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Assessment Decision Guide

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Assessment Decision Guide

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Assessment

Decision Guide
Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................... 1

SECTION I: INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT............................................................................. 3

SECTION II: EVALUATING AND IMPLEMENTING ASSESSMENT TOOLS............................. 6

SECTION III: OVERVIEW OF ASSESSMENT METHODS............................................................ 12

SECTION IV: OTHER ASSESSMENT METHODS........................................................................... 45

SECTION V: GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................................... 50

SECTION VI: ANNOTATED REFERENCES .................................................................................... 52

i
Introduction

Welcome to the Assessment Decision Guide. We developed this guide as a resource for agencies
designing assessment strategies to fill critical vacancies at all levels. The guide includes
information on personnel assessment, assessment methods, and assessment strategy design.

Sources of Additional Guidance

The information provided in this guide is one source agencies may consult in developing
effective assessment strategies. Agencies are also encouraged to consult the resources described
below for additional information and guidance on assessment.

Testing and Assessment: An Employer's Guide to Good Practices. The U.S. Department
of Labor (DOL) developed this document to assist managers and human resource
professionals in making assessment-related decisions. This resource is available at
http://www.onetcenter.org/guides.html or in hard copy from the Government Printing
Office (GPO Order Desk 202/512-1800, Stock Number 029-014-00259-3).

Delegated Examining Operations Handbook: A Guide for Federal Agency Examining

Offices. OPM's Delegated Examining Operations Handbook is a comprehensive document
by which OPM delegates competitive examining authority to agencies under the provisions
of 5 U.S.C. 1104, as amended by Public Law 104-52 of 1995. Chapter 2, in particular,
provides further guidance on assessment methods. This Handbook is located at
http://www.opm.gov/deu.

Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (29 CFR Part 1607). The
Guidelines provide a set of principles for determining proper test use and selection
procedures, covering topics such as test fairness and adverse impact. You can find the
Guidelines (and other Government documents related to the Guidelines) at
http://www.uniformguidelines.com/.

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. The Standards provide information
on test development, use, and evaluation in employment and other assessment settings.
More information can be found on the American Psychological Association's website at
http://www.apa.org/science/standards.html.

Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures. The Principles
discuss validation research and personnel selection, specifying principles of good practice
in the choice, development, evaluation, and use of personnel selection procedures. This
resource is available at http://www.siop.org/_Principles/principlesdefault.aspx.

1
Getting Expert Help

The issues to consider when selecting or developing an assessment strategy or specific

assessment tool are complex. Measurement specialists can assist in selecting or developing
valid, fair, and effective assessment strategies to meet specific hiring needs. Many vendors offer
professionally-developed assessments. Each agency is responsible for ensuring assessments
meet applicable regulatory and statutory requirements. Agencies should ensure they develop and
maintain the necessary documentation to support their selection processes.

2
Section I: Introduction to Assessment

What is personnel assessment?

Personnel assessment refers to any method of collecting information on individuals for the
purpose of making a selection decision. Selection decisions include, but are not limited to,
hiring, placement, promotion, referral, retention, and entry into programs leading to advancement
(e.g., apprenticeship, training, career development). Selecting qualified applicants is a critical
step in building a talented and committed workforce, supporting an effective organizational
culture, and enhancing the overall performance of the agency.

While many applicants may apply for any particular position, quantity does not guarantee
quality. Assessment procedures can be a cost-effective tool in narrowing down large applicant
pools. Assessment tools can also make the selection decision process more efficient because less
time and fewer resources are expended dealing with applicants whose qualifications do not
match what is needed by the agency.

Effective personnel assessment involves a systematic approach towards gathering information

about applicants job qualifications. Factors contributing to successful job performance (e.g.,
oral communication, problem solving) are identified using a process called job analysis. Job
analysis identifies the duties performed on the job and the competencies needed for effective job
performance. Basing personnel assessment closely on job analysis results makes the connection
between job requirements and personnel assessment tools more transparent, thereby improving
the perceived fairness of the assessment process.

What are personnel assessment tools?

Generally speaking, an assessment tool is any test or procedure administered to individuals to
evaluate their job-related competencies, interests, or fitness for employment. The accuracy with
which applicant assessment scores can be used to forecast performance on the job is the tools
most important characteristic, referred to as predictive validity (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). 1

Not all assessment tools are appropriate for every job and organizational setting. Agencies must
consider a number of factors in determining the most appropriate assessment strategy for a
particular situation. These considerations include timetables for filling positions, available staff
and financial resources, number of positions to be filled, and the nature and complexity of the
work performed in the positions to be filled.

Why is effective personnel assessment important?

It is very simple using effective assessment tools will reduce the degree of error in making
hiring decisions. Well-developed assessment tools allow agencies to specifically target the
competencies and skills they seek. This helps to ensure the time spent by both applicants and
agency personnel adds value to the decision-making process. Selection errors have financial and

1
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology:
Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274.

3
practical impacts on organizations. The consequences of even a single selection error can create
problems for an entire work unit. For example, managers may have to devote substantial time
training and counseling the marginal employee and coworkers must often handle increased
workloads as they correct or perform the employees work. Some selection errors can have
agency-wide consequences such as customer service complaints, increases in work-related
accidents and injuries, high absenteeism, poor work quality, increased turnover, or damage to the
reputation of the agency.

Good assessment will also benefit employees who experience greater organizational commitment
and job satisfaction because they are matched to jobs for which they are well suited. In addition,
using job-related assessment tools often results in more favorable applicant reactions to the
selection process. Such perceptions have lasting consequences for the agency including:
promoting a positive image of the organization, increasing the likelihood of the applicant
accepting a job offer, increasing the number of job referrals, and reducing the risk of selection
system challenges and complaints.

What is a competency and what is competency-based assessment?

OPM defines a competency as A measurable pattern of knowledge, skills, abilities, behaviors,
and other characteristics that an individual needs to perform work roles or occupational
functions successfully. Competencies specify the how of performing job tasks, or what the
person needs to do the job successfully (Shippmann et al., 2000). 2 Competencies represent a
whole-person approach to assessing individuals.

Competencies tend to be either general or technical. General competencies reflect the cognitive
and social capabilities (e.g., problem solving, interpersonal skills) required for job performance
in a variety of occupations. On the other hand, technical competencies are more specific as they
are tailored to the particular knowledge and skill requirements necessary for a specific job. OPM
has conducted a number of occupational studies to identify competencies for many Federal
occupations. These competencies are available in the Delegated Examining Operations
Handbook.

How do I determine which competencies are needed for the position?

A job analysis identifies the job tasks, roles, and responsibilities of the incumbent performing the
job, as well as the competencies required for performance, the resources used during
performance, and the context (or environment) in which performance occurs. As such, a job
analysis demonstrates the clear connection between job tasks and the competencies necessary to
perform those tasks.

Conducting a job analysis involves collecting information from job experts. The term subject
matter expert (SME) is properly applied to anyone who has direct, up-to-date experience of a job
and is familiar with all of its tasks. The person might currently hold the job or supervise the job.
SMEs must provide accurate information and effectively communicate their ideas. SMEs should
rate the job tasks and competencies for importance to successful job performance. Critical

2
Shippman, J. S., Ash, R. A., Carr, L., Hesketh, B., Pearlman, K., Battista, M., Eyde, L. D., Kehoe, J., Prien, E. P.,
& Sanchez, J. I. (2000). The practice of competency modeling. Personnel Psychology, 53, 703-740.

4
incidents (i.e., examples of particularly effective or ineffective work behaviors) are also
developed in some cases to describe essential job functions. Documentation of the job analysis
process and the linkages between job tasks, competencies, and selection tool content are essential
to ensure an assessment strategy meets legal and professional guidelines. Please refer to the
section on conducting a job analysis in OPMs Delegated Examining Operations Handbook for
more information.

5
Section II: Evaluating and Implementing Assessment Tools

In selecting and evaluating an assessment tool, one must consider a number of important factors
such as: (1) reliability, (2) validity, (3) technology, (4) the legal context, and (5) face
validity/applicant reactions. Each of these issues is discussed below as well as considerations
concerning the design and effectiveness of selection systems.

Reliability. The term reliability refers to consistency. Assessment reliability is demonstrated by

the consistency of scores obtained when the same applicants are reexamined with the same or
equivalent form of an assessment (e.g., a test of keyboarding skills). No assessment procedure is
perfectly consistent. If an applicants keyboarding skills are measured on two separate
occasions, the two scores (e.g., net words per minute) are likely to differ.

Reliability reflects the extent to which these individual score differences are due to true
differences in the competency being assessed and the extent to which they are due to chance, or
random, errors. Common sources of such error include variations in:

Applicants mental or physical state (e.g., the applicants level of motivation, alertness, or
anxiety at the time of testing)

Assessment administration (e.g., instructions to applicants, time limits, use of calculators

or other resources)

Measurement conditions (e.g., lighting, temperature, noise level, visual distractions)

Scoring procedures (e.g., raters who evaluate applicant performance in interviews,

assessment center exercises, writing tests)

A goal of good assessment is to minimize random sources of error. As a general rule, the smaller
the amount of error, the higher the reliability.

Reliability is expressed as a positive decimal number ranging from 0 to 1.00, where 0 means the
scores consist entirely of error. A reliability of 1.00 would mean the scores are free of any
random error. In practice, scores always contain some amount of error and their reliabilities are
less than 1.00. For most assessment applications, reliabilities above .70 are likely to be regarded
as acceptable.

The practical importance of consistency in assessment scores is they are used to make important
decisions about people. As an example, assume two agencies use similar versions of a writing
skills test to hire entry-level technical writers. Imagine the consequences if the test scores were
so inconsistent (unreliable) applicants who applied at both agencies received low scores on one
test but much higher scores on the other. The decision to hire an applicant might depend more
on the reliability of the assessments than his or her actual writing skills.

6
Reliability is also important when deciding which assessment to use for a given purpose. The
test manual or other documentation supporting the use of an assessment should report details of
reliability and how it was computed. The potential user should review the reliability information
available for each prospective assessment before deciding which to implement. Reliability is
also a key factor in evaluating the validity of an assessment. An assessment that fails to produce
consistent scores for the same individuals examined under near-identical conditions cannot be
expected to make useful predictions of other measures (e.g., job performance). Reliability is
critically important because it places a limit on validity.

Validity. Validity refers to the relationship between performance on an assessment and

performance on the job. Validity is the most important issue to consider when deciding whether
to use a particular assessment tool because an assessment that does not provide useful
information about how an individual will perform on the job is of no value to the organization.

There are different types of validity evidence. Which type is most appropriate will depend on
how the assessment method is used in making an employment decision. For example, if a work
sample test is designed to mimic the actual tasks performed on the job, then a content validity
approach may be needed to establish the content of the test matches in a convincing way the
content of the job, as identified by a job analysis. If a personality test is intended to forecast the
job success of applicants for a customer service position, then evidence of predictive validity
may be needed to show scores on the personality test are related to subsequent performance on
the job.

The most commonly used measure of predictive validity is a correlation (or validity) coefficient.
Correlation coefficients range in absolute value from 0 to 1.00. A correlation of 1.00 (or -1.00)
indicates two measures (e.g., test scores and job performance ratings) are perfectly related. In
such a case, you could perfectly predict the actual job performance of each applicant based on a
single assessment score. A correlation of 0 indicates two measures are unrelated. In practice,
validity coefficients for a single assessment rarely exceed .50. A validity coefficient of .30 or
higher is generally considered useful for most circumstances (Biddle, 2005). 3

When multiple selection tools are used, you can consider the combined validity of the tools. To
the extent the assessment tools measure different job-related factors (e.g., reasoning ability and
honesty) each tool will provide unique information about the applicants ability to perform the
job. Used together, the tools can more accurately predict the applicants job performance than
either tool used alone. The amount of predictive validity one tool adds relative to another is
often referred to as the incremental validity of the tool. The incremental validity of an
assessment is important to know because even if an assessment has low validity by itself, it has
the potential to add significantly to the prediction of job performance when joined with another
measure.

Just as assessment tools differ with respect to reliability, they also differ with respect to validity.
The following table provides the estimated validities of various assessment methods for
predicting job performance (represented by the validity coefficient), as well as the incremental

3
Biddle, D. (2005). Adverse Impact and Test Validation: A Practitioners Guide to Valid and Defensible
Employment Testing. Burlington, VT: Gower Publishing.

7
validity gained from combining each with a test of general cognitive ability. Cognitive ability
tests are used as the baseline because they are among the least expensive measures to administer
and the most valid for the greatest variety of jobs. The second column is the correlation of the
combined tools with job performance, or how well they collectively relate to job performance.
The last column shows the percent increase in validity from combining the tool with a measure
of general cognitive ability. For example, cognitive ability tests have an estimated validity of .51
and work sample tests have an estimated validity of .54. When combined, the two methods have
an estimated validity of .63, an increase of 24% above and beyond what a cognitive ability test
used alone could provide.

Table 1: Validity of Various Assessment Tools Alone and in Combination

% increase in
validity from
combining tool
Validity of method Incremental with cognitive
Assessment method used alone (combined) validity ability
Tests of general .51
cognitive ability
Work sample tests .54 .63 24%
Structured interviews .51 .63 24%
Job knowledge tests .48 .58 14%
Accomplishment record* .45 .58 14%
Integrity/honesty tests .41 .65 27%
Unstructured interviews .38 .55 8%
Assessment centers .37 .53 4%
Biodata measures .35 .52 2%
Conscientiousness tests .31 .60 18%
Reference checking .26 .57 12%
Years of job experience .18 .54 6%
Training & experience
.11 .52 2%
point method
Years of education .10 .52 2%
Interests .10 .52 2%
Note: Table adapted from Schmidt & Hunter (1998). Copyright 1998 by the American
Psychological Association. Adapted with permission. 4
*Referred to as the training & experience behavioral consistency method in Schmidt & Hunter (1998).

Technology. The technology available is another factor in determining the appropriate

assessment tool. Agencies that receive a large volume of applicants for position announcements
may benefit from using technology to narrow down the applicant pool, such as online screening
of resumes or online biographical data (biodata) tests. Technology can also overcome distance
challenges and enable agencies to reach and interview a larger population of applicants.

However, because technology removes the human element from the assessment process, it may
be perceived as cold by applicants, and is probably best used in situations that do not rely
4
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology:
Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274.

8
heavily on human intervention, such as collecting applications or conducting applicant screening.
Technology should not be used for final selection decisions, as these traditionally require a more
individualized and in-depth evaluation of the candidate (Chapman and Webster, 2003). 5

Legal Context of Assessment. Any assessment procedure used to make an employment decision
(e.g., selection, promotion, pay increase) can be open to claims of adverse impact based on
subgroup differences. Adverse impact is a legal concept used to determine whether there is a
substantially different passing rate (or selection rate) between two groups on an assessment
procedure (see www.uniformguidelines.com for a more detailed discussion). Groups are
typically defined on the basis of race (e.g., Blacks compared to Whites), gender (i.e., males
compared to females), or ethnicity (e.g., Hispanics compared to Non-Hispanics). Assessment
procedures having an adverse impact on any group must be shown to be job-related (i.e., valid).

What is a substantially different passing rate? The Uniform Guidelines provide a variety of
statistical approaches for evaluating adverse impact. The most widely used method is referred to
as the 80% (or four-fifths) rule-of-thumb. The following is an example where the passing rate
for females is 40% and the passing rate for males is 50%. The Uniform Guidelines lay out the
following steps for computing adverse impact:

Divide the group with the lowest rate (females at 40%) by the group with the highest rate
(males at 50%)
In this case, divide 40% by 50% (which equals 80%)
Note whether the result is 80% or higher

According to the 80% rule, adverse impact is not indicated as long as the ratio is 80% or higher.
In this case, the ratio of the two passing rates is 80%, so evidence of adverse impact is not found
and the passing rate of females is not considered substantially different from males.

Agencies are encouraged to consider assessment strategies to minimize adverse impact. When
adverse impact is discovered, the assessment procedure must be shown to be job-related and
valid for its intended purpose.

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions. When applicants participate in an assessment process, they

are not the only ones being evaluated; the agency is being evaluated as well. Applicants who
complete an assessment process leave with impressions about the face validity and overall
fairness of the assessment procedure. Their impressions can also be impacted by whether they
believe they had a sufficient opportunity to display their job-related competencies. The quality
of the interactions between the applicant and agency representatives can also affect applicant
reactions. Agencies using grueling assessment procedures may end up alienating applicants. It
is important to recognize applicants use the assessment process as one means to gather
information about the agency. Failure to act on this fact can be very costly to agencies,
particularly if top candidates are driven to look elsewhere for employment opportunities.

5
Chapman, D. S., & Webster, J. (2003). The use of technologies in the recruiting, screening, and selection
processes for job candidates. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 11, 113-120.

9
Designing a Selection Process

The design of an assessment strategy should begin with a review of the critical competencies
identified from the job analysis results. Once you decide what to assess, you must then
determine how to structure the personnel assessment process. In designing a selection process, a
number of practical questions must be addressed, such as:

How much money is available?

What assessment tool(s) will be selected?
If using multiple tools, in what order should they be introduced?
Are trained raters needed, and if so, how many (e.g., for conducting interviews)?
How many individuals are expected to apply?
What is the timeframe for filling vacancies?

For example, if your budget is tight, you will need to rule out some of the more expensive
methods such as assessment centers or work simulation tests. If you are expecting to receive
thousands of applications (based on projections from similar postings), you will need to develop
an effective screening mechanism ahead of time. If you need to fill a vacancy and only have a
few weeks to do so, then a multi-stage process will probably not be feasible. In working out
answers to these questions, it is usually helpful to think in terms of the entire selection process,
from beginning to end.

One key consideration is the number of assessment tools to include in the process. Using a
variety of assessments tends to improve the validity of the process and will provide information
on different aspects of an applicants likely job performance. Using a single measure will tend to
identify applicants who have strengths in a specific area but may overlook applicants who have
high potential in other areas. Assessing applicants using multiple methods will reduce errors
because people may respond differently to different methods of assessment. For example, some
applicants who excel at written tests may be too nervous to do well in interviews, while others
who suffer from test anxiety may give impressive interviews. Another advantage of using a
variety of assessment methods is a multiple hurdle approach can be taken. The least expensive
assessments can be used first to pare down the applicant pool. More labor-intensive and time-
consuming procedures can be introduced at a later stage when there are fewer candidates to
evaluate.

Considering which assessment methods best measure which competencies at which stage in the
process should help you develop a process well suited to your agencys hiring needs.

Ensuring an Effective Assessment Process

Agencies are encouraged to standardize and document the assessment process through the
following steps:

Treat all individuals consistently. This is most easily accomplished by adopting a

standardized assessment and decision-making process. Standardizing means making a

10
process uniform to ensure the same information is collected on each individual and is used in
a consistent manner in employment decisions.

Ensure the selection tool is based on an up-to-date job analysis and is supported by strong
validity evidence. A validation study can verify applicants who score well on the selection
device are more likely to do well on the job and contribute to organizational success.
Agencies not familiar with validation research methodology are encouraged to consult a
measurement expert.

To ensure applicants perceive the process as fair, agencies are encouraged to:

a) Offer applicants a realistic job preview before the assessment process

b) Discuss with applicants the rationale for using the selection device, as well as
what it assesses and why these competencies are important to the job
c) Provide applicants the opportunity to ask questions about the job and the selection
process
d) Treat individuals with respect, sensitivity, and impartiality during the process
e) Provide feedback about all hiring decisions in a timely and courteous manner
f) Elicit feedback from applicants (those selected and those not selected) on the
selection process

Ensure all persons involved in the selection process (e.g., administrators, interviewers,
assessors) understand their roles and responsibilities

(Information adapted from Gilliland, S.W., & Cherry, B., 2000). 6

Sources of Additional Information

For a more in-depth introduction to personnel assessment practices, including measurement

techniques and related considerations (e.g., reliability, validity, job analyses, and legal
requirements), refer to Essentials of Personnel Assessment and Selection by Guion and
Highhouse (2006). 7

For a non-technical summary of the research literature on the value of commonly used
assessment methods, see Selection Methods: A Guide to Implementing Formal Assessments to
Build a High Quality Workforce (Pulakos, 2005). 8

More information about designing and implementing a selection process can be found in
Competency-based Recruitment and Selection: A Practical Guide by Wood and Payne (1998). 9
6
Gilliland, S. W., & Cherry, B. (2000). Managing customers of selection. In J. K. Kehoe (Ed.), Managing
Selection in Changing Organizations (pp. 158-196). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
7
Guion, R. M., & Highhouse, S. (2006). Essentials of Personnel Assessment and Selection. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
8
Pulakos, E. D. (2005). Selection Methods: A Guide to Implementing Formal Assessments to Build a High Quality
Workforce. Alexandria, VA: SHRM Foundation.
9
Wood, R., & Payne, T. (1998). Competency-based Recruitment and Selection: A Practical Guide. Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley.

11
Section III: Overview of Assessment Methods

This section of the Assessment Decision Guide describes the following assessment methods:

1. Accomplishment Records
2. Assessment Centers
3. Biographical Data (Biodata) Tests
4. Cognitive Ability Tests
5. Emotional Intelligence Tests
6. Integrity/Honesty Tests
7. Job Knowledge Tests
8. Personality Tests
9. Reference Checking
10. Situational Judgment Tests
11. Structured Interviews
12. Training and Experience (T & E) Evaluations
13. Work Samples and Simulations

Each description includes information on the following considerations:

Validity The extent to which the assessment method has been shown to accurately measure
a job-related competency and/or predict successful performance on the job. For each
assessment method, validity is typically discussed in terms of content validity, criterion-
related validity, or construct validity.

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Face validity refers to applicants judgments regarding

the degree to which the content of an assessment tool is relevant and representative of the
content of the job. Applicant reactions include perceptions of the face validity of the test as
well as overall reactions to the assessment process.

Administration Method Information regarding how an assessment method can be used.

Typically this includes the size of applicant groups that can be assessed at one time, and
whether the assessment can be administered using paper-and-pencil or electronic formats.

Subgroup Differences The extent to which the assessment method has been shown to result
in different pass (or selection) rates, average scores, or prediction errors across groups,
typically based on race, ethnicity, or gender.

Development Costs The amount and type of resources required to develop an assessment, in
terms of time, money, and technical expertise.

Administration Costs The amount and type of resources required to administer an

assessment, in terms of time, money, staff, equipment, facilities, and information technology
support.

12
Utility/Return on Investment (ROI) The extent to which the benefits gained from using the
assessment method outweigh the costs of development and administration.

Common Uses A description of the occupations and/or situations for which the assessment
method is typically used.

The following table provides a summary of how each of the assessment methods discussed in
this section rank on five of the assessment considerations covered in this section. Readers are
encouraged to consult the specific section for a particular assessment method to fully interpret
the rankings presented in this table.

Table 2: Summary of Assessment Methods on Five Considerations

Assessment Consideration
Assessment Method
Validity Face Subgroup Development Administration
Validity Differences Costs Costs
Accomplishment Records High Moderate Low Moderate Moderate
Assessment Centers Moderate High Low High High
Biographical Data
Moderate Moderate Moderate High Low
(Biodata) Tests
Cognitive Ability Tests High Moderate High Moderate Low
Emotional Intelligence
Moderate Moderate Low High Low
Tests
Integrity/Honesty Tests Moderate Moderate Low High Low
Job Knowledge Tests High High High High Low
Personality Tests Moderate Moderate Low High Low
Reference Checking Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Low
Situational Judgment
Moderate High Moderate High Low
Tests
Structured Interviews High High Low Moderate Moderate
Training and Experience
Low Moderate Low Low Low
(T & E) Evaluations
Work Samples and
High High Low High High
Simulations

Most of the assessment methods in this section require considerable test development and
measurement expertise to develop in-house. Measurement specialists can assist in selecting or
developing valid, fair, and effective assessment tools to meet specific hiring needs. Many
vendors offer professionally-developed assessments. Each agency is responsible for ensuring
assessments meet all regulatory and legal criteria. Agencies should develop and maintain the
necessary documentation to support their selection processes.

13
Accomplishment Records: The accomplishment record is a systematic procedure used to
collect information about applicants training, education, experience, and past achievements
related to critical job competencies. The accomplishment record is based on the behavioral
consistency principle that past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior. Applicants are
typically asked to submit information on personal accomplishments to best illustrate their
proficiency on critical job competencies (generally between four and eight).

Specifically, applicants are often required to provide written descriptions of what was
accomplished, including detailed information about the problem or situation, the specific actions
taken, and the results or outcomes achieved by those actions. The name and contact information
of an individual who can verify the statements is also usually required. Accomplishments do not
need to be limited to those demonstrating previous experience on the specific job in question.
Rather, experience gained from other jobs or through community service, school, volunteer
work, military service, or even hobbies may also be used to provide examples of
accomplishments relevant to the targeted position.

Accomplishment statements are evaluated by a panel of trained raters using competency-based

benchmarks created for the targeted occupation. The competency-based benchmarks typically
provide specific behavioral examples of what constitutes high, medium, and low levels of
proficiency. Scoring is typically based on the degree to which the behaviors and outcomes
described within the accomplishments reflect the benchmark levels of proficiency. The length of
the rating process, generally between two and six weeks, is determined by the number of
applicants and the number of competencies being assessed. Because the accomplishment
descriptions are in the form of a written narrative, the method assumes applicants are able to
communicate in writing.

Variations of the traditional accomplishment record method involve the collection of alternative
types of applicant proficiency or experience information. For example, applicants may be asked
to complete a self-report measure by checking off job-related tasks they have performed, rating
their degree of proficiency in performing job-related tasks, or rating the extent to which they
possess a critical job competency. This approach is also considered a variation on the training
and experience evaluation method, discussed later in this section. Often, accomplishments are
later collected to support the self-reported information. In cases where an accomplishment
record cannot be implemented, self-report questionnaires are sometimes used as an alternative
pre-screen tool. It is important to note the validity and reliability evidence for some of these self-
report measures have not been substantiated by research, and may not be comparable to levels
associated with traditional accomplishment records.

Another variation of the accomplishment record is a process requiring formal verification of the
statements (e.g., via references) made by applicants in their written accomplishments (and self-
report information, if applicable). This technique is intended to discourage applicants from
inflating or otherwise distorting their submitted accomplishment descriptions.

14
Considerations:

Validity If developed properly, the critical dimensions of job performance to which

applicants respond will be representative of those required for the job (i.e., they have a
high degree of content validity) and scores on the assessment will relate strongly to
measures of overall job performance (i.e., they have a high degree of criterion-related
validity)

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Reactions from professionals who feel they should
be evaluated on their experience is typically favorable; Less favorable reactions may be
observed for entry-level applicants having relatively brief employment histories; When
applied to entry-level positions, it is important to give credit for accomplishments gained
through other than paid employment (e.g., school, volunteer work, community service);
Some prospective applicants who dislike writing detailed narratives may be discouraged
from applying

Administration Method Can be administered individually via paper and pencil or

electronically to a large group of applicants at one time

Subgroup Differences Generally little or no performance differences are found between

men and women or applicants of different races, although the presence of subgroup
differences may depend on the specific competencies being assessed

Development Costs Accomplishment records can be developed for any occupation

within two to four weeks, depending on the number of dimensions measured; Time and
cost requirements are associated mainly with benchmark development, scoring
procedures, and rater training

Administration Costs Highly time consuming for applicants to complete and the scoring
may be more time consuming compared to other assessment methods with clear right or
wrong answers (e.g., job knowledge tests); The length of the rating process depends on
the number of applicants and competencies measured

Utility/ROI High return on investment for managerial, professional, or other jobs where
applicants may prefer to be evaluated on the basis of their actual work experience rather
than an impersonal, standardized test; Investment of time and effort to develop and
administer may not be worthwhile in situations where applicant reactions to traditional
tests are not a concern

Common Uses Commonly used when negative applicant reactions to traditional tests or
test look-alikes such as biodata are expected; Also commonly used as a screening
device prior to an interview

15
References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Hough, L. M. (1984). Development and evaluation of the accomplishment record method of

selecting and promoting professionals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(1), 135-146.

Hough, L. M., Keyes, M. A., & Dunnette, M. D. (1983). An evaluation of three alternative
selection procedures. Personnel Psychology, 36(2), 261-276.

16
Assessment Centers: The assessment center is not a place as its name seems to suggest, nor is it
a single process or method. Rather, an assessment center employs multiple assessment methods
and exercises to evaluate a wide range of competencies used to make a variety of employment
decisions (e.g., employee selection, career development, promotion). Assessment centers can be
used to assess small groups of people at relatively the same time. Many assessment center
exercises resemble work sample tests designed to simulate the actual challenges found on the
job.

Assessment center exercises can be used to measure many different types of job related
competencies, including interpersonal skills, oral and written communication, planning and
evaluating, and reasoning and problem solving abilities. A frequently used assessment center
exercise is the in-basket test. A typical in-basket test is designed to simulate administrative
tasks. During this exercise, applicants are asked to play the role of a person new to the job and
are instructed to read and react to a pile of memos, messages, reports, and articles.

Some assessment center exercises can be used to evaluate groups and individual behaviors in
group situations. For example, in a leaderless group discussion, a group of applicants is tasked
with solving a problem or a series of problems in a limited amount of time. Other assessment
center exercises include, but are not limited to, job knowledge tests, personality tests, and
structured interviews. Applicant performance is usually observed and evaluated by multiple
assessors (i.e., raters). When used for internal promotion purposes, assessment centers are
frequently designed to reflect values and practices specific to an organization, but when used to
assess external applicants, assessment centers should be designed to focus on the job and level of
the job (e.g., manager) rather than practices unique to the organization. While assessment
centers can be designed for various types of jobs, they are particularly effective for assessing
higher-level managerial and leadership competencies. Assessment centers require extensive
experience to develop, considerable logistical planning to set up, and numerous personnel to
administer. Highly trained assessors are needed to observe and evaluate applicant performance
on the group and individual exercises.

Considerations:

Validity Overall, assessment center scores do a good job predicting occupational

success (i.e., they have a high degree of criterion-related validity), but the level of
predictive validity can vary depending on the purpose of the assessment, the extent of
assessor training, and the assessment methods used (See Gaugler, Rosenthal, Thornton &
Bentson, 1987); Generally, there is little evidence assessment centers provide useful
information about the relative strengths and weaknesses of a given individual. So while
assessment centers are highly useful for making selection decisions, they are less useful
for providing comprehensive developmental feedback

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Applicants typically react favorably to assessment

center exercises and often perceive the process as being very fair (i.e., as having a high
degree of face validity); Exercises simulating actual job tasks provide effective realistic
job previews

17
Administration Method Used to assess small groups of people at more or less the same
time; Can assess individual performance either alone or in a team environment; Enables
hands-on performance by the applicant and typically in a simulated work setting

Subgroup Differences Generally little or no performance differences are found between

men and women or applicants of different races, although the presence of gender and/or
racial differences may depend on the competencies being assessed

Development Costs Often costly to develop, both in terms of time and money; Usually
requires frequent updating because the scenarios and problems used in the exercises are
often remembered by the applicants long after the administration (raising potential test
security issues) and because exercise content may become outdated over time (e.g.,
memos might be sent via e-mail rather than Fax)

Administration Costs Usually expensive to administer; Requires several assessors to

observe and rate applicant performance and may require a spacious testing location
conducive to rating many applicants at one time; Administration time often depends on
number of applicants

Utility/Return On Investment (ROI) Productivity gains realized by selecting managers

and skilled individuals average well above administrative costs

Common Uses Can be used for promotion or selection purposes; Used to measure many
types of job related skills, but most widely used to assess candidates for leadership,
managerial, customer service, and sales positions; May require a pre-screen to limit the
number of applicants scheduled for the labor-intensive assessment center process

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Arthur, W. Jr., Day, E. A., McNelly, T. L., & Edens, P. S. (2003). A meta-analysis of the
criterion-related validity of assessment center dimensions. Personnel Psychology, 56,
125-154.

Caldwell, C., Thornton, G. C., & Gruys, M. (2003). Ten classic assessment center errors:
Challenges to selection validity. Public Personnel Management, 32(1), 73-88.

Gaugler, B. B., Rosenthal, D. B., Thornton, G. C., & Bentson, C. (1987). Meta-analysis of
assessment center validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(3), 493-511.

Woehr, D., & Winfred, A. (2003). The construct-related validity of assessment center ratings: A
review and meta-analysis of the role of methodological factors. Journal of Management,
29(2), 231-258.

18
Zedeck, S. (1986). A process analysis of the assessment center method. In B. M. Staw & L. L.
Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, 8, 259-296.

The following Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website
contains information on Assessment Centers:
http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/employment_testing_toc.aspx

19
Biographical Data (Biodata) Tests: Biodata measures are based on the measurement principle
of behavioral consistency, that is, past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior. Biodata
measures include items about past events and behaviors reflecting personality attributes,
attitudes, experiences, interests, skills and abilities validated as predictors of overall performance
for a given occupation.

Often, biodata test items are developed through behavioral examples provided by subject matter
experts (SMEs). These items specify situations likely to have occurred in a persons life, and ask
about the persons typical behavior in the situation. In addition, biodata items reflect external
actions that may have involved, or were observable by, others and are objective in the sense there
is a factual basis for responding to each item. An item might ask How many books have you
read in the last 6 months? or How often have you put aside tasks to complete another, more
difficult assignment? Test takers choose one of several predetermined alternatives to best
match their past behavior and experiences.

A response to a single biodata item is of little value. Rather, it is the pattern of responses across
several different situations that give biographical data the power to predict future behavior on the
job. For this reason, biodata measures often contain between 10 and 30 items and some wide-
ranging instruments may contain a hundred or more items. Response options commonly use a 5-
point scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree). Once a group of biodata items is pre-
tested on a sample of applicants, the responses are used to group the items into categories or
scales. Biodata items grouped in this way are used to assess how effectively applicants
performed in the past in competency areas closely matched to those required by the job.

A more recent development is targeted biodata instruments. In contrast to traditional biodata

measures developed to predict overall job performance, targeted biodata measures are developed
to predict individual differences in specific job-related behaviors of interest. Similar to the
developmental process used for traditional biodata, the content of a targeted biodata measure is
often driven by SME-generated behavioral examples relevant to the specific behavior(s) of
interest.

An example of a targeted biodata measure is a job compatibility measure (sometimes referred to

as a suitability measure) which focuses on the prediction of counterproductive or deviant
behaviors. Counterproductive behavior is often defined as on-the-job behavior that is (a)
harmful to the mission of the organization, (b) does not stem from a lack of intelligence, and (c)
is willful or so seriously careless it takes on the character of being willful. Previous criminal
misconduct (e.g., theft), employment misconduct (e.g., sexual harassment, offensiveness to
customers, and disclosure of confidential material), fraud, substance abuse, or efforts to
overthrow the Government are some major factors that may be relevant to suitability
determinations. A job compatibility index is typically used to screen out applicants who are
more likely to engage in counterproductive behavior if they are hired. Job compatibility
measures are less costly to implement than other procedures typically used to detect
counterproductive behaviors (e.g., interviews, polygraphs) and are beneficial for positions
requiring employees to interact frequently with others or handle sensitive information or valuable
materials.

20
Considerations:

Validity Biodata measures have been shown to be effective predictors of job success
(i.e., they have a moderate degree of criterion-related validity) in numerous settings and
for a wide range of criterion types (e.g., overall performance, customer service, team
work); Biodata measures have also appeared to add additional validity (i.e., incremental
validity) to selection systems employing traditional ability measures

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Because some biodata items may not appear to be
job related (i.e., low face validity) applicants may react to biodata tests as being unfair
and invasive

Administration Method Administered individually but can be administered to large

numbers of applicants via paper and pencil or electronically at one time

Subgroup Differences Typically have less adverse impact on minority groups than do
many other types of selection measures; Items should be carefully written to avoid
stereotyping and should be based on experiences under a persons control (i.e., what a
person did rather than what was done to the person)

Development Costs The development of biodata items, scoring strategies, and

validation procedures is a difficult and time-consuming task requiring considerable
expertise; Large samples of applicants are needed to develop as well as validate the
scoring strategy and additional samples may be needed to monitor the validity of the
items for future applicants

Administration Costs Can be cost effective to administer and generally not time
consuming to score if an automated scoring system is implemented

Utility/ROI High predictive ability can allow for the identification and selection of top
performers; Benefits (e.g., savings in training, high productivity, decreased turnover) can
outweigh developmental and administrative costs

Common Uses Commonly used in addition to cognitive ability tests to increase validity
and lower adverse impact

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Hough, L. M., & Oswald, F. L. (2000). Personnel selection: Looking toward the future
Remembering the past. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 631-664.

21
Mount, M. K., Witt, L. A., & Barrick, M. R. (2000). Incremental validity of empirically keyed
biodata scales over GMA and the five factor personality constructs. Personnel
Psychology, 53(2), 299-323.

Schmitt, N., Cortina, J. M., Ingerick, M. J., & Wiechmann, D. (2003). Personnel selection and
employee performance. Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, 12, 77-105. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The following Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website
contains information on Biographical Data:
http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/employment_testing_toc.aspx

22
Cognitive Ability Tests: Cognitive ability tests assess abilities involved in thinking (e.g.,
reasoning, perception, memory, verbal and mathematical ability, and problem solving). Such
tests pose questions designed to estimate applicants potential to use mental processes to solve
work-related problems or to acquire new job knowledge.

Traditionally, the general trait measured by cognitive ability tests is called intelligence or
general mental ability. However, an intelligence test often includes various item types which
measure different and more specific mental factors often referred to as specific mental
abilities. Examples of such items include arithmetic computations, verbal analogies, reading
comprehension, number series completion, and spatial relations (i.e., visualizing objects in three-
dimensional space).

Some cognitive ability tests sum up the correct answers to all of the items to obtain an overall
score that represents a measure of general mental ability. If an individual score is computed for
each of the specific types of abilities (e.g., numeric, verbal, reasoning), then the resulting scores
represent measures of the specific mental abilities.

Traditional cognitive tests are well-standardized, contain items reliably scored, and can be
administered to large groups of people at one time. Examples of item formats include multiple
choice, sentence completion, short answer, or true-false. Many professionally developed
cognitive tests are available commercially and may be considered when there is no significant
need to develop a test that refers specifically to the particular job or organization.

Considerations:

Validity Tests of general cognitive ability are good predictors of job performance and
training success for a wide variety of jobs (i.e., they have a high degree of criterion-
related validity); The more complex the job or training demands, the better these tests
work; Other predictors may add only small amounts of incremental validity over
cognitive tests

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Tests developed to refer explicitly to specific jobs or

types of jobs within the hiring organization may be viewed as more highly related to the
job (i.e., high face validity) than commercially developed tests

Administration Method Can be administered via paper and pencil or electronically

Subgroup Differences Cognitive ability tests typically produce racial and ethnic
differences larger than other valid predictors of job performance such as biodata,
personality tests, and structured interviews; The use of other assessment methods (e.g.,
interviews, biodata instruments) in combination with cognitive ability tests is
recommended to lower any potential adverse impact

Development Costs Cost of purchasing a cognitive test is typically less expensive than
developing a customized test

23
Administration Costs Generally inexpensive, requires few resources for administration,
and does not require skilled administrators

Utility/ROI High return on investment if you need applicants who possess particular
cognitive abilities or have high potential to acquire job knowledge or benefit from
training; Cost effectiveness of developing own test over purchasing a commercial test is
lower when face validity is not an issue

Common Uses Best used for jobs requiring particular cognitive abilities for effective
job performance and for more complex jobs

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Hunter, J. E. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitude, job knowledge, and job performance.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 340-362.

Murphy, K. R., Cronin, B. E., & Tam, A. P. (2003). Controversy and consensus regarding the
use of cognitive ability testing in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4),
660-671.

Outtz, J. L. (2002). The role of cognitive ability tests in employment selection. Human
Performance, 15(1-2), 161-172.

Ree, M. J., Earles, J. A., & Teachout, M. S. (1994). Predicting job performance: Not much more
than g. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(4), 518-524.

Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational
attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 86(1), 162-
173.

NOTE: The following Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website
contains information on Cognitive Ability Tests:
http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/employment_testing_toc.aspx

24
Emotional Intelligence Tests: Emotional intelligence (EI) is defined as a type of social
competence involving the ability to monitor ones own and others emotions, to discriminate
among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions. EI is a fairly
specific ability that connects a persons knowledge processes to his or her emotional processes.
As such, EI is different from emotions, emotional styles, emotional traits, and traditional
measures of intelligence based on general mental or cognitive ability (i.e., IQ). EI involves a set
of skills or abilities that may be categorized into five domains:

Self-awareness: Observing yourself and recognizing a feeling as it happens.

Managing emotions: Handling feelings so they are appropriate; realizing what is behind a
feeling; finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger, and sadness.

Motivating oneself: Channeling emotions in the service of a goal; emotional self-control;

delaying gratification and stifling impulses.

Empathy: Sensitivity to others feelings and concerns and taking their perspective;
appreciating the differences in how people feel about things.

Handling relationships: Managing emotions in others; social competence and social skills.

The typical approach to measuring EI ability involves administering a set of questions to

applicants and scoring the correctness of those responses based on expert judgment (expert
scoring) or consensus among a large number of people (consensus scoring). For example, one EI
ability test requires the applicant to view a series of faces and report how much of each of six
emotions is present, answer questions about emotional scenarios and responses (e.g., predict how
an anxious employee will react to a significantly increased workload), and solve emotional
problems (e.g., decide what response is appropriate when a friend calls you upset over losing his
or her job).

Some tests of EI use a self-report method. Self-report questionnaires are commonly used to
measure personality traits (e.g., extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness). Self-report
assessments have been around for decades and serve a very useful purpose. As a way to measure
EI abilities, they have some drawbacks. Using a self-report approach has been compared to
estimating typing skill by asking applicants a series of questions about how quickly and
accurately they can type. Does this mean self-report measures of emotional intelligence should
not be used? If the objective is to measure a persons self-perceived competence or self-image,
then this may be the preferred approach. If the objective is to measure EI as a set of abilities,
skills, or emotional competencies, then self-report may not be the best method to use. To the
extent employers are concerned with fakability of self-reports, ability models of EI will be more
acceptable.

25
Considerations:

Validity Ability-based tests of emotional intelligence have been shown to contribute to

the prediction of job performance, particularly when the maintenance of positive
interpersonal relations is important to job success

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Test items appearing to measure social skill

generally have good face validity (e.g., identifying emotions expressed in a photograph of
a persons face); Applicants may have a difficult time determining the best answer on
some of the items; Some items may not appear to be directly work-related

Administration Method Can be administered via paper and pencil or electronically

Subgroup Differences There is some evidence women tend to score better than men on
tests of emotional intelligence, which is consistent with other research showing women
are more skilled at reading facial expressions of emotions than are men

Development Costs Cost of purchasing an emotional intelligence test is typically far

less expensive than developing a customized test

Administration Costs Generally inexpensive, requires few resources for administration,

and does not require skilled administrators

Utility/ROI High return on investment if applicants are needed who possess strong
interpersonal skills

Common Uses Used with occupations requiring high levels of social interaction,
cooperation, and teamwork

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Frost, D. E. (2004). The psychological assessment of emotional intelligence. In J. C. Thomas &

M. Hersen (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment, Volume 4:
Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 203-215). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, findings, and
implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 197-215.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and
Personality, 9, 185-211.

26
Integrity/Honesty Tests: An integrity test is a specific type of personality test designed to
assess an applicants tendency to be honest, trustworthy, and dependable. A lack of integrity is
associated with such counterproductive behaviors as theft, violence, sabotage, disciplinary
problems, and absenteeism. Integrity tests have been found to measure some of the same factors
as standard personality tests, particularly conscientiousness, and perhaps some aspects of
emotional stability and agreeableness.

Integrity tests can also be valid measures of overall job performance. This is not surprising
because integrity is strongly related to conscientiousness, itself a strong predictor of overall job
performance. Like other measures of personality traits, integrity tests can add a significant
amount of validity to a selection process when administered in combination with a cognitive
ability test. In addition, few, if any, integrity test performance differences are found between
men and women or applicants of different races or ethnicities. Integrity tests will not eliminate
dishonesty or theft at work, but the research does strongly suggest that individuals who score
poorly on these tests tend to be less suitable and less productive employees.

Overt integrity tests (also referred to as clear-purpose tests) are designed to directly measure
attitudes relating to dishonest behavior. They are distinguished from personality-based tests in
that they make no attempt to disguise the purpose of the assessment. Overt tests often contain
questions that ask directly about the applicants own involvement in illegal behavior or
wrongdoing (e.g., theft, illicit drug use). Such transparency can make guessing the correct
answer obvious. Applicant faking is always a concern with overt integrity tests. The score
results from such tests should be interpreted with caution.

Considerations:

Validity Integrity tests have been shown to be valid predictors of overall job
performance as well as many counterproductive behaviors such as absenteeism, illicit
drug use, and theft; The use of integrity tests in combination with cognitive ability tests
can substantially enhance the prediction of overall job performance (i.e., high degree of
incremental validity)

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions May contain items that do not appear to be job
related (i.e., low face validity) or seem to reveal applicants private thoughts and feelings;
Applicants may react to integrity tests as being unnecessarily invasive, but strong
negative reactions have been found to be rare; Some item types may be highly transparent
making it easy for applicants to fake or distort test scores in their favor

Administration Method Can be administered via paper and pencil or electronically

Subgroup Differences Generally, few, if any, average score differences are found
between men and women or applicants of different races or ethnicities, therefore it is
beneficial to use an integrity measure when another measure with greater potential for
adverse impact (e.g., a cognitive test) is included in the selection process; Both overt and
personality-based integrity test scores seem to be correlated with age indicating younger

27
individuals have the potential to be more counterproductive employees, possibly because
of a youthful tendency towards drug experimentation and other social deviance

Development Costs The cost of purchasing an integrity test is typically less expensive
than developing a customized test

Administration Costs Generally inexpensive, requires few resources for administration,

and does not require skilled administrators

Utility/ROI High return on investment in settings where counterproductive behaviors

(e.g., theft of valuable property or sensitive information, absenteeism) are highly
disruptive to organizational functioning

Common Uses Typically used to measure whether applicants have the potential to be
successful in jobs where performance requires a high level of honesty and dependability;
Frequently administered to large groups of applicants as a screen-out measure

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Ones, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F. L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of

integrity test validities: Findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of
job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 679-703.

NOTE: The following Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website
contains information on Integrity Tests:
http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/employment_testing_toc.aspx

28
Job Knowledge Tests: Job knowledge tests, sometimes referred to as achievement or mastery
tests, typically consist of questions designed to assess technical or professional expertise in
specific knowledge areas. Job knowledge tests evaluate what a person knows at the time of
taking the test. Unlike cognitive ability tests, there is no attempt to assess the applicants
learning potential. In other words, a job knowledge test can be used to inform employers what
an applicant currently knows, but not whether the individual can be relied on to master new
material in a timely manner. Job knowledge tests are not appropriate when applicants will be
trained after selection in the critical knowledge areas needed for the job.

Job knowledge tests are used in situations where applicants must already possess a body of
learned information prior to being hired. They are particularly useful for jobs requiring
specialized or technical knowledge that can only be acquired over an extended period of time.
Examples of job knowledge tests include tests of basic accounting principles, computer
programming, financial management, and knowledge of contract law. Job knowledge tests are
often constructed on the basis of an analysis of the tasks that make up the job. While the most
typical format for a job knowledge test is a multiple choice question format, other formats
include written essays and fill-in-the-blank questions.

Licensing exams, agency certification, and/or professional certification programs are also job
knowledge tests. Licensure and certification are both types of credentialingthe process of
granting a designation that indicates competence in a subject or area. Licensure is more
restrictive than certification and typically refers to the mandatory Governmental requirement
necessary to practice in a particular profession or occupation. A passing score on a job
knowledge test is typically a core requirement to obtain a professional license. Licensure implies
practice and title protection. This means only individuals who hold a license are permitted to
practice and use a particular title. For example, to practice law, a law school graduate must
apply for admission into a state bar association that requires passing the bar licensure
examination. Certification is usually a voluntary process instituted within a nongovernmental or
single Governmental agency in which individuals are recognized for advanced knowledge and
skill. As with licensure, certification typically requires a passing score on a job knowledge
exam.

Considerations:

Validity Knowledge areas tested are very representative of those required to perform
the job (i.e., high degree of content validity); Performance on job knowledge tests relates
highly to performance on the job (i.e., high degree of criterion-related validity); Can add
a substantial amount of incremental validity above and beyond the validity provided by
general cognitive ability tests; Customized job knowledge tests have been shown to have
slightly higher validity than off-the-shelf tests

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Applicants often perceive job knowledge tests as

being very fair (i.e., as having a high degree of face validity) because such tests are
typically designed to measure knowledge directly applied to performance of the job

Administration Method Can be administered via paper and pencil or electronically

29
Subgroup Differences Tend to produce race and ethnic group differences larger than
other valid predictors of job performance (e.g., work sample tests, personality tests)

Development Costs Typically expensive and time consuming to develop; Frequent

updates to the test content and validation may be needed to keep up with changes in the
job; Cost of purchasing an off-the-shelf job knowledge test is typically less expensive
than developing a customized test

Administration Costs Generally inexpensive and requires few resources for

administration

Utility/ROI High return on investment if you need applicants who possess technical
expertise in specific job knowledge areas; Utility is lower when the job knowledge test
contributes little to the prediction of job performance above and beyond inexpensive and
readily available cognitive ability tests

Common Uses Best used for jobs requiring specific job knowledge on the first day of
the job (i.e., where the knowledge is needed upon entry to the position)

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Dubois, D., Shalin, V. L., Levi, K. R., & Borman, W. C. (1993). Job knowledge test design: A
cognitively-oriented approach. U.S. Office of Naval Research Report, Institute Report
241, i-47.

Dye, D. A., Reck, M., & McDaniel, M. A. (1993). The validity of job knowledge measures.
International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 1, 153-157.

Ree, M. J., Carretta, T. R., & Teachout, M. S. (1995). Role of ability and prior job knowledge in
complex training performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(6), 721-730.

Roth, P. L., Huffcutt, A. I., & Bobko, P. (2003). Ethnic group differences in measures of job
performance: A new meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 694-706.

Sapitula, L., & Shartzer, M. C. (2001). Predicting the job performance of maintenance workers
using a job knowledge test and a mechanical aptitude test. Applied H.R.M. Research, 6(1-
2), 71-74.

NOTE: The following Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website
contains information on Job Knowledge Tests:
http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/employment_testing_toc.aspx

30
Personality Tests: Personality tests are designed to systematically elicit information about a
persons motivations, preferences, interests, emotional make-up, and style of interacting with
people and situations. Personality measures can be in the form of interviews, in-basket
exercises, observer ratings, or self-report inventories (i.e., questionnaires).

Personality self-report inventories typically ask applicants to rate their level of agreement with a
series of statements designed to measure their standing on relatively stable personality traits.
This information is used to generate a profile used to predict job performance or satisfaction with
certain aspects of the work.

Personality is described using a combination of traits or dimensions. Therefore, it is ill-advised

to use a measure that taps only one specific dimension (e.g., conscientiousness). Rather, job
performance outcomes are usually best predicted by a combination of personality scales. For
example, people high in integrity may follow the rules and be easy to supervise but they may not
be good at providing customer service because they are not outgoing, patient, and friendly. The
personality traits most frequently assessed in work situations include: (1) Extroversion, (2)
Emotional Stability, (3) Agreeableness, (4) Conscientiousness, and (5) Openness to Experience.
These five personality traits are often referred to collectively as the Big Five or the Five-Factor
Model. While these are the most commonly measured traits, the specific factors most predictive
of job performance will depend on the job in question. When selecting or developing a
personality scale, it is useful to begin with inventories that tap the Big Five, but the results from a
validity study may indicate some of these traits are more relevant than others in predicting job
performance.

It is important to recognize some personality tests are designed to diagnose psychiatric

conditions (e.g., paranoia, schizophrenia, compulsive disorders) rather than work-related
personality traits. The Americans with Disabilities Act considers any test designed to reveal
such psychiatric disorders as a medical examination. Examples of such medical tests include
the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Millon Clinical Multi-Axial
Inventory (MCMI). Generally speaking, personality tests used to make employment decisions
should be specifically designed for use with normal adult populations. Under the Americans
with Disabilities Act, personality tests meeting the definition of a medical examination may only
be administered after an offer of employment has been made.

Considerations:

Validity Personality tests have been shown to be valid predictors of job performance
(i.e., they have an acceptable level of criterion-related validity) in numerous settings and
for a wide range of criterion types (e.g., overall performance, customer service, team
work), but tend to be less valid than other types of predictors such as cognitive ability
tests, assessment centers, and work samples and simulations

31
be highly transparent, making it easy for applicants to fake or distort test scores in their
favor

Administration Method Can be administered via paper and pencil or electronically

Subgroup Differences Generally, few, if any, average score differences are found
between men and women or applicants of different races or ethnicities, therefore it is
beneficial to use a personality measure when another measure with greater potential for
adverse impact (e.g., cognitive ability test) is included in the selection process

Development Costs Cost of purchasing a personality test is typically less expensive

than developing a customized test

Administration Costs Generally inexpensive, requires few resources for administration,

and does not require skilled administrators

Utility/ROI High return on investment if you need applicants who possess strong
interpersonal skills or other job-related specific personality traits

Common Uses Typically used to measure whether applicants have the potential to be
successful in jobs where performance requires a great deal of interpersonal interaction or
work in team settings; Less useful for highly scripted jobs where personality has little
room to take effect; Frequently administered to large groups of applicants as a screen

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job
performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26.

Hogan, R., Hogan, J., & Roberts, B. W. (1996). Personality measurement and employment
decisions: Questions and answers. American Psychologist, 51, 469-477.

Hough, L. M., & Oswald, F. L. (2000). Personnel selection: Looking toward the future
Remembering the past. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 631-664.

Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N, & Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality measures as predictors of job
performance: A meta-analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 44, 703-742.

NOTE: The following Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website
contains information on Personality Tests:
http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/employment_testing_toc.aspx

32
Reference Checking: Reference checking is an objective evaluation of an applicants past job
performance based on information collected from key individuals (e.g., supervisors, peers,
subordinates) who have known and worked with the applicant. Reference checking is primarily
used to:

Verify the accuracy of information given by job applicants through other selection
processes (e.g., rsums, occupational questionnaires, interviews)

Predict the success of job applicants by comparing their experience to the competencies
required by the job

Uncover background information on applicants that may not have been identified by other
selection procedures

Job applicants may attempt to enhance their chances of obtaining a job offer by distorting their
training and work history information. While rsums summarize what applicants claim to have
accomplished, reference checking is meant to assess how well those claims are backed up by
others. Verifying critical employment information can significantly cut down on selection
errors. Information provided by former peers, direct reports, and supervisors can also be used to
forecast how applicants will perform in the job being filled. Reference data used in this way is
based on the behavioral consistency principle that past performance is a good predictor of future
performance.

As a practical matter, reference checking is usually conducted near the end of the selection
process after the field of applicants has been narrowed to only a few competitors. Most
reference checks are conducted by phone. Compared to written requests, phone interviews allow
the checker to collect reference data immediately and to probe for more detailed information
when clarification is needed. Phone interviews also require less time and effort on the part of the
contact person and allow for more candid responses about applicants.

Reference checking has been shown to be a useful predictor of job performance (as measured by
supervisory ratings), training success, promotion potential, and employee turnover. As with
employment interviews, adding structure to the reference checking process can greatly enhance
its validity and usefulness as an employee selection procedure. Strategies for structuring
reference checking include basing questions on a job analysis, asking applicants the same set of
questions, and providing interviewers with standardized data collection and rating procedures.

Conducting reference checks can reduce the risk of lawsuits for negligent hiringthe failure to
exercise reasonable care when selecting new employees. Providing accurate information when
called as a reference for a former employee is equally important, but many employers refuse to
give negative information about former employees, fearing a lawsuit for defamation. This is
generally not deemed a serious problem for Federal reference providers and reference checkers
because of legal protections provided under the Federal Tort Claims Act.

33
Considerations:

Validity Reference checks are useful for predicting applicant job performance, better
than years of education or job experience, but not as effective as cognitive ability tests;
Reference checks can add incremental validity when used with other selection
procedures, such as cognitive ability and self-report measures of personality; Adding
structure (as is done with employment interviews) can enhance their effectiveness

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Some applicants may view reference checks as

invasive

Administration Method Reference checks are typically collected by phone using a

structured interview format; Written requests for work histories typically result in low
response rates and less useful information

Subgroup Differences Generally little or no score differences are found between men
and women or applicants of different races; Employers should be especially careful to
avoid asking questions not directly related to the job

Development Costs Costs are generally low and depend on the complexity of the job,
the number of questions needed, competencies measured, and development and
administration of checker/interviewer training

Administration Costs Generally inexpensive, structured telephone reference checks take

about 20 minutes to conduct per contact, a minimum of three contacts is recommended

Utility/ROI Used properly, reference checks can reduce selection errors and enhance
the quality of new hires at a minimal cost to the agency

Common Uses Best used in the final stages of a multiple-hurdle selection process when
deciding among a handful of finalists

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Aamodt, M. G. (2006). Validity of recommendations and references. Assessment Council News,

February, 4-6.

Taylor, P. J., Pajo, K., Cheung, G. W., & Stringfield, P. (2004). Dimensionality and validity of a
structured telephone reference check procedure. Personnel Psychology, 57, 745-772.

U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. (2005). Reference checking in federal hiring: Making the
call. Washington, DC: Author. Note: Report available at:
http://www.mspb.gov/netsearch/viewdocs.aspx?docnumber=224106&version=224325&a
pplication=ACROBAT

34
Situational Judgment Tests: Situational judgment tests (SJTs) present applicants with a
description of a work problem or critical situation related to the job they are applying for and ask
them to identify how they would handle it. Because applicants are not placed in a simulated
work setting and are not asked to perform the task or behavior (as would be the case in an
assessment center or a work sample), SJTs are classified as low-fidelity simulations.

SJTs measure effectiveness in social functioning dimensions such as conflict management,

interpersonal skills, problem solving, negotiation skills, facilitating teamwork, and cultural
awareness. SJTs are particularly effective measures of managerial and leadership competencies.

SJTs can be developed to present scenarios and collect responses using a variety of formats. One
alternative is to present a situation and then ask respondents to answer several questions about
the situation. More often, SJTs present a new situation for each question. To respond to this
type of SJT item, applicants may be asked: a) what they would do in the particular situation, b)
what they would be most and least likely to do in the situation, c) what response is the best
response among several options, d) what response is the best and second-best among several
options, or e) what would most likely occur next in a certain situation or as a result of a certain
decision.

SJTs can be presented in either a linear or interactive format. With a linear format, all
respondents are presented with the same questions and in the same order. With an interactive
(usually computer administered) format, SJTs can be structured according to a branching process
in which the scenarios and response options presented later in the test depend on how applicants
responded to questions presented earlier in the test. SJT questions and alternatives are typically
based on critical incidents generated by subject matter (i.e., job) experts. Scores are based on
subject matter experts judgments of the best and worst alternatives.

Considerations:

Validity The tasks and activities described in the SJT scenarios are very representative
of the tasks and activities found on the job (i.e., they have a high degree of content
validity) and performance on the tests moderately relates to performance on the job (i.e.,
they have a moderately high degree of criterion-related validity)

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Applicants often perceive SJTs as being very fair
(i.e., the tests have a high degree of face validity)

Administration Method Possible to administer in paper and pencil, computer-based, or

video-based format

Subgroup Differences Subgroup differences are typically moderate; Racial differences

in test scores may be smaller than those typically observed for cognitive ability tests

Development Costs Generally, developmental costs are less than high-fidelity

alternatives (e.g., assessment centers) and depend on costs related to use of subject matter
experts

35
Administration Costs Administration costs are typically low when delivered via paper
and pencil, but may be more costly via computer or video; No special administrator
expertise is needed

Utility/ROI High return on investment if you need applicants who possess a high level
of social and interpersonal skills upon entry into the job; If the skills measured by the
tests can be learned on the job or are not highly critical, then the return on investment will
be significantly lower

Common Uses SJTs can be developed for a variety of jobs, but are typically used for
managerial positions or other jobs requiring effective interpersonal interactions

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

McDaniel, M. A., Morgeson, F. P, Finnegan, E. B, Campion, M. A., & Braverman, E. P. (2001).

Use of situational judgment tests to predict job performance: A clarification of the
literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 730-740.

McDaniel, M. A., Whetzel, D. L., & Nguyen, N. T. (2006). Situational judgment tests for
personnel selection. Alexandria, VA: IPMA Assessment Council.

Motowidlo, S. J., Dunnette, M. D., & Carter, G. W. (1990). An alternative selection procedure:
The low-fidelity simulation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 640-647.

Motowidlo, S. J., & Tippins, N. (1993). Further studies of the low-fidelity simulation in the form
of a situational inventory. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66,
337-344.

Weekley, J. A., & Jones, C. (1999). Further studies of situational tests. Personnel Psychology,
52(3), 679-700.

36
Structured Interviews: The employment interview is one of the most widely used methods of
assessing job applicants. Due to its popularity, a great deal of research on improving the
reliability and validity of the interview has been conducted. This body of research has
demonstrated that structured interviews, which employ rules for eliciting, observing, and
evaluating responses, increase interviewers agreement on their overall evaluations by limiting
the amount of discretion an interviewer is allowed.

The level of structure in an interview can vary according to the constraints placed on the
questions asked and evaluation criteria. Interviews with a low degree of structure place no
constraints on the questions asked and allow for global evaluation of applicant responses.
Interviews with a very high level of structure involve asking all applicants the same exact set of
pre-defined lead and probe (i.e., follow-up questions) and are scored according to benchmarks of
proficiency. Interviews with higher degrees of structure show higher levels of validity, rater
reliability, rater agreement, and less adverse impact.

Interviews also vary according to the specific competencies being measured. Employment
interviews can focus on past, present, or future behavior, beliefs, opinions, or attitudes of the
applicant. Information may also include behavior observed during the interview itself (e.g., oral
communication), work experience, training, education, and career aspirations. Research shows
interview questions based on specific job competencies identified through job analysis as being
critical to job success demonstrate high levels of validity, rater reliability, and rater agreement.

The most common methods for developing specific, job-related questions are based on either the
situational or behavioral description format. Situational interview questions ask applicants to
describe what they would do or how they would behave in a situation similar to those
encountered on the job. An example of a situational question is, You have been assigned to
work on a project with some of your coworkers. While on the job, you notice several of them
goofing off. You know you are falling behind schedule to complete the work by the deadline.
What would you do? This format relies on applicants ability to project what they might do in a
future situation. Behavioral description interview questions ask applicants to describe a past
behavior demonstrated in a situation relevant to the competency of interest. An example of this
type is, Describe a situation where you analyzed and interpreted information. This type of
interview is based on the behavioral consistency principle that past behavior is the best predictor
of future behavior.

Both methods rely on the development of job-related critical incidents (e.g., examples of notably
good or notably bad job performance). Both types of interview formats have proven to be
effective. Behavioral description interviews have shown higher levels of validity where the
nature of the work is highly complex (e.g., professional and managerial level jobs). Structured
interviews are usually scored by a panel in which each member rates applicant responses
individually and then participates in a group discussion to resolve significant scoring
discrepancies. Faking occurs less frequently during structured interviews than paper-and-pencil
inventories measuring the same competencies.

37
Considerations:

Validity Situations presented in structured interview questions are highly representative

of the situation encountered on the job (i.e., a high degree of content validity),
performance on structured interviews relates highly to performance on the job (i.e., a high
degree of criterion-related validity), and show moderate relationships with measures of
cognitive ability and personality (i.e., construct validity); Can add validity beyond other
selection measures (i.e., a high degree of incremental validity), such as cognitive ability
and personality variables

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Interviews typically result in more favorable

applicant reactions compared to other popular selection measures, however, interviewers
and applicants tend to favor less structured formats

Administration Method Individual administration only; Can be conducted face-to-face

or over the telephone or via video conference

Subgroup Differences Generally little or no performance differences are found between

men/women or applicants of different races; Some differences in interviewer ratings have
been found for different races (dependent on race of candidate and interviewer(s), job
complexity, and types of questions asked)

Development Costs Costs are generally low and depend on the complexity of the job,
the number of questions used, dimensions measured, and development and administration
of interviewer/rater training

Administration Costs Typically not costly to administer but may depend on costs
related to train interviewers, rater time required, and number of applicants to assess

Utility/ROI High return on investment if you need applicants who possess specific,
critical competencies upon entry into the job; If the competencies measured by the
interview can be learned on the job or are not highly critical, then the return on
investment will be significantly lower

Common Uses Used for recruitment, selection and promotion purposes; Frequently
used late in the assessment process as a final screen or in situations where the applicant
pool is moderate or small in size

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Campion, M. A., Palmer, D. K., & Campion, J. E. (1997). A review of structure in the selection
interview. Personnel Psychology, 50(3), 655-702.

Conway, J. M., Jako, R. A., & Goodman, D. F. (1995). A meta-analysis of interrater and internal
consistency reliability of selection interviews. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(5), 565-
579.

38
Huffcutt, A I., & Arthur, W. (1994). Hunter and Hunter (1984) revisited: Interview validity for
entry-level jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(2), 184-190.

Huffcutt, A. I., & Roth, P. L. (1998). Racial group differences in employment interview
evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(2), 179-189.

McFarland, L. A., Ryan, A. M., Sacco, J. M., Kriska, S. D. (2004). Examination of structured
interview ratings across time: The effects of applicant race, rater race, and panel
composition. Journal of Management, 30(4), 435-452.

The following Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website
contains information on Interviews:
http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/employment_testing_toc.aspx

39
Training and Experience (T & E) Evaluations: A traditional T & E evaluation, sometimes
called a crediting plan or rating schedule, is a systematic method used to assess previous
experience, education, and training information provided by job applicants. These assessment
factors are based on critical job requirements and competencies identified through a job analysis.

Rating factors generally include the amount and quality of the applicants previous job-related
experience, as well as any other information deemed important to performing the duties of the
position. Typically, information on the assessment factors is reported by applicants as a
supplement to the application blank. This information is evaluated against education and
experience benchmarks to generate scores for selection purposes. Benchmarks are often
developed by Human Resource Specialists familiar with the occupations covered with the T & E
evaluation.

T & E evaluations are relatively easy to develop and may apply to multiple occupations sharing
the same requirements and competencies. For the most part, these assessments are used for entry
level positions. Most often, T & E evaluations are used as a screen early in the selection process
to identify applicants who meet the minimum proficiency levels on the rating factors. While
most rating factors are usually broad, more specific factors tailored to a particular occupation or
organization can be developed.

A variation of the traditional rating schedule based on training and experience rating factors is a
task-based rating method. The task-based method is used to assess applicants training and
experience in relation to descriptions of tasks performed on the job to be filled. Specifically, the
task-based rating schedule is developed from a list of tasks performed by incumbents in the
target job. Applicants read each task statement and indicate whether they have ever performed
such activities. Some versions ask applicants to also indicate the level of proficiency at which
the task was performed. Generally, the more tasks performed, the higher an applicants score
will be.

As with most self-report instruments, applicant inflation or distortion can threaten the validity of
a T & E evaluation. Two approaches can be taken to combat the problem of rating inflation: (1)
creating applicant expectations that responses will be verified, and (2) carrying out verification
procedures, making adjustments to scores based on the findings.

Other self-report measures that collect additional types of training and experience information
are available as alternatives to the traditional T & E evaluation. An example of such an
alternative is the competency-based self-report method. This method functions much like a
traditional rating schedule in terms of ease of administration and scoring. However, in addition
to rating the extent to which a critical job competency is demonstrated, accomplishments, (e.g.,
written statements of personal accomplishments that best illustrate an applicants proficiency on
critical job dimensions) are collected to support the self-reported information. This is very
similar to the accomplishment records method discussed earlier in this section. Another option
with the competency-based self-report method is the inclusion of a process requiring formal
verification (e.g., via reference checking) of the information provided by the applicants in their
written self-ratings and/or accomplishments. This verification information is often used to limit,

40
as much as possible, the rating inflation typically observed with applicant self-reports of
accomplishments.

Considerations:

Validity The content of the training and experience items on a traditional rating
schedule and the task items on a task-based rating schedule are often highly
representative of actual job performance (i.e., they show a high degree of content
validity); Generally, performance on rating schedules does not relate well to
performance on the job (i.e., they show a low degree of criterion-related validity), with
length and recency of education, academic achievement, and extracurricular activities
demonstrating the weakest relation to job performance

Administration Method Can be administered via paper-and-pencil or electronically

Subgroup Differences Generally little or no performance differences are found between

men and women or applicants of different racial or ethnic backgrounds

Development Costs Takes less time to develop than other measures of training and
experience (e.g., the accomplishment record)

Administration Costs Takes a very short time to administer and for applicants to
complete; Administration time is shorter than other measures of training and experience
(e.g., accomplishment record)

Utility/ROI Return on investment for training and experience measures can be

moderate to high if the same rating schedule instrument can be used to assess for various
positions

Common Uses Commonly used as a screening device prior to another selection tool
(e.g., structured interview) for both entry level positions across various professional
occupations (e.g., trainee positions) and jobs requiring prior preparation.

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Lyons, T. J. (1989). Validity of Education and Experience Measured in Traditional Rating

Schedule Procedures: A Review of the Literature. Office of Personnel Research and
Development, U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Washington, DC, OPRD-89-02.

Lyons, T. J. (1988). Validity Research on Rating Schedule Methods: Status Report. Office of
Personnel Research and Development, U.S. Office of Personnel Management,

41
Washington, DC, OED-88-17.

McCauley, D. E. (1987). Task-Based Rating Schedules: A Review. Office of Examination

Development, U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Washington, DC, OED 87-15.

McDaniel, M. A., Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1988). A meta-analysis of the validity of
methods for rating training and experience in personnel selection. Personnel Psychology,
41, 283-309.

Schwartz, D. J. (1977). A job sampling approach to merit system examining. Personnel

Psychology, 30(2), 175-185.

Sproule, C. F. (1990). Personnel Assessment Monographs: Recent Innovations in Public Sector

Assessment (Vol 2, No. 2). International Personnel Management Association Assessment
Council (IPMAAC).

42
Work Samples and Simulations: Work sample tests require applicants to perform tasks or
work activities that mirror the tasks employees perform on the job. For instance, applicants for
an Administrative Assistant position may be asked to transcribe an internal memo using a word
processor or to accurately file a stack of paperwork. Because work samples require applicants to
perform tasks identical or highly similar to tasks from the job, great care is taken in trying to
mimic the work environment to the greatest extent possible. For example, applicants to the
Administrative Assistant position may perform tasks at a workstation highly similar, if not
identical, to that found on the job. As with job knowledge tests, work sample tests should only
be used in situations where applicants are expected to possess the required competencies upon
entry into the position. If training on how to perform the work activities will be provided after
selection, the work sample method may not be appropriate.

In addition to work samples, which attempt to re-create specific work scenarios, performance
tests can also be designed to mirror very broad aspects of the job that may draw on fundamental
competencies needed to perform a wide range of job tasks. For example, the Administrative
Assistant position mentioned above may require individuals to routinely find specific materials
to answer various questions posed by upset or hostile customers. Rather than re-create a large
number of scenarios to cover a wide array of situations, employers may design a single exercise
to measure the general competencies in question (e.g., an interactive role-play between the
applicant and a well-trained actor that measures applicants problem solving, communication,
and interpersonal skills). Applicant scores on work sample tests are generated by trained
assessors who observe the applicants behavior and/or by measuring task outcomes (e.g., the
degree of interpersonal skills demonstrated or the number of errors made in transcribing an
internal memo).

Considerations:

Validity Tasks applicants are asked to perform are very representative of the tasks
performed on the job (i.e., they have a high degree of content validity) and performance
on the tests relates highly to performance on the job (i.e., a high degree of criterion-
related validity)

Face Validity/Applicant Reactions Applicants often perceive work samples as being

very fair (i.e., a high degree of face validity)

Administration Method Often individual administration only (i.e., may not be suitable
for group administrations); Hands-on performance by the applicant in a simulated work
environment

Subgroup Differences Generally little or no performance differences are found between

men and women or applicants of different races, although the presence of gender and/or
racial differences depends on the competencies being assessed

Development Costs May be costly to develop, both in terms of time and money; May
require periodic updating (e.g., if the task was using a typewriter to draft a document and

43
the organization becomes fully automated such that documents are now drafted using
word processors)

Administration Costs May be time consuming and expensive to administer; Requires

individuals to observe, and sometimes rate, applicant performance

Utility/ROI High return on investment if you need applicants who possess specific,
critical competencies upon entry into the job; If the competencies measured by the tests
can be learned on the job or are not highly critical then the return on investment will be
significantly lower

Common Uses Best used for positions for which the measured competencies are highly
critical for successful performance on the job, there is a limited number of applicants to
test, and only a small number of prospective applicants are expected to have the needed
competencies

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Campion, J. E. (1972). Work sampling for personnel selection. Journal of Applied Psychology,
56(1), 40-44.

Gilliland, S. W. (1995). Fairness from the applicants perspective: Reactions to employee

selection procedures. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 3(1), 11-19.

Lance, C. E., Johnson, C. D., Douthitt, S. S., Bennett, W., & Harville, D. L. (2000). Good news:
Work sample administrators global performance judgments are (about) as valid as weve
suspected. Human Performance, 13(3), 253-277.

Robertson, I. T. & Kandola, R. S. (1982). Work sample tests: Validity, adverse impact and
applicant reaction. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 55(3), 171-183.

The following Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) website
contains information on Work Samples and Simulations:
http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/employment_testing_toc.aspx

44
Section IV: Other Assessment Methods

The following section presents some assessment methods outside the competency-based
assessment methods included in Section III of the guide. Each method may play an important
part in the recruitment and selection process, and summary information is provided for each.

Background Evaluation/Investigation: Background evaluations, sometimes referred to as

background investigations, seek information about an applicants employment, criminal, and
personal history in an effort to investigate behavioral reliability, integrity, and personal
adjustment. Background evaluations are conducted to determine whether there are any historical
facts that would interfere with an applicants ability to perform the job, including violations of
statutes, regulations, or laws. It is important to note background evaluations are a different
process than competency-based assessments and are typically handled apart from the traditional
assessments (e.g., cognitive ability tests, accomplishment record). Depending on the
extensiveness of the background evaluation, you may be required to gain the applicants
permission.

Background evaluation data are primarily used when screening personnel for positions of trust in
which integrity and positive psychological adjustment is particularly desirable. Such
occupations include law enforcement, private security industry, and positions requiring
government-issued security clearances. The appointment of any civilian employee to a position
in the Federal Government is subject to a background investigation.

Examples of factors investigated with a background evaluation are an applicants employment

history, past illegal drug use, and previous criminal records. In addition to collecting
background information directly from an applicant, background information is sometimes
collected from other sources who know the applicant such as former employers and co-workers,
friends, and neighbors.

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Hilliard, P. A. (2001). Comparison of the predictive validity of a written test, an integrity test, a
conscientiousness questionnaire, a structured behavioral interview and a personality
inventory in the assessment of job applicants' background investigations, and subsequent
task or contextual performance. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The
Sciences & Engineering, 62(6-B), 2981.

McDaniel, M. A. (1989). Biographical constructs for predicting employee suitability. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 74(6), 964-970.

McFadden, K. L. (1997). Policy improvements for prevention of alcohol misuse by airline pilots.
Human Factors, 39(1), 1-8.

General Questions and Answers about OPM Background Investigations (2002). Retrieved
February 5, 2007, from http://www.opm.gov/extra/investigate/QABackground.asp.

45
Job-Fit Measures: Job-fit measures (sometimes referred to as organization fit, person-
organization fit, person-environment fit, or fit check tools), compare applicant personality,
interest, value, or organizational culture preference information to the characteristics of the job
or organization. The concept behind job-fit instruments is individuals are attracted to, and seek
employment with, organizations which exhibit characteristics similar to their own.

The most common organizational characteristic used in job-fit measures is the organizational
culture (e.g., innovative, detail oriented, team oriented). Although job-fit can be measured with
interviews or other instruments, job-fit instruments are typically administered to applicants in the
form of self-report questionnaires or surveys. Technological advancements of the Internet have
made it easier to administer job-fit measures on-line, or as a possible feature to an agency or
companys website. An example item from a job-fit measure is: I prefer a work environment
which doesnt demand constant adaptation (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).

Based on their responses to the job-fit items, applicants are often offered tailored feedback
regarding their likely fit with the job or organization. Moreover, those who perceive or receive
feedback which indicates they are not a good fit with the job or organization are more likely to
voluntarily withdraw from the application process. For this reason, job-fit measures that give
applicants the opportunity to self-select out are typically administered before all traditional
assessments (e.g., cognitive ability tests, accomplishment record).

Job-fit measures can also be used as a screen-out tool (such as traditional assessments); however,
the research (e.g., validity, methodology, utility) regarding the use of job-fit measures in this
regard is still in its infancy.

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Cable, D. M., & Judge, T. A. (1997). Interviewers perceptions of person-organization fit and
organizational selection decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 546-561.

Dineen, B. R., Ash, S. R., & Raymond, N. A. (2002). A web of applicant attraction: Person-
organization fit in the context of web-based recruitment. Journal of Applied Psychology,
87(4), 723-734.

Judge, T. A., & Cable, D. M. (1997). Applicant personality, organizational culture, and
organizational attraction. Personnel Psychology, 50, 359-394.

Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations,

measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, 1-49.

Martinez, M. N. (2000). Get job seekers to come to you. HR Magazine, 45, 45-52.

46
Physical Ability Tests: Physical ability tests typically ask individuals to perform job-related
tasks requiring manual labor or physical skill. These tasks measure physical abilities such as
strength, muscular flexibility, and stamina. Examples of physical ability tests include:

Muscular Tension Tests - Tasks requiring pushing, pulling, lifting

Muscular Power Tests - Tasks requiring the individual to overcome some initial resistance
(e.g., loosening a nut on a bolt)
Muscular Endurance Tests - Tasks involving repetitions of tool use (e.g., removing objects
from belts)
Cardiovascular Endurance Tests - Tasks assessing aerobic capacity (e.g., climbing stairs)
Flexibility Tests - Tasks where bending, twisting, stretching or reaching of a body
segment occurs (e.g., installing lighting fixtures)
Balance Tests - Tasks in which stability of body position is difficult to maintain (e.g.,
standing on rungs of a ladder)

While some physical ability tests may require electronically monitored machines, equipment
needs can often be kept simple. For example, stamina can be measured with a treadmill and an
electrocardiograph, or with a simple set of steps. However, a possible drawback of using simpler
methods is less precise measurement.

Many factors must be taken into consideration when using physical ability tests. First,
employment selection based on physical abilities can be litigious. Legal challenges have arisen
over the years because physical ability tests, especially those involving strength and endurance,
tend to screen out a disproportionate number of women and some ethnic minorities. Therefore, it
is crucial to have validity evidence justifying the job-relatedness of physical ability measures.
Second, physical ability tests involving the monitoring of heart rate, blood pressure, or other
physiological factors are considered medical exams under the Americans with Disabilities Act.
Administering medical exams to job applicants prior to making a job offer is expressly
prohibited. Finally, there is the concern of candidates injuring themselves while performing a
physical ability test (e.g., a test involving heavy lifting may result in a back injury or aggravate
an existing medical condition).

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

Arvey, R. D., Maxwell, S. E., & Salas, E. (1992). Development of physical ability tests for
police officers: A construct validation approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 996-
1009.

Arvey, R. D., Nutting, S. M., & Landon, T. E. (1992). Validation strategies for physical ability
testing in police and fire settings. Public Personnel Management, 21, 301-312.

47
Campion, M. A. (1983). Personnel selection for physically demanding jobs: Review and
recommendations. Personnel Psychology, 36, 527-550.

Hogan, J. (1991). The structure of physical performance in occupational tasks. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 76, 495-507.

48
Realistic Job Previews: A Realistic Job Preview (RJP) is a recruiting tool used to communicate
both the good and bad aspects of a job. Essentially, it is used to provide a prospective employee
a realistic view of what the job entails. This measure, much like the job-fit measure, is to
provide candidates a richer description of the agency and the job (e.g., work environment, duties,
expectations) to help them decide if they are a good match. While the RJP can be useful for
reducing turnover, it should be used as a candidate self-evaluation tool rather than a traditional
selection device (e.g., cognitive ability test, accomplishment record).

In creating a RJP, there are many factors to consider, including:

How the RJP will be created (e.g., structured observations, meetings with current
employees)
How the RJP will be distributed (e.g., written material, video, interview)
How to present both positive and negative aspects of the job (e.g., always follow a negative
item with a positive item)
When to introduce the RJP (i.e., early or late in the recruiting process)

References: (See Section VI for a summary of each article)

McEvoy, G. M., & Cascio, W. F. (1985). Strategies for reducing employee turnover: A meta-
analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(2), 342-353.

Pitt, L. F., & Ramaseshan, B. (1995). Realistic job information and salesforce turnover: An
investigative study. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 10(5), 29-36.

Saks, A. M, Wiesner, W. H., & Summers, R. (1996). Effects of job previews and compensation
policy on applicant attraction and job choice. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 68-85.

Wanous, J. P. (1989). Installing a realistic job preview: Ten tough choices. Personnel
Psychology, 42(1), 117-133.

49
Section V: Glossary

Adverse impact A substantially different rate of selection in hiring which works

to the disadvantage of members of any race, sex, or ethnic group.
Back

Behavioral consistency Based on the principle that past behavior is the best predictor of
method future behavior. In practice, the method involves describing
previous accomplishments gained through work, training, or
other experience (e.g., school, community service, hobbies) and
matching those accomplishments to the competencies required by
the job.
Back

Concurrent validity In a concurrent study, job incumbents (i.e., current employees)

are tested and their job performance is evaluated at the same
time. The relation between current performance on the
assessment and on the job can then be examined. Evidence of
concurrent validity is often substituted for predictive validity.
Whether this is appropriate will depend on the type of measure
and how similar the incumbent sample is to the applicant
population.
Back

Construct validity A construct refers to the underlying trait (e.g., intelligence,

sociability) assumed to be measured by an assessment. Construct
validation involves collecting evidence to determine whether the
assessment does indeed measure the trait it was intended to
measure.
Back

Content validity Evidence (based on job analysis and expert judgment) the choice
of items or tasks included in the assessment logically match or
represent those tasks or competencies required by the job.
Back

Criterion-related validity The degree to which performance on an assessment procedure

predicts (or is statistically related to) an important criterion such
as job performance, training success, or productivity.

There are two major types of criterion-related validity,

concurrent and predictive.
Back

50
Face validity An applicants perception of how valid a measure is based on
simple visual inspection. Though face validity alone cannot be
used to support the use of an assessment, it is important because
it promotes cooperation and acceptance of the assessment process
on the part of applicants.
Back

Incremental validity The extent to which a new assessment adds to the prediction of
job success above and beyond the forecasting powers of an
existing assessment.
Back

Job analysis A systematic examination of the tasks performed in a job and the
competencies required to perform them.
Back

Predictive validity In a predictive study, job applicants are tested and their
performance evaluated at a later time, usually after being on the
job for 6 months or more. The relation between performance on
the assessment and on the job can then be examined.
Back

Validity The extent to which assessment scores are related to current or

future job performance (or some other work-related outcome
such as training success, productivity, absenteeism, turnover).
For types of validity evidence, see content validity, construct
validity, and criterion-related validity.
Back

51
Section VI: Annotated References

Accomplishment Records References:

Hough, L. M. (1984). Development and evaluation of the accomplishment record method

of selecting and promoting professionals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(1), 135-146.
Developed the accomplishment record method, which applies the principle of behavioral
consistency to selection and promotion and results in self-reported descriptions of
accomplishments in highly relevant, behavioral job dimensions. These protocols were reliably
rated (.82) using specially prepared rating scales and guidelines. Scores on the accomplishment
record inventory were unrelated to traditional psychological measures, such as aptitude tests,
grades, and honors, but were correlated with job performance. Correlations with self-perceptions
of success, hard work, and self-assurance, and with length of time spent practicing a profession
are also provided.

Hough, L. M., Keyes, M. A., & Dunnette, M. D. (1983). An evaluation of three alternative
selection procedures. Personnel Psychology, 36(2), 261-276.
A content-oriented strategy was used to develop three alternative selection inventories designed
to reflect the content domain of positions held by attorneys employed with a large Federal
agency. These inventories and three traditional inventories were completed by 329 attorneys of
the agency as part of a concurrent validation study. Criterion-related validities of an
accomplishment record inventory with a background inventory and an interest and opinion
inventory were both statistically and practically significant. The special features and advantages
of the accomplishment record inventory as an alternative selection procedure are discussed.

Sackett, P. R., Schmitt, N., Ellingson, J. E., & Kabin, M. B. (2001). High-stakes testing in
employment, credentialing, and higher education: Prospects in a post-affirmative-action
world. American Psychologist, 56(4), 302-318.
The authors describe the nature of the issues faced by practitioners when trying to optimize both
the performance and ethnic diversity of chosen individuals. A review of research on different
strategies to address these issues (e.g., adverse impact) is provided. The authors recommend
using selection materials assessing the full range of relevant attributes using a format minimizing
verbal content as much as is consistent with the outcome one is trying to achieve. They also
recommend the use of test preparation, face-valid assessments, and the consideration of relevant
job or life experiences. The authors conclude that regardless of strategy adopted, it is difficult to
maximize both the performance and ethnic diversity of selected individuals.

Schmidt, F. L., Caplan, J. R., Bemis, S. E., Decuir, R., Dunn, L., & Antone, L. (1979). The
behavioral consistency method of unassembled examining. Washington, DC: U.S. Office of
Personnel Management, Personnel Resources and Development Center.
This report describes the history, rationale, and development of the behavioral consistency
procedure, a methodology very similar to the accomplishment record in format and is based on
an applicants past achievements rather than on credentials. It also describes the results of a
study conducted to compare the behavioral consistency method to two traditional rating tools.
The results indicated the behavioral consistency method (1) shows greater interrater reliability

52
than the other two methods, (2) is feasible in terms of cost and time requirements, and (3)
measures factors different than those measured by the traditional rating procedures.

Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in
personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research
findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262-274.
This article summarizes the practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research in
personnel selection. On the basis of meta-analytic findings, this article presents the validity of
19 selection procedures for predicting job performance and training performance and the validity
of paired combinations of cognitive ability tests with the 18 other selection procedures. The
practical utility of the implications of this articles summary findings are substantial. In addition,
the implications of these research findings for the development of theories of job performance
are discussed.

Assessment Center References:

Arthur, W. Jr., Day, E. A., McNelly, T. L., & Edens, P. S. (2003). A meta-analysis of the
criterion-related validity of assessment center dimensions. Personnel Psychology, 56, 125-
154.
Used meta-analytic procedures to investigate the criterion-related validity of assessment center
dimension ratings. By focusing on dimension-level information, the authors were able to assess
the extent to which specific constructs account for the criterion-related validity of assessment
centers. From a total of 34 articles reporting dimension-level validities, the authors collapsed
168 assessment center dimension labels into an overriding set of 6 dimensions: (1)
consideration/awareness of others, (2) communication, (3) drive, (4) influencing others, (5)
organizing and planning, and (6) problem solving. Results show a range of estimated criterion-
related validities from .25 to .39.

Caldwell, C., Thornton, G. C., & Gruys, M. (2003). Ten classic assessment center errors:
Challenges to selection validity. Public Personnel Management, 32(1), 73-88.
This paper summarizes ten classic errors associated with selection and promotion related
assessment center administration. Critical errors covered are: (1) poor planning, (2) inadequate
job analysis, (3) weakly defined dimensions, (4) poor exercises, (5) no pre-test evaluations, (6)
unqualified assessors, (7) inadequate assessor training, (8) inadequate candidate preparation, (9)
sloppy behavior documentation and scoring, and (10) misuse of results. Reducing and/or
eliminating the errors in this list will allow more efficient and effective assessment center
administration.

Gaugler, B. B., Rosenthal, D. B., Thornton, G. C., & Bentson, C. (1987). Meta-analysis of
assessment center validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(3), 493-511.
A meta-analysis of 50 assessment center studies revealed higher validities were found in studies
in which potential ratings were the criterion, and lower validities were found in promotion
studies. Validities were higher when the percentage of female assessees was high, when several
evaluation devices were used, when assessors were psychologists rather than managers, when
peer evaluation was used, and when the study was methodologically sound. Age of assessees,
whether feedback was given, days of assessor training, days of observation, percentages of

53
minority assessees, and criterion contamination did not moderate assessment center validities.
The findings suggest assessment centers show both validity generalization and situational
specificity.

Testing and Assessment: An Employers Guide to Good Practices. (2000). Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration. Note: Article can
be accessed at http://www.onetcenter.org/guides.html.
This guide is written as a source of guidance to managers and Human Resource (HR)
professionals. It provides basic yet essential concepts on employment testing and assessment to
help managers and HR professionals evaluate and select the most appropriate assessment tool for
a specific situation, administer and score assessment tools, interpret assessment results, and
understand professional and legal standards that must be followed when conducting personnel
assessments. An overview of the development and administration of assessment centers is
provided.

Woehr, D., & Winfred, A. (2003). The construct-related validity of assessment center
ratings: A review and meta-analysis of the role of methodological factors. Journal of
Management, 29(2), 231-258.
The present study provides a systematic review of the assessment center literature with respect to
specific design and methodological characteristics that potentially moderate the validity of
assessment center ratings. In addition, the results of a meta-analysis of the relationship between
these characteristics and construct-related validity outcomes are presented. These results provide
little if any support for the view assessment center ratings lack construct-related validity, while at
the same time demonstrating criterion-related validity. The implications of these findings for
assessment center construct-related validity are discussed.

Zedeck, S. (1986). A process analysis of the assessment center method. In B. M. Staw & L.
L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, 8, 259-296.
Discusses the dynamics operating in observing the behavior of managerial candidates in
simulated exercises and in processing information for the evaluation of candidates. These
dynamics are viewed from 3 perspectives: (1) information processing, (2) categorization and
social cognition, and (3) group dynamics. Concepts such as categories and management
behavior schema are used to explain how assessors recall information and make predictions and
judgments.

Biographical Data (Biodata) Tests References:

Elkins, T., & Phillips, J. (2000). Job context, selection decision outcome, and the perceived
fairness of selection tests: Biodata as an illustrative case. Journal of Applied Psychology,
85(3), 479-484.
The present study aimed to verify and extend Gillilands (1993) proposed model of perceived
selection fairness by investigating the role of job context in the formation of fairness perceptions
of biodata. A sample of 255 students completed an operational biodata instrument, believing it
would be used to hire persons for either international, local, or unspecified entry-level
managerial positions. Participants were then presented with outcome information (selected or
rejected for further consideration). Consistent support was found for the research hypotheses

54
derived from the Gilliland model. Participants' perceptions of the fairness and job relatedness of
biodata were affected by the selection context and decision outcome.

Hough, L. M., & Oswald, F. L. (2000). Personnel selection: Looking toward the future
Remembering the past. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 631-664.
Reviews personnel selection research from 1995-1999. Areas covered are job analysis;
performance criteria; cognitive ability and personality predictors; interview, assessment center,
and biodata assessment methods; measurement issues; meta-analysis and validity generalization;
evaluation of selection systems in terms of differential prediction, adverse impact, utility, and
applicant reactions; emerging topics on team selection and cross-cultural issues; and finally
professional, legal, and ethical standards. Three major themes are revealed: (1) better
taxonomies produce better selection decisions; (2) the nature and analyses of work behavior are
changing, influencing personnel selection practices; (3) the field of personality research is
healthy, as new measurement methods, personality constructs, and compound constructs of well-
known traits are being researched and applied to personnel selection.

Mount, M. K., Witt, L. A., & Barrick, M. R. (2000). Incremental validity of empirically
keyed biodata scales over GMA and the five factor personality constructs. Personnel
Psychology, 53(2), 299-323.
Sought to determine whether empirically keyed, cross-validated biodata scales account for
incremental variance over that accounted for by the five factor model (FFM) of personality and
cognitive ability predictors. A concurrent validation study was employed using 376 employees
in a clerical job (222 in the developmental sample and 146 in the cross-validation sample).
Building on the F. A. Mael and A. C. Hirsch (1993) and M. A. McManus and M. L. Kelly (1999)
studies, the authors examined the joint use of cognitive ability, biodata, and personality as
predictors of four different criteria: quantity and quality of work, problem solving, interpersonal
facilitation, and retention probability. Results for the cross-validation sample provided support
for the hypothesis that biodata predictors accounted for substantial incremental variance beyond
that accounted for by the FFM predictors and cognitive ability for three of the four criteria.
Support was also found for the hypothesized zero-order correlations between cognitive ability,
FFM, and biodata predictors and the four criteria.

Rothstein, H. R., Schmidt, F. L., Erwin, F. W., Owens, W. A., & Sparks, C. P. (1990).
Biographical data in employment selection: Can validities be made generalizable? Journal
of Applied Psychology, 75(2), 175-184.
The hypothesis was examined that organizational specificity of biodata validity results from the
methods typically used to select and key items. In this study, items were initially screened for
job relevance, keying was based on large samples from multiple organizations, and items were
retained only if they showed validity across organizations. Cross-validation was performed on
approximately 11,000 first-line supervisors in 79 organizations. The resulting validities were
meta-analyzed across organizations, age levels, sex, and levels of education, supervisory
experience, and company tenure. In all cases, validities were generalizable. Validities were also
stable across time and did not appear to stem from measurement of knowledge, skills, or abilities
acquired through job experience. Finally, these results provide additional evidence against the
hypothesis of situational specificity of validities, the first large-sample evidence in a
noncognitive domain.

55
Schmitt, N., Cortina, J. M., Ingerick, M. J., & Wiechmann, D. (2003). Personnel selection
and employee performance. Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and Organizational
Psychology, 12, 77-105. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The authors of this chapter suggest personnel selection research has clearly expanded from its
early interest in documenting predictor-criterion relationships. They discuss progress made in
considering a broader range of predictors, testing more sophisticated performance models, and in
paying more attention to the social significance of personnel selection and the reactions of
examinees. Biodata measures are discussed as part of this new trend in personnel selection and
employee performance.

Cognitive Ability Tests References:

Hunter, J. E. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitude, job knowledge, and job
performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3), 340-362.
A research review indicates general cognitive ability (GCA) predicts supervisor ratings and
training success as well as objective, rigorously content-valid work sample performance.
Analyses carried out in several previous studies by the present author showed much of this
predictive power stemmed from the fact GCA predicted job knowledge and job knowledge
predicted job performance. However, GCA predicted performance to a greater extent, verifying
job analyses showing most major cognitive skills are used in everyday work. Evidence showing
GCA and not specific cognitive aptitudes predict performance is discussed. Findings support
classic learning theory over behaviorist theories of learning and performance.

Murphy, K. R., Cronin, B. E., & Tam, A. P. (2003). Controversy and consensus regarding
the use of cognitive ability testing in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4),
660-671.
Over 700 members of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology indicated
agreement or disagreement with 49 propositions regarding cognitive ability tests in
organizations. There was consensus that cognitive ability tests are valid and fair, they provide
good but incomplete measures, different abilities are necessary for different jobs, and diversity is
valuable. Items dealing with the unique status of cognitive ability were most likely to generate
polarized opinions. The data represented two factors: (1) societal concerns over the
consequences of ability testing and (2) emphasis on the unique status of cognitive ability.

Outtz, J. L. (2002). The role of cognitive ability tests in employment selection. Human
Performance, 15(1-2), 161-172.
Cognitive ability tests correlate with measures of job performance across many jobs. However,
cognitive ability tests produce racial differences three to five times larger than other predictors--
such as biodata, personality inventories, and the structured interview--that are valid predictors of
job performance. Given (a) cognitive ability tests can be combined with other predictors such
that adverse impact is reduced while overall validity is increased, and (b) alternative predictors
with less adverse impact can produce validity coefficients comparable to those obtained with
cognitive ability tests alone, sole reliance on cognitive ability tests when alternatives are
available is unwarranted.

56
Ree, M. J., Earles, J. A., & Teachout, M. S. (1994). Predicting job performance: Not much
more than g. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(4), 518-524.
The roles of general cognitive ability and specific abilities or knowledge were investigated as
predictors of work sample job performance criteria in seven jobs for U.S. Air Force enlistees.
The interaction of general cognitive ability and specific experience were defined by scores on the
first and subsequent principal components of the enlistment selection and classification test (the
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery). Analyses revealed cognitive ability was the best
predictor of all criteria and specific abilities or knowledge added a statistically significant but
practically small amount to predictive efficiency. These results are consistent with those of
previous studies, most notably Army Project A. The study also extends the findings to other jobs
and uses traditionally more acceptable estimates of cognitive ability.

Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work:
Occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology,
86(1), 162-173.
The psychological construct of general mental ability (GMA), otherwise known as cognitive
ability, introduced by C. Spearman (1904) nearly 100 years ago, has enjoyed a resurgence of
interest and attention in recent decades. This article presents research evidence GMA predicts
both occupational level attained and performance within one's chosen occupation and does so
better than any other ability, trait, or disposition, and better than job experience. The sizes of
these relationships with GMA are also larger than most found in psychological research.
Evidence is presented that weighted combinations of specific aptitudes tailored to individual jobs
do not predict job performance better than GMA alone, disconfirming specific aptitude theory.
A theory of job performance is described explaining the central role of GMA in the world of
work.

Emotional Intelligence Tests References:

Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., Shiffman, S., Lerner, N., & Salovey, P. (2006). Relating
emotional abilities to social functioning: A comparison of self-report and performance
measures of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 780-
795.
Two distinct approaches to measuring emotional intelligence (EI) have emerged: ability-based
(performance) tests and self-report questionnaires. The purpose of this study was to explore the
relationship between these two different measures of EI and whether one approach is better than
the other at predicting an important outcome measure (namely, social competence). The findings
indicated ability-based measures and self-rated EI were not strongly related, suggesting a self-
assessment of ones own EI may not constitute an accurate measure of EI. These findings were
compared to other research showing individuals are also bad judges of their own mental abilities.
In a follow-up study, the researchers examined the extent to which self-rated and ability-based
measures of EI were able to predict a key outcome variable, social competence. The results
showed women score higher than men on ability-based measures of EI and self-rated measures
came out about the same for the two groups. The self-report measures of EI did not predict
social competence for either men or women. The ability-based measure of EI predicted social
competence scores for men but not women. Possible explanations for the gender differences
were considered.

57
Frost, D. E. (2004). The psychological assessment of emotional intelligence. In J. C. Thomas
& M. Hersen (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment, Volume 4:
Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 203-215). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
The author first describes the growing public and scientific interest in the concept of emotional
intelligence (EI) and the historical and social context behind EIs recent emergence. Debates
concerning the proper definition of EI are considered and whether the concept is little more than
a renaming of personality variables as aspects of traditional intelligence (i.e., IQ). The author
concludes most researchers and practitioners see the psychological construct of EI as being made
up of distinct mental abilities or capacities. The rest of the chapter describes attempts to measure
EI and its many workplace applications (e.g., selection, placement, and training). The author
also considers what types of occupations would be most suitable for EI assessment.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, findings,
and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 197-215.
This article provides a detailed and comprehensive review of findings regarding emotional
intelligence (EI) measured as an ability. The first major conclusion is EI is distinct from other
commonly measured variables related to personality and intelligence. Evidence for this is based
on studies finding very low correlations between EI and other types of intelligence. Also, EI has
rather low correlations with measures of social and emotional traits. A growing body of
evidence indicates EI, measured as an ability, predicts a variety of important outcomes. For
example, studies have shown people higher in EI are more likely to avoid drug problems,
interpersonal arguments, and violence. Such individuals are also more satisfied with their social
networks and appear to receive more social support. These predictive relationships are at levels
typically found for similarly complex concepts (e.g., personality variables). The authors argue
that because high EI involves the more successful resolution of personal conflict and lower levels
of aggression, it is a highly desirable, and often personally valuable, attribute to possess.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and
Personality, 9, 185-211.
Introduces the original framework for the emotional intelligence concept, a set of skills
hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion, the effective
regulation of emotion, and the use of feelings to motivate, plan, and achieve. Adaptive versus
maladaptive qualities of emotion are discussed. The literature on intelligence, and especially
social intelligence, is reviewed to examine the place of emotion in traditional intelligence
conceptions. The article also provides a framework for integrating the diverse research on
emotion-related skills.

Integrity/Honesty Tests References:

Cullen, M. J., & Sackett, P. R. (2004). Integrity testing in the workplace. In J. C. Thomas &
M. Hersen (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment, Volume 4:
Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 149-165). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
This chapter provides a comprehensive summary of integrity testing research and practice.
Topic areas include a review of validity evidence for personality-oriented and overt integrity
tests, the relation between integrity tests and other assessments (e.g., cognitive ability tests,

58
standard personality factors), the effect of faking on integrity test scores, applicant privacy right
issues, and subgroup score differences by race and gender. The chapters central conclusions are
integrity tests: (1) show consistent evidence of validity for predicting counterproductive
behaviors, as well as overall job performance, (2) do not show subgroup differences by gender,
race, or ethnicity, (3) have some overlap with standard personality factors (i.e., the Big Five) but
also appear to measure other unique factors, and (4) are subject to faking by applicants but
response distortion (i.e., providing socially desirable answers) does not seem to undermine the
usefulness of the tests.

Ones, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F. L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of

integrity test validities: Findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of
job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 679-703.
The authors conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis that quantitatively summarized the results
of multiple validity studies. Generally, the researchers found integrity tests were useful
predictors of overall job performance and counterproductive behaviors on the job, such as theft,
disciplinary problems, and absenteeism. Both personality-based and overt (i.e., clear purpose)
integrity tests proved to be valid predictors of job performance. Results from predictive validity
studies conducted on applicants using external performance measures (i.e., excluding self-reports
of counterproductive behavior) indicate integrity tests predict an overall measure of
counterproductivity (a combination of violence on the job, absenteeism, tardiness, and other
disruptive behaviors) better than they predict employee theft alone.

Sackett, P. R., & Wanek, J. E. (1996). New developments in the use of measures of honesty,
integrity, conscientiousness, dependability, trustworthiness and reliability for personnel
selection. Personnel Psychology, 49(4), 787-829.
This article provides a fairly extensive summary of issues related to the use of integrity tests for
personnel selection. The authors conclude personality-based and overt (clear purpose) integrity
tests are valid predictors of counterproductive behaviors (admitted theft, dismissals based on
theft, various illegal activities, tardiness, absenteeism, and on-the-job violence). Both types of
tests also predict measures of overall job proficiency for a wide variety of jobs. Limiting the
predictive analysis to only applicants (as opposed to current employees) and actual detection of
theft lowers the validity substantially. Integrity test scores are related to some of the Big Five
measures of personality, particularly conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability.
Integrity tests do not demonstrate adverse impact against women or minorities and are not
generally perceived as negative by applicants. Integrity tests are relatively unrelated to cognitive
ability (i.e., intelligence), implying they can be used in conjunction with cognitive ability
measures to enhance selection quality while also reducing the adverse impact associated with
cognitive ability tests.

Job Knowledge Tests References:

Dubois, D., Shalin, V. L., Levi, K. R., & Borman, W. C. (1993). Job knowledge test design:
A cognitively-oriented approach. U.S. Office of Naval Research Report, Institute Report 241,
i-47.
This study applied cognitive methods to the measurement of performance using tests of job
knowledge. The research goal was to improve the usefulness of job knowledge tests as a proxy

59
for hands-on performance. The land navigation skills of 358 Marines were tested with a written
job knowledge test consisting of multiple-choice questions, hands-on proficiency tests, and a
work-sample performance test. Results indicate cognitively-oriented job knowledge tests show
improved correspondence with hands-on measures of performance, compared with existing
content-oriented test development procedures.

Dye, D. A., Reck, M., & McDaniel, M. A. (1993). The validity of job knowledge measures.
International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 1, 153-157.
The results of this study demonstrated the validity of job knowledge tests for many jobs. Job
knowledge was defined as the cumulation of facts, principles, concepts, and other pieces of
information considered important in the performance of ones job (p. 153). In their meta-
analysis of 502 validity coefficients based on 363,528 individuals, they found high levels of
validity for predicting training and job performance.

Ree, M. J., Carretta, T. R., & Teachout, M. S. (1995). Role of ability and prior job
knowledge in complex training performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(6), 721-730.
A causal model of the role of general cognitive ability and prior job knowledge in subsequent job
knowledge acquisition and work sample performance during training was developed.
Participants were 3,428 U.S. Air Force officers in pilot training. The measures of ability and
prior job knowledge came from the Air Force Officer Qualifying Test. The measures of job
knowledge acquired during training were derived from classroom grades. Work sample
measures came from check flight ratings. The model showed ability directly influenced the
acquisition of job knowledge. General cognitive ability influenced work samples through job
knowledge. Prior job knowledge had almost no influence on subsequent job knowledge but
directly influenced the early work sample. Early training job knowledge influenced subsequent
job knowledge and work sample performance. Finally, early work sample performance strongly
influenced subsequent work sample performance.

Roth, P. L., Huffcutt, A. I., & Bobko, P. (2003). Ethnic group differences in measures of job
performance: A new meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 694-706.
The authors conducted a meta-analysis of ethnic group differences in job performance. Analyses
of Black-White differences within categories of job performance were conducted and subgroup
differences within objective and subjective measurements were compared. Contrary to one
perspective sometimes adopted in the field, objective measures are associated with very similar,
if not somewhat larger, standardized ethnic group differences than subjective measures across a
variety of indicators. This trend was consistent across quality, quantity, and absenteeism
measures. Further, work samples and job knowledge tests are associated with larger ethnic
group differences than performance ratings or measures of absenteeism. Analysis of Hispanic-
White standardized differences shows they are generally lower than Black-White differences in
several categories.

Sapitula, L., & Shartzer, M. C. (2001). Predicting the job performance of maintenance
workers using a job knowledge test and a mechanical aptitude test. Applied H.R.M.
Research, 6(1-2), 71-74.
This study examined the predictive validity of the Job Knowledge Written Test (JKWT) and the
Wiesen Test of Mechanical Aptitude (WTMA, J. P. Wiesen, 1997), and the effects of race,

60
gender, and age on scores. A total of 782 applicants completed the JKWT and the WTMA, and
102 maintenance workers were administered the JKWT, the WTMA, and a job performance
appraisal. Results show no significant relationship between job performance ratings and either
the JKWT or WTMA. Male applicants scored higher than did female applicants and White
applicants scored higher than did minority applicants.

Personality Tests References:

Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job
performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26.
Investigated the relation of the Big Five personality dimensions to three job performance
criteria (job proficiency, training proficiency, and personnel data) for five occupational groups
(professionals, police, managers, sales, and skilled/semi-skilled). A review of 117 studies
yielded 162 samples totaling 23,994 subjects. Conscientiousness showed consistent relations
with all job performance criteria for all occupational groups. Extraversion was a valid predictor
for two occupations involving social interaction (managers and sales). Also, openness to
experience and extraversion were valid predictors of the training proficiency criterion across
occupations. Overall, results illustrate the benefits of using the five-factor model of personality
to accumulate empirical findings. Study results have implications for research and practice in
personnel psychology.

Hogan, R., Hogan, J., & Roberts, B. W. (1996). Personality measurement and employment
decisions: Questions and answers. American Psychologist, 51, 469-477.
Summarizes information needed to answer the most frequent questions about the use of
personality measures in applied contexts. Conclusions are (1) well-constructed measures of
normal personality are valid predictors of performance in virtually all occupations, (2) they do
not result in adverse impact for job applicants from minority groups, and (3) using well-
developed personality measures for pre-employment screening is a way to promote social justice
and increase organizational productivity.

Hough, L. M., Eaton, N. K., Dunnette, M. D., Kamp, J. D., & McCloy, R. A. (1990).
Criterion-related validities of personality constructs and the effect of response distortion on
those validities. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 581-595.
An inventory of six personality constructs and four response validity scales measuring accuracy
of self-description were administered in three contexts: a concurrent criterion-related validity
study, a faking experiment, and an applicant setting. Results showed (a) validities were in the
.20s against targeted criterion constructs, (b) respondents successfully distorted their self-
descriptions when instructed to do so, (c) response validity scales were responsive to different
types of distortion, (d) applicants responses did not reflect evidence of distortion, and (e)
validities remained stable regardless of possible distortion.

61
evaluation of selection systems in terms of differential prediction, adverse impact, utility, and
applicant reactions; emerging topics on team selection and cross-cultural issues; and finally
professional, legal, and ethical standards. Three major themes are revealed: (1) better
taxonomies produce better selection decisions; (2) the nature and analyses of work behavior are
changing, influencing personnel selection practices; (3) the field of personality research is
healthy, as new measurement methods, personality constructs, and compound constructs of well-
known traits are being researched and applied to personnel selection.

Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N, & Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality measures as predictors of

job performance: A meta-analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 44, 703-742.
Based on 97 independent samples, a meta-analysis was used to (a) assess overall validity of
personality measures as predictors of job performance, (b) investigate moderating effects of
several study characteristics on personality scale validity, and (c) appraise predictability of job
performance as a function of eight categories of personality content. Results indicated studies
using confirmatory research strategies produced corrected mean personality scale validity more
than twice as high as studies adopting exploratory strategies. An even higher mean validity was
obtained based on studies using job analysis explicitly in selection of personality measures.

Reference Checking References:

Aamodt, M. G. (2006). Validity of recommendations and references. Assessment Council

News, February, 4-6.
Reference data are subject to inflation and low reliability and generally reach only moderate
levels of predictive validity. Even so, organizations are encouraged to check the references of
their applicants because of widespread resume fraud and potential liability in the form of
negligent hiring.

Taylor, P. J., Pajo, K., Cheung, G. W., & Stringfield, P. (2004). Dimensionality and validity
of a structured telephone reference check procedure. Personnel Psychology, 57, 745-772.
Reports that reference checking, when properly structured, can prevent defamation litigation and
add significant value to the selection process. Specifically tests the hypothesis that utilizing a
structured, competency-based approach to reference checking can increase the predictive validity
of ratings in much the same way as structuring the employment interview process. A structured
job analysis was used to identify the core job-related competencies deemed essential to effective
performance in a family of customer-contact jobs within a 10,000-employee service
organization. These competencies (Commitment, Teamwork, and Customer Service) were
incorporated into a structured reference form and contacts were asked to rate applicants on a
number of behavioral indicators within each competency. A structured telephone interview with
contacts was then used to obtain evidence of actual occurrences to support the ratings. Results
indicated using a structured telephone reference check increased the employers ability to predict
future job performance. Results also indicated a shorter contact-applicant relationship does not
undermine predictions of future job performance.

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U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. (2005). Reference checking in federal hiring: Making
the call. Washington, DC: Author. Note: Report available at:
http://www.mspb.gov/netsearch/viewdocs.aspx?docnumber=224106&version=224325&applicati
on=ACROBAT
Hiring officials should check references. The quality of reference checking can be improved by
insisting job applicants provide at least three references who have observed their performance on
the job. Supervisors should discuss the performance of their current and former employees with
prospective employers. Some former supervisors will only provide basic facts about work
histories (e.g., employment dates and positions held) because they are concerned with protecting
the privacy of former employees. Their concern is understandable but need not interfere with
reference checking. So long as reference checking discussions focus on job-related issues such
as performance, reference giving is appropriate and legally defensible. Former supervisors who
support reference checking inquiries can reward good employees for their past contributions and
avoid passing on a problem employee to another agency. Agency human resources personnel
can work to remove barriers to effective reference checking. For example, applicants should be
required to complete Declaration of Federal Employment (OF-306) forms early in the application
process. This form explicitly grants permission to check references. And this sets applicants
expectations appropriatelytheir performance in previous employment will be investigated.

Situational Judgment Tests References:

Hanson, M. A., Horgen, K. E., & Borman W. C. (1998, April). Situational judgment tests
(SJT) as measures of knowledge/expertise. Paper presented as the 13th Annual Conference
of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Dallas, TX.
This paper discusses the situational judgment test (SJT) methodology and reasons for its
popularity. This paper also investigates the nature of the construct(s) measured by these tests,
why they are valid, when they are valid, and why they are sometimes not valid. The authors
propose the SJT methodology is best suited for measuring knowledge or expertise, and discusses
available construct validity evidence consistent with this perspective. This perspective generates
several testable hypotheses, and additional research is proposed. Finally, the implications of this
perspective for the development of valid and useful SJTs are discussed.

McDaniel, M. A., Morgeson, F. P, Finnegan, E. B, Campion, M. A., & Braverman, E. P.

(2001). Use of situational judgment tests to predict job performance: A clarification of the
literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 730-740.
This article reviews the history of situational judgment tests (SJT) and presents the results of a
meta-analysis on criterion-related and construct validity. SJTs showed useful levels of validity
across all jobs and situations studied. The authors also found a relatively strong relationship
between SJTs and cognitive ability and the relationship depended on how the test had been
developed. On the basis of the literature review and meta-analytic findings, implications for the
continued use of SJTs are discussed, particularly in terms of recent investigations into tacit
knowledge.

McDaniel, M. A., Whetzel, D. L., & Nguyen, N. T. (2006). Situational judgment tests for
personnel selection. Alexandria, VA: IPMA Assessment Council.

63
Employers should take into account several factors before choosing to develop their own in-
house situational judgment tests (SJTs). For example, SJT developers must make a number of
decisions about the content of items, response options, response instructions, and answer key.
This monograph also describes the major steps in building a situational judgment test such as
conducting a critical incident workshop, creating item stems from critical incidents, generating
item responses, developing item response instructions, and choosing among several scoring key
methods.

Motowidlo, S. J., Dunnette, M. D., & Carter, G. W. (1990). An alternative selection

procedure: The low-fidelity simulation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 640-647.
A low-fidelity simulation was developed for selecting entry-level managers in the
telecommunications industry. The simulation presents applicants with descriptions of work
situations and five alternative responses for each situation. Applicants select one response they
would most likely make and one they would least likely make in each situation. Results
indicated simulation scores correlated from .28 to .37 with supervisory ratings of performance.
These results show samples of even hypothetical work behavior can predict performance.

Motowidlo, S. J., & Tippins, N. (1993). Further studies of the low-fidelity simulation in the
form of a situational inventory. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66,
337-344.
Authors examined two studies that extend the results of S. J. Motowidlo et al (1990) by
providing further evidence about relations between situational inventory scores, job performance,
and demographic factors. Combined results from both studies yield an overall validity estimate
of .20, with small differences between race and sex subgroups, and confirm the potential
usefulness of the low-fidelity simulation in the form of a situational inventory for employee
selection.

Weekley, J. A., & Jones, C. (1999). Further studies of situational tests. Personnel
Psychology, 52(3), 679-700.
Results are reported for two different situational judgment tests (SJTs). Across the two studies,
situational test scores were significantly related to cognitive ability and experience. In one study,
there was a slight tendency for experience and cognitive ability to interact in the prediction of
situational judgment, such that cognitive ability became less predictive as experience increased.
Situational judgment fully mediated the effects of cognitive ability in one study, but not in the
other. SJT race effect sizes were consistent with past research and were smaller than those
typically observed for cognitive ability tests. The evidence indicates situational judgment
measures mediate a variety of job relevant skills.

Structured Interviews References:

Campion, M. A., Palmer, D. K., & Campion, J. E. (1997). A review of structure in the
selection interview. Personnel Psychology, 50(3), 655-702.
Reviews the research literature and describes and evaluates the many ways selection interviews
can be structured. Fifteen components of structure are identified which may enhance either the
content of or the evaluation process in the interview. Each component is critiqued in terms of its
impact on numerous forms of reliability, validity, and user reactions. Finally, recommendations

64
for research and practice are presented. The authors conclude interviews can be easily enhanced
by using some of the many possible components of structure, and the improvement of this
popular selection procedure should be a high priority for future research and practice.

Conway, J. M., Jako, R. A., & Goodman, D. F. (1995). A meta-analysis of interrater and
internal consistency reliability of selection interviews. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(5),
565-579.
A meta-analysis of 111 inter-rater reliability coefficients and 49 coefficient alphas from selection
interviews was conducted. Moderators of inter-rater reliability included study design,
interviewer training, and three dimensions of interview structure (standardization of questions, of
response evaluation, and of combining multiple ratings) such that standardizing questions
increased reliability of ratings more for individual vs. panel interviews, and multiple ratings
were useful when combined mechanically (there was no evidence of usefulness when combined
subjectively), and standardization of questions and number of ratings made resulted in greater
levels of validity. Upper limits of validity were estimated to be .67 for highly structured
interviews and .34 for unstructured interviews.

Huffcutt, A I., & Arthur, W. (1994). Hunter and Hunter (1984) revisited: Interview
validity for entry-level jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(2), 184-190.
By adopting the theory of planned behavior, this study tried to predict human resources
managers intentions toward unstructured and structured interview techniques. Managers
evaluated case descriptions of both techniques and were interviewed about their own practices.
The data revealed stronger intentions toward unstructured interviewing than toward structured
interviewing, which was consistent with their own practices in selecting staff, which appeared to
be rather unstructured. Ajzens (1991) theory appeared to be a useful framework for predicting
managers intentions. In particular, attitudes and subjective norms were predictive of intentions
to engage in either method. Only intentions toward the unstructured case were related to
managers actual behavior.

Huffcutt, A. I., & Roth, P. L. (1998). Racial group differences in employment interview
evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(2), 179-189.
The purpose of this meta-analysis was to research the various factors that can play a role in racial
group differences resulting from an interview, such as the level of structure in the interview, job
complexity, etc. Results suggest, in general, employment interviews do not affect minorities as
much as other assessments (i.e., mental ability tests). Moreover, structured interviews tend to
limit or decrease the influence of bias and stereotypes in ratings. High job complexity resulted in
mean negative effect sizes for Black and Hispanic applicants, meaning they received higher
overall ratings than White applicants. Behavior description interviews averaged smaller group
differences than situational interviews, and group differences tended to be larger when there was
a larger percentage of a minority (i.e., Black or Hispanic) in the applicant pool.

Huffcutt, A. I., Weekley, J. A., Wiesner, W. H., DeGroot, T. G., & Jones, C. (2001).
Comparison of situational and behavior description interview questions for higher-level
positions. Personnel Psychology, 54(3), 619-644.
This paper discusses two structured interview studies involving higher-level positions (military
officer and a district manager) and had matching situational interviews and behavior description

65
interviews (BDI) questions written to assess the same job characteristics. Results confirmed
results of previous studies finding situational interviews are less effective for higher-level
positions than BDIs. Moreover, results indicated very little correspondence between situational
and behavior description questions written to assess the same job characteristic, and a link
between BDI ratings and the personality trait Extroversion. Possible reasons for the lower
situational interview effectiveness are discussed.

McFarland, L. A., Ryan, A. M., Sacco, J. M., Kriska, S. D. (2004). Examination of

structured interview ratings across time: The effects of applicant race, rater race, and
panel composition. Journal of Management, 30(4), 435-452.
This study looked at the effect of race on interview ratings for structured panel interviews
(candidates were interviewed and rated by three raters of varying races). Results indicated panel
composition produced the largest effect. Specifically, predominately White panels provided
significantly more favorable ratings (of all candidates, regardless of race) than panels which
consisting of predominately Black raters. Panel composition also affected ratings, such that
Black raters provided higher ratings to Black candidates only when the panel was predominately
Black. However, the authors caution these effects were rather small; therefore, the results should
be cautiously interpreted.

Taylor, P., & Small, B. (2002). Asking applicants what they would do versus what they did
do: A meta-analytic comparison of situational and past behavior employment interview
questions. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 75(3), 277-294.
Criterion-related validities and inter-rater reliabilities for structured employment interview
studies using situational interview (SI) questions were compared with those from studies using
behavioral description interview (BDI) questions. Validities and reliabilities were further
analyzed in terms of whether descriptively-anchored rating scales were used to judge
interviewees answers, and validities for each question type were also assessed across three
levels of job complexity. While both question formats yielded high validity estimates, studies
using BDI questions, when used with descriptively anchored answer rating scales, yielded a
substantially higher mean validity estimate than studies using the SI question format with
descriptively-anchored answer rating scales (.63 vs .47). Question type (SI vs. BDI) was found
to moderate interview validity. Inter-rater reliabilities were similar for both SI and BDI
questions, provided descriptively-anchored rating scales were used, although they were slightly
lower for BDI question studies lacking such rating scales.

Training and Experience (T & E) Evaluations References:

Lyons, T. J. (1989). Validity of Education and Experience Measured in Traditional Rating

Schedule Procedures: A Review of the Literature. Office of Personnel Research and
Development, U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Washington, DC, OPRD-89-02.
This paper reviews research on the validity of specific education and experience measures
common to traditional rating schedule procedures used by the Federal Government. The validity
of each measure is discussed and recommendations for rating schedule use are offered.

66
Lyons, T. J. (1988). Validity Research on Rating Schedule Methods: Status Report. Office of
Personnel Research and Development, U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Washington,
DC, OED-88-17.
This report summarizes the findings from a series of studies conducted on rating schedule
validity. The first objective was to investigate the criterion-related validity of rating schedules
used in the Federal Government and the second was to study the validity of three rating schedule
methodologies. Results indicated little evidence of validity for a rating schedule method based
on training and experience at either entry-level or full performance level jobs. Findings
supported the validity of a Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSA)-based rating schedule method
for full performance level jobs, but not for entry level jobs. Except for one entry level study,
results indicated the most promising validity coefficients (in the mid to upper .20s) for rating
procedures employing behavioral consistency measures for both entry and full performance level
jobs.

McCauley, D. E. (1987). Task-Based Rating Schedules: A Review. Office of Examination

Development, U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Washington, DC, OED 87-15.
This paper reviews the evidence for the validity and practicality of the task-based rating schedule
(TBRS), a self-report instrument used to assess applicants training and experience in relation to
job required tasks. A review of the background of the TBRS and the assumptions on which it is
based are discussed. In addition, a discussion of meta-analytic results on the predictive validity
of the TBRS is provided.

McDaniel, M. A., Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1988). A meta-analysis of the validity of
methods for rating training and experience in personnel selection. Personnel Psychology,
41, 283-309.
This paper discusses a meta-analysis of validity evidence of the methods (point, task, behavioral
consistency, grouping, and job element) used to evaluate training and experience (T&E) ratings
in personnel selection. Results indicate validity varied with the type of T&E evaluation
procedure used. The job element and behavioral consistency methods each demonstrated useful
levels of validity. Both the point and task methods yielded low mean validities with larger
variability. Partial support was found for both the point and task methods being affected by a job
experience moderator. Moderator analyses suggested the point method was most valid when the
applicant pool had low mean levels of job experience and was least valid with an experienced
applicant pool.

Schwartz, D. J. (1977). A job sampling approach to merit system examining. Personnel

Psychology, 30(2), 175-185.
A method for collecting content validity evidence for a merit examining process or rating
schedule without violating the principles of content validity is presented. This technique, called
the job sampling approach, is a task-based, structured system of eliciting the information
necessary to construct the rating schedule from sources most able to provide that information,
and for using the information to construct the rating schedule and linking it to job performance.
The steps include definition of the performance domain of the job in terms of process statements,
identification of the selection and measurement objectives of the organization, development of
the measurement domain in relation to the performance domain and to the selection and

67
measurement objectives, and demonstration that a close match between the performance domain
and the measurement domain was in fact achieved.

Sproule, C. F. (1990). Personnel Assessment Monographs: Recent Innovations in Public

Sector Assessment (Vol 2, No. 2). International Personnel Management Association
Assessment Council (IPMAAC).
This report reviews selected assessment methods and procedures (e.g., training and experience
measures) used frequently in the public sector during the 1980s. Many of these, including the
rating schedule, are still used today. Each section on assessments contains a variety of examples
describing public sector methods, as well as a summery of related research findings. Other
sections include discussions on selected Federal assessment innovations, application of
technology to assessment, use of test scores, legal provisions related to assessment, and
employment testing of persons with disabilities.

Work Samples and Simulations References:

Campion, J. E. (1972). Work sampling for personnel selection. Journal of Applied

Psychology, 56(1), 40-44.
The author developed a work sample checklist from supervisors ratings of important tasks and
behaviors expected of maintenance mechanics. The test was given to 34 employees by an
outside consulting firm, and checklist evaluations were compared with (a) supervisors
evaluation of each employee on three factors; and (b) employees responses on the test of
mechanical comprehension, the Wonderlic Personnel Test, and the short employment tests.
Results indicated performance on the work sample was significantly related to supervisory
evaluations of job success, but none of the validity coefficients for the paper-and-pencil tests
were significant.

Gilliland, S. W. (1995). Fairness from the applicants perspective: Reactions to employee

selection procedures. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 3(1), 11-19.
Applicants reactions to selection procedures were examined in terms of the satisfaction and/or
violation of ten procedural justice rules. Critical incidents (n = 237) of fair and unfair treatment
during selection were collected from 31 individuals who had recently experienced job search and
hiring processes. Incidents were categorized into ten procedural justice rules and the distribution
of these incidents was examined for different hiring outcomes and different selection procedures.
Dominant procedural concerns reflected selection procedure job relatedness and interpersonal
treatment applicants received. Accepted applicants were primarily concerned about consistency
of treatment, while rejected applicants were more concerned with timely feedback and blatant
bias. Ease of faking was the primary procedural concern of applicants taking honesty and
personality tests, while job relatedness was the primary concern with ability and work sample
tests. Research issues were discussed and a number of practical suggestions were offered in
terms of minimizing applicants' negative reactions to the selection process.

68
Lance, C. E., Johnson, C. D., Douthitt, S. S., Bennett, W., & Harville, D. L. (2000). Good
news: Work sample administrators global performance judgments are (about) as valid as
weve suspected. Human Performance, 13(3), 253-277.
Data obtained on over 1,500 first-term U.S. Air Force enlisted personnel indicated work sample
administrators global ratings of work sample performance substantially reflect actual ratee
behavior in the work sample, and not potentially biasing factors (e.g., race, gender, amount of
recent experience), supporting the folk wisdom these global performance judgments are, in
fact, valid and unbiased measures of performance.

Robertson, I. T. & Kandola, R. S. (1982). Work sample tests: Validity, adverse impact and
applicant reaction. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 55(3), 171-183.
Work sample tests are assigned to one of four categories: (1) psychomotor; (2) individual,
situational decision making; (3) job-related information; and (4) group discussion/decision
making. Validity data drawn from over 60 studies are presented and show psychomotor work
sample tests and group discussions predict job performance relatively well when compared with
more conventional forms of psychological testing, such as intelligence or personality tests. Data
showing other validity relationships are presented, and the importance of point-to-point
correspondence between predictors and criteria is discussed. Research on the adverse impact of
work sample tests and applicant reaction to such tests is reviewed and suggests the tests may help
to reduce adverse impact and produce positive reactions from candidates.

Schmidt, F. L. & Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in
personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research
findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262-274.
This article summarizes the practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research in
personnel selection. On the basis of meta-analytic findings, this article presents the validity of
19 selection procedures for predicting job performance and training performance and the validity
of paired combinations of general mental ability (GMA) with the 18 other selection procedures.
Overall, the three combinations with the highest multivariate validity and utility for job
performance were GMA plus a work sample test (mean validity of .63), GMA plus an integrity
test (mean validity of .65), and GMA plus a structured interview (mean validity of .63). A
further advantage of the latter two combinations is they can be used for both entry level selection
and selection of experienced employees. The practical utility implications of these summary
findings are substantial. The implications of these research findings for the development of
theories of job performance are discussed.

Background Evaluation/Investigation References:

Hilliard, P. A. (2001). Comparison of the predictive validity of a written test, an integrity

test, a conscientiousness questionnaire, a structured behavioral interview and a personality
inventory in the assessment of job applicants' background investigations, and subsequent
task or contextual performance. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The
Sciences & Engineering, 62(6-B), 2981.
This study was designed to compare the validity of several personnel selection instruments in the
prediction of the results of applicants' background investigations, and incumbents' subsequent
contextual and task work performance. The selection instruments used were a written test, an

69
integrity test, a conscientiousness questionnaire, a structured behavioral interview, and a
personality inventory. Out of a total of 168 applicants who were interviewed, 23 were
subsequently hired, and job performance evaluations were collected for 18 employees. Although
there were some statistically significant findings (e.g., interviews and conscientiousness
predicted background investigation results and task performance), the primary hypotheses were
not supported. An additional findings was many potential applicants screened themselves out of
the process early in the proceedings once they realized an extensive background investigation
would be conducted.

McDaniel, M. A. (1989). Biographical constructs for predicting employee suitability.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(6), 964-970.
The use of background investigation data in personnel screening is reviewed. Background
investigations are routinely conducted on persons seeking positions of trust in law enforcement,
the nuclear power industry, and military and civilian occupations requiring government-issued
security clearances. The application of background investigation information in personnel
screening differs in many important ways from biodata applications developed by psychologists.
In this article, these differences are reviewed, and the construct and criterion-related validity of a
survey-based measure are examined. This measure taps content areas typically explored in
background investigations. Seven background factors were identified. The background scales
showed acceptable reliability, informative interscale relationships, and useful levels of criterion-
related validity.

McFadden, K. L. (1997). Policy improvements for prevention of alcohol misuse by airline

pilots. Human Factors, 39(1), 1-8.
Analyzes two strategies for reducing pilot-error aviation accidents: conducting background
checks on pilots for driving-while-intoxicated (DWI) convictions, and random preflight alcohol
testing of airline pilots. The results of this study are based on analysis of data obtained from the
Federal Aviation Administration on the flying performance of 70,164 airline pilots. DWI
convictions were found to be associated with a significantly greater risk of a pilot-error accident.
In contrast, no evidence was found to validate the assumption a random alcohol testing program
could have prevented accidents. The results provide support for improving the existing DWI
background check program and for reducing the sampling rate of random alcohol testing for
airline pilots. This twofold strategy could result in greater improvements in aviation safety and
reduced overall costs.

Job-Fit Measures References:

Arthur, W., Jr., Bell, S. T., Villado, A. J., & Doverspike, D. (2006). The use of person-
organization fit in employment decision making: An assessment of its criterion-related
validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 786-801.
This article cautions against the use of P-O measures as selection tools. Using meta-analytic
analyses, the criterion-related validity of P-O fit as a predictor of job performance was only .15
with a small effect size. Another consideration is if using P-O as a criterion-related selection
tool, it needs to abide by the same professional standards and practices (e.g., psychometric and
legal) as other selection tests as outlined by the Civil Rights Act (CRA; 1964, 1991) and Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC; 1978). At this time, the authors suggest it is best

70
to limit P-O measures for after the candidate has been hired, such as for placement, and not
selection.

Cable, D. M., & Judge, T. A. (1997). Interviewers perceptions of person-organization fit

and organizational selection decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 546-561.
A model of person-organization fit and organizational hiring decisions is developed and tested,
using data from 38 interviewers making hiring decisions about 93 applicants. Results suggest
interviewers can assess applicant-organization values congruence with significant levels of
accuracy and interviewers compare their perceptions of applicants' values with their
organizations' values to assess person-organization fit. Results also suggested interviewers'
subjective person-organization fit assessments have large effects on their hiring
recommendations relative to competing applicant characteristics, and interviewers' hiring
recommendations directly affect organizations' hiring decisions (e.g., job offers).

Dineen, B. R., Ash, S. R., & Raymond, N. A. (2002). A web of applicant attraction: Person-
organization fit in the context of web-based recruitment. Journal of Applied Psychology,
87(4), 723-734.
Applicant attraction was examined in the context of Web-based recruitment. Specifically, the
provision of feedback to individuals regarding their potential Person-Organization (P-O) fit with
an organization related to attraction was studied. Objective and subjective P-O fit, agreement
with fit feedback, and self esteem also were examined in relation to attraction. Results of an
experiment that manipulated fit feedback level after a self-assessment provided by a fictitious
company Web site found both feedback level and objective P-O fit were related to attraction. In
addition, attraction was related to the interaction of objective fit, feedback, and agreement and
objective fit, feedback, and self esteem. Implications and future Web-based recruitment research
directions are discussed.

Judge, T. A., & Cable, D. M. (1997). Applicant personality, organizational culture, and
organizational attraction. Personnel Psychology, 50, 359-394.
Examined the dispositional basis of job seekers' organizational culture preferences and how these
preferences interact with recruiting organizations' cultures in their relation to organization
attraction. Data were collected from 182 business, engineering, and industrial relations students
who were seeking positions at the time of the study. Results obtained from multiple sources
suggested the Big Five personality traits generally were related to hypothesized dimensions of
culture preferences. Results also suggested both objective person-organization fit and subjective
fit (applicant's direct perception of fit) were related to organization attraction.

Kristof, A. L. (1996). Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its

conceptualizations, measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49, 1-49.
Presents a comprehensive definition and conceptual model of person-organization fit that
incorporates supplementary as well as complementary perspectives on fit. To increase the
precision of the construct's definition, it is also distinguished from other forms of environmental
compatibility, such as person-group and person-vocation fit. Measurement as it relates to
supplementary and complementary fit is discussed and recommendations are offered regarding
the necessity of its use. A distinction is made between the direct measurement of perceived fit

71
and the indirect measurement of actual person-organization fit, and the debate regarding
differences scores is reviewed.

Martinez, M. N. (2000). Get job seekers to come to you. HR Magazine, 45, 45-52.
This article discusses ways organizations can use their website to attract top talent. Interactive
self-assessments of job fit are promoted as one effective practice. The author states applicants
are desperate for tools that help them determine their "fit" in an organization and the key is to
give them results.

Physical Ability Tests References:

Arvey, R. D., Maxwell, S. E., & Salas, E. (1992). Development of physical ability tests for
police officers: A construct validation approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 996-
1009.
A construct validation approach was followed and results indicated eight physical ability test
events were significantly related to two important constructs underlying the job performance of
police officers: strength and endurance. In addition, the data were examined for potential gender
differences and bias. Considerable differences were shown between men and women on both
test and performance variables.

Arvey, R. D., Nutting, S. M., & Landon, T. E. (1992). Validation strategies for physical
ability testing in police and fire settings. Public Personnel Management, 21, 301-312.
Discusses two issues within the context of selection and staffing for police and fire fighting
positions: (1) the increasing litigation challenging the validity of physical ability tests in
screening applicants for these positions, and (2) the lack of published literature concerning the
use and validation of physical ability tests in these settings. The authors discuss issues
associated with court challenges of traditional content validity procedures and suggest there may
be an over-reliance on this particular validation strategy. They suggest construct validation
procedures may be an alternative procedure to provide evidence concerning the validity of
physical ability tests within these contexts. Construct validation is described and illustrated via
hypothetical examples.

Campbell, W. J., & Fox, H. R. (2002). Testing individuals with disabilities in the
employment context: An overview of issues and practices. In R. B. Ekstrom & D. K. Smith
(Eds.) Assessing Individuals with Disabilities in Educational, Employment, and Counseling
Settings (1st ed, p. 198). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
This chapter discusses the possible issues that can occur when testing individuals with
disabilities. It noted while the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) permits the use of
physical ability tests, the tests cannot include (or involve) physiological or biological measures.
They also warned of the possibility of applicants hurting themselves while performing a
physical ability test. Depending on the extensiveness of the physical ability test, employers may
request applicants to provide a certificate from their physicians indicating their ability to safely
perform a physical ability test.

72
Campion, M. A. (1983). Personnel selection for physically demanding jobs: Review and
recommendations. Personnel Psychology, 36, 527-550.
Central issue of this paper is improvement in personnel selection systems for physically
demanding jobs is needed due to equal employment opportunity (EEO) considerations, concern
for worker physical well-being, and the lack of alternative procedures. After addressing the
special EEO sensitivities of physical abilities selection, the literature is reviewed from a variety
of disciplines on (1) the physiological background underlying the selection strategies, (2) the
assessment of human physical abilities, (3) the measurement of physical requirements of jobs,
and (4) the physical abilities personnel selection studies reported in the literature.

Hogan, J. (1991). The structure of physical performance in occupational tasks. Journal of

Applied Psychology, 76, 495-507.
Two lines of research concerning the dimensionality of physical performance in occupational
tasks are described. In the first, the physical requirements of tasks are analyzed as reflected in
job analyses. In the second, the structure of physical abilities tests used to predict performance
in physically demanding jobs is evaluated. Results of the data analysis suggest the structure of
physical abilities has three major components: strength, endurance, and movement quality. This
structure appears to be independent of job type or level of incumbents' performance.

Realistic Job Previews References:

McEvoy, G. M., & Cascio, W. F. (1985). Strategies for reducing employee turnover: A
meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(2), 342-353.
In looking at the relative effectiveness of the Realistic Job Preview (RFP) as a turnover-reduction
strategy, this meta-analysis found RJPs are about half as effective as job enrichment strategies in
reducing turnover. However, it should be noted the job enrichment measures included in this
meta-analysis were used with existing workers, whereas the RJPs were used during the
application process. Given the low correlation between RJPs and reduction in turnover, the
authors suggest managers use other turnover reduction strategies prior to hiring.

Pitt, L. F., & Ramaseshan, B. (1995). Realistic job information and salesforce turnover: An
investigative study. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 10(5), 29-36.
Salespeople were asked to provide ratings on the volume, personal relevance, depth, and
accuracy of information they received when they applied for their current jobs. They were also
asked about their intention to quit their current job. The results indicated those applicants
(employees) who felt they received more accurate and realistic job information were
significantly less likely to indicate (or consider) quitting their current jobs.

Saks, A. M, Wiesner, W. H., & Summers, R. (1996). Effects of job previews and
compensation policy on applicant attraction and job choice. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 49, 68-85.
Students were asked to rate the attractiveness of jobs after reviewing a Realistic Job Preview
(RJP) and a Traditional Job Preview (TJP). Jobs with RJPs were rated as more attractive only
when those positions had a higher compensation than the TJP position. Results of this study
indicate many other factors (with compensation being studied here) may contribute to an
applicants decision to accept (or reject) a job when coupled with an RJP.

73
Wanous, J. P. (1989). Installing a realistic job preview: Ten tough choices. Personnel
Psychology, 42(1), 117-133.
The author reviews the ten different choices one must make when constructing a Realistic Job
Preview (RJP). Examples of the choices include whether the content should be descriptive or
judgmental, contain high or medium negativity, or whether the results should be shared or kept
proprietary. For each choice, the author includes the pros and cons of each. The author
concludes the article with personal recommendations for each of the ten choices.

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