MODULE 1

Production of
materials
 Throughout history humans have used their ingenuity to make new materials and
objects to satisfy their diverse and growing needsmaterials such as ceramics
and glass, metals and alloys, plastics and synthetic bres, and inventions such as
wheels, weapons, weaving looms, locomotives, motor cars, aeroplanes, telephones,
televisions and computers.
When the demands for particular natural resources put strains on their
supply, new materials were developed. For example when agriculture expanded
greatly in order to feed a growing world population, synthetic fertilisers such as
ammonium sulfate and superphosphate were developed to overcome shortages of
natural fertilisers (manure and saltpetre). When demand for natural bres (cotton,
wool, silk) put strains on supply, synthetic bres (rayon, nylon, polyester) were
developed. Now that demands for crude oil are likely to deplete supplies within
a few decades, attention is turning to developing new sources for the important
materials such as plastics we currently get from oil.
In recent decades we have seen the development of many new technologies
to meet the expanding demands of a more sophisticated society. When demands
for more and more telecommunications put strains on the ability of copper wires
to carry the signals, bre optics were developed. Similarly the demands of the
space race of the 1960s and 70s produced strong, light, heat-resistant materials.

2 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

The needs of medicine prompted the development of more sophisticated
diagnostic tools and materials for articial body parts, while the development of
computers since the 1960s continues to stimulate the production of new high-
purity materials.
In this module we shall examine some of the synthetic materials that are in
widespread use and some of the ways of making them.
We will start (in Chapter 1) with a survey of some polymers (plastics and
bres) that we make from crude oil. This will lead us into a discussion of possible
future trends for such materials, particularly in view of likely depletion of oil
supplies and widespread pollution by plastics. Use of plant material as a possible
source of liquid fuels will also be considered.
Electrochemical methods (which are processes involving chemical reactions
and electricity) are widely used to produce sources of easily portable energy.
Chapter 2 will introduce the basic ideas and describe several widely used batteries.
Chapter 3 will introduce what are called radioactive materials and will describe
some of the important roles they play in medicine and industry.
Throughout this module particular attention will be given to new materials
and to likely future developments in these areas of chemistry.

MANY EVERYDAY PRODUCTS ARE MADE FROM

SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
This colourful picnic ware and the collection of batteries used in a variety of consumer goods are just
some of the thousands of products that are made from materials synthesised by chemical reactions.
Synthetic radioactive materials such as caesium-137 are made in nuclear reactors and used to
detect structural faults in complex machinery (in much the same way as X-rays detect broken bones
in people).

PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS MODULE 1 3

 CHAPTER 1

Ethylene, polymers
and ethanol
IN THIS CHAPTER
Ethylene from cracking crude oil fractions Will raw materials run out?
Properties of alkanes and alkenes Condensation polymers
Reactions of alkanes Structure and possible uses of cellulose
Reactions of alkenes Biopolymers
Industrially important reactions of A synthetic biodegradable biopolymer
ethylene Ethanol as a source of ethylene
Polymerisation of ethylene Ethanol as a solvent
Other addition polymers Synthesis of ethanol from plant material
Relating properties and uses to structure Ethanol as a fuel
Uses of polyethylene, PVC and Heat of combustion of ethanol
polystyrene

In Chapter 9 of Conquering Chemistry Preliminary Course (CCPC) we saw how

crude oil provides us with a variety of productsgases for LPG, petrol for cars,
kerosene for jet aircraft, diesel for trucks, lubricating oils and greases and tar
(Table 9.6, p. 257 CCPC). Crude oil also provides us with the raw materials for
making many plastics or polymers as they are called technically.
The most widely used starting substance for making polymers is ethylene
which is obtained from crude oil, either as a by-product of petrol rening or by
the deliberate decomposition of some of its higher boiling point fractions. The
term cracking is used in these contexts.

1.1 ETHYLENE FROM CRACKING CRUDE OIL

FRACTIONS
Cracking is the name given to the chemical process of breaking large
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones; for example breaking dodecane,
C12H26 into octane, C8H18, and butene, C4H8. There are two types of cracking:
catalytic cracking and thermal cracking.

This is the historical name for the compound. Its systematic name is ethene. However, as
explained on p. 262 CCPC this is one of several compounds where the historical (trivial)
name, rather than the systematic name, is the IUPAC-preferred name; hence, it will be used in
this book.

ETHYLENE FROM CRACKING CRUDE OIL FRACTIONS SECTION 1.1 5

 Ethylene from catalytic cracking in oil reneries
Oil reneries need to balance their outputs of various products (petrol, diesel,
fuel oil etc) to match the demands of the marketplace. As was mentioned
on p. 258 of CCPC, generally more petrol is required than is obtained from
fractional distillation. Hence oil reneries increase the proportion of gasoline
by converting some of the lower demand fractions into gasoline. The process is
called catalytic cracking.
Catalytic cracking is the process in which high molecular weight (high boiling
point) fractions from crude oil are broken into lower molecular weight (lower
boiling point) substances in order to increase the output of high-demand products.

The column in which this occurs is called a cat cracker. Alkanes with 15 to
25 carbon atoms per molecule are broken into two smaller molecules, one an
alkane and the other an alkene; for example:
C15H32 C10H22 + C5H10
(pentadecane) (decane) (pentene)
The alkene further splits into smaller alkenes until either ethylene or propene
(or both) is formed; for example,
C5H10 C2H4 + C3H6
(pentene) (ethylene) (propene)
The overall products of catalytic cracking are alkanes of shorter chain lengths
(used for petrol) and small alkenes. The proportions of ethylene to propene to
alkanes vary with the reaction conditions.
Catalytic crackers at an
The catalysts used for cracking alkanes are inorganic compounds called
oil renery
zeolites: they are crystalline aluminosilicates
(compounds of aluminium, silicon and oxygen
with some metal ions attached). The reaction is
typically carried out at 500C in the absence of air
and with pressures somewhat above atmospheric.
The ethylene and propene which are by-
products of catalytic cracking are starting
materials for making plastics (polymers).
However this production of ethylene and propene
is insufcient to meet current needs for these
chemicals. Often some fractions of crude oil are
decomposed completely to produce ethylene and
propene in a process called steam cracking or
thermal cracking.

Ethylene from steam or

thermal cracking
Steam cracking or thermal cracking is a non-
catalytic process in which a mixture of alkanes
with steam is passed through very hot metal
tubes (700 to 1000C) and at just above
atmospheric pressure to decompose the alkanes
completely into small alkenes such as ethylene,

6 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

propene and butene. Some hydrogen is also produced. For example, for the
thermal cracking of undecane, C11H24:
C11H24 4C2H4 + C3H6 + H2
Steam is present as an inert diluent; it allows the process to operate at just
above atmospheric pressure (which facilitates easy ow of the gases through the
hot tubes), while keeping the concentrations of the reacting gases low enough to
ensure that the desired reactions occur.
Sometimes the feedstock for thermal cracking is a mixture of ethane and
propane obtained from natural gas (which is mainly methane: see p. 268 CCPC).
In this case the reactions are:
C2H6 C2H4 + H2
and C3H8 C2H4 + CH4

1.2 PROPERTIES OF ALKANES AND

ALKENES
We saw on p. 265 CCPC that alkenes had similar physical properties (boiling
points, densities and solubilities) to the corresponding alkanes. This was because
alkenes, like alkanes, are non-polar molecules with weak dispersion forces being
the only intermolecular forces involved. Recall that ethylene, propene and the
butenes are gases at room temperature (as are the corresponding alkanes). The
higher alkenes (like the higher alkanes) are liquids.
However alkenes and alkanes differ markedly in their chemical reactivity.

1.3 REACTIONS OF ALKANES

For alkanes there are only two important reactions:
1 Alkanes burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water. In doing so they
liberate large amounts of heat, for example:
For propane: C3H8( g) + 5O2( g) 3CO2( g) + 4H2O( g)
For octane: C8H18( g) + 12O2( g) 8CO2( g) + 9H2O( g)
It is this combustion reaction that makes alkanes useful to us as fuels
(Chapter 9 CCPC).
2 Alkanes react with chlorine and bromine when the mixtures are exposed to
ultraviolet (u.v.) light, for example:
For methane: CH4( g) + Cl2( g) CH3Cl( g) + HCl( g)
(chloromethane)

For hexane: C6H14(l ) + Br2(soln) C6H13Br(soln) + HBr(soln)

(bromohexane)
A reaction such as these in which an atom in a molecule is replaced by another
atom or group of atoms is called a substitution reaction.

A variety of other products can be formed by these reactions, depending

upon the conditions used, but for our present purposes the key point to note is
that alkanes do not react with (decolorise) chlorine or bromine solutions in the
absence of u.v. light but that they do react (quite slowly for the liquid ones) in
the presence of u.v. light. This contrasts with the behaviour of alkenes (below).

REACTIONS OF ALKANES SECTION 1.3 7

 Exercises
1 a Write an equation (in terms of molecular formulae) for the catalytic cracking of
i butadecane, C14H30, into a C8 alkane and a C6 alkene
*ii dodecane, C12H26, into a C7 alkane and a C5 alkene
b Draw structural formulae and name the products of your reactions in (a).
2 Write equations to show the decomposition of the alkenes in Exercise 1 to propene
and/or ethylene.
*3 Why is it necessary to exclude air from catalytic and thermal cracking?
4 Write an equation for thermal cracking of hexadecane, C16H34 (to form ethylene,
propene and perhaps hydrogen); more than one equation is possible.
5 An oil renery was processing a Middle East crude oil that contained a high proportion
of C20 to C25 alkanes. After fractional distillation (see pp. 2567 CCPC) the renery
wanted to increase the proportion of the gasoline fraction, C6 to C12, so it passed the
C20 to C25 fraction through a catalytic cracker. Operating conditions were such that
this cat cracker produced a mixture of C6 to C12 alkanes along with C2 to C5 alkenes.
a How would the renery separate this mixture into a portion that could be added
to its gasoline output, a portion that contained C4 and C5 alkenes that could
be further cracked, and a gaseous mixture of ethylene and propene? Some
contamination of the gasoline portion with C5 alkenes and vice versa would cause
no problem.
b Write equations for the cracking of one of the starting alkanes and for the
complete cracking of one of the C5 alkenes.
*c Draw a ow chart for the complete processing of this C20 to C25 fraction.
6 Write equations for the combustion of:
a butane
b hexane
*c octane
7 Write equations for the reaction of butane with chlorine in the presence of u.v. light.
How many monosubstituted chloro-compounds (that is, compounds with only one Cl
atom per molecule) can be formed? Draw their structures.
8 a When ethane is reacted with bromine in the presence of u.v. light, under certain
conditions compounds having two Br atoms per molecule are formed. Draw
structures to show that two such compounds (isomers) are possible.
b Under other conditions compounds with three Br atoms per molecule are possible.
How many isomers with three Br atoms are possible?

1.4 REACTIONS OF ALKENES

Alkenes burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water in the same way as alkanes
do; for example:
For ethylene: C2H4( g) + 3O2( g) 2CO2( g) + 2H2O( g)
For 1-hexene: C6H12(l ) + 9O2( g) 6CO2( g) + 6H2O( g)
The presence of the double bond in alkenes makes them much more reactive than
alkanes. There are many substances which react with alkenes by opening out the
double bond to form two single bonds: these are called addition reactions, the
simplest one being between bromine and ethylene:

8 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS



The general form of addition reactions is:

(1.1)

where XY is a molecule such as Cl2, Br2, H2, HCl, HBr, HOH (H2O) and where
Ra, Rb, Rc and Rd represent the rest of the alkene moleculeeither H atoms or
what are called alkyl groups.
An alkyl group is an alkane molecule with one hydrogen atom missing; it does
not exist on its own, but is part of another molecule.

Alkyl groups are named by deleting the ane from the parent alkane and
adding -yl. The simplest alkyl groups and their parent alkanes are shown in
Table 1.1.

TABLE 1.1 Names and formulae of simple alkyl groups

Alkane Name Alkyl group Name

CH4 methane CH3 methyl

CH3CH3 ethane CH3CH2 ethyl

CH3CH2CH3 propane CH3CH2CH2 propyl

CH3CH2CH2CH3 butane CH3CH2CH2CH2 butyl

Addition reactions of alkenes are summarised in Figure 1.1. Although

ethylene is used as the alkene (for simplicity), all alkenes undergo these reactions.

FIGURE 1.1
Common addition
reactions of alkenes
(examples of
Reaction 1.1)

Laboratory test for alkenes

Reaction with bromine is often used in the laboratory to distinguish between
alkenes and alkanes. The bromine can be used either in a non-aqueous solvent
such as chloroform or hexachloroethane or as an aqueous solution called
bromine water. In either case drops of the bromine solution are added to the
colourless sample to be tested with gentle shaking. If the sample decolorises

REACTIONS OF ALKENES SECTION 1.4 9

 the bromine solution, the sample is an alkene; if the sample takes on the brown
colour of the bromine (that is, does not react with the bromine), it is an alkane.
The test must be performed in subdued light because in the presence of
ultraviolet light (for example sunlight) alkanes will react slowly with bromine
(previous section).
As an example, 2-pentene will decolorise drops of a solution of bromine in
hexachloroethane, the reaction being:
CH3CHCHCH2CH3 + Br2 CH3CHCHCH2CH3

Br Br
(2,3-dibromopentane)
Alternatively 3-hexene will decolorise drops of bromine water, the
reaction being:
Br2 + H2O HOBr + H+ + Br
CH3CH2CHCHCH2CH3 + HOBr CH3CH2CHCHCH2CH3

OH Br
(4-bromo-3-hexanol)
On the other hand pentane and hexane will not decolorise either solution.
While the aqueous bromine solution is more convenient to use, the chemistry
is a little more complicated than for the non-aqueous solution.

Exercises
9 Write balanced equations for the combustion (in excess oxygen) of:
a propene b 1-pentene *c 1-octene
Use molecular formulae for the carbon compounds.
10 Write equations for the reaction of (i) hydrogen (using a catalyst) (ii) chlorine
(iii) bromine water, with each of the alkenes
a propene b 2-butene *c 1-pentene
Use structural formulae for the carbon compounds.
11 Write equations for the reaction of hydrogen chloride with:
a propene b 1-butene *c 3-hexene
If two products are possible, give both.
12 Write equations for the reaction of aqueous acid solution with:
a propene *b 2-butene
If two products are possible, give both. Name all your products.
13 Draw structural formulae for the products of the following reactions:
a 1-butene with
i bromine ii hydrogen bromide iii water (with H+ catalyst)
b 2-pentene with
i bromine water ii hydrogen (with Ni catalyst)
14 Compounds A, B and C are either octane or 2-hexene.
a When a few drops of a solution of bromine in chloroform were added to compound
A and the mixture shaken, there was no apparent reaction. When a solution of
bromine in water was added to another sample of the same compound, again after

10 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 shaking the mixture there was no apparent reaction. What do you conclude about
the compound?
b When similar tests were performed on a different compound, B, this compound
decolorised both of the bromine solutions. What do you conclude about
compound B?
c The same two tests were performed on compound C on a sunny patio outside the
laboratory. Compound C slowly decolorised both bromine solutions. When the
tests were repeated inside the laboratory in very subdued light, neither solution
was decolorised. Explain these results and draw a conclusion about the nature of
compound C.

1.5 INDUSTRIALLY IMPORTANT REACTIONS

OF ETHYLENE
The reactive double bond in ethylene means that it can easily be converted into
a range of very useful products such as ethanol and the starting materials for
several important plastics (polymers) as shown in Figure 1.2. Let us look at some
of these reactions in more detail.

crude oil FIGURE 1.2

Important industrial
cracking chemicals made from
ethylene (cat = catalyst)
ethylene Cl2 + O2 + cat
+
H2O/H
O2 + cat
vinyl chloride
CH2CHCl
ethanol ethylene oxide
CH3CH2OH CH2CH2
(industrial solvent O
and reactant) (fumigant) styrene
C6H5CH CH2
+
H2O/H
vinyl acetate
ethylene glycol CH2
CHOCOCH3
HOCH2CH2OH
(anti-freeze)

used for making polymers

poly(vinyl chloride) PVC
polystyrene
poly(vinyl acetate) PVA
polyester or PET

1 Reaction of ethylene with water to form ethanol

Industrially ethylene is converted to ethanol by heating it with water (steam) at
300C and at high pressure and using phosphoric acid as a catalyst:

This addition of a water molecule across a double bond is called a
hydration reaction. It is a special type of addition reaction.

INDUSTRIALLY IMPORTANT REACTIONS OF ETHYLENE SECTION 1.5 11

 Ethanol is widely used in industry as a reactant and as a solvent in the
synthesis of products ranging from pharmaceuticals and perfumes to varnishes
and plastics. In the home it is used as an antiseptic and as a solvent in such items
as food colourings and avourings and in many medications.
The alcohol in alcoholic beverages is made by fermentation (discussed
below), not by the above industrial process. Similarly the ethanol that is currently
being added to petrol is made by fermentation.
Ethanol belongs to a group of compounds called alkanols: they can be
regarded as alkanes with one H atom replaced by an OH group: for example
methanol, CH3OH, from methane, CH4, ethanol (above) from ethane,
CH3CH3.

To name an alkanol
Delete the e of the parent alkane and add -ol: methanol, ethanol, propanol,
butanol and so on, and
Add a number prex to denote the position of the alcohol group (as the OH is
called) in the same way as a number was used for the position of the double
bond on p. 265 CCPC . No number is needed for methanol or ethanol.
(Why?)
Alkanols are a sub-group of a class of compounds called alcohols. Alcohols
(and therefore alkanols) contain the OH functional group (centre of reactivity,
p. 267 CCPC).
In the laboratory liquid alkenes are converted to the corresponding alkanols
by heating with dilute sulfuric acid, the H+ from H2SO4 being the catalyst for
the reaction; for example 3-hexene can be converted to 3-hexanol:
H2SO4
CH3CH2CHCHCH2CH3 + H2O

CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CH3

OH

2 Catalysed reactions of ethylene with oxygen

Ethylene glycol (systematic name 1,2-ethanediol) is used in large quantities
for the manufacture of polymers (polyester bres and PET, poly(ethylene
terephthalate) plastics) and as an automotive antifreeze. It is made from ethylene.
The rst step is to react ethylene with oxygen in the presence of a silver catalyst
to form ethylene oxide:

While some ethylene oxide is used as a fumigant, much larger amounts are
converted to ethylene glycol by treating it with dilute acid solution:

Remember, CCPC is the abbreviation being used for Conquering Chemistry Preliminary Course.
Page numbers refer to the fourth edition, 2004.

12 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 Other catalysed reactions are used to convert ethylene to the starting
materials for making a variety of other plastics as indicated in Figure 1.2.
For example to form vinyl chloride, the starting material for making the very
common plastic, poly(vinyl chloride), PVC, ethylene is heated to 150C with
chlorine and oxygen in the presence of a copper chloride catalyst:
CuCl2 catalyst
2CH2CH2 + Cl2 + 12O2 2CH2CHCl + H2O
150C
vinyl chloride (chloroethene)
The most important reaction of ethylene is its conversion to polyethylene (or
polyethene) in a reaction which is called polymerisation.

1.6 POLYMERISATION OF ETHYLENE

Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which many identical small molecules
combine together to form one large molecule. The small molecules are called
monomers while the large product molecule is called a polymer.

The monomer ethylene polymerises to form the polymer, polyethylene:

CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2 CH2CH2

CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2

These polymers are essentially long alkane molecules: each molecule contains
from a few hundred to a few thousand monomer units.
The structure is frequently written in an abbreviated form:

where n is the number of monomer units in the moleculesay about 300 to 3000.
Polyethene is the systematic name for this substance but polyethylene is the
IUPAC preferred name. Polythene was the trade name for the product patented
by the chemical manufacturer ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries Pty Ltd).
Polyethylene is called an addition polymer. This means that it forms by
molecules adding together without the loss of any atoms. Basically each double
bond opens out to form single bonds with the neighbouring molecules.
There are two processes used to make polyethylene.
In the older gas phase process (still widely used) high pressure (1000 to
3000 times atmospheric) and high temperature (300C) along with an
initiator (an organic peroxide, a compound containing a OO group, or
sometimes oxygen gas) are used. The product has signicant chain branching.
This means that at some carbon atoms one hydrogen atom is replaced by an
alkyl group (Table 1.1). Consequently the alkane chains cannot pack close
together or in an orderly way: this is called low density polyethylene ( LDPE). In
this process the initiator is not strictly a catalyst because it gets incorporated
into the actual polymer formedone initiator molecule per one or two
polymer molecules, meaning per 2000 or 3000 monomer units.

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry; this body, among other things, formulates
rules for the naming of compounds.

POLYMERISATION OF ETHYLENE SECTION 1.6 13

 The second (newer) process uses pressures of only a few times atmospheric
and temperatures of about 60C and uses a catalyst which is a mixture
of titanium(III) chloride and a trialkylaluminium compound such as
triethylaluminium, (CH3CH2)3Al. This ZieglerNatta process as it is called
forms unbranched polyethylene molecules which are able to pack closely
together in an orderly fashion. This product, called high density polyethylene
(HDPE), is more crystalline and has a higher density than the branched-
chain product. Figure 1.3 illustrates the difference between linear and
branched chains. The properties and uses of the two forms of polyethylene
will be discussed below.
FIGURE 1.3 (a) (b)
Different arrangements
of polymer chains:
(a) crystalline linear
chains as in HDPE,
(b) amorphous (non-
crystalline) branched
chains as in LDPE

In both these processes the initiator or catalyst activates an ethylene molecule

by attaching to it. An ordinary ethylene molecule then attaches to this, forming a
new activated species. Polymerisation continues by ethylene molecules one after
the other adding to the growing chain:

Z is all or part of the catalyst molecule * indicates an activated species

Finally the process stops by two such activated chains colliding with each
other; they either join together to form a stable polymer molecule or they
exchange a hydrogen atom to form two stable molecules:
Z(CH2CH2)x* + Z(CH2CH2)y*
Z(CH2CH2)x(CH2CH2)yZ or Z(CH2CH2)x+yZ

stable polymer molecule

Z(CH2CH2)x* + Z(CH2CH2)y*
Z(CH2CH2)x1CHCH2 + Z(CH2CH2)y1CH2CH3

stable polymer molecules

Because activated chains of variable lengths can collide (different values of x
and y) and because of the two possible processes, the polymer molecules formed
have different chain lengths (different values of x or y or x + y) and so different
masses. Hence in any polymer sample there is a distribution of molecular weights as

14 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

shown in Figure 1.4. Consequently we talk about the average molecular weight
of a polymer; this is the average relative mass of all of the molecules present in
the sample.
average molecular FIGURE 1.4

having the molecular weight

weight 46 000
A typical molecular

Number of molecules
weight distribution for
a polymer. The graph
shows the number of
molecules having a
particular molecular
weight as a function of
molecular weight

2 4 6 8 10

Molecular weight ( 104)

1.7 TWO OTHER ADDITION POLYMERS

Several other common polymers are addition polymers made from monomers in
which one of the H atoms of ethylene has been replaced by a different atom or
group such as Cl or CH3. We can represent such monomers as CH2CHX
and the polymer as:
CH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CH

X X X X X X
As with polyethylene, we can abbreviate this to:

PVC, or poly(vinyl chloride), is made from the monomer, vinyl chloride,

CH2CHCl
The systematic name for this monomer is chloroethene and therefore for the
polymer is poly(l-chloroethene). Apart from polyethylene this is the cheapest
and most widely used polymer. It has the structure:
CH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CH

Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
which can again be abbreviated to

Another common addition polymer is polystyrene, made from the monomer
styrene which has the structure:

The 1- is not necessary in chloroethene. Why? It is included in the name of the polymer to
indicate that the Cl atoms are on alternate C atoms and never on adjacent Cs.

TWO OTHER ADDITION POLYMERS SECTION 1.7 15

 The side group herethe X aboveis the so-called phenyl group. It comes
from the compound benzene, C6H6, in the same way as alkyl groups come from
alkanesby removal of a hydrogen atom. Benzene is a cyclic hydrocarbon with
six C atoms in a planar hexagonal ring and with a H atom attached to each C.
We can think of the CC bonds as being alternate double and single bonds
though this is not an accurate description of the true structure. The phenyl group
can replace an H atom in ethylene in the same way as Cl does.
The above structure for styrene is cumbersome to draw, so chemists have a
shorthand way of drawing benzene rings (or phenyl groups): they just draw the
ring structure, leaving out the C and H atoms. It is understood that there is a C
atom at every apex of the structure and attached to it are sufcient H atoms to
bring the valence of the C up to its usual 4. The full and abbreviated structures
for benzene and styrene are in Figure 1.5.
FIGURE 1.5 (a) H (b) CH2 CH CH2 CH
Full and abbreviated
structures for (a) benzene H C H H C H
and (b) styrene C C C C

C C C C
H C H H C H

H H
Styrene is the common name for this monomer; its systematic name is
phenylethene. The IUPAC preferred name is styrene.
A segment of the structure of polystyrene is:
CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

Naming polymers
So far we have had polyethylene, poly(vinyl chloride) and polystyrene. Polymers
are named by putting poly in front of the name of the monomer, but when do
we use brackets around the monomer name and when not? Brackets are used:
when the monomer name is more than one word, as in poly(vinyl chloride),
PVC or
when the monomer name begins with a number, as in poly(1-chloroethene),
the systematic name for PVC.

Exercises
15 Would you expect 1,1-dibromoethene, CH2CBr2 to form an addition polymer? If so
draw a segment of its structure. Include at least four monomer units.
16 a A sample of PVC has an average molecular weight of 7.2 104; what is the
average number of monomer units in a molecule of this sample?
b What would be the average molecular weight of a sample of polystyrene in which
the average number of monomer units per molecule was 800?
17 Draw the structure of the monomer you would use to make the following polymers:

16 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 aCHCHCHCHCHCH *b F F F

Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl CCH2CCH2CCH2

F F F
18 Perspex, commonly used as a substitute for glass, is an addition polymer of methyl
methacrylate, CH2CCOOCH3

CH3
Draw a segment of the structure of this polymer.
19 Using information in Table 1.3, draw segments of the structures of polypropylene,
polytetrauoroethene and polyacrylonitrile.

Table 1.2 summarises information about the three addition polymers

described so far. Their uses and the way these uses depend upon properties will
be discussed in Section 1.10.

TABLE 1.2 Common addition polymers, the monomers they are made from, and some of their uses
Name and structure
Polymer of the monomer Common uses

polyethylene ethylene (ethene) LDPE: milk bottles, soft toys, wrapping lm (cling wrap)
CH2CH2 HDPE: kitchen utensils and containers, more rigid toys,
rubbish bins, tougher carry bags

poly(vinyl chloride) PVC vinyl chloride electrical insulation, garden hoses, drainage and sewerage
(chloroethene) pipes, household guttering and downpipes
CH2CHCl

polystyrene styrene (phenylethene) car battery cases, tool handles, modern furniture, CD cases,
disposable drink cups (both foam and clear), foam packing
material

1.8 SOME FURTHER ADDITION POLYMERS

Table 1.3 presents information on four further addition polymers in widespread
use in the everyday world.

TABLE 1.3 Another four addition polymers, the monomers they are made from, and their common uses
Name and structure of
Polymer the monomer Common uses

polypropylene propylene (propene) motor car bumpers, rope and twine, household goods,
CH2CHCH3 moulded chairs, carpets

polyacrylonitrile acrylonitrile (cyanoethene) as a wool substitute in clothing, blankets, soft furnishings,

(acrylics) CH2CHCN carpet

poly(vinyl acetate), PVA vinyl acetate vinyl coatings on upholstery fabrics, paint, adhesives
CH2CHOCOCH3

polytetrauoroethylene, tetrauoroethene high-grade electrical insulation, non-stick surfaces on

PTFE (Teon) F2CCF2 cookware, pipe thread sealant

not required for NSW HSC

SOME FURTHER ADDITION POLYMERS SECTION 1.8 17

 1.9 RELATING PROPERTIES AND USES TO
STRUCTURE
In selecting a polymer for a particular use important properties to consider are:
melting or softening point
stability to heat and light
chemical stability
mechanical strength
exibility or rigidity.
Another factor is cost: we generally select the cheapest polymer that will do
the job.
As with all compounds, the properties of polymers are affected by their
structure. Important structural features for addition polymers are:
average molecular weight (or chain length)
crystallinity (extent of chain branching)
chain stiffening
cross-linking.

Average molecular weight

The average molecular weight of a polymer reects the number of monomer
units that combine to make one polymer molecule. This depends upon the
conditions used in the polymerisation process. Not all the molecules in a batch of
polymer have the same molecular weight: there will be a range of different chain
lengths as was explained in Section 1.6, and this is why we need to talk about the
average molecular weight.
For a given type of polymer, the longer the polymer chain (higher the
molecular weight) and the smaller the spread of molecular weights, then the
higher the melting point and the harder the substance is.

Chain branching
As already mentioned, we can get chain branching in polyethylene. If
polyethylene forms in long unbranched chains then these chains are able to
intertwine and align closely. This leads to an orderly arrangement; the substance
is crystalline. A high degree of crystallinity leads to high density, a high melting
point and a relatively hard and tough material. On the other hand, if there is a lot
of chain branching then the molecules are not able to get so close to one another,
they are not able to align themselves in an orderly fashion and so the material is
non-crystalline or amorphous as shown in Figure 1.3. This leads to low density,
low melting point, greater exibility and softness. High density polyethylene
is easily recognised by the way it crackles when it is crumpled. Low density
polyethylene is much softer and clingy. Gladwrap and similar wraps are low
density polyethylene.

Chain stiffening
Chain stiffening of an addition polymer involves putting a bigger side-group into
the linear chain to reduce its exibility. Changing from H of polyethylene to CH3
of polypropylene stiffens the chain only slightly. When the side-group is changed

18 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

to a chlorine atom (PVC) or to a benzene ring in
polystyrene, both much bigger than a CH3 group,
the ability of the chain to op around is greatly
restricted. The material becomes stiffer and much
more rigid. PVC without additives (plasticisers)
to soften it is quite rigid. Polystyrene, which
contains a benzene ring, is a hard plastic used
for screwdriver handles, car battery cases, some
plastic furniture and the like. Polyethylene, even
the high density form, is never as hard or as rigid
as polystyrene or unplasticised PVC because it
lacks chain stiffening.
However when polystyrene is formed with gas being blown through it, it The addition polymer
forms soft beads or foam. The softness however is due to the gas trapped inside poly(vinyl chloride) or
the beads, not to the polymer itself. PVC is widely used
for plumbing ttings,
Cross-linking particularly for drain pipes

The rigidity or hardness of a polymer can be increased by what is called

cross-linking. This is a process in which two or more linear chains are joined
together to form a more extended two-dimensional network as shown in
Figure 1.6. Cross-linking is much more common in the condensation polymers
to be discussed below than in addition polymers. However it does occur in the
vulcanising of rubber. Natural rubber is an addition polymer of polyisoprene: it
is rather soft and sticky. If it is heated with a few per cent sulfur, the sulfur forms
SS bridges between pairs of linear chains. This introduces considerable
cross-linking into the material and makes it harder and more springy (elastic).
FIGURE 1.6
Cross-linking joins long
chains to one another:
this can make the polymer
more rigid (polystyrene) or
elastic (rubber)

The four properties just discussed can all be controlled in the manufacture
of these various polymers. It is therefore possible to tailor-make moleculesto
make materials with specic physical properties.

Solubility of addition polymers

None of the polymers mentioned so far contains OH groups or exposed O
atoms and so these polymers cannot form hydrogen bonds with water. Although
some of them contain polar CCl or CN bonds, there are many more non-
polar bonds. Consequently these polymers are quite insoluble in water and are
generally hydrophobic (water repelling): this means that they are not easily
wetted by water.

Stability
Most of the bonds in these polymers are strong CC and CH bonds and
so these molecules are fairly stable. Polytetrauoroethene (Table 1.3) has

RELATING PROPERTIES AND USES TO STRUCTURE SECTION 1.9 19

 CF bonds which are much stronger than CH bonds. This makes the
polymer the most stable of those discussed so far. On the other hand PVC has
CCl bonds which are weaker than CH bonds. PVC is vulnerable to attack
by ultraviolet light (which can break CCl bonds) and so special additives are
needed to protect PVC exposed to sunlight (though PVC is extremely stable
underground or in the dark).
When heated to high temperatures, PVC decomposes to form hydrogen
chloride which is extremely corrosive: it is the cause of much of the damage that
results from res involving PVC. Acrylics, when heated strongly, decompose to
form hydrogen cyanide which is an extremely poisonous gas; this is of considerable
concern with the increasing use of acrylics in furnishings and carpets.

1.10 USES OF POLYETHYLENE, PVC AND

POLYSTYRENE
Having seen how structural features affect properties of polymers, we can
now look at how these properties determine which polymers will be used for
particular purposes.

Low density polyethylene, LDPE

Low density polyethylene, because of its extensive chain-branching, lack of
stiffening side groups and lack of cross-linking, is relatively soft and very exible
with a fairly low melting point; it is not particularly strong. These properties
make it well suited for making wrapping materials and disposable shopping
bags, exible toys, milk bottles and squeeze bottles in both the laboratory and
the home.

High density polyethylene, HDPE

High density polyethylene has virtually no chain branching. This means that
molecules can pack closely together in an orderly fashion, which results in
this polymer being harder and stronger and having a higher melting point
than LDPE. HDPE is widely used to make kitchen utensils and containers,
tougher carry bags, more rigid toys, a variety of building products, wheely
bins for household waste and recycling, and pipes for transporting natural gas
to households (replacing older steel and copper ones). The absence of chain
stiffening and cross-linking limits the hardness and brittleness of HDPE.

Poly(vinyl chloride), PVC

Poly(vinyl chloride), with its Cl side groups producing considerable chain
stiffening and with its polar CCl bonds producing quite strong intermolecular
forces, is a hard inexible polymer. Its CCl bonds make it vulnerable to attack
by ultraviolet (u.v.) light so it degrades fairly quickly in daylight; for outdoor
use PVC needs an inhibitor added to it to absorb the u.v. light. The rigidity
of PVC can be adjusted quite considerably by adding non-volatile plasticisers
to it. Consequently some formulations of PVC are quite soft and can be used
for electrical insulation and garden hoses; PVC is the common insulation
on household electrical wiring. More rigid formulations are used for many
household items, for drainage and sewage pipes, for household guttering and
down-pipes and increasingly for window frames.

20 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 Both PVC and polyethylene are cheaper than the other common plastics so
they tend to be used unless the product requires properties they do not have.

Polystyrene
Polystyrene with its large phenyl side group is the most stiffened of the common
plastics. Hence it is very hard and rigid. With only CC and CH bonds it is
also very stable to heat and u.v. light. With minimal chain branching it is very
crystalline and can be formed into very clear transparent objects. It is widely
used for making tool handles, car battery cases, high quality modern furniture
and assorted ornaments, CD cases and clear disposable drink glasses.
Despite its inherent hardness polystyrene is used to make foam drink cups,
bean-bag ller and foam packing materials, both moulded-to-t ones and pellets.
These uses arise because, if gas is bubbled through the styrene mixture as it is
polymerising, a very light-weight foam is formed which solidies as a very spongy
material. The sponginess arises from the gas bubbles that are trapped inside the
polymerised material. It is the compressibility of the gas that gives polystyrene
foam its softness and lightness; the actual polystyrene is still quite hard.

WEBSITES
For further information about structure and uses of polymers:
http://www.pslc.ws/macrog/index.htm
(scroll down a bit, then click on a level. Level One is very good for uses of polymers.)
http://www.pacia.org.au
(click on Education, then, on the left side of the screen under Education and Resources for
Students, click on Orica Chem Fact Sheets; select polyethylene or polypropylene or any
other chemical of interest.)
http://www.kcpc.usyd.edu.au/discovery/Syllabus.html
(click on Addition polymerisation scenic route. Lots of interesting information though much
of it is outside the HSC syllabus.)

Exercises
20 Arrange the three polymers, polyethylene, PVC and polystyrene in order of increasing
chain stiffness. Explain your reasoning. Which of these would you expect to be the
most exible or pliable and which the least? Explain why.
21 Draw a section of a polyethylene molecule with chain branching.
22 What type(s) of intermolecular forces would you expect in:
a polyethylene b poly(vinyl chloride) *c polystyrene?
Draw a diagram to illustrate for (b)
23 Which of LDPE, HDPE, PVC or polystyrene would be most suitable for making each of
the following products? Give your reasoning. If you are unable to make a clear choice
discuss the possibilities.
a disposable juice bottles
b reusable juice bottles (for daily use in school lunch packs)
c plastic raincoats
d transparent protective covers for outdoor light bulbs
*e outer casings for desktop computers and printers
*f self-assembly toys for young children such as buildings, boats, robots and dolls.
*g insulating sheath for keeping a wine bottle cool

USES OF POLYETHYLENE, PVC AND POLYSTYRENE SECTION 1.10 21

 1.11 WILL RAW MATERIALS RUN OUT?
The raw materials for making the polymers just described come from crude
oil (basically ethylene and propene). There is considerable concern that the
world is going to use up all its available oil reserves within the next few decades.
Some analysts predict that supplies will be effectively used up by the middle of
this century: others suggest a few decades later. How long oil supplies will last
depends upon our rate of consumptionwhether it continues to increase rapidly
as it has done in the last half century or whether our use starts to decline.
By far the major use of crude oil is as a fuel for cars, planes and trains.
Currently there is pressure to reduce energy use and to develop alternative fuels,
rst because of the greenhouse problem (p. 288 CCPC) and secondly because as
supplies of oil diminish the cost will increase. However progress in this direction
has been slow.
Currently the petrochemical industry (mainly plastics) consumes only about
3 to 5% of the total oil used in the world today.
Some scientists argue that because oil supplies are going to run out in the
foreseeable future, we should be developing alternative sources of the raw
materials for plastics. They point to ethanol obtained from agricultural crops as a
possible source of ethylene for making polymers.
Others argue that as oil supplies diminish, costs will increase and oil will
become too expensive to use as a fuel: overall energy use will fall and alternative
fuels will become cost effective. The petrochemical industry will be less affected
by price rises (because the cost of raw materials is a smaller proportion of
the cost of the nished products) and so will still be able to afford to use oil.
Consequently, these people argue, the remaining oil will become the exclusive
domain of the petrochemical industry and will last for many more decades.
Regardless of which argument is correct, it would be prudent for the plastics
industry to develop alternative sources of ethylene and propene.
Ethanol is the prime candidate for an alternative source of ethylene. Ethanol
can be produced by fermentation of starch and sugars from a variety of
agricultural crops and it can be easily converted to ethylene. We will discuss this
approach in Section 1.16.
There is however an even more tantalising source for starting materials for
making many of the polymers that are so useful today, and that is cellulose.
Cellulose is a major component of plant material, whereas starch and sugars
are minor components. In order to explore the possible use of cellulose for
making petrochemicals, we need to look at the general structure of natural
polymers (starch, cellulose, proteins). This leads us to what are called
condensation polymers.

1.12 CONDENSATION POLYMERS

Condensation polymers are polymers that form by the elimination of a small
molecule (often water) when pairs of monomer molecules join together.

Cellulose is a naturally occurring condensation polymer. The monomer from

which it forms is glucose. To illustrate condensation polymerisation let us write
glucose, which has the molecular formula C6H12O6 as HOC6H10O4OH.
The polymerisation occurs by the elimination of water molecules from between
pairs of glucose molecules:

22 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS



(1.2)

Alternatively we can write this as:

n(HOC6H10O4OH) H(OC6H10O4)nOH + (n 1)H2O
This is saying that n molecules of glucose combine to form one molecule of
cellulose (which contains n glucose units) by eliminating (n 1) molecules of water.
A synthetic condensation polymer is nylon-6. This is a particular type of
nylon formed from the monomer 6-aminohexanoic acid which has the structure:
H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH
This can be written as H2N(CH2)5COOH. This molecule contains
two functional groups (pp. 2667 CCPC), the amine group NH2 and the
carboxylic acid group COOH. Although written in these ways for convenience,
their full structures are:

Carboxylic acids react with amines:

where Ra and Rb are the rest of the molecules (commonly alkyl groups). For
convenience this reaction is often written as:
RaCOOH + H2NRb RaCONHRb + H2O
Molecules of 6-aminohexanoic acid having both functional groups can react with
one another to form a polymer. The polymerisation reaction is:

The chemical bond that has formed here is the same as occurs when proteins
form: a carboxylic acid group COOH combines with an amine group H2N
to form what is called an amide link CONH. In biochemical contexts this is
called a peptide link. In nylon-6 all the monomer units are identical. Nylon-6 was
the rst nylon to be made but it is not the common nylon today. Nylon is actually
a trade name. The generic name is polyamide.
Proteins are condensation polymers made from amino acids. Amino acids
are compounds with a COOH group at one end and a NH2 group at the other.
When proteins form from amino acids, different amino acids are strung together
sequentially in the one chain. The properties of the protein depend as much upon
the sequence of amino acids as upon the number of them in the chain. Proteins will
be discussed in Chapter 14. 6-aminohexanoic acid is an amino acid, though not a

CONDENSATION POLYMERS SECTION 1.12 23

 naturally occurring one, and therefore it is not involved in any proteins.
The condensation polymer made from ethylene glycol and terephthalic
acid is known as polyester when used as a bre (such as terylene) and as PET
or poly(ethylene terephthalate) when used for drink bottles. This polymer plus
nylon are the main synthetic condensation polymers in use today.

The condensation polymers nylon (left) and polyester (right) are widely used for carpets and textiles
because they form as linear (unbranched) molecules that stick together via hydrogen bonding to
form bres

Exercises
24 What would be the average molar mass of cellulose that contained on average
300 glucose units per molecule? What would have been the mass of the glucose from
which this cellulose had been formed?
25 The structure for cellulose can be written as H(OC6H10O4)nOH. Write the
structure of nylon-6 in the same way.
26 a Poly(ethylene glycol) or Carbowax can be considered a condensation polymer
formed from ethylene glycol, HOCH2CH2OH. Draw a structure for a segment
of this polymer. Include at least four monomer units.
b Carbowax can also be considered as an addition polymer of ethylene oxide.
Explain how this can be so. (Carbowax is made by polymerising ethylene oxide,
not from ethylene glycol.)
27 Glycine is the simplest amino acid: H2NCH2COOH. Draw a structure for the
simplest possible protein, a condensation polymer formed from glycine.
28 a What is the essential feature that a molecule must have in order for it to be
involved in the formation of a condensation polymer?
b Would it be possible to make a condensation polymer from each of:
i 1-propanol, CH3CH2CH2OH
ii 1-chloropropanol, ClCH2CH2CH2OH
iii 1,3-dichloropropanol, ClCH2CH2CH2Cl
either alone or with some other compound? Explain why or why not and if some
other compound is needed, suggest a possibility.
29 Poly(ethylene terephthalate), polyester or PET, is made from ethylene glycol and
terephthalic acid:
HOCH2CH2OH HOOC COOH

Draw a segment of this polymer, including two of each of the monomer units.

24 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

1.13 STRUCTURE AND POSSIBLE CHEMICAL
USES OF CELLULOSE
As already mentioned, cellulose is a polymer of which the monomer units are
glucose which earlier we wrote as HO(C6H10O4)OH. The structural formula
for glucose is (1):
H CH2OH H CH2OH
C
HO C O HO O
H H
H C OH H OH
HO HO
C C
OH OH
H H H H

(1)
(1) (2)
(2)

It has 5 carbon atoms and an oxygen atom forming a puckered ring; there
are OH groups on 5 of the C atoms. The side of the ring (top or bottom) on
which each OH group is positioned is important: interchange an OH and an H
on the one C atom and you get a different compound (galactose or mannose,
FIGURE 1.7
for example). Because structure (1) is quite cluttered, chemists commonly
Space-lling and ball-
abbreviate it to (2) above, that is we leave out the ring C atoms: it is understood and-stick models of
that there is a C atom at every apex of the structure. -glucose along with the
Figure 1.7 shows space-lling and ball-and-stick models of -glucose, the structural formula oriented
form that is used to make cellulose. An explanation of the in -glucose is given in approximately the
in Section 13.8. same way

H
CH2OH
O
HO
H
H
HO OH
OH
H H

When glucose molecules combine to form cellulose, the OH on the right-

hand C atom of one molecule (as drawn above) combines with the OH of the
left-hand carbon atom of the next glucose molecule; this forms structure (3).
CH2OH CH2OH
O O
O O O O O
O O O
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

(3)
(3)

This is the structure of the product in Equation 1.2.

For clarity several of the H and OH groups have been omitted from each
ring. The important points to note are:
for bonding to occur alternate glucose units must be inverted (tipped
upside down)

part of the option, Forensic Chemistry: not required for the HSC core.

STRUCTURES AND POSSIBLE CHEMICAL USES OF CELLULOSE SECTION 1.13 25

 this bonding produces a very linear molecule. The geometry of the rings and
the COC bond angles cause this linearity.
Cellulose is the major component of plant material or of biomass.

Biomass is material produced by living organisms; mainly it is plant material

though the term also includes animal excreta and material made by algae.

Cellulose as a source of chemicals

Cellulose is widely used as cotton, particularly for textiles, and as paper and
cardboard. But can it be used as a source of chemicals?
As we shall see in Section 1.16, starch is a useful alternative source for some
chemicals we currently make from petroleum, notably ethanol and ethylene.
Starch is also a polymer of glucose, though there is a subtle difference between
its structure and that of cellulose and this leads to quite different properties and
chemical reactivity. The structures of starch and cellulose will be discussed in
more detail in Section 13.9. Plants produce far more cellulose than starch, so
there would be great benets if we could use cellulose as a source of materials we
currently make from oil.
Each glucose unit of cellulose has six carbon atoms joined together
(Figure 1.7 and structure (3) above), so it could be regarded as a basic structure
for making starting molecules for petrochemicalsmolecules such as ethylene
(2 C atoms), propylene (3 C atoms) and butene (4 C atoms, a starting point for
synthetic rubber).
Figure 1.8 is a ow chart that shows how cellulose and starch could be
converted into ethylene which could be used to make many of the polymers we
currently make from ethylene derived from oil.
FIGURE 1.8
Possible production of
polymers from non-oil
sources such as cellulose
and starch

Unfortunately it is much more difcult to break cellulose into glucose than

it is to break up starch. This is because the long near-linear chains of cellulose
hydrogen bond to one another to form very compact bres, making it hard for
chemicals to get at the glucoseglucose links. However, there are two processes
for breaking cellulose into glucose:
1 digestion by cellulase enzymes. These enzymes exist in bacteria (present in
the rst stomach of herbivores) and in certain fungi. The process can be
performed industrially by rst treating nely ground cellulose-containing
materials (such as grain husks and stalks, bagasse and old newspapers) with

26 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 sodium hydroxide solution (or sometimes just hot water) to swell (open up)
the cellulose bres, then digesting them with cellulase enzymes to produce a
solution of glucose.
2 digestion with strong acid. This involves heating a suspension of cellulose-
containing materials (those mentioned above plus wood chips) with
moderately concentrated aqueous sulfuric acid solution which breaks
cellulose into glucose. Insoluble matter, particularly lignin from wood pulp,
is ltered off, many impurities are removed, then the acid is neutralised to
produce a solution of glucose.
In both cases the solution of glucose can be treated with yeast to form ethanol
and if required this can be dehydrated to ethylene (Section 1.16).
While this conversion of cellulose to ethanol and then to ethylene does work,
it has the major disadvantage that if much of the energy required for the process
(keeping reaction mixtures hot and driving the process machinery) comes from
oil, then more oil would be used making ethylene in this way than is used by
cracking the oil directly to ethylene (Section 1.1). Making ethanol from cellulose
is considerably more expensive than making it from starch or sugars, despite the
lower cost of the starting cellulose-containing material. Nevertheless considerable
scientic effort is currently being directed into developing more efcient ways of
using cellulose as an alternative source of chemicals we now obtain from oil.

1.14 BIOPOLYMERS
Biopolymers are polymers that are made totally or in large part by living
organisms.

Originally the word meant biologically-synthesised polymers such as

cellulose, starch, proteins and nucleic acids. However the word now includes
polymers that are chemically-modied versions of natural polymers and
polymers that can be produced by manipulating biological organisms.
Partially synthetic biopolymers based on cellulose have been used
commercially for nearly a century.
Some biopolymers that have been made from cellulose (itself a biopolymer) are:
rayon, also called viscose rayon or just viscose. This is a reconstituted cellulose;
cellulose that is unsuitable for spinning into thread for fabric weaving, such
as wood pulp, waste paper and sometimes straw, is treated chemically and
mechanically to produce bres that can be used to make fabric. Rayon
generally has a silky look and feel.
cellophane. This is a form of rayon that is produced as a thin transparent lm
which is widely used for packaging.
cellulose nitrate. This is a synthetically modied cellulose that was widely used
for photographic and movie lm early last century: it was also used as an
explosive (gun cotton) and as a plastic called celluloid. Unfortunately it was
highly ammable and was soon replaced by other plastics.
cellulose acetate. This is much less ammable than cellulose nitrate and is still
widely used, for example for overhead projector slides.
In cellulose nitrate and acetate the three OH groups on each glucose
unit of the cellulose molecule (can you identify them in (1) and (2) in
Section 1.13?) are replaced by ONO2 (nitrate group) and OCOCH3
(acetate group) respectively.

BIOPOLYMERS SECTION 1.14 27

 carboxymethyl cellulose, CMC. This is another cellulose-based biopolymer;
in it the CH2OH side chain on each glucose unit has been replaced by
CH2COOH. CMC is used as a thickener in many foods, because the
supply of natural alginate thickeners obtained from seaweed cannot keep up
with increasing demand.
Cellulose has been fairly widely used as a raw material for making products
that people need or want. However, to date it has not been practical to use
cellulose to synthesise polymers or other substances that we currently make
from petroleum.

Moves from natural to synthetic polymers

The commercial use of biopolymers such as cotton (cellulose), wool and
silk (protein) has been declining as the petroleum-based polymers such as
polyester (or PET) and polyamide (nylon) have been taking over. Similarly
natural rubber has been quite dramatically supplemented by a synthetic, SBR,
styrene-butadiene rubber which is a co-polymer (two monomers) of styrene and
butadiene. Again the starting materials come from crude oil.

A problem
There is a major problem with petroleum-based polymers: they are not
biodegradable. This means that when they are discarded into the environment
or put into rubbish dumps, they are not decomposed naturally by the action of
living organisms such as bacteria or fungi. Carelessly discarded synthetic plastics
are causing harm and often death to marine and bird life and remain eyesores in
landscapes almost indenitely.
One approach to building biodegradability into synthetic polymers has been
to alternate biopolymer sections with synthetic sections in the same polymer
molecule: biological decay of the biopolymer sections leads to disintegration
of the whole polymer. Another very recent approach has been to develop
biopolymers that have similar properties to the synthetic polymers but which still
retain biodegradability.

1.15 A SYNTHETIC BIODEGRADABLE

POLYMER
There is a range of microorganisms (for example from the Alcaligenes,
Clostridium, Rhizobium and Streptomyces genera (groups)) that under suitable
conditions can make polymers that have similar properties to polypropylene with
the important exception that they are biodegradable (polypropylene is not). The
biopolymer formed is a poly(3-hydroxyalkanoate) or PHA. Some explanations
about naming are shown in Table 1.4.
The simplest PHA is PHB, poly(3-hydroxybutanoate): the 3 means that the
hydroxy group is on the third carbon counting from the carboxylic acid group.
The monomer, 3-hydroxybutanoic acid, sometimes called -hydroxybutanoic
acid, has structure (4) and the polymer structure (5).

28 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 TABLE 1.4 Some general classes of carbon compounds
General
Class of compound formulaa Example

alkane RH CH3CH2CH3
propane

alkanol (alcohol) ROH CH3CH2OH ethanol

alkanoic acid RCOOH CH3COOH acetic acid

(carboxylic acid)

alkanoate (ester)
RCOOR' CH3COOCH2CH3

(acid combined with
ethyl ethanoate

'
alcohol)
a R is any alkyl group (Table 1.1); R' is another alkyl group (same as or different from R).

HOCHCH2COOH

CH3
(4)
OCHCH2COOCHCH2COOCHCH2COOCHCH2CO

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
(5)
The polymer is a polyester (same chemical linkage as in PET, Section 1.12).
Although PHB has quite a different chemical structure from polypropylene, its
physical and mechanical properties are very similar.
To produce PHB a culture of a microorganism such as Alcaligenes eutrophus
is placed in a suitable medium and fed appropriate nutrients so that it multiplies
rapidly and grows into a large quantity. Then the diet is changed to restrict the
supply of one particular nutrient (such as nitrogen): under these conditions the
organism is no longer able to increase its population but instead begins to make
the desired polymer which it stores for later use as an energy source. The amount
of PHB that the organism can produce is from 30 to 80% of its own dry weight.
The organism is then harvested and the polymer separated out.
PHB is much more expensive to make than oil-based polymers with
similar properties. However, there is a slowly growing demand for it where
biodegradability is a prime consideration. Such applications include disposable
nappies and packaging in the form of bottles, bags and wrapping lm,
particularly packaging for medical and hospital supplies.

WEBSITES
For further information about the conversion of cellulose to ethanol and about PHB:
http://www.kcpc.usyd.edu.au/discovery/Syllabus.html
(click on Condensation polymers scenic route, then Converting cellulose to ethene;
alternatively click on Biosynthesis of polymers for information on PHB)
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/e/r/erd127/index.htm
(at the bottom of the page click on any of the named processes for making ethanol from
wood (cellulose)).

A SYNTHETIC BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER SECTION 1.15 29

 1.16 ETHANOL AS A SOURCE OF ETHYLENE
As explained in Section 1.11, there are good reasons for wanting an alternative
source of ethylene for the plastics industry. Ethanol is such a source; it has
the structure:
H
H
H C C H
H O H

We saw in Section 1.5 that ethanol is an alkanol, meaning that it is an

alkane with one H atom replaced by an OH (or alcohol) functional group. The
geometrical arrangement of the bonds in the molecule is tetrahedral around each
carbon atom and bent around the oxygen atom. This geometry is better shown in
the ball-and-stick and space-lling models of ethanol in Figure 1.9. However for
printing convenience we generally draw it with bonds at right angles:
H H

HCCOH

H H

FIGURE 1.9
Ball-and-stick and space-
lling models of methanol
(left) and ethanol (right)

H
O O H
H

C H C C H
H H H H
H

Ethylene is made from ethanol by dehydration.

Dehydration is a chemical reaction in which water is removed from a
compound.
Ethanol is dehydrated by heating it with concentrated sulfuric or phosphoric
acid which acts as a catalyst:
H2SO4 catalyst
CH3CH2OH CH2CH2 + H2O
The reverse reaction, the addition of water to ethylene, is called hydration. It
was introduced in Section 1.5. Hydration also needs heat and a catalyst which is
generally dilute aqueous sulfuric acid:

30 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 dilute H2SO4
CH2CH2 + H2O CH3CH2OH
as catalyst
These two reactions, dehydration and hydration, are quite general reactions:
they apply to any alkanol or alkene respectively. For example 1-pentanol can be
dehydrated to 1-pentene and 3-hexene can be hydrated to 3-hexanol. (Naming
of alkanols was explained in Section 1.5.)

1.17 ETHANOL AS A SOLVENT

As mentioned in Section 1.5 ethanol is widely used as a solvent. In the home it is
a common solvent in:
cosmetics (perfumes, deodorants, after-shaves)
food colourings and avourings (cochineal, vanilla essence)
medicinal preparations (antiseptics)
some cleaning agents.
It is also widely used as a solvent in industry.
Ethanol is the solvent in
many consumer products
such as perfumes

Ethanol is a good solvent for both polar and non-polar substances. It

dissolves polar substances such as chloroform, CHCl3, and common ether,
CH3CH2OCH2CH3, because its OH end is very polar; the CO and
OH bonds are polar, because O is much more electronegative than C or H
(p. 189 CCPC). The partial charges on the ethanol molecule are:

Ethanol is therefore a good solvent for polar substances (p. 199 CCPC).
In addition ethanol can form hydrogen bonds with many other substances
(pp. 1902 CCPC) and this increases its ability to dissolve such substancesfor
example glucose and sucrose, carboxylic acids, amino acids and some proteins.
Because of hydrogen bonding ethanol is miscible with water in all proportions
(from 100% water through to 100% ethanol).
Because of its alkyl part, the CH3CH2, which is non-polar, ethanol
often dissolves non-polar substances also. Dispersion forces form between this
hydrocarbon tail and the non-polar solute. Non-polar iodine readily dissolves in
ethanol as do short-chain hydrocarbons such as pentane and heptene.

ETHANOL AS A SOLVENT SECTION 1.17 31

 Exercises
30 a Draw structures of the following alkanols:
i 2-butanol ii 3-pentanol *iii 1-hexanol
b Name the following compounds:
i CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH

ii CH3CH2CHCH3
|
OH

*iii CH3CH2CH2CHCH2CH3
|
OH

31 Explain why ethanol has a much higher boiling point than propane (78C compared
with 42C) despite having similar molecular weights (46 and 44 respectively).
*32 Offer an explanation for the fact that iodine is more soluble in ethanol than it is in water.
33 Urea, H2NCONH2, has a much higher solubility in ethanol than heptane does. Offer
an explanation: a diagram may help.
34 The dehydration of ethanol and the hydration of ethylene discussed above are general
reactions for all alkanols and alkenes respectively. Hence write equations (using
structural formulae) for:
a the dehydration of 1-propanol and 2-propanol
b the hydration of 2-butene
*c the dehydration of 3-heptanol
*d the hydration of 3-hexene
35 What type of reaction (substitution, dehydration, addition, hydration, polymerisation) is
each of the following?

a CH3CHCHCH2CH3 CH3CH2CHCH2CH3

Cl

b CH3CH2CH2CHCH3 CH3CH2CHCHCH3

OH

c CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 CH3CH2CHCH2CH3

OH

d nCH2CH

CH3

e CH3CHCHCH3 CH3CHCHCH3

Br Br
f CH3CH2CH2CH2OH CH3CH2CHCH2

g CH3CHCHCH2CH3 CH3CH2CHCH2CH3

OH

32 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

1.18 SYNTHESIS OF ETHANOL FROM
PLANT MATERIAL
Until about sixty years ago the major source of ethanol was fermentation of
starches and sugars from plant material. With the dramatic increase in use of
motor cars after World War II and the rapidly growing demand for high quality
petrol for them, the amount of crude oil being rened increased greatly. In
addition, processes were developed to increase the yield of petrol from rening
(catalytic cracking, Section 1.1). The result was that large supplies of quite cheap
ethylene became available as a by-product. In addition this ethylene was available
close to the places of greatest demand for ethanol, the industrial cities. Hence it
became more economic to produce ethanol from ethylene. Today fermentation
provides only a small proportion of industrial alcohol, though it still provides all
the beverage alcohol.
If it becomes necessary to produce ethylene for plastics from ethanol, then
fermentation will again become a very important industrial process.
Fermentation is a process in which glucose is broken down to ethanol and
carbon dioxide by the action of enzymes present in yeast.

For fermentation:
suitable grain or fruit is mashed up with water
yeast is added
air is excluded, and
the mixture is kept at about blood temperature, 37C.
Enzymes (biological catalysts) in the mixture rst convert any starch or
sucrose in the mixture into glucose and/or fructose, then other enzymes convert Part of CSRs
fermentation and
glucose or fructose into ethanol and carbon dioxide:
distillation plant at Sarina
in North Queensland
yeast where molasses left over
C6H12O6(aq) 2CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2CO2( g)
from extracting sugar
Bubbles of carbon dioxide are slowly given off: hence the name, fermentation. from cane is fermented
Yeast can produce ethanol contents up to about 15%. Alcohol concentrations into ethanol
above this level kill the yeast and stop further fermentation. To
produce higher alcohol contents it is necessary to distil the liquid.
If the aqueous mixture from a fermentation process is
subjected to fractional distillation (p. 15 CCPC), 95% ethanol
can be obtained. This is common industrial or laboratory alcohol.
To obtain 100% ethanol more elaborate distillation procedures
are needed.
Fermentation and distillation have been used to produce
ethanol for centuries. Ethanol was one of the earliest organic
compounds to be synthesised and obtained in nearly pure form.
Suitable grain or fruit for fermentation is plant material that
has a high content of starch or simple sugars (sucrose, glucose,
fructose). Starchy grains (such as wheat, maize or corn, barley),
tubers (such as potatoes, cassava or tapioca), and fruits (such as
grapes, apples) with high simple-sugar contents are commonly
fermented to ethanol.
Molasses, the leftover syrup from sugar milling, is also widely
used. Sucrose has a very high solubility in water; this means that

SYNTHESIS OF ETHANOL FROM PLANT MATERIAL SECTION 1.18 33

 the mother liquor left over after sucrose has been crystallised out still has a high
sucrose content, so ethanol can be obtained from an otherwise useless waste
product of sugar production. Much of the molasses from the North Queensland
sugar industry is used to make ethanol.
The economics of ethanol production change dramatically if sugar cane is
grown specically for conversion to ethanol rather than producing ethanol from
a waste product (as Brazil discoverednext section).

1.19 ETHANOL AS A FUEL

Ethanol is a liquid which readily burns:
C2H5OH(l ) + 3O2( g) 2CO2( g) + 3H2O( g)
It is also an easily transportable liquid, often used by hikers and campers.
Consequently it has often been proposed as a possible alternative liquid fuel
for automobiles. It has been used as a petrol extender in the past (particularly
during World War II) and in a few places in more recent times. One advantage
is that petrol containing about 10 to 20% ethanol can be used in ordinary petrol
engines without any engine modication. To use 100% ethanol engines need to
be modied.
Brazil in the 1970s and 80s adopted ethanol as its major fuel for cars. It
grew sugar cane specically for conversion to ethanol. The purpose was twofold:
to reduce consumption of non-renewable crude oil and to address a trade
imbalance problem (by replacing expensive oil imports with locally produced
fuel). The experiment proved extremely expensive and was virtually abandoned
in the 1990s though there are now (2005) moves to re-establish it.

Ethanol as a renewable resource

Ethanol has been promoted as a fuel for motor cars to supplement or replace
petrol on the grounds that it is a renewable resource. Basically it is made from
carbon dioxide, water and sunlight (via glucose), and when it is burnt it returns
to carbon dioxide and water which can be re-converted to ethanol. The cycle is
shown in blue in Figure 1.10.

FIGURE 1.10
energy for fertiliser
The ethanol cycle: the and cultivation
blue cycle is greenhouse glucose
neutral; the red inputs
mean that using photosynthesis
ethanol as a fuel still sunlight
contributes signicantly to sucrose starch
greenhouse emissions
CO2 and H2O industrial
combustion processing
in cars, etc.
aqueous ethanol

pure
ethanol

energy for distillation

34 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 Many people in Australia advocate the addition of ethanol to our petrol to
reduce our consumption of crude oil, particularly as local reserves of oil are
likely to run out within two or three decades. If we want to make oil supplies last
longer or save them for petrochemicals, so the argument goes, then we need to
nd an alternative, preferably renewable, liquid fuel for our cars.
Ethanol has also been advocated as a fuel on the grounds that it is neutral
with respect to the greenhouse effect: the carbon dioxide that it liberates when it
burns is just that which was used in its synthesis. However this ignores the other
energy inputs in the ethanol cycle. The blue cycle in Figure 1.10 is greenhouse
neutral. However the other energy inputs, shown in red in that diagram, are
quite signicantthe manufacture of most fertilisers has a large fossil fuel input,
and the distillation process (to get 95% ethanol from the 15% fermentation
product) requires much energy.
Currently ethanol has potential as a liquid fuel, particularly for transport
(cars, trains, planes) when oil runs out provided coal is available for making
fertilisers and supplying the energy for distillation, though as technology
currently stands this would not be much better than oil from a greenhouse
gas viewpoint.
The advantages of using ethanol as a fuel are:

It is a renewable resource and so would reduce the use of non-renewable

fossil fuel (provided less fossil fuel was used to make the ethanol than was
saved by using the ethanol in cars).
It could reduce greenhouse gas emissions (if the amount of CO2 not released
from oil because of the use of ethanol in cars was greater than the CO2
released from the fossil fuels used to make the ethanol).
The disadvantages are:

Large areas of agricultural land would need to be devoted to growing

suitable crops with consequent environmental problems such as soil erosion,
deforestation, fertiliser runoff and salinity.
Disposal of the large amounts of smelly waste fermentation liquors after
removal of ethanol would also present major environmental problems.

The current situation in Australia

1 Ethanol costs more than petrol to produce so the federal government has set
up subsidies and excise concessions to encourage the production of ethanol
(from crops) to be added to petrol (presumably to reduce oil consumption).
2 Car manufacturers accept that up to 10% ethanol in petrol has no
detrimental effect on vehicles but have opposed higher concentrations.
3 Signicant quantities of petrol with 10% ethanol in it are available in some
parts of Australia, but there is considerable public suspicion of this blended
fuel, largely because of incidents involving some petrol suppliers who put
excessive amounts of ethanol in their petrol (to gain from the government
subsidies), and because of car manufacturers who have widely claimed that
amounts above 10% could damage car engines and may void warranties.
4 There are no reliable studies to show whether ethanol as made in Australia
from wheat or molasses produces less greenhouse gas in total than does the
petrol it replaces.

ETHANOL AS A FUEL SECTION 1.19 35

 1.20 HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF ETHANOL
You will recall from p. 280 CCPC that:
The molar heat of combustion of a substance is the heat liberated when one
mole of the substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at standard
atmospheric pressure with the nal products being carbon dioxide gas and
liquid water.

As thus dened the molar heat of combustion is minus the enthalpy change for
the combustion process (because enthalpy change, H, is always energy absorbed).
In practice, when we burn a fuel the water generally forms as a gas. However
the values we tabulate are the ones we would get if the water formed as a
liquid. Table 10.1 (p. 281 CCPC) gave molar heats of combustion for some
common substances. In particular for ethanol the molar heat of combustion is
1360 kJ mol. This means that for:
C2H5OH(l ) + 3O2( g) 2CO2( g) + 3H2O(l ) H = 1360 kJ/mol
Example 1 illustrates how heats of combustion can be measured in a
school laboratory.

Sometimes this is just called heat of combustion. It is preferable to include the molar.

Example 1
The apparatus in Figure 1.11 was used to measure the heat released when ethanol burns
in air. Initially the small spirit burner, partly lled with ethanol, had a mass of 155.66 g. The
aluminium drink container with its top cut out contained 250 g water at 19.5C and was
suspended above the burner with a clamp in a retort stand. The spirit lamp was lit and
used to heat the water in the can (being carefully stirred with a thermometer). When the
temperature had risen about 15C, the ame was extinguished. The maximum temperature
that the water reached was 37.3C. The mass of the spirit burner and its contents at the
end of the experiment was 154.75 g. Calculate the heat released per gram of ethanol used,
and hence the molar heat of combustion of ethanol. The specic heat capacity of water is
4.18 J K1 g1.

FIGURE 1.11 thermometer

Apparatus for measuring
the heat of reaction for
combustion of a liquid
measured
volume of water

aluminium can

spirit lamp

The heat absorbed by a substance when its temperature is increased is given by

Equation 8.11 on p. 223 of CCPC, namely:
q = m C T

36 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

So in this example:
heat absorbed by the water = 250 g 4.18 J K1 g1 (37.3 19.5) K (1.3)

= 1.87 104 J (= 18.7 kJ)

Let us neglect the heat capacity of the aluminium container and assume that there were
no heat losses to the surroundings. On that basis the heat released by the reacting ethanol
must be equal to the heat absorbed by the water. That is:
heat released by ethanol reacting = 18.7 kJ
This is the heat released from burning (155.66 154.75) = 0.91 g ethanol.
18.7
So heat released per gram of ethanol =
0.91
= 20.5 kJ/g
= 21 kJ/g
(to two signicant gures which is all the accuracy of the experiment justies)
The molar mass of ethanol, C2H5OH = 2 12.01 + 6 1.01 + 16.0
= 46.0 g/mol
Therefore heat released per mole = 20.5 46.0
= 943 kJ/mol
That is, molar heat of combustion of ethanol = 9.4 102 kJ/mol

While heat of combustion per mole is useful and convenient for chemists, for
ordinary citizens who have to buy fuel by the litre or kilogram, heat per litre or
per gram is much more useful. Exercises 40 and 41 will highlight this aspect.

WEBSITES
http://www.kcpc.usyd.edu.au/discovery/Syllabus.html
(click on Ethanol from plants for information about the process)
For discussions about using ethanol as a fuel for cars and its greenhouse consequences:
http://www.canegrowers.com.au/
(click on Sugarcane Products then on Ethanol)
http://www.worldofmolecules.com/fuels/ethanol.htm
(a more balanced presentation of the energy and greenhouse cases)

1.21 OVERVIEW
In this chapter we have seen how crude oil and/or by-products from processing it
can be used to make the bres and plastics that are in widespread use today. We
have also seen that oil supplies are likely to run out within a few decades. Ethanol
from plant material such as starch and sucrose is a possible alternative source
of liquid fuel and of ethylene, the starting substance for many polymers, but
there are problems. Cellulose, a much larger fraction of plant material, has not to

This equation uses the usual value for the specic heat capacity of water, namely 4.18 J K1 g1.
The NSW HSC examination data sheet in recent years has given it as 4.18 103 J kg1 K1.
Use of this value in Equation 1.3 would give: 0.250 kg 4.18 103 J kg1 K1 (37.3 19.5) K
which of course still gives 1.87 104 J.

OVERVIEW SECTION 1.21 37

 date proved a practical alternative source of petrochemicals though progress is
being made.
A major problem with the petroleum-based polymers is their lack of
biodegradability. Progress has been made in the development of biodegradable
substitutes in the form of biopolymers.

Exercises
36 If 1.00 kg of a 10% solution of glucose in water in apparatus weighing 350 g was
completely fermented, and any gas formed allowed to escape, by what amount would
the mass of the apparatus and its contents decrease? What percentage decrease
does this correspond to?
37 The heat of combustion of ethanol is 1360 kJ/mol. What mass of ethanol needs to be
burnt to raise the temperature of 350 g water through 77C if 50% of the heat released
by the ethanol is lost to the surroundings? The specic heat capacity of water is
4.2 J K1 g1.
38 The heat of combustion of each of three different alkanols was measured as follows.
Some alkanol was placed in a small spirit burner and the mass determined. The burner
was placed under an aluminium container (of mass 21.7 g) lled with 750 g water. The
set up was as in Figure 1.11. The temperature of the water was measured then the
burner was lit. The water was gently stirred with the thermometer until the temperature
had risen by about 20C. The burner was extinguished and the maximum temperature
reached by the water noted. Results from the three alkanols are tabulated below.

Initial Final
Initial massa Final massa temperature temperature
Alkanol (g) (g) (C) (C)

methanol 124.3 120.6 20.4 41.3

1-propanol 127.8 125.2 19.7 39.4

2-pentanol 122.6 120.2 21.3 41.5

a of the burner plus alkanol

a Write equations for the combustion of the three alkanols.

b Calculate the heat of combustion per gram of alkanol and per mole. The specic
heat capacity of water is 4.2 J K1 g1. Ignore the heat capacity of the aluminium
container and any heat losses to the surroundings.
39 a The mass of the aluminium container used in Exercise 38 was 21.7 g. The specic
heat capacity of aluminium is 0.89 J K1 g1. Show that ignoring the heat capacity
of the container in your calculations for Exercise 38 introduced negligible errors.
b The values you calculated for the molar heat of combustion of the alkanols in
Exercise 38 are much less than those tabulated in books of data. Suggest some
reasons why the results of these experiments are low.
40 Some heats of combustion are: hydrogen, 285 kJ/mol; propane, 2220 kJ/mol; octane,
5460 kJ/mol; ethanol, 1360 kJ/mol. Calculate the heat released per gram for each of
these fuels. For a typical coal the value is 35 kJ/g. Arrange these fuels including coal
in decreasing order of heat released per gram of fuel. Why is this a better measure of
heat efciency of fuels than molar heats of combustion?
41 The result you obtained in Exercise 40 for the heat per gram for octane is typical of all
liquid hydrocarbons. On a mass for mass basis, then, how does ethanol compare as a
fuel with the liquid hydrocarbons?

38 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

Important new terms
You should know the meaning of the chain stiffening (p. 18)
following terms: condensation polymer (p. 22)
cracking (p. 5)
addition polymer (p. 13)
cross-linking (p. 19)
addition reaction (p. 8)
dehydration (p. 30)
alcohol (p. 12)
fermentation (p. 33)
alkanol (p. 12)
hydration reaction (p. 11)
alkyl group (p. 9)
molar heat of combustion (p. 36)
amide link (p. 23)
monomer (p. 13)
amine group (p. 23)
peptide link (p. 23)
amino acid (p. 23)
polyamide (p. 23)
average molecular weight (p. 15)
polyester (p. 24)
biodegradable (p. 28)
polymer (p. 13)
biomass (p. 26)
polymerisation (p. 13)
biopolymer (p. 27)
steam (or thermal) cracking (p. 6)
carboxylic acid group (p. 23)
substitution reaction (p. 7)
cat cracker (p. 6)
zeolites (p. 6)
catalytic cracking (p. 6)
ZieglerNatta process (or catalyst) (p. 14)
chain branching (p. 13)

CHAPTER
Test yourself
1

2
Explain the meaning of each of the items in the Important new terms
section above.
Why do oil reneries carry out catalytic cracking? Name the catalyst used
1
and write an equation for a specic example.
3 Name two important by-products from catalytic cracking and state their
major use.
4 What is the difference between catalytic and thermal cracking? How do
the experimental conditions differ for the two processes? What is the major
purpose of each process?
5 Compare the boiling points and solubilities of alkanes and alkenes. Explain
why they are so similar or so different. Which members of each class are
gases at room temperature?
6 What are the two major reactions of alkanes? Write equations for a specic
example of each.
7 List ve addition reactions of alkenes. Write an equation for a specic
example of each, using either propene or a butene as the alkene.
8 Name and give formulae for the rst six alkyl groups.
9 Describe a test for distinguishing between alkanes and alkenes.
10 How is ethanol made industrially? Include an equation.
11 Why does industry need to convert ethylene to vinyl chloride?
12 Write an equation for the polymerisation of ethylene. Name the product.
13 Name two other addition polymers and draw structures for them.
14 What are the systematic names for vinyl chloride and styrene?

CHAPTER 1 TEST YOURSELF 39

 15 Draw a structure for styrene and give its molecular formula.
16 What structural feature is responsible for the difference between low density
and high density polyethylene?
17 Use the polymers from Questions 12 and 13 to illustrate what is meant by
chain stiffening and describe the effect it has on properties.
18 Describe the structure of cellulose and give a molecular formula for it.
19 What are the major uses of cellulose?
20 Name one condensation polymer (not cellulose) and explain how it
is formed.
21 Describe some biopolymers that are made from cellulose and give some of
their uses.
22 What is the biopolymer PHB, how is it made, and why is there interest in its
commercial development?
23 Explain how we could obtain ethylene from ethanol if oil supplies were to
run out.
24 What types of compounds dissolve in ethanol? Give some specic examples.
25 Describe how ethanol is obtained from plant material. What type of plant
material is used?
26 How would you measure the molar heat of combustion of a liquid such as
1-propanol?
27 On a heat per gram basis, how does ethanol compare as a fuel with liquid
hydrocarbons?
28 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using ethanol as a fuel for
motor cars.

40 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 CHAPTER 2

Electrochemistry
IN THIS CHAPTER
Displacement reactions Anode and cathode
Displacement reactions and the activity Some commercial galvanic cells
series Rechargeable batteries (cells)
Valence and oxidation states Fuel cells
Electricity from redox reactions Gratzel cell
Some technical terms for cells Standard electrode potentials
Purpose of the salt bridge Calculating EMFs for reactions and cells

Many of the appliances and devices we use in our everyday life need easily
portable sources of electricitybatteries, as we call them. Examples range
from simple torches, clocks and watches, portable radios and mechanical toys
for children to calculators, cameras, cordless drills and shavers and motor
car batteries, and more recently to mobile telephones, portable CD players,
video cameras and laptop computers. For all of these devices we use batteries.
Although there are many different types of battery in use, they all have one
feature in common: electricity is generated by chemical reactions.
In this chapter we shall look at how chemical reactions can be made to
generate electricity and we shall examine some common batteries in general use.
This area of science that is concerned with the relations between chemistry
and electricity is called electrochemistry.
We shall begin our study of electrochemistry by looking at the simplest
type of chemical reaction that can be used to generate electricity, namely
displacement reactions.

2.1 DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS

A displacement reaction is a reaction in which a metal converts the ion of
another metal to the neutral atom.

Examples will illustrate.

1 When a reddish-brown copper wire is dipped into a colourless solution of
silver nitrate, a black deposit of metallic silver forms on the copper (black
because the silver is very nely divided). If we let the reaction proceed for

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS SECTION 2.1 41

 a sufciently long time, the solution takes on a bluish colour due to copper
ions. This is shown in Figure 2.1(b). The reaction is:
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) 2Ag(s) + Cu2+(aq) (2.1)

FIGURE 2.1
Two displacement
reactions: (a) a granule
of zinc dropped into a
copper sulfate solution;
(b) copper wire dipped
into a silver nitrate
solution. For each case
the left-hand test tube
shows the metal just after
being dropped into the
solution: in the right-hand
test tube the metal has
been in the solution for
ten to twenty minutes

(a) (b)

Copper loses two electrons to form Cu2+ and hence is oxidised. Silver ions
gain electrons to form Ag and so are reduced.
Recall from p. 117 CCPC the denitions:
Oxidation is loss of electrons.
Reduction is gain of electrons.

2 Similarly, when a silvery granule of zinc is dropped into a blue solution of

copper sulfate, the zinc gets covered with reddish-brown copper and the blue
colour of the solution is discharged (Fig. 2.1(a)) The reaction is:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq) (2.2)

Zinc metal has been oxidised and copper ions have been reduced.
We can show the oxidation and reduction processes more clearly by writing
half reactions (p. 118 CCPC). For Reaction 2.1:
Oxidation half reaction: Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Reduction half reaction: Ag+(aq) + e Ag(s)
And for Reaction 2.2:
Oxidation half reaction: Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e
Reduction half reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
The reaction of metals with dilute acidsthat is, with hydrogen ions,
(pp. 11617 CCPC) can be considered as a special type of displacement
reaction. The metal displaces hydrogen gas from a solution of hydrogen ions.
For example:
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

42 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 Again we can break this into oxidation and reduction half reactions:
Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2e
2H+(aq) + 2e H2( g)

Oxidationreduction reactions are also called redox reactions and electron

transfer reactions.

2.2 DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS AND THE

ACTIVITY SERIES
When we were establishing the activity series for metals on p. 119 CCPC, we
used reactions with oxygen, water and dilute acids to obtain:
{Na, K} > {Li, Ca, Ba} > {Mg, Al, Fe, Zn} > {Sn, Pb} > Cu > {Ag, Au, Pt}
where species within curly brackets had equal activities (based on the limited
criteria used there).
This activity series lists metals, from left to right, in order of increasing
difculty of losing electronsthat is, in order of increasing difculty of
oxidation: a metal on the left loses electrons more easily than a metal to the right of it.
From the series, lithium and calcium lose electrons more easily (are more easily
oxidised) than magnesium and iron; zinc is more easily oxidised than copper
or silver.
Displacement reactions also show which of two metals is the more easily
oxidisedthe one that goes into solution. Reaction 2.1 shows that copper is
more easily oxidised than silver (because copper goes into solution), so copper
is more active than silver. Similarly Reaction 2.2 shows that zinc is more active
than copper. In general, of two metals:
The more reactive metal is the one which will displace the other metal from a
solution of its ions.

From Reactions 2.1 and 2.2, copper should be to the left of silver in the
activity series and zinc should be to the left of copper, which is consistent with
what we already have.
Consequently we can use other displacement reactions to sort out some of
the equalities in the above interim activity series. By observing experimentally
which metal will displace which we can show that in terms of activity:
Mg > Al > Fe > Zn and Ag > Pt > Au
However displacement reactions do not allow separation of the other two
equalities, because of interference of the reaction with water. The measurements
on galvanic cells referred to on p. 119 of CCPC (and to be discussed in
Section 2.14) are needed to arrive at the nal activity series (Sequence 4.9 in
CCPC now to be called 2.3):
K Na Li Ba Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb H Cu Ag Pt Au (2.3)

based on measurements from galvanic cells, the sequence for the rst ve metals would be Li,
K, Ba, Ca, Na. The sequence presented here gives greater priority to the vigorousness of the
reaction with water: as we saw on pp. 11516 CCPC, K and Na react more vigorously than Li,
Ba, and Ca.

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS AND THE ACTIVITY SERIES SECTION 2.2 43

 Hydrogen has been included in Sequence 2.3 on the basis of reactions of
metals with dilute acid. Hydrogen has been placed just to the right of all metals
that will react with dilute acid to form hydrogen gas (and so just to the left of
those that do not so react).
Once it has been established, we can use this activity series to decide which
metal (of a given pair) displaces which from solution:
The metal further to the left in sequence 2.3 will displace the other metal from
a solution of its ions.

In other words, the metal further to the left loses electrons more easily or is more
easily oxidised. Similarly we can use the series to decide whether or not a metal
will react with dilute acid to form hydrogen gas: those to the left of H will do so,
those to the right will not.
Oxidation and reduction or electron transfer has some implications for
valencies and the way we name certain species.

2.3 VALENCE AND OXIDATION STATES

When we were discussing the naming of simple ionic compounds on
pp. 768 CCPC, we talked about the valence of various metal ions and of the
need with some of these ions to state the valence (in capital Roman numerals) in
the name: tin(II) oxide, iron(III) chloride, copper(I) sulde and the like. What we
referred to there as valence is also called the oxidation state of the element.
For monatomic ions the oxidation state of the element is the charge on the ion
(including the sign).

The oxidation state:

of copper in the oxide Cu2O (2Cu+ O2) is +1
of iron in the sulde FeS (Fe2+ S2) is +2
of titanium in the chloride TiCl3 (Ti3+ 3Cl) is +3
of chlorine in MgCl2 (Mg2+ 2Cl) is 1
of sulfur in PbS (Pb2+ S2) is 2.
There are other rules for assigning oxidation states in more complex
molecules but they need not concern us at this stage. The only other rule we
need is this:
The oxidation state of an element present in its stable elemental state is zero,
regardless of the formula of the molecule of the element.

This means, for example, that the oxidation states for elemental zinc, hydrogen,
chlorine, phosphorus, sulfur and argon are all zero despite the formulae being
Zn, H2, Cl2, P4, S8 and Ar.
A change in oxidation state of a species corresponds to a loss or gain
of electrons:
An increase in oxidation state corresponds to a loss of electrons and so
is oxidation.
A decrease in oxidation state corresponds to a gain of electrons and so
is reduction.

44 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 For example the change from iron(II) to iron(III) (+2 to +3) is oxidation (an
electron is lost):
Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + e
while the change from tin(IV) to tin(II) (+4 to +2) is reduction (electrons
gained):
Sn4+(aq) + 2e Sn2+(aq)
The change from bromide to bromine (change of oxidation state from
1 to 0) is oxidation:
2Br(aq) Br2(l ) + 2e
while the change from oxygen to oxide (0 to 2) is reduction:
O2( g) + 4e 2O2(s).

Exercises
1 Write equations for the reactions which occur in the following experiments:
a When a granule of zinc is dropped into a clear silver nitrate solution, the zinc
becomes covered with a black deposit of metallic silverblack because it forms
as extremely small particles.
b When a clean iron wire is dipped into a blue copper sulfate solution, a brown
deposit forms on the wire and the solution loses its blue colour.
*c When a piece of aluminium foil is dropped into a clear lead nitrate solution, a black
deposit of metallic lead forms on the foil.
2 Write oxidation and reduction half reactions for each of the reactions in Exercise 1.
3 By referring to the Activity series 2.3, select three metals which will displace:
a lead from a solution of lead nitrate
b iron from a solution of iron(II) sulfate.
Write balanced equations for these reactions.
4 a In which direction (left to right or right to left) will the following reactions occur? If
no reaction occurs, write NR.
i Sn + Ag+ Sn2+ + Ag *iii Cu + Al3+ Cu2+ + Al
ii Fe + Mg2+ Fe2+ + Mg *iv Pb + Ag+ Ag + Pb2+
b Balance the equations in (a), and write them so that they go from left to right.
5 For the reactions in Exercise 4, write oxidation and reduction half reactions; write them
in the directions in which the reactions actually occur.
6 Which of the following metals liberate hydrogen gas from dilute sulfuric acid:
Ca, Ag, Sn, Al, Hg, Cu, Fe?
Write balanced equations for the reactions that occur. Then write the oxidation and
reduction half reactions that make up each of your overall reactions.
7 a In each of the following compounds the metal exists as a monatomic ion. What is
the oxidation state of the metal in each compound?
i CrSO4 iv MnO2
ii Cr2O3 v Ce(SO4 )2
iii Mn(OH)2 vi V2O5

VALENCE AND OXIDATION STATES SECTION 2.3 45

 b In each of the following compounds the non-metal is present as a monatomic ion.
What is the oxidation state of the non-metal in each compound?
i KCl iv Fe2S3
ii Na2O v (NH4 )2S
iii AlF3 vi PbI2
8 Does each of the following conversions represent oxidation or reduction of the
underlined element, or neither? Explain why.

a MnCl3 MnO2 e Fe + S FeS

b NaBr Br2 *f NiO(OH) Ni(OH)2
c FeSO4 FeCl3 *g FeO Fe2O3
d Cr(NO3 )3 Cr2(SO4 )3

2.4 ELECTRICITY FROM REDOX REACTIONS

Redox reactions involve transfer of electrons from one reactant to another.
An electric current is a ow of electrons through a wire. We can make redox
reactions generate electricity by arranging for the oxidation and reduction half
reactions to occur at different locations, and by providing a wire for the electrons
to ow through. This occurs in all the batteries we use. The following experiment
demonstrates the connection between a redox reaction and electricity.
As shown in Figure 2.2, a strip of copper metal is suspended in a beaker of
copper nitrate solution, and a spiral of silver wire in a beaker of silver nitrate
solution. The two solutions are connected by a U-tube lled with a solution
of potassium nitrate held in place by plugs of cotton wool. This U-tube which
makes electrical contact between the two solutions is called a salt bridge; in order
to make electrical contact it must contain some conducting substance such as a
solution of potassium nitrate.
FIGURE 2.2
A simple galvanic cell mV

electron flow

salt bridge Ag
Cu
KNO3

Cu2+ Ag+
NO3 NO3

If a voltmeter is now connected across the pieces of metal, it is found that

the silver wire is about 0.5 volt positive with respect to the copper; if we connect
an ammeter across the terminals, a signicant current ows. The electron ow is
from the copper through the external circuit (meter and connecting wires) to the
silver wire.
If the copper strip and silver wire in Figure 2.2 are connected with a
conducting wire, and if the current is allowed to ow for some time, signicant
chemical change occurs:

46 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

1 metallic silver deposits on the silver wireas can be seen by inspection and
can be conrmed by weighing
2 some of the copper strip dissolves, again as can be conrmed by weighing
3 the concentration of silver ions in the right beaker falls appreciably, and
4 the concentration of copper ions in the left beaker increases.

In other words, electricity has been produced by a chemical reaction. The

voltmeter showed that electrons owed out of the copper strip into the external
circuit then down into the silver wire. The process occurring at the strip of
copper metal is therefore:
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e (2.4)

and the reaction at the silver wire must be:

Ag+(aq) + e Ag(s) (2.5)

The overall chemical reaction occurring in our cell is the sum of these two
half reactions (with Reaction 2.5 doubled to balance electrons):
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) (2.1)

This reaction is simply the one that occurred in the test tube in Figure 2.1 when
a piece of copper was placed in a solution of silver nitrate; when the reaction
occurs in a test tube no electricity is produced.

2.5 SOME TECHNICAL TERMS

We use the name galvanic cell or voltaic cell for a device in which a chemical
reaction occurs in such a way that it generates electricity. Motor car batteries, and
dry cells for torches and radios, are galvanic cells.
The conductors of a cell which get connected to the external circuit are called
electrodes. In the present cell we talk about the copper electrode and the silver
electrode. Sometimes the term electrode is also used to describe the combination of
conductor and associated ion through which electrons enter or leave a cell; in our
example we can talk about the copper electrode and the silver electrode, or more
precisely about the Cu2+, Cu electrode and the Ag+, Ag electrode.
The solution(s) in a galvanic cell is (are) called electrolyte solution(s).
An electrolyte is a substance which in solution or molten conducts electricity.

In the cell in Figure 2.2 the copper nitrate, silver nitrate and potassium
nitrate solutions are electrolyte solutions.
The chemical reactions occurring at the electrodes are called
electrode processes or electrode reactions. Equations 2.4 and 2.5 are the
electrode reactions of the cell in Figure 2.2.

Cell and battery

The device in Figure 2.2 is a galvanic cell. Similarly the batteries we put in
torches, calculators and radios etc. are galvanic cells. Technically a battery is
several cells joined together in a common outer casing. The common nine volt
battery, used for example in smoke detectors, and car batteries are genuinely
batteries: in both cases they consist of six cells joined together in the one casing.
The common 1.5 V dry cell, the alkaline cell and the 1.2 V nickelcadmium
cell are technically cells, not batteries. Although battery is commonly used

SOME TECHNICAL TERMS SECTION 2.5 47

 instead of cell in everyday life, we as chemistry students should be aware of the
technical distinction.

2.6 PURPOSE OF THE SALT BRIDGE

If we remove the salt bridge, the voltage falls to zero and no current ows. Hence
the salt bridge is necessary to make this and many other galvanic cells operate.
What then is its purpose?
If the only changes that occurred were the ones already described, namely
Equations 2.4 and 2.5, then the beaker containing copper nitrate would end
up with an excess of positive ions (the copper ions produced by the electrode
reaction), and the silver nitrate beaker would end up with an excess of negative
ions (nitrate ions) because some silver ions have been discharged. Now it is quite
impossible to have an imbalance of positive and negative ions in any solution, so
some other changes must also be occurring. A closer inspection of the solutions
shows that the nitrate concentration in the copper nitrate solution has also
increased, and in the silver nitrate solution there has been a decrease in nitrate
concentration as well as in silver ion concentration. Electrical neutrality of each
solution has in fact been preserved. This implies that there has been a migration
of nitrate ions away from the silver nitrate solution through the salt bridge and
into the copper nitrate solution.
The purpose of the salt bridge is to allow this migration of ions to occur.

Both positive and negative ions migrate through the salt bridge. In Figure 2.2
not only do nitrate ions migrate from the right-hand beaker into the left-hand
one, but also positive ions migrate from left to right. Copper ions move into the
salt bridge and push potassium ions out into the silver nitrate solution. This
migration preserves electrical neutrality in both beakers (half-cells).
The electrolyte used in the salt bridge must be one which does not react
with any of the ions in the two solutions it is connecting. Potassium nitrate is a
good choice because NO3 and K+ do not form any precipitates with other ions.
(See the solubility data in Table 8.1 on p. 205 CCPC.) Sodium chloride is often
suitable, but not for solutions containing Ag+ because AgCl would precipitate.

When a galvanic cell produces electricity

1 One electrode reaction liberates electrons which ow out of the metal of the
electrode and into the external circuit.
2 These electrons ow through the metallic conductor of the external circuit to
the other electrode.
3 The reaction at the other electrode consumes these electrons.
4 Ions migrate through the solutions and connecting salt bridge to maintain
electrical neutrality.
These processes are true of all galvanic cells and are shown diagrammatically in
Figure 2.3.
An electric current through a metallic conductor is a ow of electrons.
Through a conducting solution it is a migration of ions; negative ions move
through the solution in the direction that completes the circuit for the electrons:
in Figure 2.3 negative ions move from right to left. Positive ions move in the
opposite direction. The connection between ions and electrons is made by the
electrode reactions which occur where the metallic electrode meets the solution.

48 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 Electrons flow through FIGURE 2.3
metallic conductor Schematic diagram of a
of external circuit. galvanic cell

Electrode Electrode
migration of
process process
liberates negative ions absorbs
electrons migration of electrons
(anode). positive ions (cathode).

The negative terminal of a galvanic cell is by denition the electrode from which
electrons ow out into the external circuit (torch bulb, calculator, radio). Oxidation
occurs at this negative electrode to provide the electrons for the external circuit.
The positive terminal of the battery draws electrons back to the cell from the
external circuit. Hence the reaction which occurs at the positive terminal to do
this is reduction.
A galvanic cell is an electron pump; it pumps electrons out of the negative
terminal into the external circuit and sucks them back into the positive
terminal. It can do this because a redox reaction is occurring in the cell.

2.7 ANODE AND CATHODE

Two terms which are frequently used in electrochemistry are anode and cathode.
By denition:
The anode is the electrode at which oxidation occurs.
The cathode is the electrode at which reduction occurs.

An aid to memory is this: an oxidation occurs at the anode. In the galvanic

cell of Figure 2.2 the copper electrode is the anode (because Cu is being oxidised
to Cu2+ there), and the silver wire is the cathode (Ag+ is being reduced to Ag).
Hence in a galvanic cell, the anode is the negative terminal while the cathode is the
positive terminal.
Terms and signs are summarised in Box 2.1.

BOX 2.1 IN A GALVANIC CELL

Electrode reaction Name of the electrode Sign of the electrode

oxidation anode negative

reduction cathode positive

2.8 VARIETY OF GALVANIC CELLS

A great variety of galvanic cells can be made in the laboratory. In addition there
is a wide variety of galvanic cells available commercially. Some of these will be
discussed in Section 2.9.
In the laboratory we can easily make cells having three different types
of electrodes:

VARIETY OF GALVANIC CELLS SECTION 2.8 49

 1 electrodes that consist of a piece of metal dipping into a solution containing
the ion of the metal, such as the Cu, Cu2+ and Ag, Ag+ electrodes in
Figure 2.2
2 electrodes consisting of an inert conductor (a piece of platinum wire or a
graphite rod) dipping into a solution containing both an oxidised and a
reduced form of the one element, such as a platinum wire dipping into a
solution containing both Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions (Example 1 below)
3 electrodes consisting of a gas bubbling into a solution containing the oxidised
or reduced form of the gas with an inert conductor (platinum wire) dipping
into the solution, such as a chlorine, chloride electrode (Example 2 below) or
a hydrogen, hydrogen ion electrode (Section 2.13).
Galvanic cells can be made by combining pairs of electrodes together as the
following examples will illustrate.

Example 1
A galvanic cell was made by combining a Zn, Zn2+ electrode with a Fe3+, Fe2+ electrode as
shown in Figure 2.4. As indicated by the voltmeter, the platinum wire (that is, the Fe3+, Fe2+
electrode) was positive.

FIGURE 2.4
The galvanic cell for mV
Example 1 +

Zn Pt

Fe3+
Zn2+ Fe2+
SO42 SO42

a What chemical reaction is occurring at each electrode?

b What is the overall reaction occurring in this cell as it produces electricity?
c In which direction do electrons ow in the external circuit?
d In which direction do ions ow within the cell?
e Which electrode is the anode?
a If the platinum wire is positive, the zinc must be the negative electrode, meaning that
electrons must be owing out of the zinc into the external circuit (thats what being the
negative electrode of a cell means). So the reaction occurring there must be:

Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e
The platinum being positive means that that electrode is absorbing electrons from the
external circuit so the reaction must be

Fe3+(aq) + e Fe2+(aq)
b The overall reaction will be the sum of these two equations, but before we can add
them up we need to have the same number of electrons in each half reaction (because

50 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 we cannot have free electrons oating around in a balanced overall reaction). Hence
we double the Fe half reaction:

2Fe3+(aq) + 2e 2Fe2+(aq)
then add the two half reactions to get

Zn(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq)

c Electrons ow out of the zinc rod through the external circuit (wires and voltmeter) and
into the platinum wire.
d Negative ions ow away from the platinum wire into the salt bridge and into the zinc
solution. This is because as Fe3+ ions are reduced to Fe2+ there is a decrease in the
amount of positive charge near the platinum wire and so there must be a movement of
negative charge (ions) away from that region to preserve electrical neutrality. Similarly
positive ions move away from the zinc rod into the salt bridge and into the Fe3+, Fe2+
solution.
e Oxidation is occurring at the zinc electrode, so the zinc electrode is the anode (from
the denition of anode).

Not all galvanic cells require a salt bridge. Sometimes the one electrolyte
can service both electrodes and that makes a salt bridge unnecessary. This is
the case in all our commercial cells, but before looking at them let us consider a
laboratory example.

Example 2
A galvanic cell was set up as shown in Figure 2.5 by making a chlorine electrode in the
right-hand arm of a U tube containing copper chloride solution and dipping a copper
rod into the left-hand arm (to make a Cu, Cu2+ electrode there). The chlorine electrode
consisted of chlorine gas bubbling over a piece of platinum wire immersed in the chloride
solution. The platinum wire was positive. What electrode reactions are occurring and
what is the overall cell reaction? In which directions do electrons and ions ow as the cell
generates electricity? Which electrode is the cathode?

FIGURE 2.5
mV
A galvanic cell without a
salt bridge (Example 2)

Cu Pt

Cl2 gas

Cl
Cu2+

VARIETY OF GALVANIC CELLS SECTION 2.8 51

 If the platinum wire is positive, the copper wire is negative, so it must be giving up
electrons to the external circuit. So the reaction there is:

Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e
(In this type of exercise it is best to start with the negative electrodethats where the
electrons come fromand then you can follow them around the complete circuit.)
These electrons ow through the external circuit to the platinum wire where the electrode
reaction absorbs them, so the reaction there must be reduction, namely:

Cl2( g) + 2e 2Cl(aq)
The overall reaction will be the sum of the two electrode reactions:

Cu(s) + Cl2(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)

Electrons ow from copper through the external circuit to the platinum. Negative ions ow
from the chlorine electrode through the solution to the copper electrode (and so complete
the circuit), while positive ions ow from the copper electrode towards the chlorine
electrode, in both cases to preserve electrical neutrality in the solution near the electrodes.
Reduction is occurring at the chlorine electrode, so it must be the cathode.

Exercises
9 Write the electrode reactions, and hence the overall reaction, that occur in each of the
following galvanic cells as it generates electricity.
Cell a: One electrode consists of a piece of cadmium dipping into a cadmium sulfate
solution; it is connected by a salt bridge to another electrode which consists
of a strip of magnesium metal dipping into a magnesium sulfate solution. The
magnesium is the negative electrode.
Cell b: One electrode consists of a copper wire dipping into a copper sulfate
solution; it is connected by a salt bridge to a solution containing both V2+
and V3+ ions (along with sulfate). A piece of platinum wire dips into this
solution. The platinum wire is the negative electrode.
10 For each of the cells in Exercise 9 what would happen to the voltage if the salt bridge
was removed? Explain why.
11 a Draw a diagram showing how you would set up each of the cells in Exercise 9
in the laboratory. Include some form of external circuit (such as a torch bulb
or voltmeter).
b On each of your diagrams show the direction of ow of the electrons in the
external circuit and the ow of ions within the cell.
c Label the anode and cathode in each cell.
12 Would you expect the cell in Example 2 (Fig. 2.5) to continue to function as a galvanic
cell if the copper chloride solution was replaced by a solution of:
a sodium chloride b copper sulfate c sodium sulfate?
Explain why or why not.
13 Which of the following reactions could or could not be used as the working reaction in
a galvanic cell? Explain.

a Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O( l )

b Mg(s) + Pb2+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + Pb(s)

c Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + H2( g)

d Pb2+(aq) + 2Br(aq) PbBr2(s)

52 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

14 A cell consists of a zinc rod dipping into a beaker of zinc sulfate solution; a salt bridge
connects this beaker to a second beaker which contains a solution of iodine and
potassium iodide into which dips a platinum wire. Sketch how this cell would look in
the laboratory. Measurements with a voltmeter show that the platinum wire is positive
with respect to the zinc rod.
a What electrode processes are occurring?
b What is the overall cell reaction?
c What migration of ions (if any) occurs as current ows?
d Which electrode is the anode?
15 Sketch a possible experimental arrangement for each of the following galvanic cells:
a a Cu, Cu2+ electrode joined by a salt bridge to an Fe, Fe2+ electrode
b an Al, Al3+ electrode connected by a salt bridge to Pb, Pb2+ electrode.
Use the activity series to decide which electrode would be positive in each cell. Explain
your reasoning. Hence write down the electrode reactions and the overall reaction
that occur as each cell generates electricity. On your diagrams show the directions of
electron ow and ion migration. Also label the anodes and cathodes.

2.9 SOME COMMERCIAL GALVANIC CELLS

A wide range of galvanic cells is in everyday use. Some are shown on pp. 23.

The ordinary dry cell

The ordinary dry cell is the most common and the cheapest of the commercially
available cells. It is widely used in torches, radios and calculators. The technical
name for it is the Leclanch cell, named after its inventor. Figure 2.6 shows
its structure.
positive terminal (metal cap FIGURE 2.6
on top of the graphite rod) The common dry cell
insulating seal (Leclanch cell)
zinc cylinder (anode)
NH4Cl paste
C, MnO2 and NH4Cl
carbon (graphite) rod (cathode)

negative terminal

It consists of a zinc outer casing, which is the negative electrode (or anode), an
aqueous paste of ammonium chloride (so it is not really dry!), and a mixture of
powdered carbon, manganese dioxide and ammonium chloride around a carbon
rod which is the positive terminal. Initially no zinc chloride is present, but as
the cell is used zinc ions are formed and ammonium ions are discharged. At the
negative terminal, the half reaction is:
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e
At the carbon rod (the positive electrode), the reduction half reaction is:
NH4+(aq) + MnO2(s) + H2O(l ) + e Mn(OH)3(s) + NH3(aq)
Manganese is reduced from an oxidation state of +4 to +3. This cell operates
under slightly acid conditions, because as we shall see in Chapter 5 ammonium

SOME COMMERCIAL GALVANIC CELLS SECTION 2.9 53

 chloride solutions are slightly acidic. This cell initially has a voltage of 1.5 volts
but this gradually decreases as the cell is used.
As already stated, this cell is relatively cheap. It was the rst commercial
battery and therefore had a big impact upon society because it made things
such as torches (ashlights), portable radios and battery-operated clocks and
toys possible. Today with many other cells available, the Leclanch cell is best
used for devices which need only small currents such as radios and liquid-
crystal calculators. This dry cell is robust, easy to store and use, and causes
minimal environmental problems upon disposal: the manganese(III) is readily
oxidised to stable insoluble manganese(IV) oxide and so becomes immobilised,
small quantities of zinc are not a problem and ammonium salts and carbon
are harmless.
Disadvantages of the cell are that it does not contain a very large amount of
electricity for its size, it cannot deliver very high currents and it can develop leaks
when it goes at (the zinc casing gets eaten away during operation).

The alkaline cell

This cell has a similar appearance to that of the Leclanch cell. However, the
electrolyte paste contains potassium hydroxide instead of ammonium chloride so
it operates under alkaline conditions instead of slightly acidic ones. The electrode
processes are basically the same as in the ordinary dry cell, namely oxidation of
zinc to zinc(II) and reduction of manganese(IV) to manganese(III). However,
because of the strongly alkaline conditions, the details are different. At the
negative electrode:
Zn(s) + 2OH(aq) ZnO(s) + H2O(l ) + 2e (2.6)

The reaction at the positive electrode is:

MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l ) + e Mn(OH)3(s) + OH(aq)
Because these reactions occur so readily under alkaline conditions, this cell is
able to delivery higher currents than the ordinary dry cell without suffering severe
voltage drop. Alkaline cells can deliver a greater total amount of electricity than
Leclanch cells of the same size. Hence alkaline cells are preferred for appliances
requiring high currents (photographic electronic ash units) or high total
capacity (tape recorders or childrens toys).
Alkaline cells appear more expensive than Leclanch cells but on a cost per
unit quantity of electricity basis they are comparable. They are relatively small
and robust and very practical to use. Their ability to deliver higher currents and
a greater quantity of electricity led to the development of portable higher energy-
demanding devices such as portable tape recorders and CD players and more
elaborate battery-operated toys.
Leakage problems can be more severe (because of the alkalinity of the
electrolyte paste) than with Leclanch cells while disposal problems are
similarly minimal.

Silver oxide cell

The silver oxide cell is a button cell meaning it is small and looks roughly like a
button; some are shown in Figure 2.7. It is widely used in miniature appliances

not required for the NSW HSC but is included here because it is such a common battery

54 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

such as watches, hearing aids and calculators. Quite small cells can provide
considerable amounts of electricity at a very constant voltage over a long period
of time.

FIGURE 2.7
Silver oxide button cells
can be made quite small
and are commonly used
in cameras, calculators,
watches and hearing aids

A typical design is shown in Figure 2.8.

The anode reaction is the same as for the alkaline cell, Equation 2.6. The
cathode reaction is:
Ag2O(s) + H2O(l ) + 2e 2Ag(s) + 2OH(aq)
Addition yields the overall reaction:
Zn(s) + Ag2O(s) ZnO(s) + 2Ag(s) FIGURE 2.8
A silver oxide button cell
(for watches, calculators
zinc (+ ZnO) and cameras)
insulating sealant

KOH in a porous medium

Ag2O, Ag
+

This cell delivers a very constant voltage throughout its lifetime, because
as it operates there is no change in the concentration of the electrolyte solution
(potassium hydroxide).

Lithium cells
There are many types of lithium cell available commercially; one of the most
widely used is the lithiummanganese dioxide cell (generally just called a lithium
battery), a use-once-only cell widely used for cameras, watches and electronic
devices such as calculators.
Lithium is the ideal metal for making negative electrodes, because it can
generate the highest voltage of any metal and, having a low molar mass, it can
produce more electrons per gram that any other metal. However it has the
disadvantages that it reacts with air and water (p. 115 CCPC) so lithium cells
must be water-free and sealed to exclude air.

Lithiummanganese dioxide cell

This cell is shown schematically in Figure 2.9. The negative electrode is lithium
while the positive one is manganese dioxide in contact with a metal. Because
lithium reacts with water, the electrolyte has to be non-aqueous.
Lithium releases electrons to the external circuit by the reaction
Li(s) Li+(soln) + e (2.7)

SOME COMMERCIAL GALVANIC CELLS SECTION 2.9 55

FIGURE 2.9
Schematic drawing of
a lithiummanganese
+
Li salt
dioxide cell Li in an MnO2 insulating seal
organic
solvent
metal case Fe

and manganese dioxide absorbs them:

MnO2(s) + Li+(soln) + e LiMnO2(s)
(= Li+MnO2, Mn being in the +3 oxidation state)
This cell is able to deliver much higher currents than zinc or silver cells and
produces a much larger amount of electricity in total than an alkaline cell of the
same mass.
Other types of lithium cell are:
solid state lithiumiodine cell, used in heart pacemakers
the so-called lithium-ion battery, a recently developed rechargeable cell
widely used in laptop computers, mobile phones and digital video cameras.

Flat battery
Batteries (galvanic cells) go at (that is, cease delivering electricity) when one
of the reactantsgenerally the most expensive oneis all used up. No further
chemical reaction is possible; hence no more electrical current can be produced.

Overview
Despite their varying chemistry, all the galvanic cells we have considered have
the same general structure shown in Figure 2.10.
Note that in any galvanic cell it is essential that the two active chemicals not
be allowed to come into contact, because if they did, they would react directly (as
in a test tube) and no electricity would be produced. The role of the electrolyte
in cells is to keep the active chemicals apart while allowing migration of ions
through the cell.
While a great variety of chemical reactions can be used to make galvanic
cells, they must be redox reactions, because redox reactions are the only ones that
exchange electrons.

56 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 conducting metal for making FIGURE 2.10
electrical contact with device The general structure of
the cell is inserted into galvanic cells

easily oxidisable chemical easily reducible

e.g. Zn, Li; often the metallic chemical, e.g. MnO2, Ag2O
electrode itself
electrolyte

must be kept apart

The batteries described in this section are use once only and throw away
type cells. They cannot be recharged. We shall look at the reason for this after we
have considered some cells that can be recharged.

FOR INVESTIGATION
Prepare a table that compares the chemistry of the ordinary dry cell, the alkaline cell,
the silver oxide button cell and the lithiummanganese dioxide cell. Then search out
information in order to prepare another table in which you compare the relative costs
and practicality (including uses), impact on society and environmental impact of
these cells.

WEBSITES
http://www.powerstream.com/BatteryFAQ.html
(a good introduction to common types of cells)
http://www.eveready.com/learning/howbatterieswork.asp
(general information on commercial batteries with a good simple account of the
alkaline battery)

Exercises
16 Use the information in Section 2.9 to write the overall reaction for the Leclanch cell
and for the alkaline cell.
17 The mercury cell is a button cell similar to the silver oxide cell, but with Hg, HgO
replacing Ag, Ag2O; the mercury electrode is positive. The solid state lithiumiodine
cell consists of a lithium anode and a cathode which is a solid solution of iodine in a
polymer: the electrodes are separated by a thin lm of crystalline lithium iodide.
Write the electrode reactions for these cells. Hence write the overall cell reactions.
18 a Initially an ordinary dry cell consists of an outer zinc cylinder surrounded by a
protective wrapping. Explain why this cell has a greater tendency to leak chemicals
after it has gone at than when it was new.
b Why would you expect a leaking alkaline battery to cause more damage than a
leaking ordinary cell?
19 What masses of lithium, zinc and cadmium need to be oxidised to produce a mole of
electrons? This highlights an advantage of using lithium as an anode in galvanic cells.

SOME COMMERCIAL GALVANIC CELLS SECTION 2.9 57

 2.10 RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES (CELLS)
Some galvanic cells can be recharged by passing an electric current through
them in the opposite direction to that in which they delivered current.
Two common rechargeable commercial cells are the lead accumulator
(car battery) and the nickelcadmium cell.

Leadacid cell (or lead accumulator)

The leadacid cell or lead accumulator is the cell in the common motor car
battery; it is shown in Figure 2.11(a). Six such cells are joined together in series
to make a car battery as in Figure 2.11(b). In the one cell the positive and
negative electrodes each consists of several plates joined together to maximise the
area of contact between electrode and electrolyte which allows the cell to deliver
a large current. The electrode plates are close together: this also increases the
current the cell can deliver.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.11
The lead accumulator: (a) a single 2 V cell, (b) a 12 V car battery which is six such cells joined
together. The electrode plates are close together (to generate high currents) and so are separated
by thin perforated plastic lm (partly cut away in some cells here). As the photo shows, after heavy
use the plates buckle with heat and eventually short circuit through the plastic lm and so the battery
becomes unserviceable.

Figure 2.12 shows the cell schematically. In the charged state the negative
electrode is lead while the positive is lead coated with lead(IV) oxide, PbO2. The
electrolyte is approximately 5 mol/L sulfuric acid. As the cell generates electricity,
both electrodes become coated with insoluble lead sulfate, and the concentration
of the sulfuric acid solution decreases. The electrode reactions are:
Pb(s) + SO42 PbSO4(s) + 2e
PbO2(s) + 4H+ + SO42 + 2e PbSO4(s) + 2H2O

58 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 FIGURE 2.12
A schematic diagram of

+
the leadacid cell
H2SO4(aq) PbO2

Pb (PbSO4) Pb

PbSO4 forms as cell operates

This cell has a voltage of approximately 2 V. To recharge it, a voltage

somewhat greater than 2 V is applied, with its positive connected to the positive
of the leadacid cell. This reverses the directions of the above half reactions. The
cell is capable of being charged and discharged many times.
Recharging a galvanic cell is simply reversing the spontaneous chemical
reaction that occurred when the cell delivered current.

Nickel-cadmium cell
The nickelcadmium cell consists of a cadmium, cadmium hydroxide negative
electrode and a nickel, nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH), nickel hydroxide,
Ni(OH)2, positive electrode, both in contact with an aqueous potassium
hydroxide paste as electrolyte as shown schematically in Figure 2.13. Both the
cadmium hydroxide and nickel oxyhydroxide are present as (insoluble) solids.
The electrode reactions are:
Cd(s) + 2OH(aq) Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e
NiO(OH)(s) + H2O(l ) + e Ni(OH)2(s) + OH(aq)

starting materials FIGURE 2.13

A schematic drawing of
the nickelcadmium cell

KOH
paste
NiO(OH) +
Cd Ni

Cd(OH)2 Ni(OH)2
form as cell operates

Cadmium is oxidised from the zero to +2 oxidation state while nickel is

reduced from the (unusual) +3 oxidation state to the +2 state.
Nickelcadmium cells are generally designed to look very similar to ordinary
cells or alkaline cells (so they can simply replace them). They have a voltage
of 1.2 V.
To recharge a nickelcadmium cell a voltage somewhat greater than 1.2 V is
applied, with the positive of the applied voltage connected to the positive (nickel)
electrode of the cell. This reverses the above electrode reactions and restores the
cell to its original state, ready to be used again.

not required for the NSW HSC but included here because it is such a widely used battery

RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES (CELLS) SECTION 2.10 59

Nickelcadmium
cells are available as
general purpose cells of
various sizes for direct
replacement of dry cells
and alkaline cells and
also as specially prepared
packs for use in specic
appliances such as
cordless drills (8 1.2 V
here) and video cameras
(5 1.2 V here)

Recharging a galvanic cell is simply reversing the spontaneous chemical

reaction that occurred when the cell delivered current.

Why are some cells non-rechargable?

Some commercial galvanic cells can be used once only and then have to be
thrown away. This is because if we attempt to recharge them, we do not simply
reverse the cell reaction but instead bring about a different reaction. For example
to recharge the Leclanch cell, we need to bring about:
Zn2+(aq) + 2e Zn(s)
However when a current is passed through this cell the reaction that
occurs is:
2H+(aq) + 2e H2( g)
This is not only ineffective for recharging the cell, but is quite dangerous
(because of the explosive nature of hydrogen).
There are now alkaline cells that are rechargeable. Reaction 2.6 in alkaline
solution can be reversed by recharging but there are difculties of the cell
overheating and exploding, so alkaline cells were generally considered to be non-
rechargeable. However some alkaline cells are now being made with improved
conductivity to overcome the problem, and by using chargers specially built for
them (pulsed current at carefully regulated voltages), these alkaline cells can
be recharged a limited number of times. Note carefully that only rechargeable
alkaline cells should be recharged and only by using a dedicated recharger.

2.11 FUEL CELLS

A fuel cell is a type of galvanic cell that can be recharged simply by adding
more chemical (fuel) to it.

Fuel cells can operate indenitely as long as we keep supplying the fuel
to them. The reason for this is that fuel cells operate without the electrodes
undergoing any change in the electrode reactions. This contrasts with rechargeable

60 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

cells, such as the nickelcadmium cell and the leadacid cell, where the electrodes
undergo changes which have to be reversed in order to recharge those cells.
The hydrogenoxygen fuel cell shown in Figure 2.14 is a typical example. The
electrodes are porous carbon with a coating of a catalyst. Hydrogen and oxygen
ow slowly across the separate electrodes while there is a potassium hydroxide
solution between the electrodes.
+ FIGURE 2.14
A hydrogenoxygen
hydrogen in oxygen in
fuel cell

KOH
solution

out out

porous membranes
with catalytic surfaces

At one electrode, hydrogen is oxidised:

H2( g) + 2OH(aq) 2H2O(l ) + 2e (2.8)

This makes that electrode negative. At the other electrode, oxygen is reduced:
O2( g) + 2H2O(l ) + 4e 4OH(aq) (2.9)

This is therefore the positive electrode. To write the overall reaction, we

balance electrons by multiplying Equation 2.8 by 2, then by adding it to
Equation 2.9 to get (after cancelling 2H2O on each side):
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l )
Both hydrogen, which is the fuel, and oxygen have to be supplied
continuously to the cell. The product, water, dilutes the KOH electrolyte which
therefore has to be slowly replenished during operation. It is because the
electrodes undergo no permanent chemical change during cell operation (in
contrast to rechargeable cells) that the cell can be operated indenitely by merely
keeping up the supply of fuel and oxygen.
The big advantage of fuel cells is that they provide direct conversion of
chemical energy to electrical energy and this can, in principle, be done with
80100% efciency. The main problem with fuel cells is developing catalytic
electrodes that can provide sufciently fast electrode reactions for the cells to
produce the high currents which are often required. This still remains the main
stumbling block to the widespread use of fuel cells.

Vanadium redox cell

This is a recently developed cell that is showing great potential for the storage of
electricity in the form of certain vanadium solutions. The quantities of electricity
it can store are in the order of megajoules rather than the kilojoules of the other
storage batteries. The electricity can be recovered by using the solutions to
operate a galvanic cell.
This cell uses two redox half reactions involving vanadium species in
oxidation states 2 and 3 and in 5 and 4 respectively:

FUEL CELLS SECTION 2.11 61

 V2+(aq) V3+(aq) + e and
VO2+(aq) + e + 2H+ VO2+(aq) + H2O [or V(+5) + e V(+4)]
(Think of VO2+ as being V5+ + 2O2 and VO2+ as being V4+ + O2)
The cell is shown schematically in Figure 2.15.
FIGURE 2.15 electron flow in the
A schematic drawing of a external circuit
vanadium redox cell

+
2+
V VO2+

V2+ V3+ + e VO2+ + e + 2H+ VO2++ H2O

V3+ VO2+
(V2+) (VO2+)

porous membrane

There are two electrode compartments separated by a porous membrane.

A solution of VSO4 ows through the anode compartment where V2+ oxidises
to V3+ releasing electrons to the external circuit. A solution of (VO2)2SO4
[i.e. V(+5)] ows through the cathode compartment where VO2+ takes electrons
from the electrode and so is reduced to VO2+ [i.e. to V(+4)]. Sulfate ions migrate
through the porous membrane to preserve electrical neutrality.
The cell operates in a ow mode with reactant solutions being recirculated
until the concentrations of V2+ and VO2+ drop considerably (as V3+ and VO2+
are formed).
The cell is recharged by passing an electric current through it (in the reverse
direction) and also by reversing the solution ow. This reverses the two half
reactions (that is, converts V3+ back to V2+ and VO2+ back to VO2+). Because
there are no changes to the electrodes during operation, the cell can also be
recharged by replacing the spent solutions with fresh ones (with the old ones
being regenerated at a more convenient time or place).

Exercises
20 As a lead accumulator discharges, it uses up the sulfuric acid electrolyte. Explain why
it is not possible to recharge this cell simply by adding extra sulfuric acid.
21 a A methanoloxygen fuel cell has been developed. Its construction is similar to the
cell in Figure 2.14. The fuel is methanol, the electrolyte is sulfuric acid and oxygen
gas (from air) is the other reactant. Deduce the half reactions for this cell (methanol
is oxidised to carbon dioxide), and hence the overall reaction.
b Suggest an advantage that this cell has over the one in Figure 2.14.
22 Is the vanadium redox cell a fuel cell or just a rechargeable cell? Explain.

62 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

2.12 THE GRATZEL CELL
Photovoltaic cells are devices that generate electricity when light falls upon
particular surfaces, usually silicon doped with small amounts of other
elements. They are quite different from galvanic cells. However in recent
years a photovoltaic cell has been developed that has some electrochemistry
involved in it. It is called the Gratzel cell, or more technically, a liquid junction
photovoltaic device.
The Gratzel cell is shown schematically in Figure 2.16. The photosensitive
material is a thin layer of titanium dioxide, TiO2 (red in the diagram) on
the surface of a thin sheet of glass (green in the diagram); this glass is made
electrically conducting by the depositing of platinum on it (black). A thin lm of
a solution of potassium iodide and iodine separates this electrode from another
sheet of conducting glass (the other electrode).

light FIGURE 2.16

The Gratzel cell

film of TiO2 plus dye external

solution of l2 and Kl circuit
conducting films of platinum
thin sheets of glass
electron flow

When light hits the TiO2 an electron is released: it ows through the external
circuit to the other sheet of glass. The electron released by the TiO2 is replaced
by oxidation of iodide:
TiO2(s) + light TiO2+(s) + e

2TiO2+(s) + 2I(aq) 2TiO2(s) + I2(aq)

and so the TiO2 can continue emitting electrons as light shines on it. The
circuit is completed on the bottom sheet of glass by the iodine absorbing the
returning electrons:
I2(aq) + 2e 2I(aq)
Doubling the rst equation and adding it to the next two shows that there is no
net change to the chemicals involved so the device can operate indenitely. The
only change has been the conversion of light energy into a ow of electricity
through the external circuit.
Titanium dioxide is sensitive to only a narrow wavelength range of light
so it is usually mixed with a suitable dye to extend its range across most of the
solar spectrum.
The layers of material used in this device are extremely thin, so much so that
the device is nearly transparent (though darkish looking) and so can be used as
watch faces which generate enough power to run the watch. Gratzel cells are also
being used as smart windowswindows that let light into a room but at the
same time generate electricity for the house.

THE GRATZEL CELL SECTION 2.12 63

 FOR INVESTIGATION
Prepare a table that compares the chemistry of the leadacid cell, a fuel cell, the
vanadium redox cell and the Gratzel cell. Then search out information in order to
prepare another table in which you compare the relative costs and practicality
(including uses), impact on society and environmental impact of these cells.

WEBSITES
http://www.science.org.au/nova/023/023key.htm
(fuel cells)
http://www.h2fc.com/technology.html
(fuel cells)
http://www.ceic.unsw.edu.au/centers/vrb
(vanadium redox cell: look in the picture gallery as well as reading the text)

2.13 STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIALS

Often chemists want to measure and compare voltages of cells and use them
to get a measure of the relative activity of metals in cells. To do this it is not
necessary to tabulate voltages of all possible cells but rather to assign voltages to
electrodes; that is, to list what are called electrode potentials. However before doing
this we need to clarify the meaning of voltage.

Voltage and EMF

As can be veried by anyone who has watched a motor mechanic put a voltmeter
across the terminals of a car battery while the starter motor is being operated, the
voltage delivered by a galvanic cell is not constant, but depends upon the amount
of current being drawn. The greater the current being delivered, the lower the
cell voltage. If we are going to compare voltages of cells, we need to standardise
the conditions under which they are measured. Hence we introduce a term called
electromotive force or EMF.
The electromotive force or EMF of a galvanic cell is the potential difference
(voltage) across the electrodes of the cell when a negligibly small current is
being drawn. It is the maximum voltage that the cell can deliver.

Modern solid-state digital voltmeters are high-resistance devices which

measure voltage while drawing a negligibly small current. Hence such voltmeters
give a good approximation to the EMF of the cell.
Strictly speaking, for comparative purposes we should talk about the EMFs
of galvanic cells rather than just voltages.

Standard hydrogen electrode

For reference purposes we tabulate EMFs of electrodes relative to one particular
electrode. The chosen reference electrode is the standard hydrogen electrode.
This consists of a piece of platinum metal immersed in a 1.000 mol/L solution of
hydrogen ions (hydrochloric acid) and through which hydrogen gas is bubbled
at a pressure of 100.0 kPa. A typical hydrogen electrode is shown in the left-hand

64 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

beaker in each of the cells of Figure 2.17. The half reaction associated with this
electrode is:
2H+ + 2e H2
FIGURE 2.17
Cells used for measuring

the standard electrode
potentials for the Zn2+, Zn

and Fe3+, Fe2+, Pt
electrodes

We specify a concentration of 1.000 mol/L for hydrogen ion and a pressure

of 100.0 kPa for hydrogen gas because cell EMFs depend upon concentration
and upon the pressure of any gas involved.

Measuring standard electrode potentials

Electrode potentials are measured relative to the standard hydrogen electrode.
Each of the other electrodes we are interested in is connected in turn to
this standard hydrogen electrode, via a salt bridge, to make a cell as shown in
Figure 2.17, and the cell voltage (EMF), including its sign, is measured.
As cell EMF depends upon electrolyte concentration and gas pressure,
we also require that the ion associated with the electrode be present at a
concentration of 1.000 mol/L and any gas involved be present at a pressure
of 100.0 kPa for consistency in tabulated data. These conditions, 1.000 mol/L
for solutes and 100.0 kPa for gases comprise, what we call the standard state.
EMFs of such cells are called standard electrode potentials.
The standard electrode potential, E , of an electrode is the potential of that
electrode in its standard state relative to the standard hydrogen electrode.

E is the EMF of the cell formed by combining the electrode with a

standard hydrogen electrode, and its sign is the sign of the electrode relative to
the hydrogen electrode. We use the superscript of E to denote that the value
refers to the standard state.
Standard electrode potentials are sometimes called standard redox potentials
or standard reduction potentials.
If conditions are not those of the standard state, we just use the term electrode
potential. Its value would be different from the standard electrode potential.

Dening the standard state for solutes as 1.000 mol/L is not strictly correct, but it sufces for
present purposes.
An older standard state is still in widespread use. It is based on a pressure of 1.000 atmosphere
which is a non-systematic unit of pressure that is gradually being phased out:
1 atmosphere = 101.3 kPa. A superscript o is used to denote that older standard state. E is the
standard electrode potential based on a standard state of 101.3 kPa, while E refers to the newer
standard state (100.0 kPa). You will see E in many texts. The numerical value, to the accuracy
used in elementary texts such as this one, is the same for both standard states.

STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIALS SECTION 2.13 65

 The cell shown in Figure 2.17(a) has an EMF of 0.76 volt with the zinc rod
being negative with respect to the platinum of the hydrogen electrode. Hence we
say that the Zn2+, Zn electrode has a standard electrode potential of 0.76 volt.
The cell in Figure 2.17(b) has an EMF of 0.77 volt, with the platinum wire
dipping into the Fe3+, Fe2+ solution being positive relative to the wire of the
hydrogen electrode; hence the standard electrode potential of the Fe3+, Fe2+
electrode is +0.77 volt (V).
Standard electrode potentials are assigned not only to the electrodes but also to
the reduction half reactions associated with the electrodes.

Not only do we say that the Zn2+, Zn electrode has a standard electrode
potential of 0.76 V, but we also say that the reduction half reaction:
Zn2+(aq) + 2e Zn(s)
has a standard electrode potential of 0.76 V. Similarly, the reduction half
reaction associated with the Fe3+, Fe2+ electrode:
Fe3+(aq) + e Fe2+(aq)
has a standard electrode potential of +0.77 V.
Because of the way standard electrode potentials are dened, the H+, H2
electrode has a standard electrode potential of zero; similarly the associated
reduction half reaction:
2H+(aq) + 2e H2( g)
also has a standard electrode potential of zero.
It is important to note that electrode potentials or redox potentials refer to
reduction half reactions only (and not to oxidation half reactions). We can talk
about voltage (or EMF) of an oxidation half reaction but we must never call it an
electrode potential; that term is reserved for reduction half reactions.
Standard electrode potentials for some common electrodes (or electrode
reactions) are given in Table 2.1. Such a table of standard electrode potentials
can be used to calculate EMFs of redox reactions or of cells and to determine the
relative oxidising or reducing strengths of different substances.

2.14 CALCULATING EMFs FOR REDOX

REACTIONS AND CELLS
Just as half reactions can be added to form complete redox reactions, so too
standard electrode potentials can be combined to calculate EMFs of complete
reactions. As an illustration, let us calculate the EMF of the rst reaction we
discussed in Section 2.1:
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) (2.1)

We rst break it into its half reactions:

2Ag+(aq) + 2e 2Ag(s) (2.10)

Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e (2.11)

Since the required reaction (Equation 2.1) is made by adding these half
reactions, it follows that:

66 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 TABLE 2.1 Standard electrode potentials at 25Ca

Oxidised form + ne Reduced form E (V)

F2 + 2e 2F +2.87
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e 2H2O +1.78
Au+ + e Au +1.69
MnO4 + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O +1.51
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e Pb2+ + 2H2O +1.46
Cl2 + 2e 2Cl +1.36
O3 + H2O + 2e O2 + 2OH +1.24
Cr2O7 + 14H+ + 6e
2
2Cr3+ + 7H2O +1.23
O2 + 4H+ + 4e 2H2O +1.23
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e Mn2+ + 2H2O +1.22
Ag2O + 2H+ + 2e 2Ag + H2O +1.17
Br2 + 2e 2Br +1.09
NO3 + 4H+ + 3e

NO + 2H2O +0.96
NO3 + 3H+ + 2e HNO2 + H2O +0.93
2Hg2+ + 2e Hg22+ +0.92
Hg2+ + 2e Hg +0.85
NO3 + 2H+ + e

NO2 + H2O +0.80
Ag+ + e Ag +0.80
Fe3+ + e Fe2+ +0.77
O2 + 2H+ + 2e
oxidising strength increases

H2O2 +0.70

reducing strength increases

MnO4 + 2H2O + 3e MnO2 + 4OH +0.60
I2 + 2e 2I +0.54
O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH +0.40
Ag2O + H2O + 2e 2Ag + 2OH +0.34
Cu2+ + 2e Cu +0.34
SO4 + 4H+ + 2e
2
H2SO3 + H2O +0.17
Sn4+ + 2e Sn2+ +0.15
S + 2H+ + 2e H2S +0.14
S4O62 + 2e 2S2O32 +0.08
2H+ + 2e H2 0.00
Pb2+ + 2e Pb 0.13
Sn2+ + 2e Sn 0.14
Ni2+ + 2e Ni 0.26
Co2+ + 2e Co 0.28
PbSO4 + 2e Pb + SO42 0.36
Cd2+ + 2e Cd 0.40
Fe2+ + 2e Fe 0.45
2CO2 + 2H+ + 2e H2C2O4 0.49
Zn2+ + 2e Zn 0.76
2H2O + 2e H2 + 2OH 0.83
Al3+ + 3e Al 1.66
Mg2+ + 2e Mg 2.37
Na+ + e Na 2.71
Ca2+ + 2e Ca 2.87
Ba2+ + 2e Ba 2.91
K+ + e K 2.93
Li+ + e Li 3.04

On the large, side arrows, oxidising strength refers to the oxidised form of the redox half reaction and
reducing strength refers to the reduced form.
a State symbols (phase descriptors) have been omitted in order not to clutter up what is already a
complex table. All ions are present as aqueous solutions; other substances are present in their
stable pure forms at 25C and 100 kPa.

CALCULATING EMFS FOR REDOX REACTIONS AND CELLS SECTION 2.14 67

 { }{ }{ }
Standard EMF Standard EMF Standard EMF
of the complete = of the reduction + of the oxidation (2.12a)
reaction half reaction half reaction

or in symbols:
EMF (total) = EMF (red) + EMF (oxid) (2.12b)

Now the standard EMF of the reduction half reaction in Equation 2.10 is simply
the standard electrode potential of the Ag+, Ag electrode, E Ag, which is +0.80 V.
Because the oxidation half reaction is the reverse of the reduction half reaction,
the EMF of the oxidation half reaction is minus the standard electrode potential
of the corresponding reduction half reaction. Hence in our particular case:
EMF (oxid) = E Cu = (+0.34 V) (from Table 2.1)
Hence EMF (total) = E Ag + (E Cu)
= 0.80 0.34 V
= 0.46 V
Reaction 2.10 is actually twice the reaction written in Table 2.1. Note
carefully that
doubling the half reaction does not alter E .

This contrasts with H s (p. 277 CCPC). The reason is that E is a type of
energy per electron. It does not matter how many electrons are in the reaction
writtenthe energy per electron is unaltered. Changing the direction of the
half reaction does change the sign of its EMF . In this regard EMF behaves
like H.

Example 3
Using standard electrode potentials from Table 2.1, calculate the standard EMF of the
reaction:
Ni(s) + Cl2( g) Ni2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) (2.13)
This reaction is made up of the following half reactions:
Ni(s) Ni2+(aq) + 2e EMF = E Ni
= (0.26) V = +0.26 V
Cl2( g) + 2e 2Cl(aq) EMF = E Cl
= +1.36 V
By Equation 2.12:
EMF (total) = +0.26 + 1.36
= 1.62 V

In summary: to calculate the EMF of a redox reaction, we use Equation 2.12

together with the fact that the EMF of an oxidation half reaction is minus the
electrode potential of the corresponding reduction half reaction.

Having seen how to calculate the EMF of a redox reaction, we need to

explore exactly what it means. While chemists often talk about the EMF of a

68 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 reaction, what they really mean is the EMF of the galvanic cell in which that
reaction occurs. The EMF of Reaction 2.1 is really the EMF of the cell shown
in Figure 2.2. With regard to sign, it is the voltage of the piece of metal where the
reduction half reaction is occurring relative to the other electrodein this case, the
voltage of the silver wire relative to the copper wire.
For Reaction 2.13 the galvanic cell it refers to would be like the one in
Figure 2.5 with a piece of nickel and a nickel chloride solution replacing the
copper and copper chloride solution respectively. Our calculation shows us that
the chlorine electrode (the piece of platinum wire) is positive relative to the piece
of nickel.

To calculate the emf of a galvanic cell

We rst write the redox half reactions associated with the cell, then follow
the above procedure. If we are told which electrode is positive, we write a
reduction half reaction for that electrode (and oxidation for the other) and proceed
as above. Alternatively, we write reduction at the electrode with the higher
electrode potential.

Example 4
Calculate the standard EMF of the galvanic cell in Figure 2.4.
We are told that the Fe3+, Fe2+ electrode is positive, so we write the half reactions:
Fe3+(aq) + e Fe2+(aq) EMF = E (Fe(III), Fe(II))
= +0.77 V
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e EMF = E Zn
= (0.76) V = +0.76 V
By Equation 2.12:
EMF (cell ) = 0.77 + 0.76
= 1.53 V
(with the Fe3+, Fe2+ electrode, the Pt wire, being positive relative to the Zn)

Example 5
Calculate the EMF of a cell made by connecting a Cu, Cu2+ electrode to a Fe,
Fe2+ electrode.
Since we are not told which electrode is positive and hence at which electrode reduction
is occurring, we use the suggestion above of writing reduction at the electrode with the
higher electrode potential. From Table 2.1 copper has the higher electrode potential
(+0.34 V compared with 0.45 V), so we write:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) EMF = E Cu
= +0.34 V
Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e EMF = E Fe
= (0.45) V = +0.45 V
By Equation 2.12:
EMF (cell) = 0.34 + 0.45
= 0.79 V
(with the copper wire being positive relative to the iron one)

CALCULATING EMFS FOR REDOX REACTIONS AND CELLS SECTION 2.14 69

 This example shows that when considering a galvanic cell with electrodes
A and B, Equation 2.12(a) can be written as:

{ }{ }
standard electrode standard electrode
EMF (cell ) = potential of potential of (2.14)
electrode A electrode B

where EMF (cell ) is the voltage of electrode A relative to electrode B. If we know

the values of the two electrode potentials, it is convenient (though not essential)
to make A the more positive electrode.
This equation is particularly useful when we want to calculate an electrode
potential from a measured cell EMF and a known electrode potential as in
Exercise 28(b) below.
Finally, concerning the signicance of the sign of the calculated EMF of the
reaction (or of the cell):
If the EMF of a redox reaction calculated by Equation 2.12 is positive,
then the reaction occurs as written; if the calculated EMF turns out to be
negative, then the reaction does not occur as written, but rather occurs in the
reverse direction.

A consequence
A consequence of that last calculation is this:
When comparing two reduction half reactions, the one with the larger standard
electrode potential has the greater tendency to occur. As it occurs it drives the
other half reaction in the reverse direction.

For example,
Cl2( g) + 2e 2Cl(aq) E = 1.36 V
Br2(l ) + 2e 2Br(aq) E = 1.09 V
The rst half reaction (with the higher E ) occurs as written and drives the
other one in the reverse direction: Cl2 oxidises Br to Br2 (and is itself reduced
to Cl).

Comparing Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) E = +0.34 V

and Zn2+(aq) + 2e Zn(s) E = 0.76 V
the rst half reaction goes as written and drives the second one in the reverse
direction: Cu2+ oxidises Zn to Zn2+ (and the Cu2+ is itself reduced to Cu) or,
stated differently, Zn reduces Cu2+ to Cu and is itself oxidised to Zn2+.
We can generalise from these examples:
The greater the standard electrode potential, the greater is the oxidising strength of
the oxidised form (left-hand side) of the redox half reaction.
Alternatively, the algebraically smaller the standard electrode potential, the greater
is the reducing strength of the reduced form (right-hand side) of the redox half reaction.
These trends are shown by the red arrows in Table 2.1.

70 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

Exercises
23 Three galvanic cells were set up, each having a standard hydrogen electrode as one of
its electrodes with the other electrode being:
i gold in contact with a Au3+ solution
ii cadmium in contact with a Cd2+ solution
iii a chlorine electrode (Cl2, Cl in contact with a platinum wire).
In all these cells solutes were present at a concentration of 1.00 mol/L and any
gases were present at pressures of 100.0 kPa. The standard EMFs of these cells
were i 1.99 V (gold positive) ii 0.40 V (hydrogen electrode positive) iii 1.36 V
(chlorine electrode positive).
a Use these results to calculate the standard electrode potentials of the three
electrodes.
b Write the half reactions these standard electrode potentials refer to.
24 *a What are the two different meanings of the word electrode? (Section 2.5)
b Many electrodes are of the types metal conductor, metal ion solution. Give six
examples of such electrodes.
c Some electrodes are of the type inert conductor (platinum or graphite) in contact
with a solution containing both oxidised and reduced forms of a redox couple. List
three such electrodes. For each give its electrode (reduction) reaction.
25 a For each of the reactions below, calculate the standard EMF:

i Cu2+ + Ni Ni2+ + Cu
ii Cd + 2H+ H2 + Cd2+
iii Pb + Mg2+ Pb2+ + Mg
iv Al3+ + Br Al + Br2
v Ag2O + H+ + Sn Ag + Sn2+ + H2O
vi Fe3+ + Br Fe2+ + Br2
b Balance any of the above equations that are not already balanced.
c In which direction (left to right or right to left) does each of these reactions go?
26 Use Table 2.1 to calculate the standard EMF of each of the following cells; state clearly
which electrode is positive:
a a nickel, nickel ion electrode connected with a salt bridge to a silver, silver ion
electrode
b an aluminium, aluminium ion electrode connected to a silver, silver ion electrode
c an Fe3+, Fe2+ electrode connected to a chlorine, chloride electrode
27 a Sketch what each of the cells in Exercise 26 would look like in the laboratory.
b Write the overall reaction that occurs in each of these cells as it generates
electricity.
28 a Calculate the standard EMFs for the silver oxide cell, the leadacid cell and the
vanadium redox cell using Table 2.1 and the following:
ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e Zn(s) + 2OH E = 1.26 V
PbO2(s) + 4H+ + SO42 + 2e PbSO4(s) + 2H2O E = 1.69 V
VO2+ + 2H+ + e VO2+ + H2O E = 1.00 V
V3+ + e V2+ E = 0.26 V
b The nickelcadmium cell has an EMF of 1.25 V. The electrode potential for the
cadmium, cadmium hydroxide electrode is 0.76 V. Calculate the electrode
potential for the nickel hydroxide, oxyhydroxide electrode.

CALCULATING EMFS FOR REDOX REACTIONS AND CELLS SECTION 2.14 71

 Important new terms
You should know the meaning of the galvanic cell (p. 47)
following terms. Gratzel cell (p. 63)
leadacid cell (lead accumulator) (p. 58)
anode (p. 49)
Leclanch cell (p. 53)
battery (p. 47)
liquid junction photovoltaic device (p. 63)
cathode (p. 49)
oxidation (p. 42)
displacement reaction (p. 41)
oxidation state (p. 44)
dry cell (p. 53)
photovoltaic cell (p. 63)
electrochemistry (p. 41)
redox reaction (p. 43)
electrode (p. 47)
reduction (p. 42)
electrode potential (p. 65)
salt bridge (p. 46)
electrode reaction (process) (p. 47)
standard electrode potential (p. 65)
electrolyte (p. 47)
standard hydrogen electrode (p. 64)
electromotive force (EMF) (p. 64)
standard state (p. 65)
electron transfer reaction (p. 43)
voltaic cell (p. 47)
fuel cell (p. 60)

CHAPTER
Test yourself
2 1

2
Explain the meaning of each of the items in the Important new terms
section above.
Write equations for three displacement reactions involving metals and
metal ions.
3 Write oxidation and reduction half equations for the complete equations you
wrote in Question 2.
4 Why do oxidation and reduction always occur together in the one chemical
reaction?
5 How can you use the Activity Series 2.3 to decide which metal will displace
which other metal from solution?
6 Name three metals that will displace copper from a copper sulfate solution,
and four metals which will displace silver from silver nitrate solution.
7 What is the oxidation state of (a) chromium in Cr2O3 (b) titanium in TiCl4
and (c) iodine in MgI2?
8 When tin(IV) is converted to tin(II) is the process oxidation or reduction or
neither? Explain why.
9 What type of reaction can be used to make a galvanic cell? Why not
other types?
10 Sketch a simple laboratory galvanic cell. Show the electrode reactions, the
ow of electrons, the ow of ions, and identify the anode and cathode.
11 What is the purpose of a salt bridge in a galvanic cell?
12 Describe the structure of an ordinary dry cell (Leclanch cell) and explain its
chemistry.
13 Sketch a silver oxide button cell and write the electrode reactions for it.

These terms were introduced on pp. 11718 CCPC: they are repeated here because they were
not strictly part of the Preliminary Course syllabus.

72 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

14 How do we recharge certain galvanic cells? Name two everyday rechargeable
cells.
15 Why do we use the term EMF instead of cell voltage?
16 What is a standard hydrogen electrode? Draw a diagram of one.
17 Describe how you would measure the standard electrode potential of the
Ag+, Ag electrode.
18 Standard electrode potentials are assigned to which type of half reaction
oxidation or reduction or both?
19 How do we calculate the standard EMF of a redox reaction from standard
electrode potentials?
20 How do we use the EMF of a reaction to decide in which direction the
reaction goes?
21 Explain how we calculate the standard EMF of a galvanic cell from electrode
potentials. The calculated EMF is the voltage of which electrode (relative to
the other)? If the calculated EMF for a cell is negative, what does this mean
for the half reactions we wrote?

CHAPTER 2 TEST YOURSELF 73

 CHAPTER 3

Nuclear chemistry
IN THIS CHAPTER
Radioactivity Transuranic elements
Isotopes and symbols for them Half-life
Stable and unstable isotopes Preparation of commercially useful
Types of radiation emitted isotopes
Alpha-emitting radioisotopes Detection of radiation
Beta-emitting radioisotopes Uses of radioisotopes
Nuclear ssion and nuclear reactors

Continuing with the theme of using chemistry to make new materials that are
useful to human society, we now turn to what are called radioactive materials.
These are particularly useful in medicine (for diagnosis and therapy) and in
industry (as tools for monitoring processes).

3.1 RADIOACTIVITY
In 1896 the French physicist, Becquerel, discovered that uranium compounds
could darken photographic plates even when the plates were protected by
the usual opaque paper. All compounds of uranium had this effect, so it was
concluded that it was atoms of uranium which were emitting some form of
radiation. Several other elementsradium, polonium and thoriumwere soon
found which had this same property. These elements were called radioactive, as
they actively emitted radiation. This spontaneous emission of radiation by certain
elements is called radioactivity.
For some elements all isotopes are radioactive, while for others only one
or some isotopes are radioactive. For example, all isotopes of uranium, U, and
radium, Ra, are radioactive while rubidium, Rb, and rhenium, Re, each have
two isotopes, only one of which is radioactive. Hence we talk about radioactive
isotopes or radioisotopes rather than radioactive elements. Furthermore
the radioactive emission comes from the nucleus of the isotope, so scientists
talk about unstable nuclei (ones that are radioactive) and stable nuclei
(not radioactive).
Before delving too far into radioactivity, let us recall and extend some of our
basic knowledge about atomic structure (from pp. 402 and p. 131 CCPC).

74 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

3.2 ISOTOPES AND SYMBOLS FOR THEM
On p. 131 CCPC it was explained that isotopes are atoms of the one element
that differ by having different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. On p. 42
CCPC atomic number, Z, of an atom was dened as the number of protons
in the nucleus of an atom of the element. Mass number, A, was dened as the
number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of the species concerned.
Isotopes of the one element, then, have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers. For example, the stable isotope of rubidium has an
atomic number of 37 (37 protons) and a mass number of 85 (37 protons plus
48 neutrons); the radioactive isotope has an atomic number of 37 (otherwise
it would not be rubidium) and a mass number of 87 (37 protons plus
50 neutrons).
Isotopes are generally named by their mass number. We talk about
rubidium-85 and rubidium-87 or chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. In addition we
often use a special symbol for isotopes:
A
ZM
where M is the chemical symbol for the element, A is the mass number and Z is
the atomic number. Some examples are
8 5 Rb, 6 3 Cu, 20 4 Pb, 16 O.
37 29 82 8

3.3 STABLE AND UNSTABLE ISOTOPES

If we plot the number of neutrons against the number of protons in the nucleus
for isotopes that are stable we nd, as shown in Figure 3.1, all the points lie in a
narrow bandthe red shaded area. We say that they all lie in a zone (or band)
of stability.
FIGURE 3.1
U A graph of number of
140
neutrons versus number
Pb of protons for all known
120 isotopes (blue area): the
red shaded area is the
Number of neutrons

100 zone of stability

n=p
Ce
80

Zn
60

Ca Red is zone or
40
band of stability.
Blue encompases
20 most known
Na isotopes.

20 40 60 80 100
Number of protons

For light elements (Z less than 20) stable isotopes have a ratio of neutrons to
protons of about 1.0. As atomic number increases, this stability ratio of neutrons
to protons increases: at Z = 50 the ratio is about 1.3 and at Z = 80 it is about 1.5.
Points for unstable nuclei lie outside this zone of stability. In addition we nd
that there are no stable isotopes with atomic numbers greater than 83 (bismuth).

STABLE AND UNSTABLE ISOTOPES SECTION 3.3 75

 In summary:
An isotope is unstable
if its atomic number is greater than 83, or
if its ratio of neutrons to protons places it outside the zone of stability of
Figure 3.1.

In unstable nuclei the number of neutrons can be greater or less than the value
that gives stability.
We have said that unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay. Just what does
this mean?

3.4 TYPES OF RADIATION EMITTED

It was found that the various radioactive substances could produce three
different types of radiation which were originally called alpha (), beta () and
gamma () rays because their true identities were unknown.
Alpha rays or particles were relatively heavy positively charged particles
which had low penetrating power; a sheet of paper could stop them. Beta rays or
particles were much lighter negatively charged particles with greater penetrating
power; they could pass through a sheet of paper and even through 0.5 mm of
aluminium but could not penetrate a 0.5 mm thickness of lead. Gamma rays
were like X-rays in that they seemed to be genuine radiation rather than particles.
They carried no charge and were extremely penetrating; they could be stopped
only by several centimetres of lead or many centimetres of concrete. The relative
penetrating power of , and rays is shown in Figure 3.2.
FIGURE 3.2
Relative penetrating
power of , and rays ray
ray
ray

sheet of paper
0.5 mm sheet of Al
0.5 mm sheet of Pb
5 cm thickness of Pb
(or 15 cm of concrete)

Eventually it was discovered that alpha rays or alpha particles are helium nuclei
(2 protons and 2 neutrons stuck together), and that beta particles (rays) are simply
electrons. Gamma rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation like radio waves, light
and X-rays. Gamma rays have shorter wavelengths than the other forms of this
radiation and therefore carry large amounts of energy. The properties of these
particles are summarised in Table 3.1.

3.5 ALPHA-EMITTING RADIOISOTOPES

The common radioisotopes of uranium and radium are alpha emitters.
23 8 U 42 He + ?
92
22 6 Ra 42 He + ?
88
An important question is: what has happened to the uranium nucleus after it
has lost a helium nucleus? The uranium nucleus originally contained 92 protons

76 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 TABLE 3.1 Types of radioactive emissions
Relative Relative Penetrating
Name Symbols Identity chargea massb power

alpha , 42He helium nucleus +2 4 low

beta , 01e electron 1 1/2000 moderate

gamma electromagnetic 0 0 high

radiation
a relative to the charge on a proton taken as +1
b on the relative atomic mass scale (pp. 1302 CCPC)

and 146 neutrons. If it loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, we have left a nucleus
with 90 protons and 144 neutrons. Now, the number of protons determines what
element it is (p. 41 CCPC). From the Periodic Table we see that 90 protons in
the nucleus (i.e. atomic number 90) means that the substance is now thorium.
At last then we have achieved the medieval alchemists dream of transmuting
one element into another! As uranium disintegrates (spits out a helium nucleus),
it is transformed into thorium. Hence we can complete our nuclear equation
by writing:
23 8 U 42He + 23 4 Th
92 90
In these nuclear equations we write the atomic number as a subscript on the left
of the symbol and the mass number as a superscript, also on the left (Section 3.2). In
such equations the atomic and mass numbers must balance, as they represent
numbers of protons and neutrons. That is the reason we wrote thorium-234
above: there are several other isotopes of thorium but when uranium-238
disintegrates it can only form thorium-234 because the mass numbers
must balance.
Similarly for alpha emission from radium: it will form a nucleus with
88 2 = 86 protons. From the Periodic Table, this is radon, Rn. The particular
isotope formed is the one with mass number 226 4 = 222.
22 6 Ra 42He + 22 2 Rn
88 86
This type of radioactive disintegration, alpha emission, is shown in Figure 3.3(a).
Radioisotopes that emit alpha particles often emit gamma rays as well.
These gamma rays carry away the excess energy from the reaction. Most
of the heavy elements have alpha-emitting radioisotopesthorium, radon,
polonium, plutonium.

3.6 BETA-EMITTING RADIOISOTOPES

Just as alpha particles come from the nucleus in radioactive decay, so too do
beta particles (electrons) come from the nucleus and not from the electron cloud
surrounding the nucleus. It at rst seems puzzling that a nucleus which contains
only protons and neutrons can emit electrons! However this happens because a
neutron decomposes into a proton and an electron:
n p + e
Putting the atomic and mass numbers on the symbols we have:
1n 11 p + 0
0 1e

BETA-EMITTING RADIOISOTOPES SECTION 3.6 77

FIGURE 3.3
The difference between
nuclear reactions (a) and
(b) and a chemical
reaction (c). The electron
clouds are not shown in
the nuclear reactions
(a) Radioactivity: emission of an alpha particle (as here) or of a beta particle

+ + +

(b) Nuclear ssion (Section 3.7): a neutron breaks a nucleus into two new roughly equal nuclei

(c) Chemical reaction: no change to the nuclei of the atoms involved

Since the atomic number (the subscript) represents the positive charge on the
particle, we say it is minus one for the electron (negatively charged).
Cobalt-60, the isotope commonly used in radiation therapy for cancer
patients, is a beta emitter:
6 0 Co 0 + ?
27 1e
To what element does the nucleus belong after one of its neutrons has
transformed into a proton and an electron? Instead of 27p and 33n we now have
28p and 32n. A nucleus with 28p is nickel. Hence our complete equation is:
6 0 Co 0 + 6208 Ni
27 1e
The mass number has not altered because the sum, n + p, has remained
constant. This emission is accompanied by the emission of gamma rays. In ray
treatment of cancer patients it is these gamma rays which are actually used to
attack the cancer.
The main isotope of carbon, carbon-12, is stable. However there is a
radioactive isotope of carbon, carbon-14. It is used for carbon dating of
archaeological samples. It is a beta emitter. One of the neutrons from carbon-14
(which has 6p and 8n) is converted into a proton and an electron, so that the new
nucleus has 7p and 7n. This makes it nitrogen.
14 C 0 + 147 N
6 1e
Hydrogen also has a radioactive isotope, hydrogen-3, sometimes called
tritium. It is also a beta emitter:
3H 0 + 32 He
1 1e
It forms a helium nucleus when it disintegrates. Frequently, beta emission
is accompanied by emission of gamma rays. Gamma rays are never emitted
on their own in radioactive disintegrations; they accompany either alpha or
beta emissions.

78 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 FOR INVESTIGATION
Alpha and beta emissions are the only two decay processes for natural radioactive
nuclei. Some articial radioactive isotopes decay by positron emission and electron
capture. Search out what these two processes are, including the ultimate fate of
the positron.

not required for NSW HSC

A reaction in which a change occurs to the nucleus of an atom is called a

nuclear reaction.

Alpha and beta emissions are nuclear reactions. In ordinary chemical reactions
there are no changes to the nuclei of the atoms involved, just rearrangement of
ions or of electrons (for example, as in precipitation and redox reactions). This is
illustrated in Figure 3.3.

Exercises
1 Write the symbol of the type AZM for each of the following isotopes:
a C (6 protons, 6 neutrons) d iodine-127 (53 protons)
b S (16 protons, 16 neutrons) *e zinc (30 electrons, mass number 65)
c Cl (17 protons, 20 neutrons) *f radium-226 (88 electrons)
2 Complete the following equations for radioactive disintegrations:
a 23 9 Th 4 He + ..... c 8 7 Kr 01 e + . . . . .
90 2 36
b ..... 4 He + 21884 Po d . . . . . 9309 Y + 01 e
2
3 Write equations for radioactive disintegration of the -emitters:
a 23 9 Pu *b 22806 Rn
94
and of the -emitters:
c 32 P *d 158 O
15
4 Use a Periodic Table to decide what element is formed when each of the following
undergoes -decay.
a actinium-218 b bismuth-210 *c polonium-214
What element is formed when each of the following undergoes -decay?
d lead-214 e bismuth-214 *f thallium-206
5 How do you expect alpha, beta and gamma particles to be affected by an electric
eld? Draw a diagram.
6 How does (a) a beta emission and (b) an alpha emission affect the neutrons to protons
ratio in a nucleus? Explain, using a specic example for each.
7 By comparing each of the following isotopes with data for the element in the Periodic
Table, decide whether you would expect it to be stable or not. Give your reason.
Which, if any, would you expect to be beta emitters?
2 4 Ne, 13 8 Ba, 4 9 Ca, 21 2 Pb, 12 0 I, 2 9 Si, 3 5 Ar
10 56 20 82 53 14 18

BETA-EMITTING RADIOISOTOPES SECTION 3.6 79

 3.7 NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR
REACTORS
Radioactive disintegration is one type of nuclear reaction: it involves the splitting
off of a small fragment (alpha or beta particle) from certain nuclei. Another type
of nuclear reaction is nuclear ssion.
Nuclear ssion is the process in which neutrons bombard atoms and cause
them to split into two roughly equal fragments. Nuclear ssion is sometimes
referred to as splitting the atom. It is illustrated in Figure 3.3(b).
Uranium-235 provides the commonest example of nuclear ssion:
1n + 23952 U 14516 Ba + 9326 Kr + 3(10 n) + energy
0

1n + 23952 U 14544 Xe + 9308 Sr + 2(10 n) + energy

0
Nuclear ssion is the basis of both atomic bombs and nuclear power stations.
The amount of energy released per gram of uranium is enormousfar, far
greater than is released in normal chemical reactions such as burning a gram of
coal or petrol.
If all of the neutrons formed in the above ssion reactions are allowed to hit
further uranium atoms, the number of neutrons builds up rapidly so that the rate
of energy release accelerates dramatically and an enormous explosion results: this
is an atomic bomb. It is illustrated in part (a) of Figure 3.4.
However if all but one of the neutrons released is absorbed by some other
material, so that only this one neutron is allowed to carry on the reaction, then
we get a steady and controlled rate of reaction. This constitutes a nuclear reactor
and is shown in part (b) of Figure 3.4.
FIGURE 3.4 n neutron
Nuclear reactions: (a) as uranium-235
in atomic bombs where fission product n
all neutrons released n n n
can initiate further ssion
reactions, (b) as in nuclear n n n
reactors where all but one
n n n n n n n n n neutrons neutrons
of the emitted neutrons absorbed absorbed
are captured so that a n
steady reaction proceeds n n

nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn

n n n
(a) (b)

A nuclear reactor is a structure in which controlled nuclear ssion occurs.

It can be used to generate electricity (as done in many countries such as several
European ones, Japan and the USA) or to produce radioactive isotopes for
medical and industrial uses (so used in most countries including Australia).
Nuclear reactors have produced several new elements and can be used to
make new isotopes of naturally occurring elements.

3.8 TRANSURANIC ELEMENTS

Some isotopes such as 235U when hit by neutrons undergo ssion. Others
however undergo nuclear reactions that produce new elements. For example

80 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 LEFT An atomic bomb blast
ABOVE The nuclear power station and
reprocessing plant at Sellaeld in the UK

238U is not ssionable (or not ssile), meaning that it does not split when hit by
a neutron. Instead it forms a new element neptunium, Np:
23 8 U + 10n 23992 U 01e + 23993 Np
92
unstable
Neptunium rapidly decays to plutonium Pu which is much more stable:
23 9 Np 0 + 23994 Pu
93 1e
Neither neptunium nor plutonium exist in nature. They are articial elements
which are made in nuclear reactors.
Most of the new elements that have been made have atomic numbers greater
than that of uranium (92) which has the largest value of the naturally occurring
elements. These articial elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 are
called transuranic elements. One transuranic element is americium, the isotope
that is used in domestic smoke alarms. It is made by bombarding plutonium
with neutrons:
23 9 Pu + 2(10 n) 24914 Pu 24915 Am + 01 e
94
unstable
Scientists have been able to produce about 23 transuranic elements with
atomic numbers up to 118. The rst few were made by bombardment of other
nuclei with neutrons in nuclear reactors as just described. Later ones were made
by bombarding heavy nuclei with high speed positive particles such as helium or
carbon nuclei; for example californium was made by bombarding uranium-238
with carbon:
23 8 U
+ 126 C 24968 Cf + 4(10 n)
92
High speed positive particles are produced in machines called linear accelerators
and cyclotrons.

TRANSURANIC ELEMENTS SECTION 3.8 81

 In a linear accelerator positive particles are accelerated in a straight line along
the axes of a series of cylinders made alternatively positive and negative so the
particles are always being pushed from behind by a positive cylinder and pulled
from in front by a negative one. This means that linear accelerators are often
more than a kilometre in length.
Cyclotrons also accelerate positive particles by passing them through
alternating positive and negative elds, but they use in addition a strong
magnetic eld to constrain the particles to a spiral path as shown in Figure 3.5.
This makes the machine more compact. There are cyclotrons in major hospitals
in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane; they are used to produce short-lived
isotopes for medical diagnosis (Section 3.12 and Table 3.3).

FIGURE 3.5 path followed by accelerated high frequency alternating

Basic design of a positive particles current applied
cyclotron
hollow D-shaped
electrodes
exit
Whole assembly is located
between the poles of a large target
magnet above and below the
flat surfaces of the Ds.

The rst of the transuranic elements were made in the 1940s (in nuclear
reactors) with others (up to 105) being made, often from high speed positive
particles, in the 1950s and 60s. Element 106 was made in 1974 almost
simultaneously by Russian and US teams of scientists. Elements 107, 108 and
109 were made in the 1980s, 110 and 111 in 1994, 112 in 1996 and 114, 116
and 118 in 1999.

WEBSITE
http://www.webelements.com
(for information on transuranic elements including how each was made, just click on the
required element in the Periodic Table)

Exercises
8 When uranium-235 undergoes ssion, some groups of products which are formed (in
addition to those mentioned in Section 3.7) are:
a cerium-144, selenium and 4 neutrons (4n)
b ruthenium-112, cadmium and 3n
*c iodine-131, yttrium and 2n
*d molybdenum-99, tin and 4n.
Write balanced nuclear equations for these ssion reactions.
9 Some transuranic elements can be made as follows:
a curium-242, by bombarding plutonium-239 with helium nuclei
b californium-245, by bombarding curium-242 with alpha particles: a neutron is
emitted
c seaborgium-263, Sg, by bombarding californium-249 with oxygen nuclei: several
neutrons are released in the process.
Write nuclear equations for these processes.

82 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

10 Chadwick discovered neutrons by bombarding beryllium with alpha particles. Write a
nuclear equation for the reaction that occurred.
11 Suggest a reason for nuclei such as helium and carbon having to be accelerated to
high speeds to bring about nuclear transformations whereas neutrons do not need to
be so accelerated.

3.9 HALF-LIFE
An important property of radioisotopes is their stability, or in other words how
long they survive before completely decaying to other isotopes. This is measured
by what is called their half-life.
Radioisotopes differ greatly in the rate at which they disintegrate. Some,
such as sodium-24, will completely disintegrate in a few days, while others, like
cobalt-60, take many years. Others, like plutonium-239 (a by-product of nuclear
reactors), take tens of thousands of years. Some such as uranium-238 and 235
take billions of years. We use the term half-life to characterise the rate at which
radioisotopes disintegrate.
The half-life of a radioisotope is the time required for half the atoms in a given
sample to undergo radioactive decay; for any particular radioisotope, the half-
life is independent of the initial amount of the isotope present.

The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. If we start with 1 g of iodine-131, then

after 8 days we will have only 0.5 g left (the other half gram will have decayed
into xenon). After a further 8 days, half of this 0.5 g will have decayed, leaving
us with only 0.25 g. After a further 8 days, the amount of iodine-131 left will be
0.125 g. After a total of 40 days (ve half-lives), of our original 1 g, there will be
only 0.031 g left.
The half-lives of some common isotopes are given in Table 3.2.

TABLE 3.2 Common isotopes, the radiation they emit and their half-livesa
Name Radiation emitted Half-life
*carbon-14 5.7 103 years
uorine-20 , 11 seconds
*hydrogen-3 (tritium) 12.3 years
molybdenum-99 , 2.7 days
phosphorus-32 14 days
*plutonium-239 , 2.4 104 years
*potassium-40 1.3 109 years
*radium-226 , 1.6 103 years
sodium-24 , 15 hours
strontium-90 28 years
sulfur-35 87 days
*uranium-238 , 4.5 109 years
* denotes a naturally occurring isotope
a Other isotopes are listed in Table 3.3
Half-life is not mentioned in the NSW HSC syllabus, but it is hard to appreciate why
different isotopes are used for different purposes (Section 3.12 and Table 3.3) without some
understanding of the term: hence its inclusion here.

HALF-LIFE SECTION 3.9 83

 3.10 PREPARATION OF COMMERCIALLY
USEFUL ISOTOPES
There are only about 50 naturally occurring radioactive isotopes. However
about 2000 radioisotopes have been created, mostly in the normal operation of
nuclear reactors. Most synthetic radioisotopes have quite short half-lives (hours
to seconds) and are either annoying by-products that have to be managed or
just laboratory curiosities. However, about twenty radioisotopes have found
widespread use in medicine and industry. There are two common methods for
producing radioisotopes: (1) from nuclear reactors and (2) in cyclotrons.

Radioisotopes from nuclear reactors

Nuclear reactors are convenient sources of neutrons (Section 3.8), and so are
used to make radioisotopes that can be prepared by neutron bombardment.
Suitable target nuclei are placed in the reactor core where they are bombarded
by neutrons to produce the required isotope. For example cobalt-60, which is
used for cancer treatment, is made by placing normal cobalt-59 in a reactor
where it captures a neutron.
Sometimes the required isotope is a direct product of uranium ssion as in
the case of the precursor of technetium-99m.

Technetium-99m
Technetium-99m is widely used in medicine for diagnosis. Its half-life is only
6 hours. Consequently it has to be produced at the hospital needing it rather
than transported from a nuclear reactor. Technetium-99m is formed by the
radioactive decay of molybdenum-99 which is a ssion product of uranium-235.
Molybdenum-99 has a half-life of 66 hours: this is long enough for it to be
transported from the Lucas Heights reactor (south of Sydney) to all major
hospitals in Australia.
Molybdenum-99 is prepared by placing special pellets of UO2 in the reactor
core for about a week. The UO2 contains about 2% 235U: some of this undergoes
ssion to 99Mo. This molybdenum is extracted, adsorbed onto alumina and
packaged into small glass tubes about the size of a persons thumb for despatch
to hospitals. 99Mo decays to 99mTc continuously. At the hospital 99mTc is
extracted from the alumina by owing normal saline solution through it. The
99mTc is then chemically bound to biologically signicant molecules for the
diagnostic test to be performed.
The 99Mo parent or cow is eluted or milked every day for about a week by
which time its activity has become too low for practical use.
Figure 3.6 shows a technetium-99m generator.

Radioisotopes from cyclotrons

Some radioisotopes for medical use have to be prepared in a cyclotron (Fig. 3.5).
That means they are prepared by bombarding a suitable target nucleus with
a small positive particle such as a helium or carbon nucleus. Fluorine-18 is

The m denotes that it is an unstable form of the isotope which decays to a more stable form. It is
this unstable form that is used in medical diagnosis.

84 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

(a) (b) saline solution FIGURE 3.6
(a) A technetium-99m
generator: it is heavily
shielded to protect users
from the radiation emitted
alumina with 99Mo
adsorbed on it by the molybdenum-99
solution of it contains. (b) shows
99m
Tc out schematically how the
heavy shielding to
protect users from technetium-99m is eluted
radiation filter without removing the
molybdenum source from
its shielded container

prepared by bombarding nitrogen with helium nuclei:

14 N + 42 He 189 F
7
Iodine-123 is also prepared in a cyclotron.
Some commercial radioisotopes and their uses are listed in Table 3.3.

3.11 DETECTION OF RADIATION

Emissions from radioisotopes can be detected and measured by the following
devices:
1 Photographic lm. Darkening of such lm was the way radioactivity was
rst detected. The method is still used today in some radiation badges worn
by laboratory workers handling radioactive substances; the amount of
darkening of the lm is a measure of the amount of radiation that the worker
has received.
2 Cloud chamber. This is an instrument which contains a supersaturated
vapour of water or alcohol. When radiation passes through it, it ionises some
of the air; the ions formed act as nuclei upon which droplets of liquid form.
In this way the path of the radiation is made visible. Alpha particles form
straight dense tracks; beta particles form less dense zig-zag tracks while
gamma rays generate even fainter tracks.
3 GeigerMller counter. This device also uses ionising properties of radiation.
It is particularly good for measuring beta particles, though it can be made
to work for alpha and gamma rays too. The beta ray enters through the thin
end window of the Geiger tube, Figure 3.7, hits a gas molecule (generally
argon) and ionises it by knocking an electron out of it. The high voltage
accelerates this electron towards the central electrode and as it gains speed
(energy) it ionises more argon atoms in its path, so that there is a cascade of
electrons reaching that electrode. This constitutes an electrical pulse which is
amplied and measured either by generating clicks in an audio amplier or
by operating an electronic digital counter. The positive argon ions move more
slowly towards the negative case to complete the circuit.
4 Scintillation counter. This instrument uses the fact that when certain
substances are irradiated with alpha, beta or gamma rays (different
substances for each type of radiation), they emit a ash of light which can be

DETECTION OF RADIATION SECTION 3.11 85

FIGURE 3.7 argon gas
A Geiger-Mller counter particle
+ e +
e +
e +
amplifier
and thin window
counter

high voltage

collected and amplied in a photomultiplier. The electrical signal generated

then operates an electronic counter.

3.12 USES OF RADIOISOTOPES

Radioisotopes are widely used in medicine and industry.

Medical uses
1 Cancer treatment. One method of treating cancer is to irradiate the affected
areas of the body with gamma rays which kill cancer cells (along with some
good cells as well). As mentioned in Section 3.6 the common source for this
radiation therapy is cobalt-60. This isotope is made by neutron bombardment
of normal cobalt-59; it disintegrates by beta emission to form nickel-60: it
is the gamma rays that accompany this beta emission that attack the cancer
because they are able to penetrate quite deeply into body tissue.
Cobalt-60 is used because the gamma rays carry a suitable amount of
energy to destroy certain biological molecules, and because cobalt-60 has a
suitable half-life: it is sufciently long for the radiation source to
have a reasonable lifetime in the equipment (about 4 to 6 years)
but short enough for the source to emit a reasonable intensity
of radiation.
A more recent development in cancer treatment is in situ
radiation in which a radioactive source, often iridium-192,
encased in a thin sealed container is surgically implanted
beside the affected organ for a period of time; this technique
concentrates the radiation on the cancer and minimises damage
to other tissue.
2 Diagnosis. Several radioisotopes are used for medical
diagnosis. A widely used one is technetium-99m (Table 3.3).
If incorporated into some blood serum and injected into a
patients bloodstream, its distribution throughout the body can
be measured with a scintillation counter and used to detect
blood clots, constrictions and other circulation disorders. In a
different form it can be taken up by heart tissue and so used to
assess damage after a heart attack. It can also be used to detect
brain tumours.
Positron emission A property of technetium-99m which makes it particularly suitable for
tomography (PET) using
18F bonded to glucose medical diagnosis is its short half-life of 6 hours: it rapidly decays and so
can be used for the early causes minimal damage to the patient.
detection of secondary Technetium-99m is also used to diagnose thyroid abnormalities. One
cancers (black spots) after method of treating over-active thyroid glands is to have the patient ingest
removal of a melanoma some iodine-131 which accumulates in the gland and being a beta emitter
(skin cancer) irradiates and so destroys some of the gland.

86 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

TABLE 3.3 Some radioisotopes produced by the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation
(ANSTO) a
Radiation
Radioisotope emitted Half-life Uses

technetium-99m 6h medical diagnosis for heart, bone, lung, brain, thyroid, blood
ow

iodine-131 , 8d treatment of diseases of the thyroid

iridium-192 , 74 d used as an internal radiotherapy source

uorine-18 + b 1.8 h positron emission tomography (PET) to study brain function and
to diagnose epilepsy, heart diseases and certain types of cancer

iodine-123 E.C.b, 13.2 h diagnosis of thyroid diseases and some cancers

cobalt-60 , 5.3 y gamma radiation for cancer treatment

caesium-137 , 30 y thickness gauges in industry

radiography of machinery and welds
irradiation of food (not in Australiayet)

americium-241c 432 y smoke detectors

gold-198 , 2.7 d radio-tracer to follow movements of sewage and other wastes

through waterways
movement of sand in river beds and ocean oors (erosion)

zinc-65 and +b 244 d follow heavy metals in waste water from mining
manganese-54 E.C.b 312 d
(produced together)
a 18F
and 123I are produced at the National Medical Cyclotron near Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney; the others are made at the
Lucas Heights reactor by placing suitable substances in the reactor core.
b + is positron emission; E.C. is electron capture. See For Investigation in Section 3.6.
c distributed but not made by ANSTO

Industrial uses
1 Thickness gauges. A radioactive source and a detector arranged as in
Figure 3.8 can be used to monitor and control the thickness of materials
such as steel sheets, paper, aluminium foil and plastic lm in factories. With
xed geometry for the source and detector and the same material passing
between them, the amount of radiation received by the detector depends
upon the thickness of the material: thicker material absorbs more radiation
and so the signal drops. This can be built into a feed-back loop to control the
manufacturing process.
shielded FIGURE 3.8
rollers for forming radioactive Thickness gauges using
the sheet or film source sheet or film of material
being formed radioactive sources are
widely used in industry to
monitor and control the
thickness of materials
ranging from paper to
bulk material amount of radiation plastics to steel
absorbed by sheet
detector depends on its thickness
varies pressure
on rollers to
adjust thickness controller
readout unit

USES OF RADIOISOTOPES SECTION 3.12 87

 For this purpose an isotope with a fairly low energy emission but a long
half-life is usedlow energy because we want the thin lm to be able to
absorb a signicant proportion of it, and long half-life so we do not have to
replace the source too frequently. Low energy emissions also mean that safety
precautions are minimal. Strontium-90 (half-life 28 years), caesium-137
(half-life 30 years) and cobalt-60 (half-life 5.3 years) are often used.

FOR INVESTIGATION
Select one use of a radioisotope in each of medicine and industry. Collect information
on how the isotope is used and how its use relates to its properties. Find information
to analyse the benets of using the isotope for that purpose and to discuss problems
(including safety and environmental consequences) associated with that use.

2 Leak detectors. Leaks can be detected in water pipes or underground oil

pipelines by adding a suitable radio tracer to the liquid and scanning along
the pipe. No radiation will be detected from the isotope inside the pipe, but if
the tracer leaks into the soil surrounding the pipe it can be detected and the
leak located. For this use a short-lived isotope is needed, so that after the leak
has been found the radioactivity quickly decays, the water or oil becomes safe
to use again and the environment is quickly decontaminated. Sodium-24 with
a half-life of 15 hours is widely used.
3 Irradiation of medical supplies and food. Because gamma radiation is
particularly effective in destroying large biological molecules such as DNA,
it has been widely (and successfully) used for several decades to kill bacteria
and so sterilise medical supplies such as dressings and bandages. In more
recent years there have been moves to irradiate food in order to destroy
micro-organisms and so minimise spoilage and extend shelf life. Many
countries have approved irradiation of specied foods: Australia (as at early
2005) has approved the irradiation of only herbs, spices and certain herbal
infusions (but not tea).
Arguments in favour of irradiating food are that by destroying bacteria
and moulds it makes food safer and it keeps food fresher for longer and so
reduces wastage. Arguments against are that it does not necessarily kill all
dangerous organisms, it destroys some of the vitamin content of the food, it
may lead to the formation of harmful compounds in the food, and it can lead
to laxity with food hygiene standards.
Food irradiation requires gamma rays of sufcient energy to destroy
bacteria but not enough energy to make the food radioactive (carbon-12 and
oxygen-16 are easily converted to radioactive isotopes), and the source must
have a reasonably long half-life (to minimise replacement). Caesium-137 and
cobalt-60 are widely used.

Domestic smoke alarms

Simple domestic smoke alarms contain a small source of alpha particles (often
americium-241). These alpha particles ionise air, the ions are collected by an

not required for the NSW HSC

88 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 electrode and the resulting electrical current measured.
When smoke (small solid particles) is present in the air, it
prevents ions reaching the electrode causing a reduction in
the electrical current which triggers an alarm.

WEBSITES
http://www.ansto.gov.au
(a variety of information about many aspects of
nuclear science. For information about industrial and
medical uses move your mouse over Publications
and media to highlight it, click on Brochures, fact
sheets and links, then scroll down either to Brochures (and click
on Medical and Industrial Isotopes (PDF)(html) or to Information
(and click on Nuclear Medicine (html). You can get to this latter site
directly from
www. ansto.gov.au/info/reports/radboyd.html.)
http://www.uic.com.au/nip26.htm
(nuclear medicine)
http://www.uic.com.au/nip27.htm
(industrial uses)
http://education.jlab.org/glossary/cyclotron.html
(simple account of a cyclotron)

A simple domestic
3.13 BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS smoke alarm that uses
americium-241
There are both benets and problems associated with the use of radioisotopes in
industry and medicine.
The benets for industry include the ability to make monitoring equipment
that is more sensitive, precise and reliable than earlier equipment, to do things
more efciently and reliably (such as sterilisation of medical supplies) and
to do things that were not otherwise possible (such as examine buildings and
machinery for weld and structural faults).
The benets for medicine are that radioisotopes have opened up a wide range
of non-invasive diagnostic procedures that otherwise would not be possible (on
organs such as heart, brain, kidney, thyroid) and have allowed the introduction
of radiation therapy for treating many forms of cancer; in many cases this has
proved the most effective treatment.

Problems
The problems with using radioisotopes are the same for industry and medicine.
They arise from the fact that radiation from radioisotopes is harmful to people
(and all other life forms). Alpha, beta and gamma radiation from radioactive
substances can cause undesirable reactions in living tissue and so upset the
delicate balance that exists among the numerous complex chemical reactions
that are always occurring in living cells. Such radiation can cause:
tissue damage (which is immediate and can show up as skin burns and/or
nausea, if exposure is mild, or as radiation sickness that can lead to death if
exposure is high)

BEBEFITS AND PROBLEMS SECTION 3.13 89

 cancer (particular leukaemia and lung cancer) which generally does not show
up until ten to twenty years after exposure, and
genetic damage which leads to deformities in offspring.

To avoid the harmful effects of radiation people working with radioisotopes

must observe a set of stringent safety precautions.

Safety precautions
The following are some of the safety precautions that must be observed when
handling radioactive materials:
1 Radioactive materials must always be stored in well-shielded containers.
2 Equipment that uses radioactive materials must be designed to ensure that
radiation is directed only where it is required and that there is no stray
radiation escaping from it.
3 People using such equipment or materials must be well trained to handle
such things in a safe manner.
4 Such people must always wear appropriate safety clothing which depending
on the radioisotope in use may vary from gloves and face mask to specially
laundered laboratory coats and overshoes, lead-lined aprons and, in the
extreme, full protective body suits.
5 People working in and around radiation facilities must wear radiation
monitors (badges) that record the cumulative amount of radiation they
have received.
6 Proper procedures for safe storage and disposal of radioactive wastes must
be established along with stringent accounting of quantities received and
despatched.
7 Clear and unambiguous signs must be displayed in any location where
radiation equipment or materials are being used or stored.
This is the international
radiation hazard sign.
It must be displayed
in any location where
radioisotopes are used.

Exercises
12 After some nuclear testing in the Pacic Ocean, certain North Queensland pastures
(and consequently the milk of cattle which grazed on them) became contaminated
with iodine-131. If the levels of activity were 64 times greater than was acceptable,
how long did the dairy farmers have to wait before they could safely market their milk
again? The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days.
13 After reprocessing a nuclear fuel, scientists had samples of two radioactive isotopes
to look after. Isotope A had an activity of 1000 disintegrations per second (dps) and
a half-life of 30 s. Isotope B had an activity of 10 dps and a half-life of 1500 years.
An activity of 1 dps was considered safe. Which isotope would present the greater
problem for long-term storage? Explain.

90 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

14 Why is it necessary to produce technetium-99m at or close to the hospital using it?
15 When using a GeigerMller counter, why is it necessary to maintain a xed
geometrical arrangement between sample and detector in order for measurements to
be comparable?
16 Write nuclear equations for:
a the conversion of cobalt-59 to cobalt-60 by neutron bombardment
b the decay of cobalt-60 by beta ray emission
c the ssion of a uranium-235 nucleus into a molybdenum-99 nucleus and another
nucleus and three neutrons
17 Why is iodine-123 preferred over iodine-131 for diagnosis of possible problems
with the thyroid gland whereas iodine-131 is preferred for irradiation of an
overactive thyroid?

Important new terms

You should know the meaning of the linear accelerator (p. 82)
following terms: mass number (p. 75)
nuclear equation (p. 77)
alpha rays (particles) (p. 76)
nuclear ssion (p. 80)
atomic number (p. 75)
nuclear reaction (p. 79)
band of stability (p. 75)
nuclear reactor (p. 80)
beta rays (particles) (p. 76)
radioactive isotopes (p. 74)
cloud chamber (p. 85)
radioactivity (p. 74)
cyclotrons (p. 82)
radioisotope (p. 74)
ssile (ssionable) (p. 81)
scintillation counter (p. 86)
gamma rays (p. 76)
stable nuclei (p. 74)
Geiger-Mller counter (p. 85)
transuranic elements (p. 81)
half-life (p. 83)
unstable nuclei (p. 74)
isotope (p. 75)
zone of stability (p. 75)

CHAPTER
Test yourself
1

2
Explain the meaning of each of the items in the Important new terms
section above.
Give the isotopic symbol for the chlorine isotope that has 17 protons and
3
20 neutrons in its nucleus.
3 Explain how you can predict whether a particular isotope is likely to be stable
or radioactive.
4 Describe the nature and relative penetrating powers of alpha, beta and
gamma particles (rays).
5 Why do we talk of radioisotopes and not just radioactive elements?
6 Write nuclear equations for the emission of -particles from 23952 U and
22 6 Ra.
88
7 How does a nucleus which contains only protons and neutrons emit an
electron?

These terms were introduced in CCPC but are listed here because it is important that you
know their meanings.

CHAPTER 3 TEST YOURSELF 91

 8 Write nuclear equations for the emission of a -particle from 6207Co and 146C.
9 Explain what is meant by nuclear ssion. Give at least one equation to
illustrate it.
10 What is the essential difference between a nuclear reactor for generating
electricity and an atomic bomb?
11 Describe two methods for preparing transuranic elements.
12 List four practical applications of radioisotopes, two medical and two
industrial.
13 What properties of particular isotopes make them suited to each of the uses
you listed in Question 12?

92 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

EXTENDED RESPONSE EXAM-STYLE MODULE
QUESTIONS FOR MODULE 1
Questions in this section are in a similar style to that currently being used in the
extended response questions in the New South Wales HSC Chemistry examination:
1
they use the HSC list of verbs (such as account for, analyse, assess, compare,
contrast, demonstrate, describe, discuss, evaluate, explain, identify,
justify, outline, propose, summarise) and relate closely to items in the syllabus
document. They place heavy emphasis upon recall of learnt information. Practice is the
best way of developing skill in answering this type of exam question.
The actual HSC exam will be a mixture of this type of question and ones similar
to the problem-solving exercises located within the chapters of Conquering Chemistry.
The Revision Tests that follow these sets of questions at the end of the modules are
similar mixes.
Marks (shown at the right-hand end of the question) are assigned to each question
in order to indicate how much detail is required in your answer (that is, how much
time you should spend on each question). The marks are on the HSC exam basis of
100 marks for three hours work (or 1.8 minutes per mark).

MARKS
1 Outline the importance of the cracking of hydrocarbons to our
industrialised society. 4
2 Demonstrate that displacement reactions are electron transfer reactions. 4
3 Distinguish between stable and unstable (radioactive) isotopes and outline
the way scientists decide whether a particular isotope will be stable or not. 5
4 Outline the structure, sources and uses of cellulose and assess its potential
as a source of chemicals that we currently obtain from oil. 7
5 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using ethanol as a fuel or fuel
additive for motor cars. 5
6 Demonstrate the usefulness of radioisotopes in industry and in medicine. 5
7 Describe, with a diagram, a galvanic cell that you have set up in the
laboratory and explain the ow of electrons and ions through it; identify
its anode and cathode. 6
8 Compare and contrast the physical and chemical properties of alkanes
and alkenes. 7
9 Assess the need for alternative sources of chemical compounds presently
obtained from oil. 4
10 Compare and contrast the chemistry of either the vanadium redox cell or
some other fuel cell with that of the leadacid cell. 6
11 Outline the use of one radioisotope in medicine or industry and describe
the properties that make it particularly suited for that use. 4
12 Explain, with an example, how oxidation states allow chemists to decide
whether or not a reaction involves electron transfer. 3
13 Describe the method of production and uses of a biopolymer that has
come into commercial use in only the last twenty years and evaluate its
signicance for society. 7

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS MODULE 1 93

 14 Describe an experiment you have performed to measure and compare the
heats of combustion of three alkanols. List the major sources of error in
your experiment and outline steps you took to minimise them. 7
15 Use two specic examples to demonstrate how the use of a particular
polymer for a particular purpose depends upon its properties which in
turn depend upon its chemical structure. 4
16 Demonstrate the importance of ethylene as an industrial chemical. 4
17 Discuss the benets and problems associated with the use of radioisotopes
in medicine. 5
18 Describe the chemical structure and uses of three addition polymers. 6
19 Describe the structure and chemistry of the ordinary dry cell and assess
its importance to society over the last hundred years or so. 5
20 Evaluate the claim that ethanol is a renewable fuel. 5

94 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

REVISION TEST FOR MODULE 1 MODULE
Total marks: 50 Suggested time: 90 minutes
Table 2.1 on p. 67 may be used if needed
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1 mark each)
1
Select the alternative a, b, c, or d which best answers the question.

1 For the galvanic cell consisting of a zinc, zinc ion electrode connected by a salt
bridge to a nickel, nickel ion electrode, the standard EMF (voltage) is:
a 0.50 V with the Ni positive c 1.02 V with the Ni positive
b 0.50 V with the Zn positive d 1.02 V with the Zn positive
2 The compound which could not be the monomer for making a polymer is:
a CH2CHCN c CF2CF2
b CH3CH2COOH d ClCHCHCl
3 The property of beta particles that is used to detect them in a GeigerMller
counter is:
a a ow of beta particles constitutes an electric current
b their great penetrating power
c they darken photographic plates
d they ionise argon gas at low pressure
H

4 The compound CH3CCH3 can be prepared by reacting:

Cl
a propene with chlorine
b propane with chlorine in the dark
c propene with hydrogen chloride
d 2-propanol with chlorine
5 The reaction that goes in the direction shown is:
a 2Ag(s) + Sn2+(aq) 2Ag+(aq) + Sn(s)
b Pb(s) + Fe2+(aq) Pb2+(aq) + Fe(s)
c Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s) Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq)
d Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)
6 In the following nuclear equation:
22 2 Rn 42 He + yz X
86
a z = 218 and y = 88 c z = 226 and y = 84
b z = 218 and y = 84 d z = 226 and y = 86
7 The heat of combustion of 2-propanol is 33.5 kJ/g. The enthalpy change for
the combustion reaction is:
a 1.54 103 kJ/mol c 2.01 103 kJ/mol
b +2.01 103 kJ/mol d +1.54 103 kJ/mol

REVISION TEST MODULE 1 95

 8 The substance that ethylene cannot easily be converted to is:
a ethylene glycol c propylene (propene)
b ethanol d chloroethane
9 Some isotopes of lead and strontium are 206Pb, 212Pb, 214Pb, 88Sr, 90Sr and
94Sr. The least stable of these isotopes for each element are:
a 214Pb and 94Sr c 206Pb and 88Sr
b 214Pb and 90Sr d 212Pb and 94Sr
10 Ethanol would be a good replacement for petrol as a liquid fuel for cars
because:
a it is easily made from cellulose which is a major component of
plant material
b it can be used in current petrol engines after suitable modication to the
engines
c its formation by fermentation is a natural process which produces a
concentrated solution from which pure ethanol is separated with little
expenditure of energy
d its large-scale production would cause far less environmental damage
than does extraction and rening of crude oil

SHORT ANSWER AND EXTENDED RESPONSE QUESTIONS

The number of marks for each part of each question is shown at the right-hand end of
the question. Marks allocated are based on the HSC scale of 1 mark per 1.8 minutes.
MARKS
11 Demonstrate the difference between addition and condensation polymers. 4
12 a The mass of ethanol that had to be burnt in air to heat 575 g of water
from 18.6C to 31.2C was 1.65 g. The specic heat capacity of water
is 4.2 J K1 g1. Calculate the molar heat of combustion of ethanol. 2
b The value obtained in (a) is much lower than tabulated values. Suggest
two possible reasons for this. 2
13 Describe an experiment you have performed to measure the voltage (EMF)
of a cell made up of two metal, metal ion electrodes. On a diagram of your
cell show the directions of electron and ion ows and label the anode and
cathode. Suggest reasons why your measured voltage differed from that
calculated from standard electrode potentials. 6
14 a Industrial ethanol is generally made from ethylene. It is also possible
to make ethylene from ethanol. Write equations for these two
reactions and give the experimental conditions needed for each of
them. Which catalyst, if any, is required for each reaction? 2
b To which general classes of reaction do the reactions in (a) belong? For
one of these classes give another example not involving any of the
reactants or products of the reactions in (a). 2
15 Describe, with examples, how commercial radioisotopes are produced. 4
16 a Two current or future concerns about the synthetic polymers in
widespread use today are (i) uncertainty about future sources of raw

96 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

 materials and (ii) disposal problems. Explain what these problems are
and how they arise. 2
b Discuss one recent development in polymer science that has potential
for alleviating both of these concerns. Refer to at least one specic
substance and include details of how it can be made. 4
17 Outline the structure and operating principle of one instrument used to
measure radiation from radioactive sources. 3
18 Describe an experiment you have performed to distinguish between
alkanes and alkenes. Include at least one chemical equation. 3
19 Compare and contrast the chemistry, uses and environmental impacts of
either the common dry cell or the leadacid cell with one other commercial
galvanic cell you have studied. 6

REVISION TEST MODULE 1 97

 MODULE MODULE 1 AND THE NEW SOUTH
1 WALES HSC SYLLABUS
This section allows you to check that Conquering Chemistry has covered all
necessary material for Module 1 of the New South Wales Higher School
Certicate HSC Course.

Syllabus content
The following table lists (for Module 1) the items from the students learn to
column of the HSC syllabus and shows where they are treated in Conquering
Chemistry (CCHSC)

Location of HSC Course material in Conquering Chemistry for Module 1

Syllabus reference Sections where
Students learn to found in CCHSC

9.2.1 Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the
production of other substances

identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of 1.1

some of the fractions from the rening of petroleum

identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double 1.4, 1.5
bond, is readily transformed into many useful products

identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers 1.6

are made

identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the 1.6

meaning of this term

outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an 1.6

example of a commercially and industrially important polymer

identify the following as commercially signicant monomers: 1.8

vinyl chloride
styrene
by both their systematic and common names

describe the uses of the polymers made from the above 1.9, 1.10
monomers in terms of their properties

9.2.2 Some scientists research the extraction of materials and energy from
biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels

discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds 1.11

presently obtained from the petrochemical industry

explain what is meant by a condensation polymer 1.12

describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is 1.12

formed

describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of 1.12, 1.13

a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass

identify that cellulose contains the basic carbonchain structures 1.13

needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a
raw material

98 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS

Syllabus reference Sections where
Students learn to found in CCHSC

9.2.3 Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable
resources such as plants

describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the 1.16

need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used

describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the 1.16

production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this
process and the catalyst used

describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent 1.17
for polar and non-polar substances

outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be 1.19
called a renewable resource

describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is 1.18

promoted

summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process 1.18

dene the molar heat of combustion of a compound and 1.20

calculate the value for ethanol from rst-hand data

assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss 1.19

the advantages and disadvantages of its use

identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols 1.5

from C1 to C8

9.2.4 Oxidationreduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy

explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of 2.1

transfer of electrons

identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in 2.2

solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals

account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of

their loss or gain of electrons 2.3

describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of 2.4, 2.6

oxidationreduction reactions

outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of 2.4, 2.6
electron ow

dene the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to 2.5, 2.7
describe galvanic cells

9.2.5 Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials

distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and 3.1, 3.3

describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable

describe how transuranic elements are produced 3.7, 3.8

describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced 3.10

identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect 3.11

radiation

THE NSW HSC SYLLABUS MODULE 1 99

 Syllabus reference Sections where
Students learn to found in CCHSC

identify one use of a named radioisotope: 3.12

in industry
in medicine

describe the way in which the above named radioisotope is used 3.12
and explain its use in terms of its chemical properties

Compulsory experiments
The table below lists the compulsory experiments (from the right-hand column
of the syllabus), along with places where you can find procedures for these
experiments (in CCHSC BLM) and the location of relevant information
inCCHSC.
CCHSC is an abbreviation for this book Conquering Chemistry HSC Course.
CCHSC BLM is Conquering Chemistry HSC Course Blackline Masters by
DebraSmith, Cengage Learning Australia.

Information about compulsory experiments for Module 1

Location in Related material in

Experiment CCHSC BLM CCHSCa

1 Plan and perform an experiment to compare the Module 1 Worksheet 2 Section 1.4
reactivities of alkenes and the corresponding alkanes (p. 6) Chapter 1 Exercise 14
with bromine water. Revision Test Question 18

2 Plan and perform an experiment to ferment glucose Module 1 Worksheet 7 Section 1.18
and monitor mass changes. (p. 21) Chapter 1 Exercise 36

3 Determine and compare the heats of combustion of Module 1 Worksheet 8 Example 1 in Section 1.20
three liquid alkanols. (p. 23) Chapter 1 Exercises 38, 39
Exam-style Question 14

4 Identify the simplest conditions under which a galvanic Module 1 Worksheet 9 Sections 2.4 and 2.6 and
cell can be produced. (p. 25) Figure 2.11 may help.

5 Measure cell voltages (EMFs) for several galvanic cells Module 1 Worksheet 11 Revision Test Question 13
made from metal, metal ion solution electrodes. (p. 31)

a Exercises, Exam-style and Revision test questions are listed here, because their answers at the back of the book often contain
helpful information.

Other items in the student activity (right-hand) column

The table below lists (in abbreviated form) the non-experimental items in the
student activity (right-hand) column of the syllabus and indicates where in
Conquering Chemistry relevant information is located.

100 Module 1 production of materials

03 Conquering Chemistry 4e HSC TXT.indd 100 30/09/10 2:16 PM

Location of material for other Module 1 activities
Syllabus item Relevant material in CCHSC

9.2.1 write equations to represent all chemical reactions An ongoing task beginning in Section 1.1 and
encountered continuing throughout the book

Experiment 1 (see above)

analyse information to model the polymerisation Equations and structures in Sections 1.6, 1.7,
process 1.12 and 1.13 may be useful starting points

9.2.2 use available evidence development and use of a Section 1.15

named biopolymer Exam-style Question 13

9.2.3 process information to model addition of water The photos of models in Section 1.16 may be
to ethylene dehydration of ethanol a start

process information industrial production of Section 1.18

ethanol from sugar cane

process information use of ethanol as an Section 1.19

alternative car fuel success of current usage

Experiment 2 (see above)

present information balanced equation for Section 1.18

fermentation of glucose

Experiment 3 (see above)

9.2.4 Experiment 4 (see above)

Experiment 5 (see above)

gather structure and chemistry of a dry cell or Sections 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12
leadacid cell and evaluate it in comparison to Exam-style Question 10
in terms of Revision Test Question 19

solve problems to calculate the potential E Sections 2.13, 2.14

requirement of named electrochemical processes

9.2.5 process information to describe recent discoveries Section 3.8 (and the website listed there)
of elements

use available evidence benets and problems Section 3.13

use of radioactive isotopes Exam-style Question 17

Prescribed focus areas

The ve prescribed focus areas of the syllabus are:
1 the history of chemistry
2 the nature and practice of chemistry
3 applications and uses of chemistry
4 implications for society and the environment
5 current issues, research and development.
As with most modules, the material of Module 1 (in this book and in the
syllabus) relates strongly to focus areas 2 and 3. However there are many
opportunities in Module 1 for involving areas 4 and 5.

THE NSW HSC SYLLABUS MODULE 1 101

 For area 4, implications for society and the environment, there are:
plastics with issues of resource depletion and environmental contamination
ethanol as a fuel and its economic and environmental consequences
environmentally safe disposal of commercial galvanic cells
the environmental problems associated with the manufacture, use and
disposal of the radioisotopes widely being used in industry and medicine.
For area 5, current issues, research and development, there are:
the development of new biodegradable biopolymers
current controversies over the addition of ethanol to petrol
production of newer types of galvanic cells such as lithium batteries,
vanadium redox cells and the Gratzel cell, and
controversies about the nuclear reactor being built in Sydneys far-south
suburbs (needed to produce some of the radioisotopes required by industry
and medicine).
There is little scope in this module for discussing area 1, history of chemistry.

102 MODULE 1 PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS