CONSUMER BEHAVIOR - CONSUMERISM

Consumerism is the organized form of efforts from different individuals, groups, governments
and various related organizations which helps to protect the consumer from unfair practices and
to safeguard their rights.

The growth of consumerism has led to many organizations improving their services to the
customer.

WHAT IS CONSUMERISM?

Consumer is regarded as the king in modern marketing. In a market economy, the concept of
consumer is given the highest priority, and every effort is made to encourage consumer
satisfaction.

However, there might be instances where consumers are generally ignored and sometimes they
are being exploited as well. Therefore, consumers come together for protecting their individual
interests. It is a peaceful and democratic movement for self-protection against their exploitation.
Consumer movement is also referred as consumerism.

FEATURES OF CONSUMERISM

Highlighted here are some of the notable features of consumerism

 Protection of Rights Consumerism helps in building business communities and
institutions to protect their rights from unfair practices.
Prevention of Malpractices Consumerism prevents unfair practices within the
business community, such as hoarding, adulteration, black marketing, profiteering, etc.
Unity among Consumers Consumerism aims at creating knowledge and harmony
among consumers and to take group measures on issues like consumer laws, supply of
information about marketing malpractices, misleading and restrictive trade practices.
Enforcing Consumer Rights Consumerism aims at applying the four basic rights of
consumers which are Right to Safety, Right to be Informed, Right to Choose, and Right
to Redress.

Advertising and technology are the two driving forces of consumerism

The first driving force of consumerism is advertising. Here, it is connected with the ideas
and thoughts through which the product is made and the consumer buys the product.
Through advertising, we get the necessary information about the product we have to buy.

Technology is upgrading very fast. It is necessary to check the environment on a daily

basis as the environment is dynamic in nature. Product should be manufactured using
new technology to satisfy the consumers. Old and outdated technology wont help
product manufacturers to sustain their business in the long run.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR SIGNIFICANCE

Consumer behavior covers a broad variety of consumers based on diversity in age, sex, culture,
taste, preference, educational level, income level, etc. Consumer behavior can be defined as the
decision process and physical activity engaged in evaluating, acquiring, using or disposing of
goods and services.

With all of the diversity to the surplus of goods and services offered to us, and the freedom of
choices, one may speculate how individual marketers actually reach us with their highly definite
marketing messages. Understanding consumer behavior helps in identifying whom to target, how
to target, when to reach them, and what message is to be given to them to reach the target
audience to buy the product.

The following illustration shows the determinants of consumer behavior.

The study of Consumer Behavior helps in understanding how individuals make decisions to
spend their available resources like time, money, and effort while purchasing goods and services.
It is a subject that explains the basic questions that a normal consumer faces what to buy, why
to buy, when to buy, where to buy from, how often to buy, and how they use it.

Consumer behavior is a complex and multidimensional process that reflects the totality of consumer
decisions with respect to acquisition, consumption, and disposal of goods and services.

DIMENSIONS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Consumer behavior is multidimensional in nature and it is influenced by the following subjects

Psychology is a discipline that deals with the study of mind and behavior. It helps in
understanding individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching
specific cases. Psychology plays a vital role in understanding how consumers behave
while making a purchase.
 Sociology is the study of groups. When individuals form groups, their actions are
sometimes relatively different from the actions of those individuals when they are
operating individually.
Social Psychology is a combination of sociology and psychology. It explains how an
individual operates in a group. Group dynamics play an important role in purchasing
decisions. Opinions of peers, reference groups, their families and opinion leaders
influence individuals in their behavior.
Cultural Anthropology is the study of human beings in society. It explores the
development of central beliefs, values and customs that individuals inherit from their
parents, which influence their purchasing patterns.

Consumer Behavior - Demand Analysis

The DemandCurve

The quantity of a particular good or service that a consumer or group of consumers want to
purchase at a given price is termed as demand. It is the consumers ability or willingness to buy
a specific product.

As shown in the figure, the demand curve is downward sloping which means the consumers
will buy more when the price decreases and the same consumers will buy less when the price
increases.

It is not only price, the demand for a good or a service is also influenced by other factors such
as the price of substitute goods and complementary goods.
Determinants of Demand

The key determinants that affect the demand function are as follows

Income A rise in consumers income will tend to increase the demand curve (shift the
demand curve to the right). A fall will tend to decrease the demand for normal goods.

Consumer Preferences Favorable change leads to an increase in demand, unfavorable

change leads to a decrease in demand.

Number of Buyers More the number of buyers, more will be the demand. Fewer
buyers lead to a decrease in demand.

Substitute Goods (goods that can be used to replace each other) The price of
substitutes and demand for the other good are directly related. Example If the price of
coffee rises, the demand for tea will also rise.

Complementary Goods (goods that can be used together) The prices of

complementary goods and their demand are inversely related. Example if the price of
printer increases, the demand for computer sheets will decrease.

Demand Function

The demand function relates to the price and quantity. It shows how many units of a good will
be purchased at different prices. At higher prices, less quantity will be purchased.

The graphical representation of the demand function has a negative (-ve) slope. The market
demand function is calculated by totaling up all of the individual demand functions.

Demand Function of an Individual

The individual demand function has a functional relationship between individual demand and
the factors affecting individual demand.

It is expressed as

Dx = f (Px, Pr, Y, T, F)

Where,
Dx = Commodity Demand x;

Px = Commodity xs price;

Pr = Related Goods Price;

F = Expectation of Change in Price in future.

Y = Consumers Income;

T = Tastes and Preferences.

Demand Function of Market

The market demand function has a functional relationship between market demand and the
factors affecting market demand.

The market demand function can be expressed as

Dx = f(Px, Pr, Y, T, F, PD, S, D)

Where,

Dx = Market demand of commodity x;

Px = Price of given commodity x;

Pr = Related Goods Price;

Y = Consumers Income;

T = Tastes and Preferences;

F = Expectation of Change in Price in future;

PD = Size and Composition and Size of population;

S = Season and Weather;

D = Income Distribution.
 Buying Decision Process

Consumer Buying Behavior

Consumer buying behavior is the study of an individual or a household that purchases products
for personal consumption. The process of buying behavior is shown in the following figure

Stages of Purchasing Process

A consumer undergoes the following stages before making a purchase decision

Stage 1 Needs / Requirements

It is the first stage of the buying process where the consumer recognizes a problem or a
requirement that needs to be fulfilled. The requirements can be generated either by internal
stimuli or external stimuli. In this stage, the marketer should study and understand the
consumers to find out what kinds of needs arise, what brought them about, and how they led the
consumer towards a particular product.

Stage 2 Information Search

In this stage, the consumer seeks more information. The consumer may have keen attention or
may go into active information search. The consumer can obtain information from any of the
several sources. This include personal sources (family, friends, neighbors, and acquaintances),
industrial sources (advertising, sales people, dealers, packaging), public sources (mass media,
consumer-rating and organization), and experiential sources (handling, examining, using the
product). The relative influence of these information sources varies with the product and the
buyer.

Stage 3 Evaluation of Alternatives

In this stage, the consumer uses information to evaluate alternative brands from different
alternatives. How consumers go about evaluating purchase alternatives depends on the
individual consumer and the specific buying situation. In some cases, consumers use logical
thinking, whereas in other cases, consumers do little or no evaluating; instead they buy on
aspiration and rely on intuition. Sometimes consumers make buying decisions on their own;
sometimes they depend on friends, relatives, consumer guides, or sales persons.

Stage 4 Purchase Decision

In this stage, the consumer actually buys the product. Generally, a consumer will buy the most
favorite brand, but there can be two factors, i.e., purchase intentions and purchase decision. The
first factor is the attitude of others and the second is unforeseen situational factors. The
consumer may form a purchase intention based on factors such as usual income, usual price,
and usual product benefits.

Stage 5 Post-Purchase Behavior

In this stage, the consumers take further steps after purchase based on their satisfaction and
dissatisfaction. The satisfaction and dissatisfaction depend on the relationship between
consumers expectations and the products performance. If a product is short of expectations,
the consumer is disappointed. On the other hand, if it meets their expectations, the consumer
is satisfied. And if it exceeds their expectations, the consumer is delighted.
The larger the gap between the consumers expectations and the products performance, the
greater will be the consumers dissatisfaction. This suggests that the seller should make product
claims that faithfully represent the products performance so that the buyers are satisfied.

Consumer satisfaction is important because the companys sales come from two basic groups,
i.e., new customers and retained customers. It usually costs more to attract new customers
than to retain existing customers and the best way to retain them is to get them satisfied with the
product.

Developing Marketing Concepts

Marketing concepts focus on finding right products for the customers instead of finding right
customers for the products. It is based on four pillars target market, customer requirements,
incorporated market, and profitability. Marketing concepts start with a well-defined market,
focus on customer needs, co-ordinate all the inter-related activities that will affect customers,
and increase the profits by bringing more satisfied customers.

Market concept focuses on achieving organizational goal by creating a company that is more
effective and efficient than competitors by creating, delivering, and communicating customer
value to its selected target markets.

Production Concept

According to production concept, consumers prefer to buy those products that are widely
available and inexpensive. Executives of production-oriented businesses usually concentrate on
achieving high production efficiency, low cost, and mass distribution for effective results.
Consumers are interested more in product availability and low prices. This type of business
orientation is effective in developing countries.

Example Local mobile companies in developing countries provide cell phones at much
cheaper cost than the branded companies and due to this, people in these countries prefer to
purchase cell phones from them.

Product Concept

According to product concept of business, consumers favor those products that provide them
better quality, performance and innovative features. Managers in product-oriented organizations
mainly focus on making superior products and improving them time to time. In product
concept, it is considered that the consumers are aware of the quality of the products and they
have an ability to evaluate good quality and performance.

Selling Concept

According to the selling concept, consumers, if left on their own, will usually not buy enough.
An organization must therefore integrate an aggressive selling and promotional effort to get a
competitive edge in the market. According to this concept, the company constitutes effective
selling and promotion tools in order to encourage more buying.

The purpose of marketing is to sell more things to more people, more regularly, in order to
make more profit.

Customer Concept

According to the customer concept, companies focus on individual customers. They provide
individual offers, services, and establish direct channels of communication with them. These
companies collect information on each customer's past transactions, demographics, media and
supply preferences. They believe in profitable growth by capturing a large share of each
customers expenditure by building high customer loyalty and customer lifetime value.

Consumer Behavior - Marketing Strategies

Marketing strategies and tactics are normally based on explicit and implicit beliefs about
consumer behavior. Decisions based on explicit assumptions and sound theory and research are
more likely to be successful than the decisions based solely on implicit intuition.

Knowledge of consumer behavior can be an important competitive advantage while formulating

marketing strategies. It can greatly reduce the odds of bad decisions and market failures. The
principles of consumer behavior are useful in many areas of marketing, some of which are listed
below

Analyzing Market Opportunity

Consumer behavior helps in identifying the unfulfilled needs and wants of consumers. This
requires scanning the trends and conditions operating in the market area, customers lifestyles,
income levels and growing influences.

Selecting Target Market

The scanning and evaluating of market opportunities helps in identifying different consumer
segments with different and exceptional wants and needs. Identifying these groups, learning
how to make buying decisions enables the marketer to design products or services as per the
requirements.

Example Consumer studies show that many existing and potential shampoo users did not
want to buy shampoo packs priced at Rs 60 or more. They would rather prefer a low price
packet/sachet containing sufficient quantity for one or two washes. This resulted in companies
introducing shampoo sachets at a minimal price which has provided unbelievable returns and
the trick paid off wonderfully well.

Marketing-Mix Decisions

Once the unfulfilled needs and wants are identified, the marketer has to determine the precise
mix of four Ps, i.e., Product, Price, Place, and Promotion.

Product

A marketer needs to design products or services that would satisfy the unsatisfied needs or
wants of consumers. Decisions taken for the product are related to size, shape, and features. The
marketer also has to decide about packaging, important aspects of service, warranties,
conditions, and accessories.

Example Nestle first introduced Maggi noodles in masala and capsicum flavors.
Subsequently, keeping consumer preferences in other regions in mind, the company introduced
Garlic, Sambar, Atta Maggi, Soupy noodles, and other flavours.

Price

The second important component of marketing mix is price. Marketers must decide what price
to be charged for a product or service, to stay competitive in a tough market. These decisions
influence the flow of returns to the company.
Place

The next decision is related to the distribution channel, i.e., where and how to offer the products
and services at the final stage. The following decisions are taken regarding the distribution mix

Are the products to be sold through all the retail outlets or only through the selected
ones?

Should the marketer use only the existing outlets that sell the competing brands? Or,
should they indulge in new elite outlets selling only the marketers brands?

Is the location of the retail outlets important from the customers point of view?

Should the company think of direct marketing and selling?

Promotion

Promotion deals with building a relationship with the consumers through the channels of
marketing communication. Some of the popular promotion techniques include advertising,
personal selling, sales promotion, publicity, and direct marketing and selling.

The marketer has to decide which method would be most suitable to effectively reach the
consumers. Should it be advertising alone or should it be combined with sales promotion
techniques? The company has to know its target consumers, their location, their taste and
preferences, which media do they have access to, lifestyles, etc.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR - MARKET SEGMENTATION

Market segmentation depends on two levels the strategic level and the tactical level. At a
strategic level, it has a direct link with the decisions on positioning. At a tactical level, it relates
with the decision of which consumer groups are to be targeted. We will discuss here the
parameters based on which a market can be segmented.
Geographic Segmentation
Prospective customers are in local, state, regional or national marketplace segment. If a firm is
selling a product such as a farm equipment, the geographic location will remain a major factor in
segmenting the target markets because their customers are located in specific rural areas.

In case of retail stores, geographic location of the store is one of the most important
considerations. Here, urban areas are preferred.

Segmentation of customers based on geographic factors are

Region Segmentation by continent / country / state / district / city.
Size Segmentation on the basis of size of an urban area as per the population size.
Population Density Segmentation on the basis of population density such as urban /
sub-urban / rural etc.

Demographic Segmentation
Market segmentation can be done based on demographic factors such as Age. For example, Rico
watches have segmented their product portfolio according to different age groups of people.
Psychographic Segmentation
Psychographic Segmentation focuses on group customers according to their life-style and
purchasing psychology. Many businesses offer products based on the attitudes, beliefs and
emotions, ideas, and perceptions of the target market. Psychographic segmentation includes
variables such as Activities, Interests, Opinions, Attitudes, and Values.

Behavioralistic Segmentation
Markets can be segmented on the basis of buyer behavior. It is because the buying behavior of
consumers differ based on the geographic, demographic and psychographic factors. Marketers
often find practical benefits in using buying behavior as a separate segmentation basis in addition
to factors like geographic, demographics, and psychographics.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR - MARKET POSITIONING

Market Positioning means selecting a marketing mix that is most suitable for a target market
segment.

The position of a product is the sum of those attributes normally recognized by the consumers
its position, quality, quantity, the type of people, strengths, weaknesses, threats, etc. "A product's
position is how potential consumers see the product", and it is expressed proportional to the
position of the competitors.

Positioning is a podium for the brand. It facilitates the brand to get through the mind of the target
consumer groups. The position of a brand has to be diligently guarded, maintained, and
managed.
Example Watches like Guess are positioned as luxury brands, thus they are quite expensive
and treated as a status symbol. If Guess reduces its prices, it loses its real image and potential
customers.

Consumer Behavior - Problem Recognition

Business managers need to be skilled, have expertise in problem recognition and solution
techniques to be the greatest help in guiding their company towards greater success.
In problem recognition, the consumer recognizes a problem or need or want. The buyer
recognizes a difference between his or her actual state and some desired state.

The need can be generated by internal stimuli when one of the persons normal needs hunger,
thirst, sex, etc. rises to a high level sufficient to become a drive. A need can also be generated by
external stimuli.

At this stage, the marketer should evaluate the consumers perspective by considering the basic
questions like

What kinds of needs or problems or efforts arise?

What brought them about and

How it led the consumer towards the particular product.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
American Psychologist Abraham Harold Maslow believes that, needs are arranged in a
hierarchy form. Only after a human has achieved the needs at a certain stage, does he move to
the next one. The pyramid diagram showing the Maslow needs hierarchy.
According to Maslow's theory, when a human being goes up the levels of the hierarchy has
fulfilled the needs and wants in the hierarchy, one may ultimately achieve self-actualization.
Maslow in the end concluded that, self-actualization was not a regular outcome of satisfying the
other human needs. Human needs as identified by Maslow are as follow

At the bottom of the hierarchy level are the "Basic needs or Physiological needs" of a
human being food, water, shelter, sleep, sex etc.

The next level is "Safety Needs Security, Order, safety and Stability". These two steps
are important for the physical survival of the person.

The third level of need is "Love and Belonging", which are psychological needs; when
individuals have taken care of themselves physically, they are ready to share themselves
with others, such as with family, friends and relatives.

The fourth level is achieved when individuals feel comfortable with what they have
achieved. This is the "Esteem" level, the need to be capable and recognized, such as
position, status and level of success.

The fifth level is the "Cognitive" or the "self-actualization" level, where individuals
intellectually stimulate themselves and explore for their growth.
Finally, there is the "Aesthetic" level, which is the need for harmony, unity, order and beauty.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR - RESEARCH PARADIGM

Research signifies the practice of gathering new or existing information to enhance ones
knowledge. Consumer Research is a form of applied sociology that is concerned with
understanding the behaviors of consumers in a market based economy.
Usually what we notice is that, consumers generally hesitate to reveal the basic reason behind
purchasing a particular product. Here, researchers use two different types of research
methodologies to study consumer behaviors
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
According to the traditional business paradigms, researchers thought that consumers are logical
and they act rationally to take calculative decisions and maximize their benefits. They thought
consumers purchase the most beneficial product at the lowest possible cost.

Researchers have recently realized that, consumers are not always rational and are not always
aware of the decisions they make.

In 1939, a Viennese Psychologist Ernest Dichter used Freudian Psychoanalytic techniques to

uncover the hidden motives of consumers. It is a dynamic theory of personality of human beings
that arrives from unconscious drives and wishes.

By late 1950's most consumer researchers adopted Ernest Dichter's technique, which was called
"Motivational Research" essentially a qualitative approach.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is the application of quantitative research techniques while carrying out the
research process. This method is used to predict the consumer behavior and is descriptive in
nature.

It consists of experiments, survey techniques, and observation. It typically involves the

construction of questionnaires and scales. Respondents are asked to complete the survey.

Marketers use the obtained information to understand the needs of individuals in the
marketplace, and to create strategies and marketing plans.

To analyze data and draw conclusions, both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques can
be used. It may include hypotheses, or random sampling techniques to enable inference from the
sample to the population.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research involves an in-depth understanding of consumer behavior and the reasons
that govern that behavior. Qualitative research largely relies on the reasons behind various
aspects of behavior.

The methods include techniques such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, metaphor analysis,
and projective techniques. In this method, the sample sizes are small, so it cant be generalized to
the larger population. This method investigates the why and how of decision-making, as
compared to what, where and when of quantitative research.

As quantitative research depends exclusively on the analysis of numerical or quantifiable data,

qualitative research comes in many mediums, including text, sound, still images, and moving
images.
In this method, responses are verbal and not in numbers and the respondent is asked to rate the
answer in his own words. This approach allows the researcher to discover the consumption
motives, attitudes, opinions, perceptions, preferences, experiences, actions, etc. of the
consumers.
By combining both the research methodologies, the marketers can design more effective
marketing strategies to discover and predict consumer reactions based on historical data of
promotional campaigns.

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR - RESEARCH PROCESS

Consumer research plays a very important aspect, especially when a company decides to launch
a new product into the market. Companies conduct market research to better understand the
consumers, their needs and their satisfaction level.
After conducting various surveys and focus groups, companies analyze the consumer data and
then make recommendations based on the results.
The following illustration explains the consumer research process

Developing Research Objectives

The first step in the consumer research process is developing the research objectives which
involves defining the purposes and objectives to ensure an appropriate design. A statement of
objective helps to define the type and level of information needed.

Collect Secondary Data

There are two distinct sources of secondary data internal and external. Always seek internal
sources first. Most go straight to Google without considering the fact that data might exist within
the organization itself. This can sometimes be in the heads of the personnel.
External Sources
External sources are numerous. Consumer Generated Media (CGM), especially, has grown in
importance as a data source. The key is to avoid spending too much time following blind
alleys. This is where the time and cost can escalate sharply.
 Directories
Country information
Published marketing research reports
News sources
CGM (Newsgroups, blogs, groups)
Internet single search engines, and multiple search engines
Primary Research
Primary research is basically the original research. Here you yourself collect the information
through various tools available. In primary research, you dont tend to depend on any third
parties. You may conduct interviews or surveys, observe, or even directly go to the object for
collecting information.
Quantitative Research
A quantitative research study is comprised of research design, the data collection methods,
instruments to be used, and the sample design.
Following are the three basic designs or approaches used for quantitative design
Observational Research in this method of observational research, the people or customers are
observed effectively when they purchase a particular product. It helps the researcher to gain in-
depth understanding of the relationship between the people and products by observing them
while purchasing and using the product.
Experimentation Experimentation is a type of research where only certain variables are
manipulated while others are kept constant in order to encourage the change in the constant
variable
Surveys A survey is a method of research in which an interviewer interacts with respondents to
obtain facts, opinions and attitudes.
Following are the various survey methods which are generally used
Personal interview survey
Telephone survey
Mail surveys
Online surveys
Quantitative research data collection instruments

Data Collection Instruments for Quantitative Research Data

Questionnaire and Attitude Scale For quantitative research the primary data collection
instrument is a questionnaire and the most frequent one is attitude scale which is used to capture
evaluative data.

Following are the important methods of data collection in the qualitative design techniques
which are used in the initial stages of research.
In-Depth Interview Depth interview is conducted in length and in a non-structured
manner where the interviewer is highly trained and minimizes his own participation in
the discussion once the general subject is discussed.
Focus Group Focus group involves many respondents who interact with the analyst in
a group discussion and focuses on a particular product.

Projective Techniques
Projective techniques are best used to understand the motives of people when they are
unconsciously rational.
The analyst generally analyzes and reports his findings based on the responses received in
qualitative research whereas in quantitative analysis, the researchers oversees the complete
research, analyses the open ended questions, classifies the responses and systematically tabulate
them.

Consumer Behavior - Decision Making

n understanding of consumer behavior is necessary for the long-term success and survival of a
firm. Consumer decision making is viewed as the edifice of the marketing concept, an important
orientation in marketing management.

The marketer should be able to determine needs and wants of the target segment and provide
product and service offerings more effectively and efficiently than competitors.

Types of Consumer Decision Making

The following are the types of decision making methods which can be used to analyze
consumer behavior

Extensive Problem Solving

In extensive decision making, the consumers have no established or set criteria for evaluating a
product in a particular category. Here the consumers have not narrowed the number of brands
from which they would like to consider and so their decision making efforts can be classified as
extensive problem solving. In this particular set of problem solving phase, the consumer needs a
lot of information to set a criteria on the basis of specific brands could be judged.
Limited Problem Solving

In limited problem solving, the consumers have already set the basic criteria or standard for
evaluating the products. However, they have not fully set the established preferences and they
search for additional information to discriminate among other products or brands.

Routinized Response Behavior

Here, in routinized response behavior, consumers have experience with the product and they
have set the criteria for which they tend to evaluate the brands they are considering. In some
situations, they may want to collect a small amount of additional information, while in others
they may simply review what they are aware about. In extensive problem solving, consumer
seeks for more information to make a choice, in limited problem solving consumers have the
basic idea or the criteria set for evaluation, whereas in routinized response behavior consumers
need only little additional information.

Views of Consumer Decision Making

An Economic View

Consumers have generally been assumed to make rational decisions. The economic view of
consumer decision making is being criticized by researchers because a consumer is assumed to
posses the following traits to behave rationally

Firstly, they need to be aware of all the alternatives present in the market

Secondly, they must be able to efficiently rank the products as per their benefits.

Lastly, they must also know the best alternative that suits them as per their requirements.

In the world of perfect competition, consumers rarely have all the information to make the so
called perfect decision.

A Passive View

Passive view is totally opposite to the economic view. Here, it is assumed that consumers are
impulsive and irrational while making a purchase. The main limitation of this view is that
consumers also seek information about the alternatives available and make rational or wise
decisions and purchase the products or services that provides the greatest satisfaction.

A Cognitive View

The cognitive model helps individuals to focus on the processes through which they can get
information about selected brands. In the framework of cognitive view, the consumer very
actively searches for such products or services that can fulfill all their requirements.

An Emotional View

Consumers are associated with deep feelings or emotions such as, fear, love, hope etc. These
emotions are likely to be highly involving.

Pre-Purchase & Post-Purchase Behavior

Consumer decision making involves a continuous flow of interactions between environmental

factors and behavioral actions.

The process of consumer decision making involves pre-purchase information and post-purchase
outcomes.

Pre-Purchase Behavior
When a consumer realizes the needs, he goes for an information search. He does the same, so
that he can make the right decision. He gathers the information about the following

Product Brands

Products Variations

Product Quality

Product Alternatives.

The consumer can gather information about a product depending on his age, gender, education
and products price, risk and acceptance.

Types of Search Activities

The information search activity can be classified into various types such as the following

Specific

Specific kind of activities are directly related to the problem. These kinds of requirements need
immediate assistance.

Ongoing

Consumers go on with their research for a particular period of time if they decide or if they want
to buy a particular product. Ongoing activities basically show the work in progress.

Incidental

Now, anything that we observe incidentally or just accidentally or naturally comes under
incidental research. Such information can be observed in our daily routine lives.

Following are the information sources available

The information sources are of two types which are listed under

Internal Sources Internal sources includes the consumer himself. Here he himself
recalls the information that is stored in his memory and uses his experiences.
 External Sources External sources of information include all sorts of interpersonal
communication with the external environment such as friends, family, marketing people,
through advertisements, etc.

Post-Purchase Behavior

All the activities and experiences that follow purchase are included in the post purchase
behavior. Usually, after making a purchase, consumers experience post-purchase dissonance.
They sometimes regret their decisions made. It mainly occurs due to a large number of
alternatives available, good performance of alternatives or attractiveness of alternatives, etc.

The marketers sometimes need to assure the consumer that the choice made by them is the right
one. The seller can mention or even highlight the important features or attributes and benefits of
the product to address and solve their concerns if any.

A high level of post-purchase dissonance is negatively related to the level of satisfaction which
the consumer draws out of product usage. To reduce post-purchase dissonance, consumers may
sometimes even return or exchange the product.

Consumer Behavior - Motivation

Needs are the core of the marketing concept. The study of Motivation refers to all the processes
that drives in a person to perceive a need and pursue a definite course of action to fulfill that
need.
What are Needs Every individual has needs that are required to be fulfilled. Primary needs
are food, clothing, shelter and secondary needs are society, culture etc.

What are Wants Needs are the necessities, but wants are something more in addition to the
needs. For example, food is a need and type of food is our want.

What are Goals Goals are the objectives that have to be fulfilled. Goals are generic and
product specific in nature. Generic goals are general in nature, whereas product specific goals
are the desires of a specific nature.

Needs and fulfillment are the basis of motivation. Change takes place due to both internal as
well as external factors. Sometimes needs are satisfied and sometimes they are not due to
individuals personal, social, cultural or financial needs.

Theories of Motivation

Maslows Theory of Need Hierarchy

Based on the notion of a universal hierarchy of human needs Dr Abraham Maslow, a clinical
psychologist formulated a widely accepted theory of human motivation. This identifies five
basic levels of human need which rank in order of importance from lower level needs to higher
level needs.
This theory signifies the importance of satisfying the lower level needs before higher level
needs arise. According to this theory, dissatisfaction motivates the consumer.

Following are the levels of human needs

Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory

Physiological Needs Food, clothing, air, and shelter are the first level needs. They are
known as the basic necessities or primary needs.

Safety or Security Needs Once the first level needs are satisfied, consumers move to
the next level. Physical safety, security, stability and protection are the security needs.

Social Needs After the safety needs are satisfied, consumers expect friendship,
belonging, attachment. They need to maintain themselves in a society and try to be
accepted.

Esteem Needs Then comes esteem needs such as self-esteem, status, prestige.
Individuals here in this stage want to rise above the general level as compared to others
to achieve mental satisfaction.

Self-Actualization This is the highest stage of the hierarchy. People here, try to excel
in their field and improve their level of achievement. They are known as self-actualizers.

Motivational Theory and Marketing Strategies

Marketers have to understand the motives of their potential customers to enjoy good sales. A
buyer has several motives and each change with various elements. In such cases the marketers
can readily help their customers by changing their marketing strategy so that the conflict is
resolved. Following are the major conflicts that may arise

Approach Conflict This conflict arises when a consumer has two different choices of
similar products or services. He gives equal importance to them, but is unable to choose
one over the other.

Approach Avoidance Conflict This type of conflict happens when the consumer
decides in favor of a product, but is unhappy with a particular feature of the product and
wants to avoid it. Under such circumstances, the marketer may come up with few
modifications in the existing product and make it suitable for the consumer.

Personality & Self Concept

Personality

To understand a buyer needs and convert them into customers is the main purpose of the
consumer behavior study. To understand the buyer habits and his priorities, it is required to
understand and know the personality of the buyer.

Personality signifies the inner psychological characteristics that reflect how a person reacts to
his environment. Personality shows the individual choices for various products and brands. It
helps the marketers in deciding when and how to promote the product. Personality can be
categorized on the basis of individual traits, likes, dislikes etc.

Though personality is static, it can change due to major events such as death, birth or marriage
and can also change gradually with time. By connecting with the personality characteristics of
an individual, a marketer can conveniently formulate marketing strategies.

We will discuss in this chapter the various theories of personality.

Trait Theory

Traits are the features of an individual or tendency of an individual in a particular manner. Traits
help in defining the behavior of consumers. According to the Trait theorists, an individuals
personality make-up stems out of the traits that he possesses, and the identification of traits is
important.

Following are the few of the most common traits

Outgoing

Sad

Stable

Serious

Happy go lucky

Relaxed

Self assured

Practical

Imaginative

Trait theory is representative of multi-personality theories. Trait theory is based on certain

assumptions, such as traits which are certainly stable in nature and a limited number of traits are
common to most of the people.

According to the Trait theorists, an individuals personality make-up stems out of the traits that
he possesses, and the identification of traits is important. The trait theories can be of two broad
categories, viz., Simple trait theories and general trait theories.

Simple Trait Theories

In simple trait theories, a limited number of traits are identified, and people are categorized and
classified on the basis of these traits.

General Trait Theories

In general trait theories, a large variety of traits are identified.

The Psychoanalytic Theory of Freud

Sigmund Freud, the father of psychology, became famous with his psychoanalytic theory of
personality. In fact, the theory is regarded as the cornerstone of modern psychology. Sigmund
based his theory on certain assumptions which is as follows

Unconscious needs or drives lie at the heart of human motivation and personality.

The socialization process that takes place within people in a social set up has a huge impact on
individual behavior. Freud explained much of how the psyche or the mind operates, and
proposed that, human psyche is composed of parts within our awareness and beyond our
awareness.

He said that all behavior within an individual cannot be explained, much lies in the
subconscious.

Id According to Freuds psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id operates based on

the pleasure principle, which stresses on immediate fulfillment of needs. The id is the
personality component made up of unconscious psychic energy which satisfies basic
urges, needs, and desires.

Ego Ego is that state of awareness which thinks of you as separate from the other. It
always thinks of the glories of the past and hopes of the future and focuses on guiltiness.
It always thinks of what was and what could be.

Super Ego The superego provides guidelines for making judgments. It is the aspect of
personality that holds all our moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both
parents and society.

Neo-Freudian Theory

There were a group of psychologists who believed that social interaction and resultant
relationships formed the basis for the growth and development of personality. Here, they
disagreed with their contemporary, Freud, who believed that personality was

Biological and rooted in genetics, and

 Was groomed as a result of early childhood experiences. This group of researchers who
laid emphasis on the process of socialization came to be known as the Neo. To form a
personality, social relationships are very important.

Based on this, consumers are classified into three personality types

Complaint Personalities They prefer love and affection and so they move towards
them and so they prefer known brands.

Aggressive Personalities They tend to move against others and they show off their
need for power, success etc which is quite manipulative.

Detached Personalities They are not much aware of brands and are more self reliant
and independent.

Marketers also tend to use Neo-Freudian theories while segmenting markets and positioning
their products.

Self Concept

Self concept is defined as the way, in which we think, our preferences, our beliefs, our attitudes,
our opinions arranged in a systematic manner and also how we should behave and react in
various roles of life. Self concept is a complex subject as we know the understanding of
someones psychology, traits, abilities sometimes are really difficult. Consumers buy and use
products and services and patronize retailers whose personalities or images relate in some way
or other to their own self-images

Traditionally, individuals are considered to be having a single self-image which they normally
exhibit. Such type of consumers are interested in those products and services which match or
satisfy these single selves. However, as the world became more and more complex, it has
become more appropriate to think of consumers as having multiple selves.

What is Self-Concept?

The below are some of the major aspects of Self-concept

Self-Concept is Organized

We all have various views about ourselves. We all may think we are kind, calm, patient, selfish,
rude and what not. It doesnt matter what perception you have about yourself, but the one
perception that facilitates all these insights is organized self concept. When a person believes in
something that matches his self concept he sticks to his view and does not agree to change the
same and even if does, it takes a lot of time.

Self Concept is Learned

It is believed that self concept is learned and no person is born with a self concept. It develops
as and when we grow old. Our self concept is built when we meet people socially and interact
with them. We are the ones who shape or alter our self concept and its quite natural that we may
have a self concept different for ourselves as compared to what people think about us.

For example If an individual thinks, he is very generous and helpful, it may not necessarily
be the case with others. Others may see him as a selfish person.

Self Concept is Dynamic

Our self concept in life is not constant and it may change with instances that take place in our
lives. When we face different situations and new challenges in life, our insight towards things
may change. We see and behave according to the things and situations.

Thus, it is observed that self concept is a continuous development where we let go things that
dont match our self concept and hold on those things that we think are helpful in building our
favorable perception.

Self concept is the composite of ideas, feelings, emotions and attitudes that a person has about
their identity and capabilities.

Consumer Behavior - Attention & Perception

Perception

Our human brain attempts to make sense out of the stimuli to which we are exposed and our
perception is an approximation of reality.
Perception Influencers

The following are the factors/theories, which can influence our perception

Exposure

Exposure is the extent to which it encounters stimulus. Exposure is not enough to significantly
impact the individual.

For example, in our daily life, we come across a number of hoardings, advertisements, banners
etc. However, we dont pay much attention to them or tend to seek it out, but, if we want to
purchase something, say, a motorbike, we may deliberately take effort and seek out such
advertisements. Attention is a matter of degree. Our attention may be quite high when we read
the directions mentioned on a road map and quite low when a commercial comes on the T.V.

Webers Law

Webers law gives a theory concerning the perceived differences between similar stimuli of
varying intensities. The stronger is the initial stimulus, the greater is the additional intensity
needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different.

For example, If there is a one and half inch reduction in the size of a five inch candy bar, it
wont get noticed a bit but if the two inch long chewing gum gets reduced, then it would be
noticed.

Subliminal Stimuli

Subliminal Stimuli represent the words or pictures so as to be unidentifiable to the viewer's

conscious perception.

Images may be flashed before the eye too quickly for the conscious mind to apprehend. For
example, in 1957 in a drive-in theater in New Jersey, messages such as "Drink Coke" and "Eat
Popcorn" were flashed on the screen and sales of these refreshments increased considerably as a
result.

Elements of Perception
Sensation

Sensation is the immediate and direct response of the sensory organs to stimuli. A stimulus may
be any unit of input to any of these senses.

Examples of stimuli include products, packages, brand names, advertisements and commercials.
Sensory receptors are the human organs that receive sensory inputs. Their sensory functions are
to see, hear, smell, taste and feel. All of these functions are called into play, either singly or in
combinations, in the evaluation and use of most consumer products.

The Absolute Threshold

The lowest level at which an individual can experience a sensation is called the absolute
threshold. The point at which a person can detect a difference between something and
nothing is that persons absolute threshold for that stimulus.

The Differential Threshold

The minimal difference that can be detected between two similar stimuli is called the
differential threshold or the just noticeable difference.

Subliminal Perception

People are motivated below their level of conscious awareness. People are also stimulated
below their level of conscious awareness; that is, they can perceive stimuli without being
consciously aware that they are doing so. Stimuli that are too weak or too brief to be
consciously seen or heard may nevertheless be strong enough to be perceived by one or more
receptor cells. This process is called subliminal perception because the stimulus is beneath the
threshold, or limen of conscious awareness, though obviously not beneath the absolute
threshold of the receptors involved.

Attention

Attention always precedes perception. Attention is the central process and perception is not at
all possible without attention. The process of attention serves the various functions in the
organization of our perception and other cognitive functions.

Functions of Attention
The following are some of the key functions relating to Attention, which are listed below

Alerting Function

Attention here refers to a state of focused awareness with the readiness to respond. Distraction
in such a case occurs with some interference which prevents the individual to continue with the
task.

For example, when a teacher in a class asks the student to pay attention, it means the student can
create such conditions where he prepares himself to be alert.

Selective Function

The most important function of attention is selectivity. The selective function acts as a filter that
allows information in and the unwanted information out. Here, the attention is focused on
stimulus of ongoing interest, others being ignored.

For example, when you are in a tea party organized by your friend, you take a plate of snacks
and cup of tea and stand chatting in your group of friends. While you are chatting, if you
suddenly hear your name from some other group, your attention is diverted and you might start
paying attention towards the group where you heard your name. This example shows that we
can selectively attend to one task at a time and the ongoing task in this case is ignored.

Limited Capacity Channel

It has been observed that we have quite limited capacity to process information that is available
in the outside world. It means, we can process one task at a time. The task that requires multi-
tasking cannot be carried out simultaneously because we have limited capacity to process the
information.

For example, it is difficult to study or learn something from your book while you are listening to
music. It is difficult as the task requires a lot of attention, so it is difficult to perform both
simultaneously unless one task is highly practiced and done in routine to carry out these
functions.
Vigilance Function

Maintaining attention on a continuous task for a long time leads to vigilance. It has been
observed that, attending to a task for long, particularly if the task is monotonous leads to poor
performance.

For example When you go on writing the same thing for 700 times, you tend to make
mistakes after some time and this is because of central fatigue occurring due to monotonous
task.

Thus, attentional processes serves the tuner function in filtering information selected for further
processing that finally leads to perception.

Consumer Behavior - Learning

According to Kotlers Definition, learning involves changes in an individuals behavior arising

out of the experience. Most of the human behavior is learned over time, out of the experience.

Following are the features of consumer learning

Consumer learning is a process. A process which continually changes and acquires new
knowledge.

This knowledge can be obtained from reading, discussing, observing, thinking, etc.

Newly acquired knowledge or personal experience, both serve as feedback.

Elements of Consumer Learning

Motivation is the driving force of all important things to be learnt. Motives allow individuals to
increase their readiness to respond to learning. It also helps in activating the energy to do so.
Thus the degree of involvement usually determines the motivation to search information about a
product.

For example, showing advertisements for summer products just before summer season or for
winter clothes before winters.
Motives encourage learning and cues stimulate the direction to these motives. Cues are not
strong as motives, but their influence in which the consumer responds to these motives.

For example, in a market, the styling, packaging, the store display, prices all serve as cues to
help consumers to decide on a particular product, but this can happen only if the consumer has
the motive to buy. Thus, marketers need to be careful while providing cues, especially to
consumers who have expectations driven by motives.

Response signifies how a consumer reacts to the motives or even cues. The response can be
shown or hidden, but in either of the cases learning takes place. Often marketers may not
succeed in stimulating a purchase but the learning takes place over a period of time and then
they may succeed in forming a particular image of the brand or product in the consumers mind.

Reinforcement is very important as it increases the probability of a particular response in the

future driven by motives and cues.

Consumer Behavioral Learning Theories

There are various theories which are developed to explain the learning theories. The below are
the major theories related to consumer behavior.

Classical Conditioning theory refers to learning through repetition. This is referred to as a

spontaneous response to particular situation achieved by repetitive exposure. It is such a kind of
a behavioral theory which says, when a stimulus is connected to or paired with another
stimulus, it serves to produce the same response even when used alone.

For example, if you usually listen news at 9 pm and have dinner too at 9 pm while watching the
news then eventually the sound of news at 9pm may make you hungry even though you are not
actually hungry or even if the dinner is not ready.

Instrumental Theory is developed by B F SKINNER, an American psychologist, he was the first

to develop this model of learning. Instrumental theory suggests that human beings learn by trial
and error method and then find out a particular stimulus that can yield best results. Then, this is
subsequently formed as a habit

This theory is very important and applies to many common situations in the context of
consumer behavior. It suggests that consumers learn by means of trial-and-error method in
which some purchase behaviors result in a more favorable outcome.
 Consumer Behavior - Attitude
Consumer attitude may be defined as a feeling of favorableness or unfavorableness that an
individual has towards an object. As we, all know that an individual with a positive attitude is
more likely to buy a product and this results in the possibility of liking or disliking a product.

Consumer attitude basically comprises of beliefs towards, feelings towards and behavioral
intentions towards some objects.

Belief plays a vital role for consumers because, it can be either positive or negative towards an
object. For example, some may say tea is good and relieves tension, others may say too much of
tea is not good for health. Human beliefs are not accurate and can change according to
situations.

Consumers have certain specific feelings towards some products or brands. Sometimes these
feelings are based on certain beliefs and sometimes they are not. For example, an individual
feels uneasy when he thinks about cheese burst pizza, because of the tremendous amount of
cheese or fat it has.

Behavioral intentions show the plans of consumers with respect to the products. This is
sometimes a logical result of beliefs or feelings, but not always. For example, an individual
personally might not like a restaurant, but may visit it because it is the hangout place for his
friends.

Functions of Attitudes
The following are the functions of attitudes

Adjustment Function Attitudes helps people to adjust to different situations and

circumstances.
 Ego Defensive Function Attitudes are formed to protect the ego. We all are bothered
about our self-esteem and image so the product boosting our ego is the target of such a
kind of attitude.

Value Expression Function Attitudes usually represent the values the individual
posses. We gain values, though our upbringing and training. Our value system
encourages or discourages us to buy certain products. For example, our value system
allows or disallows us to purchase products such as cigarettes, alcohol, drugs, etc.

Knowledge Function Individuals continuously seeks knowledge and information.

When an individual gets information about a particular product, he creates and modifies
his attitude towards that product.

Models of Attitude
The following are the models of attitude

Tri-component Model According to tri-component model, attitude consists of the

following three components.

Cognitive Component The first component is cognitive component. It consists of an

individuals knowledge or perception towards few products or services through personal
experience or related information from various sources. This knowledge, usually results
in beliefs, which a consumer has, and specific behavior.

Affective Component The second part is the affective component. This consists of a
persons feelings, sentiments, and emotions for a particular brand or product. They treat
them as the primary criteria for the purpose of evaluation. The state of mind also plays a
major role, like the sadness, happiness, anger, or stress, which also affects the attitude of
a consumer.

Conative Component The last component is conative component, which consists of a

persons intention or likelihood towards a particular product. It usually means the actual
behavior of the person or his intention.

Influence of Culture & Social Class

An individual has his own choice and mindset. Consumer buying behavior eventually refers to
the buying behavior of an individual. An individual can get affected by the environment in
which he lives, his culture, his social class, his psychology and his personality. Now, marketers
need to understand this psychology and the mindset of these consumers, also, understand what
all factors influence their behavior to develop effective marketing strategies.

Culture

Culture is a very important aspect to understand the behavior of a consumer. It signifies the set
of values of a particular community.

An individual decides to behave in a certain manner because of his culture. He gets all these
values from his parents and family. Every individual has different sets of values as compared to
others, what they see from their childhood when they start practicing those habits, they become
their culture.

Culture does vary from individual to individual, region to region, and country to country, so the
marketer needs to pay a lot of attention in analyzing the culture of various regions and groups.
Throughout the process, the consumer is under influence of his culture as his friends, family,
society, and his prestige influence him.

For a marketer, it is very crucial to take all these things into consideration while analyzing or
observing a consumers behavior as they play a vital role in his behavior, perception and
expectations.

For example, if we observe the taste and preferences, people in southern India prefers rice to
roti whereas north Indian people prefer roti than rice.

Social Classes

The social groups or membership groups to which an individual belongs are the social classes
that influence him. In the social classes, we usually find people with similar values, lifestyle and
behavior. Now a marketer or a researcher needs to pay attention here because generally the
buying behavior of people in a particular social class to some extent is similar, though the level
of influence may be low or high, he can tailor his marketing activities according to different
social classes. Social perception is a very important attribute that influences the buying behavior
of an individual.
Example A person from a low-income group may focus on price while making the purchase
while a person from a higher income group may consider the quality and uniqueness of the
product.

Sometimes an individual also is influenced by a social group to which he does not belong, but
wishes to get connected with others. For example, in a college a student is in no need to buy a
smart phone but purchases it to be part of that group and be accepted by them.

Marketers need to understand these situations well and plan their strategies accordingly for such
social benefits. Individuals play various roles in the consumer buying process

Initiator Initiator is usually the person who comes up with an idea and suggests the
purchase.

Influencer He is the individual who actually pushes for the purchase. He highlights
the benefits of the product. This individual can be from the family or friend or outside
the group too.

Decision Maker He is generally the person who takes the final decision or the final
call after analyzing all the pros and cons of the product. He may not necessarily be the
final buyer as may also take the decision on behalf of the consumer.

For example, a father might decide on buying a laptop for his son or a brother might
decide on the best career option for his sister.

Buyer Buyer is generally the end user or the final consumer who uses the product.

Family

As we, all know family plays a very important role in making a purchase. The family is
responsible for shaping up the personality of an individual. Our attitude, perception and values
are inculcated through our family.

An individual tends to have similar buying habits and similar taste and preference and
consumption patterns as he gets to see within the family. Perception and family values have
strong influence on the buying behavior of an individual which they tend to keep constant.

Social Status
A social status of an individual usually comprises of an individuals attitude, class and prestige.
It depends on the way he carries himself socially or the position at which he is in his work or
family or even in his group of friends. The social status of an individual influences his
consumption pattern.

Example A CEO may want to have a celebration and give a party to his colleagues, friends
and family, so for his social status he may want to book a five star hotel, something like Taj or
Oberoi instead of any other normal hotel.

A purchase decision takes place because of the above-mentioned factors. A consumer is

influenced by his culture, environment, family, social status and groups. Companies need to
understand these factors and develop strategies and market themselves accordingly to meet the
needs of the consumers and increase sales.

Relationship Marketing

Relationship Marketing is very much beneficial while seeking to establish a long-term

relationship with the customers. The idea behind relationship marketing is to retain regular or
old customers. Acquiring new customers is quite difficult as compared to retaining existing
customers.

In relationship marketing, the focus is on retaining customers for longer runs. For this purpose,
the marketer pays more attention on providing orientation of the benefits for taking those
products.

He tends to give quick and efficient customer service to satisfy the consumer and to make it a
point that the consumer comes back. Here, in this stage, it fulfills all the promises or the
commitments regarding the after service or anything related to the product made to the
customers.

The main point here is that, the quality in which the marketer pays the utmost attention. To
retain the customers for a long run the marketer should give the customers the desired quality
with all the required features and characteristics and of course, the marketer should be readily
available for the customers to provide effective service or products.

Factors affecting Business and Relationship Marketing

As we, all know consumer needs tend to change gradually with time. The likes, dislikes, tastes
and preferences of consumers change with time. For example, a girl who liked a dress when she
was 15 might not like the same dress when she is 25.

Marketers too need to study the market and acquaint these changing factors to survive in the
market and retain customers.

Fewer Suppliers and Customers Marketers need to alter their marketing strategies according
to various markets.

In a consumer market, there are many suppliers and consumers, so the marketer needs to work
accordingly to motivate the consumer and retain him. Whereas in a business market, the
competition is even tougher, where there are limited or fewer customers and suppliers. Here the
buyers may not always be the end users as they are focused and know about their wants and
needs. In such kind of markets, it is very difficult to change the opinions of the consumers.

Personal contact between the buyers and sellers is quite possible in a B2B market. Here, the
buyer is not always the consumer, and he might come in contact with the seller directly for his
whole-sale or retail business. Whereas, in case of B2C market, the consumers may or may not
have any personal contact with the seller, since now-a-days consumers prefer buying products
online or even from a self-service store.

Possibilities for Mutual Benefit

In B2B markets, usually the buyers and sellers have personal contact so that they have some
mutual benefit which is not possible in case of B2C markets where the buyers and sellers hardly
meet or have any personal contact.

All the above-mentioned factors affect the marketing relationship of consumers and sellers.
Marketing planning is the crucial part of marketing relationship. Marketers very carefully need
to plan their marketing strategies regarding launching a new product in the market, developing a
new product, managing and deciding about the lifecycle of a product.

Marketers need to act in a consumer centric manner where they need to understand what a
consumer exactly needs. He needs to explain all the features and highlight all the main or most
beneficial ones to the consumers, he needs to decide on the price of the products, the region or
the markets or the distributors who are very important while marketing a product. He needs to
understand the sentiments of the consumers before marketing or advertising a product.

Thus marketing strategies should always be consumer centric. The strategies should not focus
on profit but more on consumer satisfaction. As it is well said Consumer is the king, marketers
should not try to influence consumers but should themselves be influenced by them. Thus
understanding consumer behavior and then planning strategies accordingly can lead to a long
marketing relationship with the consumers.

Haldirams Strategy to Build a Brand in South

Haldiram's, a household name in ready-to-eat snack foods in India, offered a wide range of
products to its customers. The product range included namkeens (savories), sweets, sharbats,
bakery items, dairy products, papads, and ice-creams. Namkeens remained the main focus area
for the group.

By specializing in the manufacture of namkeens, the company created a niche market.

Haldiram's sought to customize its products to suit the tastes and preferences of customers from
different parts of India. For example, it launched 'Murukku,' a South Indian snack, and 'Chennai
Mixture' for south Indian customers

Consumer Behavior - Reference Groups

In our daily lives, we all get influenced by a variety of people while making our purchase
decisions. We, as humans do a lot to try to impress others. We make purchase to get
compliments and try that others should not think less of us.

A reference group is the group whose perspective we consider. Now our reference could be very
large or very small including few of our family members or few close friends. Reference groups
influence people a lot in their buying decisions. They set the levels of lifestyle, purchasing
patterns, etc.

Reference groups are of two types

Primary Groups

Secondary Groups
Primary Groups
Primary reference groups are basically the set of people whom you meet every day. They can be
from your family, your close friends, your roommates, etc.

These people from primary groups may have a direct and strong impact in your lives and your
buying decisions since they are very significant to you. Primary groups make you comfortable
and give you a feeling that they are with you when you are confused about a purchase. These
people give you very honest and clear advices as they are so close to you, due to which you
could be more confident about the purchase. Research shows that the bond between people
leads people to be effectively social and as satisfied consumers.

Secondary Groups
Secondary reference groups are usually formal and they speak less frequently. They might be
professionals, your collogues, your seniors at work or your acquaintance at club, etc.

In secondary reference groups the power to influence people is quite less as compared to
primary reference groups as people in these groups are not that comfortable in sharing their
thoughts or views on the purchase.

Lets have a look at few more reference groups

Aspirational Group
Aspirational group is the one to which a person may want to become part of. They currently are
not part of that group but wish to become and get with that group. For doing the same, they try
to dress, talk, act and even think the way the members of that group do.

For example, people who like Madhuri Dixit wish to become like her and meet her and so start
purchasing and using all those products that she endorses.

Dissociative Group
The people in these groups are totally opposite to the people in the aspirational group. Here
people deny of becoming or getting connected to a particular group. They just hate being related
to that group.

For example, if people dont like a particular community, they would never like being
connected to them. So they would try all the possible ways to avoid the way in which they
dress, think or act.
Thus marketers need to understand the likes and dislikes of the consumers and also the groups
to which they belong. Marketers should recognize the extent to which a reference group
influences the consumer and he should also understand out of all the groups which group
influences him the most.

Family
Family of a consumer plays an important role in the decision making process. The parents,
siblings, relatives all have their own views about a particular purchase.

Following are the roles in the family decision making process

Influencers Influencers are the ones who give ideas or information about the product
or service to the consumer.

Gate Keepers Gatekeepers are the family members who usually panel the information.
They can be our parents or siblings too who can in any form provide us the information
about the product.

Decision Makers Family or our parents who usually have the power to take decisions
on our behalf are the decision makers. After the complete the research they may decide
to purchase the particular or dispose it.

Buyers Buyer is the one who actually makes the purchase of the product.

End Users The person who finally uses the product or consumes the service is the
ultimate consumer also called as End user as per the context.

A consumer gets influenced by his family members as well as friends. Since childhood the
culture which he follows or the rituals which he observes and the moral values and the religious
principles he usually receives them from his family. However, the individual learns fashion,
attitude or style from his friends. All these attributes or traits together influence the buyers
decision making.

Consumer Behavior - Models Types

Industrial and Individual Consumer Behavior Models
Understanding buyer behaviors plays an important part in marketing. Considerable research on
buyer behavior both at conceptual level and empirical level has been accumulated. There are
two types of buyers
 Industrial (organizational) buyer

Individual consumer
Organizational buying behavior has many distinctive features

First, it occurs in a formal organization which is caused by budget and cost.

Second, in some conditions, joint decision-making process may occur, and this is not
possible in individual buying behavior.

Finally, conflict occurs and they are hard to avoid in the joint decision making process.

In order to understand the organizational buying behavior, we first consider who will be
involved in the buying process and what are their expectations. At least, purchasing agents,
engineers, and final consumers will participate in the buying process.

The potential of different decision maker are different in different situations. In this model, there
are five different sets of variables determining the expectations of the individual

The individuals' background, information sources, vigorous search, the selective bend of the
information based on their previous information and expectations, satisfaction with previous
purchase.

Except the perceptual distortion, the other four variables that are easy to gather information.

The second part of the model is regarding the industrial buying processes Independent
decision which means that the decision is delegated to one department, joint decision processes.

The product-specific factors (the perceived risk, the type of purchase, and time pressure) and the
company-specific factors (company orientation, company size, and degree of centralization)
will determine the type of factor.

The greater the apparent risk, the more preferred to joint decisions. If it is a life-time capital
buy, the more likely the joint decision will take place.

If the decision has to be made at an emergency, it is likely to entrust to one party. A small and
privately-owned company with product or technology orientation will lean towards independent
decisions.

While a large public company with decentralization will tend to have joint decision process.
Economic Man Model
In this model, consumers follow the principle of maximum utility based on the law of
diminishing marginal utility. Economic man model is based on the following effects

Price Effect Lower the price of the product more will be the quantity purchase.

Substitution Effect Lower the price of the substitute product, lower will be the utility
of the original product purchase.

Income Effect When more income is earned, or more money is available, quantity
purchased will be more. The economic theory of buyers decision-making was based on
the following assumptions

As consumer resources are limited, he would allocate the available money which will maximize
the satisfaction of his needs & wants.

Consumers have complete knowledge about the utility of each product and service, i.e., they are
capable of completing the accurate satisfaction that each item is likely to produce.

As more units of the same item are purchase the marginal utility or satisfaction provided by the
next unit of the item will keep on decreasing, according to the law of diminishing marginal
utility.

Price is used as a measure of sacrifice in obtaining the goods or services. The overall objective
of the buyer is to maximize his satisfaction out of the act of purchase.

Learning Model
This model suggests that human behavior is based on some core concepts the drives, stimuli,
cues, responses and reinforcements which determine the human needs and wants and needs
satisfying behavior.
 Drive A strong internal stimulus which compels action.

Stimuli These are inputs which are capable of arousing drives or motives.

Cues It is a sign or signal which acts as a stimulus to a particular drive.

Response The way or mode in which an individual reacts to the stimuli.

If the response to a given stimulus is rewarding, it reinforces the possibility of similar

response when faced with the same stimulus or cues. Applied to marketing if an informational
cue like advertising, the buyer purchases a product (response); the favourable experience with
the product increases the probability that the response would be repeated the next time the need
stimulus arises (reinforcement).

The Psychoanalytic Model The model suggests that human needs operate at various levels of
consciousness. His motivation which is in these different levels, are not clear to the casual
observer. They can only be analyzed by vital and specialized searching.

Sociological Model This is concerned with the society. A consumer is an element of the
society and he may be a member of many groups and institutions in a society. His buying
behavior is influenced by these groups. Primary groups of family friends relatives and close
associates extract a lot of influence on his buying. A consumer may be a member of a political
party where his dress norms are different from different member. As a member of an elite
organization, his dress needs may be different, thus he has to buy things that confirm to his
lifestyle in different groups.
 Implications of Marketing Models

Word-of-mouth can be a powerful pressure on buying behavior, and marketing strategies are
designed to influence word-of-mouth. The increasing status, power and use of social media
helps marketers to take more benefit to reference groups in helping them to spread messages
about their products and services.

In general, consumers search to increase satisfaction and evade pain. They wish to reduce the
risk of decisions they make and will spend more time in researching the purchase decisions that
signify a higher level of risk.

For example, low-cost and low-involvement products like shampoo will require less efforts and
worry on the part of consumers than high-cost and high-involvement products like cars,
computers or homes.

Consumer involvement influence how consumers collect, understand and convey information,
make buying decisions and make post-purchase evaluation. As the level of consumer
participation increases, the consumer has better motivation together, comprehend, elaborate,
justify and understand the information. Thus, a marketer needs to understand the process in a
proper manner and design his marketing mix in a manner that can trigger the involvement
process in his favor.

Example of ABC Fancy Dream Stores

Three facts were discovered by a survey done on a Fancy store which was particularly
disturbing which are as follow

People found ABC Fancy Stores to be less friendly and helpful, as customers were generally not
allowed to search by themselves. Children got bored and hence parents often left the store
within few minutes after finishing their necessary shopping. They never browsed, searched or
spent spare time at Fancy Dreams stores, which could actually help in promoting more sales.

With lots of choices available in the market, consumers stopped up treating Fancy Dreams
stores as unique and exclusive anymore.

Implications
New Strategies for New Times

The dynamic economic conditions are affecting consumer behavior, their perceptions and
attitudes. Consumers are changing their behavior in several different ways, situations and
various primary attitudes and values which express these changes. It is vital for us to re-look at
the consumer and bring back our understanding to well alter the marketing strategies.

Not all the consumers react to the environmental changes in the same way. Different consumers
have different reactions to the economic challenges. Reduction may be reflected in different
tangible and psychological ways or modes.

Manufacturers also need to offer a variety of different solutions and propositions to meet these
changes in their behavior. Therefore, different consumer segments may be affected at different
levels and growth may vary from segment to segment.

Find New Pastures

Growth may be easier to come through geographical expansion, than competitive battle in the
current markets. The impact of the slowdown is more definite in larger cities, though the smaller
towns and villages are also affected if they rely on export-based industries.

Hence, if growth may be challenged in the larger cities, it may be a good time to set forward
and explore new markets in towns, townships and villages. They are the markets, which are
growing at a faster pace and offer greater return for investments.

Re-Look at your Brand Portfolio

The challenge is to offer value without compromising the image in the market.

There are different strategies to deliver value some are appropriate and some misguided, some
will damage the brand image permanently and some will keep the image undamaged but still
help to adjust.

Research shows that direct price reductions are likely to damage more than temporary discounts
and decreasing pack sizes are more harmful than increasing pack size at the same price.
Look at your Distribution Channels

A stressed economic situation not only changes the consumer, but also changes the sellers.
Consumers are normally more close to the brand than the retail store, hence their first option is
not to change the brand, but try to find the brand at a cheaper price at another store.

With more time at hand and greater incentive to economize, more consumers are likely to shop
at overexcited markets than the pricier supermarkets and ease stores. The search for value and
bargains will also turn the shoppers to online shopping the only channel that will grow even
faster than overexcited markets.

Helping the Consumer

When opportunities are less and the competition is more vicious, the Chinese consumers will
want to enhance their skills and knowledge. Visibly it is very good news for companies teaching
English or computer programming or knowledge. However, the opportunity is not restricted to
these firms the FMCG industry could also take more educative communication position -
wine makers could try to educate the consumers about appreciating fine wines, cosmetic
companies could offer training on skin care and food companies could instruct on diet and
nutrition.

Family, Home, and Security

Recession is the supreme time to catch up with friends; relatives take their children to the park
and visit parents, and in the process enjoy emotional warmness to compensate for the coldness
of the fiscal climate.

The children are likely to pay a deep price for this, with parents having more time and fondness
as well as renewed determination to help their children with their studies. This offers
opportunities to promote in-house consumption, than out of house consumption, which in many
categories such as alcohol, is more expensive.

Communication

It is not just the product but also the message, which needs to reflect the current consumer mind.
The communication messages of nowadays needs to reflect sentiments of care and protection,
rational and careful behavior, performance and value these tones of communication, which
always appealed to the Chinese consumers, are likely to find even greater meaning in these
times.

Go Digital

For the largest internet population in the world, internet has been a tool of entertainment and
information less a tool for commerce. However, the original barriers are being overcome and
consumers are discovering the joy of internet shopping.

The attributes of consumer connect with internet shopping are variety, enables detailed
evaluation and comparisons and getting the product at competitive prices. These are the
attributes the buyer will be looking in the period of fiscal slowdown.

Keep a Permanent Hand on the Pulse of the Consumer

Things are changing at an exceptional pace. As a result, so is the consumer atmosphere and
sentiment, which will have an effect on their decision-making and the brands and products that
they buy. If marketers do not feel their pulse all the time, they could go wrong. One cannot just
listen to the consumer once a year - marketers need to put their ears firmly on the ground and
listen to every change of beat, every tone of the consumer ]mood and continue to find tune of
the strategy.

Online Customer Behavior

With the evolution of online communication through internet, customers now see online
advertisements of various brands. It is fast catching up with the buying behavior of consumers
and is a major source of publicity for niche segments and also for established brands. This is the
new way of digital revolution and businesses worldwide have realized their worth.

Examples Online catalogues, Websites, or Search engines. When customers have sufficient
information, they will need to compare with the choices of products or services.
Online Customer Behavior Process

According to the above figure, in the search stage, they might look for the product reviews or
customer comments. They will find out which brand or company offers them the best fit to their
expectation.

During this stage, well-organized web site structure and attractive design are important things to
persuade consumers to be interested in buying product or service.

Stage 1

The most useful characteristic of internet is that it supports the pre-purchase stage as it helps
customers compare different options.

Stage 2

During the purchasing stage, product assortment, sale services and information quality seem to
be the most important point to help consumers decide what product they should select, or what
seller they should buy from.
Stage 3

Post-purchase behavior will become more important after their online purchase. Consumers
sometimes have a difficulty or concern about the product, or they might want to change or
return the product that they have bought. Thus, return and exchange services become more
important at this stage.

Factors of Online Customer Behavior

The first elements to identify are factors that motivate customers to buy products or services
online. They are divided into two categories external factors and internal factors.

The External Factors are the ones beyond the control of the customers. They can divide
into five sectors namely demographic, socio-economic, technology and public policy;
culture; sub- culture; reference groups; and marketing.

Internal Factors are the personal traits or behaviors which include attitudes, learning,
perception, motivation, self image.

The Functional Motives is related to the consumer needs and include things like time,
convenience of shopping online, price, the environment of shopping place, selection of
products etc.

The Non-Functional Motives related to the culture or social values like the brand of the
store or product.

Filtering Elements

Customers use these three factors to filter their buying choices and decide on the final selection
of stores they are willing to purchase from. They use the knowledge to filter their purchase
options by three factors

Security

Privacy

Trust and Trustworthiness

 Consumer Behavior - Expectations
Before a company or a marketer can delight the customer, it must have an in-depth knowledge
of the customers expectations so that not only are they able to meet but exceed the expectation,
to delight the customer.

For this, knowledge of the core elements of the products and services are essential. The core
elements of a product are its shape, quality, price, packaging, brand name differentiation etc.
while the core elements of services are reliability, fulfillers and responsiveness to specific needs
assurance and acceptability etc. from the service provided.

In the case of a product (tangible), the customer should be provided with what he expects and
the core elements which remain almost the same. However, services being intangible and their
characteristics which are intangible, inseparability, perishability etc. must be kept in mind.

The core elements given above can be manipulated to exceed the expectations of the customer
as the human touch is also involved and this can give unexpected positive elements to delight
the customer and have a competitive edge as well.

A customer expects essential benefits.

A customer expects performance and not blank promises.

A customer expects competency.

Services and Products
A customer normally looks for the following services

A customer wants consistency, which is the capacity to perform the promised services,
reliably and accurately.

A customer wants tangibility or the form of physical facilities, equipment, workforce and
other materials.

A customer wants reaction the reaction to an inquiry or to a call.

Working towards Enhancing Customer Satisfaction

To generate delight is not an easy job. Companies are varying with each other for competitive
advantage.
A customer gets more satisfaction when he least expects it. In predicting the effects on product
evaluation and customer satisfaction of disparity between expectations and actual or objective
product performance; at least four psychological theories the company also delivers at the
doorstep of the consumer which generates unparalleled value and satisfaction. For this, one
must

Attempt continuously to provide additional customer value in every transaction.

Try to provide surprise benefits.

Constantly express the expectations that the customer has around your product.

Treat the customer exclusively.

Look for expectations and performance gaps in order to identify opportunities to delight.

Customer Expectation and Satisfaction

Customer satisfaction may be defined as the products performance according to buyers
expectations.

Consumers form expectations about the value of marketing offers and make buying decisions
based on three expectations.
Customer satisfaction depends on the products actual performance relative to a buyers
expectations. But, how do buyers form their expectations and expectations are based on the
customers past buying experience.

Marketers must be careful to set the right level of expectations. If they set expectations too low
they may satisfy those who buy, but fail to attract enough buyers.

Consumer satisfaction, a business term, is a measure of how products and services supplied by a
company meet or surpass consumer expectation.

Take a look at the following illustration. It shows the major components of Customer
Expectations

Organizations are increasingly concerned in retaining existing customers while targeting non-
customers. Measuring customer satisfaction provides an indication of how successful the
organization is at providing products and/or services to the market place.

Consumer Behavior - Emerging Issues

With the advent of technology, consumers now have access to all kinds of information regarding
every product and service they want to avail. Consumers have become smarter, their tastes and
preferences have changed. What used to be the luxuries of life have now become the necessity.
The competition has increased and brands are struggling to beat the competition. Let us
examine some of the issues in the field of consumer behavior that has emerged these days
because of the overall advancement of technology and people.

Consumer Behavior Past and the Present

The figure given below will help you develop the clear difference between the consumers of
yesterday and today.

Write down three points that come to your mind with reference to consumer of yesterday and
today while seeing the above two images.

1.

2.

3.
Thus, it is clearly evident that

Consumer of yesterday didnt had choices to choose from

They have to go to different shops to shop their needs and requirements

Consumers had low buying power, and were more cost conscious as compared to brand /
quality conscious

The Focus Yesterday was to fulfil the basic need instead of impressing others

Issues in Consumer Behavior

Consumerism has been identified as the root cause of the emerging issues in consumer behavior.
Consumerism is used in context of advancement of consumer oriented tendencies, marked by
availability of a variety of manufactured consumer goods and active advertising of the products
in various media.

To offer products and services that are in demand, todays marketers need to identify the factors
that influence buying behavior. Some of these factors are mentioned below

Quality

Consumers are now interested in items that deliver a variety of features along with quality.
Today consumers look for products that are long lasting and reliable. This feature has increased
the time invested by the manufacturers in choosing the quality of components to be used in
making these products.

Added Advantage

Today consumers want to experience something new and are inclined to shop from the place
where they get added advantages. For instance a store offering special discount.

According to ConsumerAffairs.com, 35% of consumers state that they are more likely to shop at
a store where special promotions or discounts are available.
Marketing Apps

Today cell phones create another venue for consumers to do a variety of things. Cell phones
today are not only used to make phone calls or send messages but to perform a variety of other
functions, such as shop and surf the Internet.

This has led to increased consumer convenience where they can shop from anywhere across the
world.

Consumer Behavior - Cross-Culture

A consumers level of exposure towards foreign goods or lifestyles may influence his buying
decisions and preferences. Consumers tend to have an attitude when it comes to a particular
product being made in a particular country. This attitude might be positive, negative, and
neutral.

Cross-cultural consumer analysis is defined as the effort to determine to what extent the
consumers of two or more nations are similar or different.
A major objective of cross-cultural consumer analysis is to determine how consumers in two or
more societies are similar and how they are different. Such an understanding of the similarities
and differences that exist between nations is critical to the multinational marketer, who must
devise appropriate strategies to reach consumers in specific foreign markets.

The greater the similarity between nations, the more feasible it is to use relatively similar
strategies in each nation. If they differ in many aspects, then a highly individualized marketing
strategy is indicated.

The success of marketing and servicing in foreign countries is likely to be influenced by beliefs,
values, and customs.

Here we have listed some of the best companies which are considered to be valuable, as they
have understood the pulse of consumers and their tastes.

Coca Cola Disney

Microsoft McDonald

IBM Nokia

GE Toyota

Intel Marlboro

Disney

Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning

Segmentation, targeting, and positioning together comprise a three stage process.
We first (1) determine which kinds of customers exist, then (2) select which ones we
are best off trying to serve and, finally, (3) implement our segmentation by optimizing
our products/services for that segment and communicating that we have made the
choice to distinguish ourselves that way.
Segmentation involves finding out what kinds of consumers with different needs
exist. In the auto market, for example, some consumers demand speed and
performance, while others are much more concerned about roominess and safety. In
general, it holds true that You cant be all things to all people, and experience has
demonstrated that firms that specialize in meeting the needs of one group of
consumers over another tend to be more profitable.

Generically, there are three approaches to marketing. In

the undifferentiated strategy, all consumers are treated as the same, with firms not
making any specific efforts to satisfy particular groups. This may work when the
product is a standard one where one competitor really cant offer much that another
one cant. Usually, this is the case only for commodities. In
the concentrated strategy, one firm chooses to focus on one of several segments that
exist while leaving other segments to competitors. For example, Southwest Airlines
focuses on price sensitive consumers who will forego meals and assigned seating for
low prices. In contrast, most airlines follow the differentiated strategy: They offer
high priced tickets to those who are inflexible in that they cannot tell in advance
when they need to fly and find it impractical to stay over a Saturday. These travelers
usually business travelerspay high fares but can only fill the planes up partially.
The same airlines then sell some of the remaining seats to more price sensitive
customers who can buy two weeks in advance and stay over.

Note that segmentation calls for some tough choices. There may be a large number
of variables that can be used to differentiate consumers of a given product category;
yet, in practice, it becomes impossibly cumbersome to work with more than a few at
a time. Thus, we need to determine which variables will be most useful in
distinguishing different groups of consumers. We might thus decide, for example,
that the variables that are most relevant in separating different kinds of soft drink
consumers are (1) preference for taste vs. low calories, (2) preference for Cola vs.
non-cola taste, (3) price sensitivitywillingness to pay for brand names; and (4) heavy
vs. light consumers. We now put these variables together to arrive at various
combinations.
Several different kinds of variables can be used for segmentation.

Demographic variables essentially refer to personal statistics such as income, gender,

education, location (rural vs. urban, East vs. West), ethnicity, and family size.
Campbells soup, for instance, has found that Western U.S. consumers on the average
prefer spicier soupsthus, you get a different product in the same cans at the East and
West coasts. Facing flat sales of guns in the traditional male dominated market, a
manufacturer came out with the Lady Remmington, a more compact, handier gun
more attractive to women. Taking this a step farther, it is also possible to segment
on lifestyle and values.

Some consumers want to be seen as similar to others, while a different segment wants
to stand apart from the crowd.

Another basis for segmentation is behavior. Some consumers are brand loyali.e.,
they tend to stick with their preferred brands even when a competing one is on sale.
Some consumers are heavy users while others are light users. For example,
research conducted by the wine industry shows that some 80% of the product is
consumed by 20% of the consumerspresumably a rather intoxicated group.

One can also segment on benefits sought, essentially bypassing demographic

explanatory variables. Some consumers, for example, like scented soap (a segment
likely to be attracted to brands such as Irish Spring), while others prefer the clean
feeling of unscented soap (the Ivory segment). Some consumers use toothpaste
primarily to promote oral health, while another segment is more interested in breath
freshening.

In the next step, we decide to target one or more segments. Our choice should
generally depend on several factors. First, how well are existing segments served
by other manufacturers? It will be more difficult to appeal to a segment that is
already well served than to one whose needs are not currently being served well.
Secondly, how large is the segment, and how can we expect it to grow? (Note that a
downside to a large, rapidly growing segment is that it tends to attract competition).
Thirdly, do we have strengths as a company that will help us appeal particularly to
one group of consumers? Firms may already have an established reputation. While
McDonalds has a great reputation for fast, consistent quality, family friendly food, it
would be difficult to convince consumers that McDonalds now offers gourmet food.
Thus, McDs would probably be better off targeting families in search of consistent
quality food in nice, clean restaurants.

It is possible using to target very specific customer groups based on magazine

subscriptions, past purchases, and demographic variables. A number of list brokers
will sell lists of names and addresses of homeowners in a particular area (information
they get from county registrars) or the subscribers to various magazines. Firms will
often sell lists of their customers to competitors since it is widely believed in the
industry that more catalogs tend to result more in incremental sales than in losing
share in fixed-size pie. One can also buy e-mail lists, but it is generally not legal to
send solicitng e-mails to individuals with which one does not already have an
established business relationship, and these are also likely to be discarded by "spam"
filters. In the "merge-purge" process, lists from several sources are combined (since
none contains every relevant individual by itself), after which duplicates are
removed. Here is an illustration of what could be used by an online merchant of surf
gear seeking to find additional potential customers:

Positioning involves implementing our targeting. For example, Apple Computer has
chosen to position itself as a maker of user-friendly computers. Thus, Apple has done
a lot through its advertising to promote itself, through its unintimidating icons, as a
computer for non-geeks. The Visual C software programming language, in contrast,
is aimed a techies.
Michael Treacy and Fred Wiersema suggested in their 1993 book The Discipline of
Market Leaders that most successful firms fall into one of three categories:

Operationally excellent firms, which maintain a strong competitive advantage by

maintaining exceptional efficiency, thus enabling the firm to provide reliable service
to the customer at a significantly lower cost than those of less well organized and well
run competitors. The emphasis here is mostly on low cost, subject to reliable
performance, and less value is put on customizing the offering for the specific
customer. Wal-Mart is an example of this discipline. Elaborate logistical designs allow
goods to be moved at the lowest cost, with extensive systems predicting when specific
quantities of supplies will be needed.

Customer intimate firms, which excel in serving the specific needs of the individual
customer well. There is less emphasis on efficiency, which is sacrificed for providing
more precisely what is wanted by the customer. Reliability is also stressed.
Nordstroms and IBM are examples of this discipline.

Technologically excellent firms, which produce the most advanced products currently
available with the latest technology, constantly maintaining leadership in innovation.
These firms, because they work with costly technology that need constant
refinement, cannot be as efficient as the operationally excellent firms and often
cannot adapt their products as well to the needs of the individual customer. Intel is an
example of this discipline.

Treacy and Wiersema suggest that in addition to excelling on one of the three value
dimensions, firms must meet acceptable levels on the other two. Wal-Mart, for
example, does maintain some level of customer service. Nordstroms and Intel both
must meet some standards of cost effectiveness. The emphasis, beyond meeting the
minimum required level in the two other dimensions, is on the dimension of strength.
Repositioning involves an attempt to change consumer perceptions of a brand, usually
because the existing position that the brand holds has become less attractive. Sears,
for example, attempted to reposition itself from a place that offered great sales but
unattractive prices the rest of the time to a store that consistently offered everyday
low prices. Repositioning in practice is very difficult to accomplish. A great deal of
money is often needed for advertising and other promotional efforts, and in many
cases, the repositioning fails.

To effectively attempt repositioning, it is important to understand how ones brand

and those of competitors are perceived. One approach to identifying consumer
product perceptions is multidimensional scaling. Here, we identify how products are
perceived on two or more dimensions, allowing us to plot brands against each
other. It may then be possible to attempt to move ones brand in a more desirable
direction by selectively promoting certain points. There are two main approaches to
multi-dimensional scaling. In the a priori approach, market researchers identify
dimensions of interest and then ask consumers about their perceptions on each
dimension for each brand. This is useful when (1) the market researcher knows which
dimensions are of interest and (2) the customers perception on each dimension is
relatively clear (as opposed to being made up on the spot to be able to give the
researcher a desired answer). In the similarity rating approach, respondents are not
asked about their perceptions of brands on any specific dimensions. Instead, subjects
are asked to rate the extent of similarity of different pairs of products (e.g., How
similar, on a scale of 1-7, is Snickers to Kitkat, and how similar is Toblerone to Three
Musketeers?) Using a computer algorithms, the computer then identifies positions of
each brand on a map of a given number of dimensions. The computer does not reveal
what each dimension meansthat must be left to human interpretation based on what
the variations in each dimension appears to reveal. This second method is more
useful when no specific product dimensions have been identified as being of particular
interest or when it is not clear what the variables of difference are for the product
category.

Deci