BIOL1003

(Human Biology) Cell Structure

Genes (Def: A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions for
making a specific protein)
- The smallest unit of heredity made of DNA carried on chromosomes
- Each gene is a portion of DNA with a specific sequence of bases that encodes for a
particular trait that can be passed from parent to offspring

Chromosomes
- described as a linear sequence of genes made up of two chemicals: DNA and proteins
- DNA is the information carrying part of the chromosome
- Proteins around which the DNA is coiled, to keep it neatly packaged

Linus Pauling
- DNA has only 4 nucleotides, too simple to encode proteins
- Protein likely to be hereditary material
- Began to accept DNA as hereditary material but published triple helix model

Experiments showing DNA was hereditary material

(1) 1928: Griffiths work on Streptococcus pneumonia
S strain: had smooth walls and was
fatal when injected into mice.
Smooth due to a coat made out of
sugars that helped protect it from
the mouse immune system

R strain: has rough walls and was

not fatal when injected into mice.
Rough because it did not have a
sugar coat, and so was not
protected from the mouse immune
system.

transforming principle somehow the rough R bacteria had transformed into smooth S
bacteria
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(2) 1944, Avery et al. prove DNA carries genetic information
When they destroyed the DNA in
the solution using DNase, mixed it
with the R bacteria, no
transformation occurred. The R
bacteria remained rough. So the
transforming principle must be
DNA.

Chargaff and his rules

1. The amount of adenine (A) is usually the same as the amount of thymine (T) and the
amount of guanine (G) is usually the same as the amount of cytosine (C).
2. The composition of DNA varies between different species such that the amount of each
base is different. This diversity in the composition of DNA made it much more credible
candidate for the genetic material than protein.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

- DNA is the genetic material of cells that contains the information that determines the
structure of proteins.
- The nuclei acids are large molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
and phosphorus.
- DNA molecule is made up of 2 chains or strands of small building blocks or monomers
called nucleotides. The two strands of nucleotides are joined together to form a twisted,
ladderlike structure called a double helix.
- Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar (monosaccharide, deoxyribose sugar) to which a
nitrogenous organic base and a phosphate group are attached.
- Each nucleotide of DNA contains one of the organic bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T),
Cytosine (C) or Guanine (G)

Interesting features of DNA

- It could replicate
- It could hold information
- It was stale (could self repair) and also could mutate occasionally
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Chemical Structure of DNA (sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases as rungs)
- Hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides join the two nucleotide strands together
- Adenine binds only to thymine because the structure of these organic bases allows 2
hydrogen bonds to form between them
- Cytosine binds only to guanine because the structure of these organic bases allows three
hydrogen bonds to form between them
- The bases on one strand of the DNA molecule pair together with complementary bases
on the opposite strand of DNA to form the rungs of the DNA ladder
- Each strand of DNA has a beginning and an end, called 5 (five prime) and 3 (three
prime) respectively.
- The two strands run in the opposite direction (antiparallel) to each other so that one runs
5 to 3 and one runs 3 to 5.

DNA replication (semi-conservative)

- The process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its genome before it divides.
- DNA replication is described as semi-conservative because each DNA molecule is made
up of one old conserved strand of DNA and one new one.

1) Separate the two strands. This unzipping is done by an enzyme called helicase and results
in the formation of a replication fork.
2) The separated strands each provide a template for creating a new strand of DNA.
3) An enzyme called primase starts the process. This enzyme makes the small piece of RNA
called a primer. This marks the starting point for the construction of the new strand of
DNA.
4) An enzyme called DNA polymerase binds to the primer and will make the new strand of
DNA. DNA polymerase can only add DNA bases in one direction from the 5 end to
the 3 end.
5) One of the new strands of DNA the leading strand is made continuously. The DNA
polymerase adding bases one by one in the 5 to 3 direction.
6) The other strand the lagging strand cannot be made in this continuous way because it
runs in the opposite direction. The DNA polymerase can therefore only make this strand
in a series of small chunks called Okazaki fragments.
7) Each fragment is started with a RNA primer. DNA polymerase then adds a short row of
DNA bases in the 5 to 3 direction. The next primer is then added further down the
lagging strand. Another Okazaki fragment is then made and the process is repeated again.
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8) Once the new DNA has been made, the enzyme exonuclease removes all the RNA
primers from both strands of DNA.
9) Another DNA polymerase enzyme then fills in the gaps that are left behind with DNA.
10) Finally, the enzyme DNA ligase seals up the fragments of DNA in both strands to form a
continuous double strand.

RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

- It is structurally related to DNA, and 3 types of RNA also play important roles in gene
expression or protein synthesis.
- In RNA, uracil replaces thymine. Uracil can bind only to adenine.
- RNA exists as a single strand
- The sugar backbone is made of ribonucleotides, not deoxyribonucleotides. (ribose for
RNA)

Gene Expression
- DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis. This process is called gene
expression.
- Gene expression involves 2 steps transcription and translation

From DNA to Proteins

1) Within the DNA are sections called genes. These genes contain the instructions for
making proteins. When a gene is switched on, an enzyme called RNA polymerase
attaches to the start of the gene. It moves along the DNA making a strand of mRNA
(messenger RNA) out of free bases in the nucleus.
2) The DNA code determines the order in which the free bases are added to the mRNA.
This process is called transcription.
3) Before the mRNA can be used as a template for the production of proteins, it needs to be
processed. This involves through moving and adding sections of RNA. DNA nucleotides
pair only with specific RNA nucleotides
- DNAs thymine RNAs adenine
- DNAs adenine RNAs uracil
- DNAs cytosine RNAs guanine
- DNAs guanine RNAs cytosine
(Introns are excised from the RNA transcript, and the remaining exons are spliced together,
producing mRNA)
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4) The mRNA then moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm. Protein factories in the
cytoplasm called ribosomes bind to the mRNA. (In detail: the ribosome aligns the mRNA
with tRNA molecules so that the anticodons of tRNA can pair with the appropriate
codons on the mRNA)
5) The ribosome reads the code in the mRNA to produce a chain made up of amino acids.
There are 20 different types of amino acids. The information in mRNA is carried in
groups of 3 nucleotides called codons, which specify a particular amino acid. Some
codons do not specify a particular amino acid but perform other functions. (For example
UAA is called a stop codon because it acts as a signal to end the translation process)
6) Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry the amino acids to the ribosomes. The mRNA is
read three bases at a time. As each triplet is read, a transfer RNA delivers the
corresponding amino acid. (formation of a peptide bond between the amino acids bound
to the tRNAs, and tRNAs exit the ribosome from the E site)
7) This is added to a growing chain (polypeptide chain) of amino acids. Once the last amino
acid has been added, the chain folds into a complex 3D shape to form the protein.

Summary: Through transcription, the call makes a copy of the gene necessary to make a
particular protein. The copy messenger RNA (mRNA) travels from the nucleus to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where the information in the copy is used to construct a protein by
means of translation. Specialized molecules transfer RNAs (tRNAs) carry the amino acids to
the ribosome.

Transcription
- takes place in the nucleus of the cell
- DNA determines the structure of the mRNA through transcription

Translation
- occurs at ribosomes
- requires 2 types of RNA in addition to mRNA: tRNA and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- There is 1 type of tRNA for each mRNA codon
- The anticodon, a series of 3 nucleotides of tRNA, pairs with the codon of the mRNA. An
amino acid is bound to another part of the tRNA.
Cell Theory
- A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
- Activity of an organism depends on both the individual and collective activities of its
cells.
BIOL1003 (Human Biology) Cell Structure
- The number and type of organelles within each cell determine the cells specific structure
and functions.

Within cells, specialized structures called organelles perform specific functions.

The nucleus is an organelle containing the cells genetic material.
The living material surrounding the nucleus is called cytoplasm, and it contains many
types of organelles.
The cytoplasm is enclosed by the cell membrane, or plasma membrane.

Functions of the Cell

1) Cell metabolism and energy use
The chemical reactions that occur within cells are collectively called cell metabolism.
Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities, such as the synthesis of
new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production.

2) Synthesis of molecules
Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.

3) Communication
Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to
communication with one another.

4) Reproduction and Inheritance

Each cell contains a copy of genetic information of the individual. Specialized cells
(sperm cells and oocytes) transmit the genetic information to the next generation.

Organelles and Structures

Cell membrane (or plasma membrane)
- outermost component of a cell that encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary
between material inside the cell and material
- (function) supports the cell contents, acts as a selective barrier that determines what
moves into and out of the cell, and plays a role in communication between cells.
- Phospholipid bilayer (aka phosphobilipid layer)
polar, phosphate-containing ends of the phospholipids are hydrophilic (water-loving)
and faces extracellular and intracellular fluids of the cell
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nonpolar, fatty acid ends of the phospholipids are hydrophobic (water fearing) and
face away from the fluid
the double layer of phospholipids form a lipid barrier between the inside and outside
of the cell
- Selectively permeable
- Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active
passive; does not require the cell to use energy (diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion)
active; requires the cell to use energy (active transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, exocytosis)

Protein channels
- Protein molecules float among the phospholipid molecules. Proteins function as
membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecule, enzymes or structural supports
in the membrane.

Nucleus (membrane bound)

- nucleolus (concentrated region) (assemble ribosome)
- DNA (nuclei of human cells contain 23 pair of chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins)
- Nuclear envelope: consists of outer & inner membranes with a narrow space between
them
- Nuclear pores: surface of the nucleus; materials can pass into or out of the nucleus
- Nucleoli: diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane that are found within the nucleus

Membrane means lipids

Ribosomes
- organelles where proteins are produced
- translation (mRNA protein precursor)

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

- series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends from the outer nuclear
membrane into the cytoplasm
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1. Rough ER: ER with ribosomes attached to it
- a large amount of rough ER in a cell indicates that it is synthesizing large amounts of
protein for export from the cell

2. Smooth ER: ER without ribosomes

- a site for lipid synthesis
- participates in detoxification of chemicals (poisons) within cells

The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specialized type of smooth ER that regulates the calcium ion
concentration in the cytoplasm of striated muscle cells. (allow the storage of calcium because
calcium crucial for muscle contraction)

Golgi Apparatus
- (function) collects, modifies, packages and distribute proteins and lipids manufactured by
the ER
tags proteins according to its destination
tags carbohydrates, lipids
hormones, channel proteins
- (in some cases) chemically modifies the proteins by attaching carbohydrate or lipid
molecules to them, proteins are then packaged into membrane sacs called secretory
vesicles that pinch off from the margins of the Golgi apparatus to move to the cell
membrane

Secretory Vesicles
- (definition of vesicle) a small, membrane-bound sac that carry substances from the Golgi
apparatus to the cell membrane, where the vesicle contents are released
- pinch off from the Golgi apparatus move to the cell membrane membrane of the
secretory vesicle fuses with the cell membrane contents of the vesicle are released to
the exterior of the cell
- in many cells, secretory vesicles accumulate in the cytoplasm and are released to the
exterior when the cell receives a signal

Lysosomes
- membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus
- contains a variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems
- (function) digest particles, cells defence
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1. Endocytosis is the movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis involves cell receptors attaching to molecules, which are
then transported into the cell.

2. Exocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

- (function) ATPs are used as the main energy source for metabolic functions (chemical
reactions within the cell)

Mitochondria
- (function) mitochondria are the major sites for the production of ATP, which cells use as
an energy source
- mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration, a series of chemical reactions that require O2,
to break down food molecules to produce ATP
- powerhouse
- cells with a large energy requirement have more mitochondria than cells that require less
energy

Cytoskeleton
1. The cytoskeleton consists of proteins that support the cell, hold organelles in
place, and enable the cell to change shape.
2. The cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments.
- Microtubules
hollow structures formed from protein subunits
(function) helping support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division, forming
essential components of certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella.
o Centrioles, located in the centrosome, are made of microtubules
o Cilia and flagella

- Intermediate filaments
fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than microtubules but
larger in diameter than microfilaments
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provide the scaffolding to maintain shape of the cell
o Mechanical support for cells
o Actin, myosin

- Microfilaments
small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally support the cytoplasm
form the tiny hairs on the surface of the cell; maximises the surface area absorption
o Microvilli
o Anchor plasma membrane protein (anchored in the particle position)

Cell Metabolism
Cell metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions in the cell.
The energy released from the breakdown of food molecules is used to produce ATP .
Aerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is available.
The aerobic respiration of a glucose molecule produces 36 to 38 ATP molecules.
When oxygen is not available anaerobic respiration occurs, producing (in animals) lactic acid.