relative
humidity. If the saturation point of RH 100% is reached, the water is precipitated in the
form of droplets. The effects of this process can be explained by means of an example.

A compressor with a delivery of 10 m /min. takes in approximately 36 litres of water with

air at 7 bar pressure (at 20 C and 50% RH). Because of the compression heat, the
water is first taken up completely (the absorption capacity of air increases as the
temperature rises).

When the air is cooled to 40 C, 5.1 litres of condensate are precipitated out
immediately after the compressor. In the course of further cooling, a further 21.6 litres
are precipitated out at 20 C. If this moisture is allowed to enter the pneumatic system,
the consequences would be as follows:

435
 1. Corrosion in pipes,cylinders and other components. This increases wear and
maintenance costs.
2. The basic lubrication in the cylinders is washed out.
3. The switching function of valves is impaired, ie., more malfunctions during the
operating sequence.
4. Contamination and damage at points where the compressed air comes directly in
contact with sensitive materials (e.g. in paint-shops, food industry).
5. Rust and scale formation within pipelines
6. Sluggish and inconsistent operation of air valves and cylinders
7. Freezing in exposed lines during cold weather
8. Further condensation and possible freezing of moisture at the exhaust whenever
air devices are rapidly exhausted.

It therefore follows that the water must in all cases be removed from the compressed air
before it can cause damage; i.e. the air must be dried. Before discussing about various
types of driers, let us familiarise ourselves with a few terminologies.

Dew point = Temperature at which air is saturated with water vapour (Relative Humidity
100%).

Pressure dew point = Dew point at operating pressure.

Atmospheric dew point = Absolute humidity of compressed air referred to dew point
(relative humidity of air).

The measure employed in drying of air or gases is the dew point, which is the
temperature at which air is fully saturated with moisture. Cooling below the dewpoint will
cause condensation of the water vapor.

The lower the dew point, the less moisture the air is able to absorb
or hold.

436
Absorptive capacity of air for moisture in the form of water vapor is a function of volume
and temperature only, not of pressure, but it is still necessary to consider the working
pressure of the system when comparing different facilities for the dehydration of air.
This brings in thet term "pressure dew point", which means the temperature
representing the dew point at the respective operating pressure. In drying air by
refrigeration, pressure dew point defines the lowest air temperature attainable in the
dryer at the operating pressure of the system.

Another term encountered in drying of air is atmospheric dew point. This assumes that,
for example, compressed air of a given volume and a given pressure dew point contains
an amount of water vapor corresponding to the dew point of the air. Since the volume
changes with a reduction in pressure, the dew point also changes, decreasing in
accordance with the initial pressure and the corresponding proportional change of
volume

Drying of compressed air can be performed by three processes Absorption Adsorption

Refrigeration

DRYING BY REFRIGERAION:

Reduction of the dew point means that the capacity of the air to absorb moisture is
reduced also.This is the principle applied in drying of air by refrigeration, the
compressed air thereby being cooled to temperatures between about 1.7 and 5 degrees
celcius. The equipment required for this method is a refrigerating unit and a heat
exchanger.

Drying by refrigeration is only suitable for pressure

dew points over 0 degree celcius

Adsorption drying is the most expensive method when regeneration of the adsorbent is
performed with cold air, but the second cheapest with hot-air regeneration. Absorption
drying costs almost as much as adsorption drying with cold air regeneration, but is
comparable with the hot-air- regeneration version when the pressure dew point is

437
allowed to increase to 17 degrees celciius. Refrigeration drying is the least expensive of
these processes, running to about 13% of the cost of the most expensive method.

As a general guide, the cost of drying compressed air can be

placed at approximately 10 - 20 % of the cost of compressing the
air.

Drying by refrigeration will remove oil approx. 80%. An oil separating filter should
always be installed upstream of the air consumption points. More recent designs of
ultrafilters are capable of separating oil and water aerosols down to a size of 0.01
micron.

Production of compressed air free from oil to the greatest extent for pneumatic
applications requires the combination of either drying the air by refrigeration or
production of oil-free air by non-lubricated compressor and the use of non-lubricated
compressor and the use of ultrafilters in the air line.

ABSORPTION DRYING: Absorption drying is purely a chemical process. Absorb is to

take up a gaseous substance in a solid or liquid substance. A prefilter separates larger
drops of water and oil from the compressed air. On entering the device, the compressed
air is made to swirl.

The drying chamber is filled with a flux (drying agent) which extracts the water drops
contained in the air. The flux combines with the water and passes into the collection
chamber at the bottom. In the drying chamber, the flux is slowly used up. It must
therefore be replaced at regular intervals.The consumption of flux is kept smallest if the
inlet temperature of the air is kept at 20 degree centigrade.

The special features of the absorption process are: simple installation of the equipment
low mechanical wear(no moving parts) no external energy requirement

ADSORPTION DRYING: Adsorption drying is based on a physical process.Adsorption

means substances are deposited on the surface of solid bodies. This process is also

438
known as regenerative drying. The drying agent is a granual material. The porous
surface of the granules are filled with liquid when the compressed air flows through.

The saturated gel bed is regenerated by a simple method. Warm air is blown through
the dryer and takes up the moisture. As a rule, two dryers are connected in parallel.
While one of this drying the air, the other is regenerated. The capacity of gel bed is
limited. Under normal conditions, it will be necessary to replace the drying agent every 2
to 3 years.

PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS: The component in a pneumatic control system which

performs the work or functions as the actuator is the air cylinder.An air cylinder is an
operative device in which the static input energy of compressed air, i.e pneumatic
power, is converted into mechanical output power by reducing the pressure of the air to
that of the atmosphere.

Following are the different types of pneumatic cylinders

1. Single acting cylinders

2. double acting cylinders
3. special type cylinders

Single acting cylinder is only capabale of performing an operating motion in one

direction. Double acting cylinders are capable of performing an operation motion in both
directions of piston travel. Single acting cylinders require only about half the air volume
consumed by a double acting cylinder for one operating cycle. Opposed thrust or multi-
position cylinders, rotary cylinders, impact cylinders etc. are some special type
cylinders.

CYLINDER THRUST: The thrust developed in the cylinder, that is the piston power, is a
function of the piston diameter, the operating air pressure and the frictional resistance.

Thrust = (piston area) * (air pressure)

439
AIR CONSUMPTION: The eompressed air supplied to a pneumatic cylinder is
consumed with its energy being converted into a power output. On reversal of the piston
stroke in the cylinder, the consumed air is exhausted to the atmosphere.

Air consumption = compression ratio * piston area * Stoke length

compression ratio = (1.033 + operating pressure in bar)/ 1.033

PISTON VELOCITY: Factors governing the velocity of the piston are operating pressure
opposing forces inside diameter length of air line between control valve and cylinder
size of control valve

The piston velocity may additionally be affected by any throttle or quick-exhaust valve
installed.

With single-acting cylinder, the advance movement can be throttled only by throttling the
supply air.

The return speed of a single-acting cylinder can be increased by using a QUICK

EXHAUST VALVE.

Fan Laws allow us to predict compressor and expansion turbine performance as their
speed changes. Changing the speed of an impeller effects the pressure ratio (Head)
and the flow, which in turn effects the horsepower. Speed change is the most efficient
way to operate at off-design points. By observing the Fan Laws we can pick the correct
speed to match an off-design point. This is particularly important when you have a
variable speed driver, such as a steam turbine.

Fan Laws state that the flow is directly proportional to the speed. Therefore if the speed
decreases to 90% of design speed, the compressor will operate at 90% of design flow.

Speed change ---------Flow change

440
The head of the compressor is proportional to the speed or the square root of the
speed. This will yield the head change. Therefore if the speed decreases to 90% of
design speed, the compressor will operate at 81% head.

SQRT(SPEED CHANGE ) ------------Head change

The power of the compressor is proportional to the speed or the cube root of the
speed. This again will yield the power change. Therefore if the speed decreases to 90%
of design speed, the compressor will operate at 73% power.

cube rute(speed change )-------------Power change

The above reflects the relationship of flow, head and power to speed. Once again, by
understanding this equation, you are able to set your compressor at the right speed to
provide the most efficient operating condition.

ENERGY SAVING IN COMPRESSOR The three major areas are

Compressed Air generation

Compressed Air distribution
Compressed Air Utilisation

GENERATION:

The following points to be considered The compressor type,(single stage or multi

stage), capacity required and capacity utilisation

1. Screw and centrifugal compressors are suitable for base load or full load
applications but not for part load operations.
2. Reciprocating compressors are suitable for variable loads where no-load power
is 10 to 12% of the full load power.

minimum and maximum pressure required

type of cooling required

441
 space requirement
type of capcacity control
1. On/Off control
2. Load and Unload
3. Throttling control
4. Speed control
initial cost
Where there are more than one compressor then modulation should be based on
1. If all are of similar size then one compressor should handle load variation
2. If all are of different size then smallest compressor is allowed to modulate
3. IF all are of different type then allow screw/centrifugal compressors to run
on full load
4. In general allow the compressor whose no-load power consumption is less
to modulate

DISTRIBUTION:

Efficient air distrubution

Air Receiver installation
Optimum pipe sizes
Avoiding leaks and wastage
Avoiding unnecessary pressurization of piping system system
Proper location of moisture separators and drain valves

UTILISATION:

Use of blower air instead of compressed air

Use of PRV for low pressure air requirement
Use of electrical tools instead of pneumatic tools
Replacing pneumatic conveying by mechanical conveying
Avoiding misuse of compressed air

442
 Misuses such as body cleaning, liquid agitaion, floor cleaning,drying, equipement
cooling, and other similar uses have to be discouraged to save compressed air
and energy.

EFFECT OF COTTON PREPARATION ON AFIS AND HVI MEASUREMENTS

J.L. Simonton, W.D. Cole and P. Williams

International Textile Center, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TXv

INTORDUCTION:

The basic purpose of this study is to examine the use of the AFIS and the HVI to
improve performance of the spinning process. Since the various mechanical processes
modify the state of the fibers, we must first determine the effects of fiber preparation on
instrument readings.

Cotton processing machines that mechanically work the cotton fiber from bale to yarn
are designed with the intent of minimizing fiber damage. Nevertheless, opening,
cleaning and blending equipment shorten the staple length while increasing short fiber
content and neps. Carding and combing reverse this by removing a percentage of the
short fibers and neps. Drawing is thought to have a minimal effect on fiber physicals, its
purpose being to improve sliver evenness and fiber orientation.

With machine settings and speeds optimized, a comparison of the fiber properties of
stock-in compared with stock-out provides valuable information for achieving further
optimization.

443
PROCEDURE:

Instrument used: Uster AFIS and HVI Spinlab 900B

No. of bale samples: 10 bales with different mic and length were used
No. of processing method : 12 different processing combinations
Machineries used:

Blow room:

hunter hopper feeder

Rieter Mono cylinder (750 rpm)

Rieter ERM B5/5(850 rpm)

Rieter ERM B5/5(950 rpm)

Carding : Rieter C4 card with Hollingsworth Trashmaster TM2000 (100 pounds per
hour, with 60 grains per yard sliver)

Drawframe: Rieter RSB-851

Speed frame:Saco Lowell Rovematic FC-1B

Ring spinning: Saco Lowell SF-3H

Open end machine: Schlafhorst Autocoro

Predrawframe for comber: Saco-Lowell DE-7C

Lap former : Rieter Unilap E5/3

Comber : Rieter E7/6

DETAILS OF THE FINDINGS:

444
 There are slight AFIS variations in the apparent fiber diameter when going from a
processing stage to another. It seems that the ERMII results in a slight increase,
which could be due to the removal of dead fibers in the opening line. Certainly
the card also removes neps and dead fibers; however, the diameter appears to
decrease slightly (Figure 2) There is also a significant decrease due to the
drawing. These mechanical processes cannot modify the diameter. The only
logical explanation is an artifact effect. In the card sliver and the drawing slivers
the fibers are oriented and paralleled, this removes the crimp. The length of the
electronic signal and its height are then modified giving higher length readings
and lower diameter readings.

The HVI micronaire values (Figure 1) vary slightly in the opening line, perhaps
due to the removal of some dead fibers. The carding seems to reduce the
micronaire, which is not explainable. Then the drawing leads to an increase in
micronaire. The theory of the micronaire instruments is based on airflow passing

445
 through a sample constituted of randomly oriented fibers. In the drawing process
the fibers are made parallel, which probably leads to an easier flow of air through
the cotton sample and results in an apparent higher micronaire.

FIG:1

As the micronaire is used to calculate the beard mass (function of optical density
and micronaire) for the strength test, any positive micronaire bias will lead to a
negative HVI strength bias (Figure 2). In addition, the drawing process is similar
in effect to an increase in the brushing time (or force) on the HVI combs. Taylor
(TRJ, 1986, 93-102) has shown the effect of increasing brushing force on HVI
strength readings. In his experiment two sample preparations were tested, hand
brushing and HVI brushing (harder brushing than by hand). The results show an
increase by 1.9 g/tex when using the HVI brushing device. In our case, we think
that the drawing sliver samples have a lower optic density (for a given number of
fibers in the comb) than the raw cotton. This results in a lower calculated mass of

446
 the sample to be broken. As the HVI strength is calculated by dividing the force
applied to break the sample by the

FIG:2

As expected, the AFIS nep counts (Figure 3) increase with passage of the fibers
through the opening line. The Mono- cylinder increases the average nep count by
75, then the first ERM (operating at 850 rpm) by 136 and the second ERM
(operating at 950 rpm) by 240; that is 451 neps in total. The card removes 540
neps and the drawing frames have no effect.

FIG:3

447
 The HVI reflectance (Figure 4) increases slightly after each cleaning stage. The
drawing seems to also have an effect on the reflectance readings. This is not due
to trash removal but more likely to an artifact because the paralleled fibers are
not reflecting the light the same way as the randomly oriented fibers.

FIG:4

448
 The changes in yellowness (Figure 5) are quite small but significant. The most
important change is due to the drawing. This is, as for the reflectance, probably
due to an artifact.

FIG:5

449
Combed Process:

Combing affects AFIS Upper Quartile Length, Mean Length, Short Fiber Content
and HVI Upper Half Mean Length and Uniformity Ratio. As expected the fiber
length parameters all increase when the cotton is combed, with the exception of
the Short Fiber Content. The drawing also affects the length parameters; as
discussed before, it is probably an artifact. It is interesting to note that combing
increases the length by 0.006 inch (minimum noil settings) and that the first
drawing increases it by 0.027, i.e. nearly five times more. The artifact effect
seems to be much more important than the real mechanical effect. The combing
process seems to have no effect on the fiber diameter (Figure 6). The drawing,
as discussed before, decreases the diameter (artifact). The HVI micronaire
(Figure 7) increases when combing is applied, mainly because the removal of
short, weak and immature fibers during the combing process increases the
average maturity level. As discussed before the drawing has a positive effect on
micronaire (artifact effect).

450
FIG:6 AFIS-DIAMETER

FIG:7 HVI STRENGTH:

The HVI strength (Figure 8) also increases with combing, because of the removal
of short fibers. The drawing, as discussed before, increases the apparent HVI
strength (artifact effect).

451
FIG:8 HVI STRENGTH

The AFIS neps (Figure 9) are removed during the combing process as expected
(-62% for the minimum noil setting to -91% for the normal noil setting).

FIG:9

452
 The combing also removes trash and dust. The decrease in trash is (Figure 10)
nearly 60% for both types of settings. The decrease in dust (Figure 11) is about
40% for the minimum noil setting and 60% for the normal noil setting. As these
are removed the HVI reflectance increases as expected and the yellowness
decreases. The drawing effect on both parameters is an artifact, as discussed
before.

FIG:10 AFIS-TRASH:

453
FIG:11 AFIS DUST

454