NICOLE C.

MAPILI

CHAPTER 3: JUDGEMENT

Judgment The Judgment expressed in a

sentence or a sentence
pronouncing the agreement
Second act of the intellect by or disagreement between
which it pronounces the terms.
agreement or disagreement
between terms or ideas. A proposition always has a
truth value: it can be may
The intellect in be true or false but it
making a judgment cannot be both true or
or assertion false.
therefore either
affirms or denies the All propositions are
relation of at least sentences but not all
two concepts.
sentences are propositions.
Ideas or concepts, in
e.g. Please keep
themselves are neither true our environment
or false. clean. it is a
sentence but not
Truth becomes a logical necessarily a
proposition.
issue when the intellect
relates, compares, and
pronounces whether Types of Proposition
two ideas or concepts
agree or disagree with
each other. 1. Categorical Proposition
a categorical proposition
The term student and the expresses a direct
judgment or a direct
term wise are by assertion of the
themselves cannot be agreement or
considered true or false disagreement of two
terms in the absolute
But when the intellect manner.
creates a judgment or
relates these two terms 2. Hypothetical Proposition
(e.g. That student is wise.), a hypothetical proposition
the possibility of truth or does not express a direct
falsity arises. judgment, rather a
relation between two
Proposition judgments, in which the
NICOLE C. MAPILI

truth of one depends on the subject and the

the other. predicate.
Quantifier expresses the
Categorical Proposition
Two elements of a categorical application or extension of
proposition the proposition.

1. Matter is the sense orExamples:

meaning or theEvery streetlight is
substance of a working.
proposition. It is what the
proposition is all about or(Quantifier) (subject) (copula)
what the propositionpredicate
states. This is expressed
in the subject and the
predicate.
Almost all pastries are
2. Form is the structure of baked.
the proposition whether
it states an affirmation (Quantifier) (subject) (coplula)
or negation of the (predicate)
relation between the
subject and the
predicate, this is The Logical Form of the
expressed by the copula. Proposition

Subject the term The logical form of the

designating the idea categorical proposition
(thing) about which follows this pattern:
something is affirmed or Subject Copula
denied Predicate.

Generally in its logical form,

Predicate the term the proposition is always in
designating the idea (thing the present tense and uses
or attribute) which is as a copula the present
affirmed or denied of the tense, indicative mood of the
subject. verb to be.
Copula the term Original Form
expressing the mental
act which pronounces the
agreement or
disagreement between
NICOLE C. MAPILI

Pattern or Form of the

1. My large backpack Categorical Proposition
2. Our venerable master S Subject
Absolute Properties of Categorical P Predicate
Propositions + (plus sign) -affirmative
-(negative sign) negative
A.Quality
u Universal
1.Affirmative proposition who p Particular
predicate is always affirmed of itsExample:
subject according to the whole All wines are alcoholic
of its comprehension and part of its beverages. Su + Pp
extension.
The predicate of an affirmative Some alcoholic beverages
proposition is always particular are wines. Sp+ Pp
except if the predicate of the
proposition is a definition of the General Pattern of Vowel
subject. In such cases, the Letters
predicate applies only to one A Su + Ppor Su + Pu
individual (the subject) and
E Su Pu
therefore has a universal extension.
I Sp+ Pp
2. Negative A negative propositionO Sp-Pu
is one whose
predicate is always denied of its subject according to
a part of its comprehension and the whole of its
extension. Exercises on General Pattern
e.g. Some light bulbs are not incandescent of Vowel
bulbs. Letters
All architects are not good in physics.
1) Some commercial planes
are made by Boeing.
2) Some Thomasians are not
The Four Vowel Letters Filipino citizens.
3) Michael is a certified
A Universal Affirmative public accountant.
E Universal Negative 4) UST is the Pontifical,
I Particular Affirmative Royal, Catholic University
O Particular Negative of the Philippines.
The letters A E I O are taken from the5) All human
first beings are
two vowel
letters of the Latin words affirmo andmade
negoin the image of God.
NICOLE C. MAPILI

6) All professors are required the other is false, if one is

to have masteral degrees. false the other is true.
7) All glass wares are not Contradiction is the
very durable. highest opposition since
there is no middle ground.
Logical Opposition
Opposition is the relation
existing between Contradiction (examples)
propositions having the All things that are sterilized are
same subject and clean. If TRUE
predicate but different Some things that are sterilized
quality or quantity or both.are not clean. is Necessarily
There are four types of False
opposition: contradiction, Some phones are made in
contrariety, sub- China. If TRUE
contrariety, and sub- All phones are not made in
alternation. China. Necessarily False
The idea here is that in
Contradiction contradiction if one is true then
Contradiction is the the other statement is
opposition existing necessarily false and vice-versa.
between two propositions
having the same subject, Contrariety
the same predicate, but Contrariety is the opposition
different quality and existing between two
quantity. propositions having the same
Opposition between A (all subject and predicate, the same
is) and O (some is not). universal extension, but
Opposition between E (all different quality.
is not) and I (some is) It is the opposition between
Contradictory propositions universals A (All is) and E (all is
cannot be true at the not).
same time or false at the Contrary propositions cannot
same time. If one is true be both true but may be both
false.
NICOLE C. MAPILI

If one is true, the other is false. Sub-contrariety

If one is false the other may be propositions cannot be
true or false, meaning, doubtful both false, but may be
or undetermined. both true.
If one is false the other one
Contrariety (examples) is true and if one is true
Ex. All chairs are made of the other may be true or
wood. false, meaning doubtful or
All chairs are not made of undetermined.
wood.
All laptops are portable. Sub-Contrariety (examples)
All laptops are not Ex. Some shoes are made
portable. by Nike. TRUE
Every minute is composed Some shoes are not made
of sixty seconds. by Nike. TRUE or Doubtful
Every minute is not Some trains are running
composed of sixty on electricity. TRUE
seconds. Some trains are not
running on electricity.
TRUE or doubtful

Sub-Altern

Sub-Contrariety Sub-alternation is the

Sub-contrariety is the opposition existing between
opposition existing propositions having the same
between two propositions subject and predicate, the
having the same subject same quality but different
and predicate, the same extension or quantity.
particular extension, but It is the opposition between A
different quality. and I; E and O
It is the opposition From the truth of the
between the two universal, follows the truth of
particulars: I (some is) and the particular, but from the
O (some is not) truth of the particular, the
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truth of the universal does If E is true, I is

not follow. false* If E is false,
I is true
Sub-altern(cont.) * If I is true, E is
From the falsity of the false* If I is false,
particular, follows the falsity E is true
of the universal. But from
the falsity of the universal, 2. Law of Contrariety
States that two
the falsity of the particular contrary
does not follow. propositions
Even the falsity of one or a cannot be both
true but they may
few can disprove the be both false at
universality of the universal. the same time.
While the falsity of the If A is true, E is
false
universal does not If E is true, A is
necessarily follow that it is false
only applicable to some. But If A is false, E is
it is possible either that it is doubtful
applicable to some * If E is false, A is
doubtful
(therefore the particular is 3. Law of Sub-
true) or none at all Contrariety
(therefore the particular is States that two
false). contrary
propositions can
not be both false
Laws of Opposition but they maybe
1. Law of both true at the
Contradiction same time.
Two contradictory If I is false, O is
propositions true
cannot be both If O is false, I is
true and both true
false at the same If I is true, O is
time. doubtful
If A is true, O is * If O is true, I is
false* If A is false, doubtful
O is true
If O is true, A is
false* If O is false,
A is true 4. Law of Sub-
Alternation
NICOLE C. MAPILI

a) States that the the proposition. It is not

truth of the universal necessary that the
carries or implies the subject and predicate
truth of the be a single word. It can
particular but not be considered as a
vice versa. subject or predicate so
If A is true, I is long as it presents a
true single unified idea
If E is true, O is expressed as term.
true Ex. S is P = [S] is [P]
If I is true, A is
doubtful CONVERSION
* If O is true, E is Just interchange
doubtful the position of the
b) States that the subject and
falsity of the predicate of the
particular carries or proposition
implies the falsity of A: All [S] is [P]
the universal but not Some [P] are [S]
vice versa. (I)
If I is false, A is Reason: You will
false see in the Eulers
If O is false, E is circle that to
false convert A to A is
If A is false, I is erroneous for it
doubtful will change the
distribution of
* If E is false, O is terms. If one
doubtful changes the
distribution of
Immediate Inferences terms, one is
Eduction: Valid already talking
changes in a proposition beyond the
bounds of what
1. Conversion was given. In
2. Obversion logic, we can only
argue within the
To better facilitate bounds of what is
eduction, it is helpful to given.
bracket (excluding even All conversions of
the quantifier) the A propositions are
subject and predicate of I propositions
the proposition. In other
words, it necessitates Note: Through this, we
you to, first and can see that change in
foremost, locate the the distribution of terms
subject and predicate of can only be appreciated
NICOLE C. MAPILI

when it is a change Negate the

from a universal copula; negate
quantity towards a the predicate
particular quantity; Basis: Double
particular to universal negation results
movement is erroneous. to a positive result
For obvious reasons, (same result, in
when we speak of a other words)
universal term, we are
already speaking of all
references included in A: All [S] is [P] All S is
it. Whilst when we not non-P (E) / No S is
speak of particular, we non-P (E)
can never ascertain the E: No S is P No S is
applicability of it to a not non-P (A) / All S is
general or universal non-P (A)
term. I: Some S are P Some
S are not non-P (O) / Not
O: No Conversion for all S are non-P (O)
O propositions O: Not all S are P Not
Ex. Some mortals are all S are not non-P (I) /
not men Some men Some S are non-P (I)
are not mortals [Note:
Distribution] Therefore, valid
obversions are E;
Note further: (E) and EA; IO; OI
(I) propositions are
easily converted for it POINT OF GREAT
does not affect the CONSIDERATION
reference or distribution
of terms as depicted
very well in the Eulers Given all of this, it is but
circle. necessary therefore
that we reduce all
propositions to S is P
form to facilitate better
VALID CONVERSIONS Eduction. What is
E E required only from the
form of propositions is
A I that it should be in
I I declarative form thus,
E O whether linking verb or
not, it should be
considered. Given that
it is not in the S is P
OBVERSION form, the following
should be done:
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Ex: X grows Y = [X] is

[that whichgrows Y].
X is large = [X] is [that
which islarge].
Before a verb: that
which
Before an adjective:
that which is

In other words, one

should bring out the
copula is, are, are not,
is not. REDUCE THE
PROPOSITION TO
LOGICAL FORM OF
ONE OF THE FOUR
TYPES (FORMS) OF
PROPOSITIONS

THE
SQUARE OF
OPPOSITION