Design Drawing Francis D.K. Ching with Steven P. Juroszek Miatm Mee trond ReinholdDESIGN DRAWING Francis D.K. Ching with Steven P. Juroszek AVNNR Book. ®) JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York Chichester Weinheim Brisbane Singapore TorontoNo part of tse publication may be reproduce, stored na recrieval system or transmitd _any form orby ary meara, electronic, mechanical, photecapyng, recording, ecaning, or otherwise, exept as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 ofthe 1976 United State Copyright Act, nithout ether the pir wtten permission of the Publisher or authorization ‘hrough payment of the appropriate per-copy fee co the Copyraht- Clearance Cert, £222 Rowenood Dre, Damers, MA 01923, (S7B) 750-2400, fax (978) 750-4744, Requests {0 the Fubloher for permission shoul be addressed 20 the Permioslons Departmert, ohn Wey & Sora nc, 605 Tir Avenue, New Yor, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-601, fie (212) 860-6008, E-Waleresuca@nier cou. ‘This pubication is designed to provide accurate and authortative formation in regard tothe subject matter covered Its sold with the understanaing that the publishers not engaged rendering professional services. profeesianal advice or other eapert asalavarce is requled he enices of competent professor person ahold te ecugit. brary of Congress Cataloging in-Publcation Data: Ching, Fran, 1948- Deslanaraning / rant Ching pom Ince index 198N0-47-20654-0 ‘Architectural deanna Technique. (Tele NazroBcA "997 720.222 acs srs Pntedin the United States of America 2191817161614Vine ond Shope ee eeeeeee 2 Tone ond Texture... eee 3° FormondStucue.........0008 4 Space ond Depth Drawing Systems 5 Pictorial Systems... eee 6 Mutview Drowings. 7 Pane Drawings... see 8 Perspective Dowings Drawing from the Imagination 9 Spealative Drawing 10 Dagonming 2... eseseeee 11 DrovingComposion 12. Preseraion Dowing. Wee eee eeeceeeee CONTENTS A 23 AB 173 201 - 261 263 289 . 303 323 339 346ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘Thismanual began asa reader fora sequence of design drawing courses offered by the Department of Architecture at the Unversity of Washington. Is subsequent development is largely the result of the many discussions, suggestions, and conrutions ofa sliled and dedicated group of teachers — Catherine Barret, Cythia Esselman Kevin Kane, Anita Lehman, Alan Mastin Ben Sharp, Judith Swain, Carl Thomas, Mark Wot, nd Gall Wong This tents also a testimony tothe ert, accomplishments andcrtical feedback of the may students who enthusiastically tested the pedagogical cundness of the materi Filly, would Ike to actrowledge those instructors who have gathered regularly atthe conferences of the Design Communicstion Associaton to passionately and unceishy share ther thoughts abot teaching and drawing, Teint rurtured the progress and enhanced the dimensions of his wor This book was prepared in part through a gran rom the Graham Feandtion for Advanced Studies nthe Fine As Yi / ACKNOWLEDGMENTSIntroduction Draningiste process or technique of representing something — anchject, scene, or anidea—by mating ines na surface. This Aefition infers hat delineation ferent from panting andthe coloring of surfaces, While drawing is general ia innate, mayincud other pictorial lamers, such as dots and brsh stokes, which can also be interpreted aslines, Whatever fom a raving takes ts the principle means by ich we organize and gress cur ul thoughts and perceptions, We therefore regard raving tony as artistic expression but alo aa practical tol for frmulating and working trough design problems. aeDESIGN DRAWING Thee design drawing brings to mind the presentation ravings used to persuade the ewer ofthe merits of design proposal ls familar are the cortructionor worn ravings which rove rapic instruction forthe production or bung ofa project. But designers use both the process and products of drawing nother way s wel. Indesign, the ol of drairg expands to include recording what est, working out ideas, ard speculating and planning forthe futur. Throughout the dean process, we se drawing to quide the development of andes ‘rom concep to proposal to constructed realty, Inorderto learn how to daw ad tose dravingetectively as _aninstrumentn dein tris necessary to aque certain fundamental stile, such as inscrbing ies andlaing down tonal values. Overtime ad wth enough practice anyone can learn these techniues Skul technique i of etl val, however unless accompanied by an understanding of the perceptual principles on which these techriquesare based Even as lectronic media evo and augment tration drawing methods, enabling sto transfer ideas onto the computer screen and develop them into tre denna model, draing remains active process that ibe percept erg and ual thinking 2/ wTRODUCTIONTHE DRAWING PROCESS -Atheheat fal raving is an interactive process of enn, aging ad represoting mages. Sevng creates the images cf eceral realty we perceive with our eyes ope. whch gv rise twour discovery ofthe world. With ur eyes closed, the minds ge presents iages of an imerrealty—visual memories of past vets or projections ofan maging future. And then ‘thee are the images we create on paper dravingswhichwe use toerprss and communicate our thoughts and perceptions. Imagining The visual data receved by the eels processed, maniplated, and fered by the ind ints active search for structare and Imanin, The ind eye creates the mages we see and these athe images we atten to represent in draving Drawing is ‘therefore moe than a manual sil rina ual hought \ wich stimulates the nagination, wil mating provides S Iinpes for drawing Seeing elon the primar sensory channel though which we mate ‘contac wth our world. our best-developed sense, the farthest aching, andthe one we ry on the most for our dy today actives. Sein empowers ur abit to draw, wile rang goats sein, | ndraning,we make marks ona surface to graphically represent "what ne see before us or imagine inthe min’ eye. Drawing isa rataral means of expression creating a separate ut paral word of imayes which speak tothe ee, Teac of draving cant be detached from sing and 7 \ +) thinking about the subject being represented. We cannt draw ancbjectorascenculesse eet before us2sa model rare suffice familar with it recreate from memory or ‘imagination raving proficency must theretore be accomparied by Knowledge and understanding of hat we endeavor to represent in raph fr. INTRODUCTION / 3VISUAL PERCEPTION Thee sees the ind interprets, Bust of QueenNefertti Thepatern of ee mover ofa person eins ae, fromresearcby Ate rus of tte lastutefor Probie oflnfrtion ransisnie Moco, 4 /iwtropucTion The act of secingis aya and creative proces. bis capable of deiveringa stable three dimensional perception of the moving, changin mages which mate up ou visual word Thereare thre phases inthe wit and sophisticated processing which results nthe mages we see + Reception our yes recive energy input in he form of lght—ethe its source ots reflection from laminated surfaces. The optics ofthe eye form an upside-down image ofincoming ight rays onthe retina. acolecton of nerve cells which are an extension ofthe rain. These photosensitive cel conver electromagnetic energy into dlectrochemical gras and provide a pint ty point aecessment ofthe intensity of ight received. Estraction-the mind extracts basi visual eatares fom this input The inpet—basicaly a patter of gts and darks —to further processed by other nerve clin the retina and moves down the optic nerve. After an intermediate stp arrives atthe sua corte ofthe brain hich has cls that extrac spect features of tal input the cation and orentation fees, movement, sz, acolo. Infronce: onthe ass of these extracted features, me make inferences about our word. Oly avery sl area of the retinas capable of stnishing fine deal. Oureyes mast herfoe continually scan an object ands emirorment to see iints entirety When we ok at something, hate sees actualy construct froma ‘api succession ofcerconneced retinal mages We are able toperceivea stable image even whl our ees are scamting Our ual system thus does mere than pascly and mechanical record the physical eatares ofa visual stimulus. actively transfor sensory impressions of light into meaning forms,VISUAL PERCEPTION Seeing 3 vigorous, patter secking process. Themind’seye ses theinpt extracted fom theretnal image 2 the hasis for raking educated qusses about hat me encounter. Inference s ay or the rid The mind ee actly seeks those features that fit our mage ofthe wotlk for closure —for ineaning and understanding nthe pattems that rece. We areabe to forages rom the bares scaffolding of oul data ling ov the images ifrecessary wthinformaton tats oe ely thes For example we may not understand his Incompe patver of ight and darts, bt onc recognized camot nob seen Val prception thusisa creation ofthe minds eye. The ees bind towhatthe mind does not ee. The picture nour heads rot only based on input extracted from the retinal mage but aso shaped by cur interests and the knowledge and experiences eachof ws brings to the acto seeing. Our cultural envionment also odes cur perceptions and teaches us howto icerpret the sual phenomena ne experience. Inisilsion desired y pyc £6 Boring inS20,onecan sev ether the poof ofa younger woman othe had of ole woman Dire ways of erceling and inrpeing the sane Wl phenome inrRopucTiON / 5SEEING AND DRAWING 6 /nTRoDUCTION Seeing facilitates drawing The drawing of tings e se before us,ncluing the careful copying ofa masters wor, as tadtonaly bee fundamental teinng for artists and designers Drawing from cbseration fs the classe method for developing ee-mind-hand coordination. Experiencing and exairing the iste wordinarect manner ‘throug raving makes us more concious ofthe dyraics of slot. This understanding n tur, eps us to draw. Drawing invigorates seeing Wenomally dono al that we ae capable of sig Freconceived notions of what ne eget or believe tobe out ‘there veal dectcursecng, Through fairy, we tend to ps oe things we confront and use very day witout realy seeing tm. These perceptual prejudices make orf simper and safer Nedo not have to pay ul atentont each and every visual stimulus asf seeing forte ist time each day. Instead we can select only those ic provid information pertinent to ou momentary needs. This expetios kind of eta tour common use of stereotypical ages and visual cts. Thelabelng of sua stereotypes, whi necessary 0 avoid perceptual chaos, canals prevent us fom lookin anew a what we see a anil. The ual envionment cusually fuller andrickr than what we normaly perceive ata lnc. In order tomate fuluse of ur vl facaly—to ee more than sgymbols—we must earn to ee thngs as we ere going todraw then. Drawing encourages usto pay attention and to experience the fulrange of visual phenomena and appreciate the rquenes of ‘he most onary thins. fosterrgabeahtened and critical awarenessof the vualenvironment, drawing also arbres understanding ard improves our ul memory. drawing from ‘he imagination we recal past perceptions and daw on these meer.IMAGINING isnotliited to what me can se inthe here -andnow. mages often appear spontaneously in response to "sensory perception—something seer, touched, or sel. ~venwithout ary sor of sensory stimulation, we have the mental faculty of rcalor recreating mages, Easily almost ortlessly you can imagine somethin as soon as itis ‘suggested Yoyo. As youread these words youcan easly ie veal: ¥ + Paces, such as cldhood bedroom, the street where you lv ora scene darted na nove + Things, such sa tangle or square, balloon floating inthe saizoraqrandather’ cock. + Pope, sch as. close friend reat, ora TV newscaster. + Actes, suchas opening a door riding abil or ‘throwing abasetal + Operations, suchas cberotatngin space, aballling ow anincline ora bid taking offing, Anresponcingt allot these verbal prompts ear pictaring with the mind's ee. We are thinking vial. lwrropuction /7VISUAL THINKING Visual inng—thikngln mages—perades al human act ris an essential aro eeryda fe, We thn inva terms wen we dive down tet cing for an address x thetablfor der party, or contenpatea vena ganect ° chess. Ourthouht has vial forme ne search or 5 i constlationsin the ight sky bala cabinet froma st of ravings o design bing neach ofthese atte, we \ active ek to match the images we see wth the nageswe haldnthe inde ag present. The mind is capable coring exporing and recombig mages yond the normal bourds time and space. With hindsight we visualize memories of things places, ard events fom the past. With oresght,weare abo abe to look rwad in tine —to secur imagination to envision a poesibe tare. Imagination therefore enables sto have hatha v sense ot hisory as wal as plan forthe future. estabihes connections—visual ridges —between the past; present, ane future Wick coigeton doesnot match th tte fhe cer? co amerborng the pas: an Bh centr Japanese structure 8 /iwTkopuctionDRAWING AND IMAGINING Imagination inspires drawing = a ‘we ages we conjure p inthe mi’ ye are often hay brit “ndal00 elusive. Erenf vid and ear they can come to mind indus as suddenly disappear Unless captured in a raving theycan easly be ost in awareness and replaced by oters in the steam of consciousness, Drawing ths sa natural and 5 ecessary extension of sual thought As the mental picture auld the movement of ur eyes and hand on paper, the ergng raving simultaneously tempers the image incur head. Further thoughts come to mind and are incerated into the process imagining and drawing Drawing stimulates the imagination Drain isa medio wtichinuences thought jst thought ‘directs drain, Sketching an ea on pape enabes us to taplore and cary tin much the same way as we can form and nde thought by putting into words, Making thoughts concrete and vise enables us to acton them. Wecan analyze ‘them, ee them ina new light, combine them in new ways, and ‘ransform them into rew eas, Used in this way design deanna further stimulate the imagination from which they sia ‘This ype drawings essential to tential and developmental phases ofthe desian process. Anartist contemplating various campesiions fora panting, choreographer orchestrating a dance sequence forthe stage and an architect organizing the spatial completes of bling —al use dranngs nts ceplratry way to imagine posetites and speculate onthe fata, iii aaa” "> IwrRopucTION / 9REPRESENTING ‘Adranng can ever reproduce realty can only ake visible cur perceptions ofthat ovter realty and the inner sions of the rind’ eyeInthe process of drawing we create a separate realty which paral our vperinces. (Our perceptions are blisi incorprating al the information we possess aout the phenomena we eperiece Asinle rang, howeve,can only expres alimited portion four ‘enperencen drawing from observation, we dec our atzention ‘particular aspects four vision at we choose ether consciously or unconsciously to ignore others. Thechace of radium rd technique we dlc to seals afects what we are able to come na drawing, Wecan als draw whatme know about subject which canbe expressedin ways other than how itappearsto te ee. In raving from te imagination, for example, we ar nc ited to ‘he perceptual viens of optical realty. We can daw nstead a conceptual ew of what the mind sees, Both perceptual and conceptual views are latinate means of representation. They represent complementary ways of secng and dravta, The choice of oe over theater depends onthe purpose ofthe raving and what we want to communicate ofthe subject. Diferent mays of representing the same objective rely, 10 /1wrRopuctionREPRESENTING ‘communication Aldravings communicate tote exten that they stimulate an awareness onthe part of those who view them, Drawings must atch the eyebefore they can communicate or instruct. Once ‘heyengage the viewer, they should assist tei imagination and ite arespose Drawings are by nature informaton-ich I woud be dificult to adequately descr with words what. adeaving is abet reveal ata glance But ust as we cach sina diferent ay, we can cach view the same drawing and interpret differently, Even the most realistic ravings subject to interpretation Any drag weuse to communicate veua informatio shoul therefore represent tings ina way thats comprehensible to others. The more abstract raving, the moet mst rey on convertion and tert to communicate a message or comey information ‘Acoma form of visual communications the diagram, 3 sinplieddraving wich can lustratea proces, any set of raationhis, or describe a patter of change or aronth ‘Another example isthe set of presentation drawings wich offer design proposal to others for the review and evaluation. More utitarian forms of graphic communication ndude design patterns, wrking drawings, and technical lysration. These ‘sal instructions guide othersinthe construction of design ‘or thetranofomation fan dea into realty. Examples of raving hich communicate elton, prossss nd patter.REPRESENTING nN Wha pears to waren paper may note pssbe incerta. -fdamental question desig daving is how closely what viewersreadina caning matches teitertions ots auttr 12 /1wrropuction Reading drowings Wile we arable to ead drawings we cannot make, the converses not tru. We camnot.construc a raving unless we areal to decipher the araphic marks we ake and understand ‘he way thers might ee and interpret them, An essential part flaring how to draw searing to read the drainas we encounter aswell asthe ones we mate, Being abe to read a craving means that we understand the relationship between a subject and how tis represented ina dani. For expe any raving, whether generated ona computer screen or created by hand, can be improperly constructed and misconstue the threerdmensoral idea that Ibrepesents We shouldbe abl to recognize when drawing cveys something thats not poste in realy even though ‘he graphic mage may give the opposite impress Tobetter cntique ar improve our on drawings, we should cultivate the habit of reading them the way others might see them, It iseasy to comince our eyes that a draving we have done actualy stands for what we believe irepresent Is ust aseasy to see mistakesin anothers raving because we see vith tes eyes Lookin ata drawing upside down from a DeneLIGHT, SHADE, AND SHADOW and path of shadow conveys both he location ofa and the direction of ts rays. shadows retreat in the direction opposite ofthat of the source. creates deep shadows behind the subject which fro the viewer ping creates shadows that are shalow odrectly the subject ng throws oe cde of the subject into shade and shadows in the drection opposite ofthe lat source. ter lighting, from aboe and over the shoulder oF ewer creates a stron sense of volume and reveals the sariace tentur ofthe subject. lighting creates deep shadows tovard the viewer and "emphasizes the sihouete ofthe subject. Dackiging ‘eeequrter lighting formal constrain of shade and Shadows nacht raiser to Multew Drawings. TONE AND TEXTURE / 53| _ RENDERING SHADE AND SHADOWS Shaded ertaces and cast shadows are usualy neither opaque nor uniform inva. We shuld avoid employing aye aeas of sida tit ote det and dist oreadng otthefomota suc nea aly shades andehaovsasl Sraepret washes that hong tothe fom and huh whch 3 wecan read the tet and cal colo ofthe ura, - Shad becomes had sg pati egesorcitinpancaam Inedertretanaserse other diersonlfomsoccupyng gy space, we should distinguish etweenthevauesfecacesin WB ge stadeand tose of cast shows. Shaded surtacesarechen WB lighter inva than shadows, ut ths valerelatonship shoul bene by careful ohseration Cast shadows are general darkest where they mesa surface inshade, becoming ghar toward its outer edges. The boundaries of cast shadows are distinct in riltant ht, but scftrin dus ight nether case, meshould define the outer edges of shadows wth contrast valu, never wth a drawn ine ‘Areas shade or shadow ae almost never uniform inva Lighten back rom nearby surtaces lumina surfaces inshade or onwhich tadowsare cast. To depict the mdyg effects of eflectedlight, evary the tna valu of surfaces in sade and those on which tadows are cast. The effects ot reflected lit, however, should be suggested na sulle way 50 asrottodsrupt the nature ofthe surface in sade or shad 54 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATIONstile compostion ona horizontal surface neara forurder a desklamp co that clear and distinct shadows hy the obec. Squint and focus onthe shapes and es ofthe shaded areas and cast shadows, Use a soft fandyour choice of rodelng techique to render the tonal ys ou observe 25 the above exercise using aie tipe back pen to the Shaded areas and cast shadows, 26 another til-ite composition by window or under a lamp This tn, nstadof rendering the darter toes with ite perc crink pen, ran te igher vate on back on pape witha white pn RENDERING SHADE AND SHADOWS TONE AND TEXTURE / 55MAPPING VALUES ‘56 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATION The mapping of ght dark pattems isthe cases. way token madelng, Mapp voles breaking down al areas of ig, Stade, and shadow that we se on a subject rin ascee into dente shapes, Decsivenessis necessary. When a shade or Shadow scemsindstinct, we must impose oundaies arya. Indoing this we create an organied map ofiterockig saps ‘that serves as starting pot for later refinements, Mapping reques reducing the many tonal varstlon that we See it usta few We en by sorting the range of tonal aes Into two groups— light and dark: o three — ig, med, nd dat Within cach group, the tonalvalue canary to artilate ‘herature ofthe suraces, but the overall mapping of thevales sheen cat Suting through al cosed eyes males. this taskeaser Another methods toview scene trough tinted gles or acetate, whch reduces the number of color an simplifies the values we seeVALUE PATTERN of values establishes the underying structure modeled dravng together and gives unity and Ifthe val pattems fagmented then the willbe incoherent, no matter how carefully lor tectrically competent the nda drawing may he Thurbnal sketches ar effective devices for alternative value patterns and dewlopnga strategy ange, placement, and proportion of toalauesina the overall valu patter established, ne work fom ight We can aways darken atonal value, but once atone has darkened ts ficult reestablish aightr valu. Here afew additonal pir to remember in modeled raving + Layerares of valu. Aol draving values sequential fom parttopart of drawing. Doing co can fragmenta drawing and obscure our reading of fom. Establish road groupings ftonal vale before layering the sale, more specfictones ‘ut consticete them, Establish each ncreasenvalue with ‘anadétoal layer of one. Continue to ad layers tone ttl the darts: tonal values are established bis rain. Maintaining a consistent direction othe ities he various areas of oral value and infuses ing witha cohesive quality. Maintain te ccintion betwen the sharp tonal contrasts fan des a the difse contrasts of soedges. Reta highlights. ss extremely important otto lose areas Ing, Whi these areas canbe reclaimed ina perl drawing byerasur, no such cpportunty ext when drawing inink. TONE AND TEXTURE / 57TONAL RANGE ‘Therange of tonal values we usena drawing inueces the weight, harmony and atmosphere ofthe compostion. Sharp Contrasts in value vid define and draw attention to the en Shapes Abroad rang of tonal aus, wth ntemediat vals proving atranston fom the hte tothe dares tons, can berich and visually active. Too road a range ofales, however.cn fragment the unity ard harmony ofa drawiy’s composition, los related values tend to produce more restful sul, andrestraned effects, The reative proportion of ght and dark vals defies the lominan tonal alo key faving, A predominant ght range of values or highkey conveys delicacy, degance. ana sensefilluinating light ‘Amedum range of tonal values or middle keyimpart sa ‘eelng of harmony and balance Without some postive contrasts however a midle-ky drawing can become band and ils, ‘On the other hand the somber quilt of moderately dark ‘onal ange or key can havea calming effect and establish afeaing of strength and stability When anintermedate toneis the dominant value ofa drawing ‘5 comerent to draw ona gray or colored surface which automaticaly establishes the tonal val. This ofthe surface serves as anefective flor darer values estabiched with aback pncl andligter values rendered witha white pera High contra 58 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATIONTONAL RANGE 27 lif ona window silo under adesklamp so that oli, shade and shadow emerges. Using ely ofthe paper pus twovalues—ait anda middle a mapping study ofthe composition 28 exert lardecape containing both near and distant Using a vewknder to establish the mits of your fi devlpa value pattern which describes te shapes lus you see inthe landscape, 29 the above exercises, hut tis time develop each drawing by aerng additional intermediate tonal values within ale area. TONE AND TEXTURE / 59TONE AND TEXTURE 60 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATION Whenever we us hatching or stping to create atonal aug simultaneously create texture. itewise, 50m 5 we bean tg esc the nature of amaterialwthlines, we smultanzouly create atonal ae. We shold ays be aware ofthis relationship between tonal alu at texture. whether roth rough hard or sot, posed or dul In ost cases, tonal mre critical than texture tothe representation of ig, had, andthe way mad formsin space. Weuse the term texture most often to describe the rate simeothness or roughness of surface, Ian alco dese the charactristc surface qualities of familar materials asthe hen appearance of'stone the rain of wod, and the near ofa fabric. This tactile texture thacan be felt by touch Visual textures the representation ofthe structure of surface as distinct fom color or form. canbe either feo perceived na drawing Al tactile textures provide visual teste aswel, Visual texture onthe other hand, maybe lusory ol Our senses of sight nd touch ar sey nerwined. As cur «eyes ea the val texture of surface, wecenrespnato Its apparent tactile quality without actualy touching The visual exure prompts memories of past experiences We remember wha certain materi fl ite a we an out ands acroos their surfaces. We base these physical reactions onthe tostural qualities osinlar materials ne haveexperiencdis | the pastDESCRIBING TEXTURE te stroles or dts we use to createa tonal, tesa ote toned area an the raving inbrertycomeys the visual tetare oa surface can alco esl from the interaction between drain surace. Davin on rough surtace breaks ink or graphite, Lightly drawn strokes deposit Joly thease portions ofthe surface, wile re forces the medium also into the ow-ying effect, the physical texture of the drawing surface sa visual gain ard tecture onthe drawing itself ay ta impose a tecurl quality onan aeacf tonal tough ottageFctzage refers tothe technique of tescaral eects by rutting rapiteo charcoal over Jona raular, ited or other roughly textured Tis method of producing a tetured taal values yscll to proven ovrworing a ark tonal ae, can cause a draving tose ts freshness and oar drawing srace TONE AND TEXTURE / 61DESCRIBING TEXTURE Gotrast Sloan distance ght 62,/ DRAWING FROM OBSERVATION. Modifying Factors ona, scale dstance, and ight areimportart mdiyng factorsinour perception of texture andthe surfaces hey article. Whenever epresering texture ina drawing, consdetheflovn factors Contrast infuonceshow strong or subtle atextur wil appear tobe. Avante seen agaist a uniformly smooth ackground willappear mre obvious than when paced in jtapostion wth a siilar texture. When sen agains a coarser background, the texture wil appear te finer and reduced in sale Therelative scale ofa rang determines whether we read a teture as blades of ras, ail of rain or patchwork quit fils. The reativ scale ofa texture aloo affects the apparent shape andpsition ofa plan space Textures with directional gain can accentuate the lngth or wth ofa plane. (Coarse textures can make a pane appear ose reduce it scale, and increase visual weg. In general, cares tendto visual flthe space they occupy. ‘All materals have some degre of texte, bu the fier the scale ofa texture the smoother willapear tobe Even coarse ‘textures, when sen from distance, can appear tobe reatly smooth Only upon closer viewing woud the coarseness ofa texture become evidet Light influences ou perception of texture and, in turn, affected by the texture it fluminates. Smooth, siry surfaces reflect ight brillant, appear sharply in focus, and attract our attention. Surfaces having a matve texture absorb and diffuse light unevenly an therefore appear less bright than a similarly colored at soother surface. Coarse suracs hen iliated with iret ating cast sti shadow patton flight and dark pons and dsclces its tetral quality. | Difused gting de-emphasize physical tecture and can evn obscure its three-dimensional structure._ DESCRIBING TEXTURE 210 or more objects having decidedly ciferent textures, Include a paper bag anda glass ott, an egg anda orfork ona pec of fabric, various rutin a craic ‘range the objects ona window sil or under a desk amp the lighting emphasizes the various extares, Describe contrasting textures using any ofthe modeling techniques 211 the above execs, ut thi time move Invery close to the veappng ees Focus on tis edge and descrbe ole surface tocursuhere they meet: ise 2.12 the above exercises sera ines, experimenting with Tot enc ad per-and-ink media, and working on both smooth el 35 rough draving surfaces TONE AND TEXTURE / 63,3 Form and Structure “Al pictorial form bein with the point that sts tse in motion. The point moves... andthe ine cones into being —the first dimension IF theline shifts to forma plane, we obtain aber dimensional element. Inthe movenene from planet spaces, the lash of planes gives se toa (thre dimensional ody...A summary ofthe kinetic energies wich move ‘he point intone, theline into pare, and the pan into a spatial dimension” —Faul Klee Tie ig fe‘Shape, figure, and form have sar meanings. Alrefer toa distinctive, recogiable appearance cating as determined by vise contours. Fyureis the dering outine ofa shape or ‘or. Shape may refer to ether the characteristic out ct fig or the surface configuration o for. For, a more Incluse term than ether shape or gure, mates reference to bothinteral structure and erteral outline andincluds sens of three-dimersonal mass o volume alo refers tothe Fare Price that ges unity tothe whl. 6 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATIONrefers to the tree-dmensional extent of an objector ot space. Conceptually a volumes bound by planes and dimensions of width eight, and dep. In draving we ta cone the ilusion of three dimensional volumes of and space two-dimensional surface. fila volume of space. ven thin, near objects space. We can pickup small objectand tui around hands Eachturing othe object displays a diferent because the lationship between the abject and our eyes Inseing the objet from diferent angles and cour sion assembles the shapesintoa three for. presenting view roma fxed angle and distance can lustrateasnale moment of or perception. thisisa view that hows only width and elt, the age would lat, But uring the view to expose three adjacent ides obec reas the third dimension of depth and caries Fayig attention tothe planar shapes helps us ee how combine convey the tree-dmensional form othe FORM AND STRUCTURE / 67ANALYTICAL DRAWING Locate points Measure sae and distance Fed cote Espen sed papdiar ratings 68 / DRAWING FROM. ‘Adraning can describe the ster configuration of suraceso objector explain itsine structural nature at the ways parts are arranged and joined n space. drawing nail weseek to mere these two appaches Unie contour drawing, in wich we proceed rom part ta part, alia raving proceeds from the whole tothe subctnate pertsand finaly the dels, Subotnating parts at detaisty ‘the structure of the overall form prevents a piecemeal aprtach ‘that can result in falty proportional relationships an alco nity. We begin an analytical drawing wtih, rey rang singa sof, well sharpened pncl. We draw these linsina tentative and exoratory mamerto blackout and estabisha ‘ransparent volumetric framework for afm. Inaginea ‘Transparent box whose sides touch the font, ack, top baton, and both sides of an object. This imaginary container desctes theevtent and relations ofthe object's thee dimensions, Veualcng his enveloping volume ofan objecthelps us tocaw {ts three dimensional form, Teselnes are dlagranmatic innature serving to estabichand «ella not only te appearance exterior surfaces but so ‘the underlying qoometry and structure of the subject. Neca ‘hese nti ins regulating ines Since they ode relationships and contro the placement, si and proportion ofthe fundamental parts of form. nthe process of backing ou the roping shapes and volume of an obec, weuse equating lines olocate points measure size and distance, ind centers, express perpendicular and tangential reationhips, and establish alignments and offsets Draning approximate ies first kelp the ee sek the coect ones. They represent visual judges to be confirmed or adjusted. We donot erase any previously dram nes. I necessary. werestatealin, correcting bask shape and checking the relative proportions between the ars, aways thing for incremental mprovener. over thease drawter constructive nate, remlatinglns ae nt bythe physical boundaries cf objec. The can cut forms an extend trough pace asthe nk oan, measur tothe various parts of an objector Inorderng formal and spatial tionships they a plana o patil framework on whch ne can buldup jn stages, simlar othe armature vpn wich molds clay both unseen and visible parts ofthe subject makes gauge anaes, conte proportions, and see the otal ce of shapes. The resulting transparency aso conveys sense of volume occupied by the form. Working in ay provers the appearance of fatness that can result cancontrating too mucho surface rather than volume. continual proces of elimination and intensification, lly ld up the deity and weight ofthe final contour lines, especially at critical points ofntreection, ad transition Havgallines enain ite inthe draning intense the depth ote mage and revels the ve process by which was generated and developed, ANALYTICAL DRAWING FORM AND STRUCTURE / 69ANALYTICAL DRAWING 10,/ DRAWING FROM OBSERVATION When blocking out Ight construction ines hld the per or pn lightly as you draw Squeezing the pen or enc to tightly creates tension hat interrupts the fd nature oF freehand line, Instead try to fel the draving surface trough the pit of the instrument, Before actualy dravnga line, practice the eye-mind-hand ‘movement by making te begining and endothe intended ine wi dots Draw ies by pling the pencil never pushing Fer righthanders this meas raving ines fom ett right 2nd from top tobotton lethanders should draw nes from ight leftand from tp to bottom. Kapa disciplined ee on were the lines headed, ot wheres been ved scratching in ines wth short fecbe strats. Insta dra ines contnuously. For short stokes or when applying considerable rescue shiny the hand at the wrist, ort the gers perform the necessary tions. Forlongrstroes, swing the entire forearm and hard {rely fom the elbow, witha minimum of wrist and Finger ‘movement Only as you approach the end ofthe stroke should _outring the wrist and fingersinto motion oconteol wher the lneendsANALYTICAL DRAWING a anaytical process of éranng, practice drawing cubes of ewpoints. Wi] three or four empty cardboard boxes of varios sees. jen the Floor wth some iting within the volumes of ‘See the boes as geometric forms having smooth lanes intersecting along straight ns. Using the process of drawing, describe the geomet forms of 33 wo lass hotles, one having tall ond body and having a square orectnear cos section, Aang swithone standing on its end andthe ther ying on Using the analytical proces of drawing describe the forms ofthe tte, ay careful attention ta nasal an proportional relationships. FORM AND STRUCTURE / 71PROPORTION 72 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATION ‘As we become more sense tothe unique visual characteristics of what we see and draw. e should ntlose sight ofthe total mage. No single element ina drawing sa alone nthe composition. Allo the parts depend on oe an {or their sual impct, function, and meaning To ensure hn remain in the prope place and relationship to one aot toseeboth the trees and te forest and to ated making mountains ov of molehils—we must pay attention to Proportion, Froportions the comparative, prope. or harmonious ation ‘nepartto another orto the whle wth respect to magritud, quar, or degre, Proportional relations area matter of ratios, and ratios the relatonsip between ny two parts ofa whole, or between any part and the whole Inseeing, ne shld pay attention tothe proportional relationships that regulate car perception of size and shape. Athough often defined inmathematical tens propoten relrs to any consistent set visual relationships ang the pats ofa composition. canbe a useful design tookin Fromoting unity and harmony Our perception ofthe pysical dimensions of thing i, however, often imprecise. The foreshortenng of perspective viewing distance, anderen altar bas cn distort our perception,PROPORTION spinal a matter of critical sual judgment In sigfcant dfterencesin the relate dimensions ar important timate, a proportion wl appear to mectfora given situation when we sense that nthe too too much ofan ement or characteristics present. come important points to remember in gauging or portion na drawing apparent sz ofan object sinfluenced by the relative ofthe cbects init envionment, dealin ith the for of volumes we must be concerned thproportionin tre dimensions. az the proportion as you draw to renind yourself proper itis. Be carl ot torectity the shape to corespod tothe of the format or the sheet paper on which you are drawing. ‘When daning complex shapes, ok or shapes you nderstand suchas squares. Fre subtechanges in proportion can havea powerful effect ‘nthe sua idetity and aesthetic quality ofan image Cartoonists use this deliberate distortion to advantage in "treating caricatures. Ufthecisgorals of two rectangles are echt paral or perpedicdarto one another they indicate the two shapes FORM AND STRUCTURE / 73BUILDING ON GEOMETRY Inthe analytical process of drawing, webuldn geometry We can simply any fama objects into hascgeometrcfoms, webreak down what we se into regular geometric aumesoea geometric arrangement of part, we can draw them more easy Wecan roratize the formsinan additive manner o trary themina subtractive manner The rsultiy structure then eres aa framework for developing andrefing the forms and intervening spaces. The cube tsa convener three dimensional uit with hich to begin. From the cube e can se geometric principles to derive ther basic geometric volumes such as te pyramid, ide, andcone. Mastery of draving thes simple forms isa rereulste for draning variety of derivate compstins, Once we underetand the volumetric nature of frm, weare better able to ariplatet transfor or see fom a | panne athethrer- dimensional maeing of fom, werelyona Blrang of tonal values to depict and dfereriate ing, shaded surfaces, and ast shadows. The ifs nbrightness can intensity the luson of depth ew padi, ard perspective dravings For more jon on the construction of architectural shade and ors inthes raving systems, refer tothe respecte in Chapers6,7,and 8 SPACE AND DEPTH / 95,DEPTH CUES 96 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATION Exercise 4.9 COhserve where shifts in texture occur inthe photoaraph lag Draw the setting, employing this depth ue to convey a see depths the wal planes step back away from the observer. Exercise 4.10 Draw the scene nthe photograph again, tis te lanoig thy calor and textures ofthe forms Instead, cn only the ‘shapes and values ofthe shaded surtaces and cast shadows eu see Toarticulate the spatial ees vera foms, ‘erphale te ines of contrast where shifts in rightness or tonal valveocar,yohes overtime. Knowing where to ei, how to Inhentostopare crucial to the process of drawing are draning from observation or the imagination ne 5 astateny fo organising the sequence in which pupa dravig ina systematic way an important Weshouldadvanceby progressive stages and fadaving from the ground up. Each successive jor cycle trough the raving process should fist relationships between the major part, thenresole pe within each part, and nally readjust the ps betneen the alo part once again approach of tedious fishing one part ofa heer going onto the net can easily result the lationship between each part andthe rest of jon. Maintaining a consistent eel of orincompleteress across the entre surface ofa important preserving ani, alance, and ima flowing procedure prescribes aay of seing aswel as ing evolves bung up a drawing inte folowing stages: Establish composition and structure. ~~ Layer tonal als and textures ‘Aadsintcant detais ~ BUILDING A DRAWING SPACE AND DEPTH / 97COMPOSING A VIEW Wenormaly select from what we see whats of interes us Since our perception'sdscriinatng, we shoud also be selective in what we draw. How we frame and compose view, and what we emphasize wth our drawing technique wilt others wht attracted our attention ard what ual qualities we cused on In his way, our drawing wil raturaly communicate ou perception wth an economy of eas. Composing a view oa scene inves positioning ores ata particular pointin space and deciding ow to frame what we st, Inde to come the sense that the viewer is hin a space rather than onthe outside okingin, we must establish ‘hee pctorlrealons: foreground, amialeground anda background. Al thre sould not have equal empha one should dominate to heighten the pctral space ofthe drawing. When orteaying a pectic aspect ofan objector scone, a closer viewpoint may be necessary so that the size ofthe drawing can accommodate the rendering of tonal au, texture, and ght 98 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATIONCOMPOSING A VIEW al jira way of composing the view inthe below The shape and orientation ofthe frame and of elements within the frame interact to inuence al space and compoetion ofa drawing, Compare the effects of vertical or portrat-format wth those ofa or andscape layout, How does a square format alter eft? 412 alert way of cropping the vin he photograph (Compare a broad or distant view with close-in views that nol certain spect or eatares ofthe scene SPACE AND DEPTH / 99ESTABLISHING STRUCTURE Without cohesive structure toad it together the campostion of dranngcolapses Once the compostintora view established, weuse the analytical process of drawing to establish ts structaral framework. We begin wth regulating nes that examine and very the position, shape and proportions of major elements. As we estabisk hese ist ew lines, a tentative armature emery that both hls and gies further obserations and ideas. Ne draw further perceptions ‘ove this framework whichin tum isadjusted in response to cur perceptions. Let this structure remain sb fort cafes Pictorial telationsips and sere asa peparatary underraving for what comes late. We seelitsle dimensional freshortning in eltively small objects. The eye perceives vertical ines as paral and perpendicular tothe round plan, in contrast topical ity Therefore in raving smal-cae objects, we preserve the Verticality vertical edges, Indraving an enromert—an cutdor space oan inttor room —we in the scene rom afd poston in space. The structure, therefore nut be regulated by the prciples of linear perspective. We are concerted here principal withthe Pictorial effects ofinear perspective —foreskortening andthe convergence of paralel ines Our ind interpretswhat we ser and presents an cjective elt hase on what ne know an cbjec.ndraning a perspective view, we attempt tllustate ‘the visual aspects ofan optical reaity. These twoare often a Cad, andthe mind usual wins out. 100 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATIONESTABLISHING STRUCTURE the perce shape ca vertical plane facing say be te wal of ron. the facade ofa ingle plan defined by two vertical elements, of bo buldngs. Use any of the sighting described in Chapher2to ensure that the shape of propery proportioned. your eye eel relative to that plane Focus ona and draw ahrizontalo horizon ine trough tat thathotzontal elements stuted above your eye dowewsrd toward the horizon, whlehorional rise upward. Draw huran iguresin che riddeground, and background toestablsha techniques to gauge the slopes of horizontal edges through pint inthe vertical plane andrecedeinto Visual extend these ines to determine their pits. I hese vanishing pointe ff the sheet of raw the rot and rear vertical edges arecedng judge wat proportion ofthe vertical lading edge es the horizon ine and wht les below. Reproduce the ame forthe ear vertical edge, Use the established to ude the dravng ofthe inlnedlines in perspective. receding ins alongwith the horizon in then serve as sides for anyother lines that converge atthe sae rte core foreshortening of receding planes you he able to atten heir stat into two-dimensional shapes cerrcty judge the relative proportion between thi with dept. bert draw these regulating nes ina continuous to construct. spatial ramewor forthe drawing. AS proceed, compare every part nits proper relation to others Inthe perspective you. Recaling te flowing depth cues wil reailate the shapes you seen perspective: * Overap * Sie perspective * Location inva eld Fora mor detaied discussion f tis drawing system ard he pictorial effects of convergence and foreshorterng, See apr SPACE AND DEPTH / 101ESTABLISHING STRUCTURE Exercise 4.13 Use the analytical process of drawing to establish the underlying structure of the scene inte photograph below. De not.add tonal vals ordeals. Start-wtha series offive rinute sketches before proceeding onto longer dranigs, Exercise 4.14 Finan outdoor or interior space hat exits ear geometric structure andthe converenceofparalelines in linear perspective. Use the analytical proces of caving to ¢stabich he undering structure fhe scene. Do ead tonal values deals, Start with sere of fe-minute shetchesbelore proceeding on to oge davies. 102 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATIONSCALE to apparent size —how lage or salting to be relative to some other thing. In order to measure. therefore, we must have something of known size towtich ret ron 4 eae Ll | scale refers tothe ow bi something appears tobe when TH (i gana other tings arcundit. Thus, an object’ scale ie a udgment we make based on the relate orrown sie or suroundng ements. For xa table can ‘ tabelnscale or ost of cle wth room depending on ine and proportions ofthe pac. In drain, we 4 emphasize or reduce te sigficace ofan element by , ating scale relative to other elemerts ng onthe scale of what wear dravng wat we judge to significant or trial affects what we measure andthe degree accuracy thats required. The overall proportions of an object: nportant, as sits scale relative to other things around the degre of accuracy required realy depends on whether not we perceive dfereces. Are these differences significant canwe see then? Weare speaking festive dimensions not absolute meters, ‘eet, orinches. Therefore, f something is 3x ofan inch thick, ‘this cdmersion perhaps nots significant as whether we see Trasbeing thin. And whether ne see stag thn relly depends on what we are measuring against. nother words, {titi then something ele must be hick. something is short, we must be measungit against something whch song oaal SSS Howat walt How lanes tis square? SPACE AND DEPTH / 103HUMAN SCALE Ine perpct, he eas of pol wil appear tobe aprmately at your ee lee they standing or walkin onthe sane hrzntal anesthe encom which your stand, 104 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATION Human scale refers to how bg or smal omething makes us lth dimensions of anintrior space or the sizeof element witht make us el small we can sa they lack huran sa nthe othe hand, the space does ot dvact ws ori the dlementsoffera comfortable fit wth our dimensional requirements of each, clearance or movement, we can Say thay sarehunanin scale Inwhat we sen and daw, e often use the human figure to ‘establish how large or small other things are. This comparisonis tased on our famiarity with ourownbedy dimensions andthe | res can make us fe large or smal o can mak the ting wearemeasaring sem large or sal Other scaegving clementsare implements we use often and are ize to our dimensions, suchas chairs and tables. Human figures iva sense of sz ard scale whe future arrangements define areas of se. Therefore, inrecording a scene or developing design idea, tis important draw ata scale that allows people ad the fuishngs they use tobe Inde. For more information about drawing the human fue, see ChapterAS gf cubes. Alter the late scale ofthe cubes by ied human figures nett each Then ofthe cubes into someting in scale wththe eg. aca, arvom, ora uly, 416 pute spaces occupied bya numberof people, one ively smalin scale and the other having ayer scale. Draw the people in each space, paying other relative hgh ad potions in space. Use res as measuring devices to estabich the structure and each space. addon to sie and proportion, what contribute tothe preted scale ofeach ____ HUMAN SCALE SPACE AND DEFTH / 105LAYERING TONAL VALUES Lhe Ze ne 4 yA 4 Leth) | YS SSR KJ ; Sl 106 / ORAWING FROM OBSERVATION Incomposing and establishing the structure ofa drawing, we ‘reateaframewerkof ines, To ths scaffolding we add tral values to represent ight and dark areas ofthe scene, de ‘aesin space, mol thie form, describe surface color ard texture, and comey spatial depth We shuld work from ight to dary mapping and layering shapes of tonal ave ove precedrg areas ofa. fan reais to ht; we can away darken it But once nares has ben darkened oo much andbecomes mudd, bs difcult to coret The freshness and vitality of dravngis agile and easly lst. Intending tonal values, kep in mind the depth ues of + Avmospherc perspective * Textare perspective + Perspective of burLAYERING TONAL VALUES 47 ihe rcedare outlined inFxercises 413 and to the uderyng stractare ofthe scene inthe how Over this framework add tna values to pines in space model forms, ar cone patil depth rare attention tothe shapes, pater, and range of tonal sor rom large areas of simlar val and then layer tones within these areas. Now about five minutes for lishing the structure ard another fe minutes forthe ng of tonal vale. so 4.18 api otdoor or reir space. Compose the scene with Ipanveninder and repeat the above exercise Practice series Uterine stracture-and-alue sketches before proceeding ntolonger ravings SPACE AND DEFTH / 107ADDING DETAILS Tefal stagein bling a daning isthe ation of those details wich help us entity the various elements ofan objet or scene Trough these detals, we sense and conmunicat te inherent qualities ofa subject or uniqueness ofa place. The smaller parts and etal ofa draning should join in away that further eli the whole Detaismust be placed within a structured patternto make sense, This structure provides a framework for particulary or fate to be woredonin arate deal and more elaborately. A the same tinea draving needs contrast wick «areas oft orno deal By this contast those areas wth detail natural be gen more emphasis Remember tobe slectve, We need nat be concemed with the rendering of photgraphic realty. Wecanneverinude every detallinadraving. Some eitng is necessary as neattempt to communicate particular qualities of form and space, an this often means tolerating a degree oicompleteess. The very incompleteness o dram image inves and invites the vier to partipate nits completion. ie our perception of opal reality is usualy incomplete, beng edited by the knowledge we bring tothe act of seing and our momentary needs and 108 / DRAWING FROM OBSERVATION i419 the procedures outined in Exercises 415 and 4.17 to the underyng structure and vale patter of the nthe photograph below. To this ada those details that ontify an ary objects nthe frercund, Deepen tal as ecescary to emphasize spatial edges and convey depth. Alow about ton minutes for establishing the read rendering the toal values, and anther ve or adding sigicant deta 4.20 fapblcostdcr or interior space. Compose the scene with Surviowdnder and buld a drawing by estabiching the race, ayerng tonal values, and adding etal, Practice a eres of iteer-minute sketches before proceeding on to lnger Aang ADDING DETAILS SPACE AND DEPTH / 109Drawing Systems ‘central roblem in raving show ta represent aepects of tree dimensonal realty onasurace which has only two dimensions. nthe course of human history. various empirical methods eed {oreprsent the depth of space and objects within t, Manifestation of what we ow cal erthographc projection ecar on Eaypian temple walls andin Grek vasepantigs Thre are rumerous example of blque projection in Indian Chinese, and Japanese at. We ven find inetances of near perspective in Roman murals Today, these visual systems cf representation constitute a formal nguage of design drawing ‘governed by aconsistent ef theories principles, and conventions, We categorie these mades of representaton into dent types of craving systems Wereferto these as systemsin order ‘odletingich them fom drawing techniques, whch petainto how wemake marks ona sheet of ape ora computer screenIndesign, drain ystems prove alteratve nas of hing about and representing what We se before uso ervisionin the lad ee Each drawing system voles. ahul-n set ofmrtal operation tat directs ou exploration ofa design problem. Inseecting on dravng system over ancter to cave viualiforntion, ne mat conscious as wel as unconecos choices sto which aspects of our perception crinagnation car or shoul be expressed Techie oa daning _jstemisas mucha question of what to conceal ais a decison about what to revel LZ)5 Pictorial Systems Weclsefydravng systems accrding to method of prjection as wel as by resting pictorial effect. rejection relers to the processor techrique of representing athee-dmensional cbect ty extendingal ts pints by straight ines, called projectors, toa picture plane an inagiary ‘taeparen plane assumed tobe coertensie withthe drawing surtace, We _aleocal the picture plane the plan of projection Ther are thre major types of projection systems—orthograpic projection, oblique projection and perspective projection. The relationship ofthe projectors to each other as wel as the ale at which hey strike the picture lane ifferentate each projection system fom te other two \We shoud recognize the particular nature of each projection eystem and understand the principles that ui the contruction ofeach drawing ‘ype within the system. These prices define aconmonlanguage tat allows ws toread and understand one anothers ravings, Inadition tots welt a a means of communicate, prejcton drawing both requires atl factates earning ow to think spatial nthe dimensions. In woking through he proces of constructing projection, we navigate through a three dimensional fd of space inorder tolecate Points, determine the enh and direction of ines, and describe the shape and extent of planes, Projection drawing thus embraces the system of Cartesian coordinates andthe princes of dscrptive geometry.PICTORIAL SYSTEMS When we ay out the malo types of proction systems becomes apparent thatthe inages they present oan object varyin appearance. ti eases to discern both the pictorial ‘Smarties and ferences by studying how each projection ‘System represents the same cubic formas having mutual Perpendicular sts of ins and planes. Based on similares of appearance thee ae thee major ‘categories of pictorial systems—multivew dravings,paraine ravings and perspective ravings, Multien dranngs representa three-dimensional subject trough series of