CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that dissertation entitled Study and Analysis of GFRP Machining Using
Alumina Based Cutting Tools submitted for the degree of Master of Technology in the
discipline Mechanical Engineering at JCDM College of Engineering, Sirsa during the
academic year 2014-16 is bonafide research and project work carried out by Sandeep
Kumar bearing Roll No. 1411283006 under my supervision and no part of this dissertation
has been submitted in any other University/Institute for the award of M.Tech or any
Degree/Diploma to the best of my knowledge.

(Er. Gurvinder Singh)

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
JCMCOE, Sirsa

CANDIADATES DECLARATION
1
I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this report, entitled Study and
Analysis of GFRP Machining Using Alumina Based Cutting Tools for the dissertation
work of Master of Technology in Mechanical Engineering and submitted in Mechanical
Engineering Department of JCDM College of Engineering, Sirsa in an authentic record of my
own work carried out during a period from Dec-15 to June-2016 under the supervision of Er.
Gurvinder Singh, Assistant Professor, Mechanical Department, JCDMCOE, Sirsa.

The Matter embodied in this report has not been submitted by me for the award of any other
degree of this or any other University/Institute.

(Sandeep Kumar)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of our
knowledge. Final viva voice of Mr. Sandeep Kumar student of M.Tech (Mechanical
Engineering) has been held on.

Er. Gurvinder Singh External Examiner

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
JCDMCOE, Sirsa

ABSTRACT

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Nowadays, GFRP (glass fiber reinforced polymer) composites are widely used in
manufacturing industries specially aircraft, aerospace, and automobile industries due to their
excellent mechanical and thermal properties such as more specific strength, better specific
modulus of elasticity, high damping factor or damping capacity, better resistance to corrosion,
effective fatigue resistance, low thermal expansion coefficient. Irrespective to all such
properties, machining of GFRP is still a major problem due to its anisotropic nature.

The machining of composite material is dissimilar to conventional metals due to their non-
homogenous character. Hence, it is necessary to understand the machinability behavior of
these composites. To analysis the machining of GFRP, an attempt is made by using two
different alumina cutting tools; namely a Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool (CC650) and a
SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool (CC670).

The performance of the alumina cutting tools for GFRP machining at different cutting speeds,
at constant feed rate and depth of cut by measuring the flank wear and surface roughness of
the machined GFRP composite material. This work also deals with analyses the wear
mechanism of alumina cutting tools.

While GFRP machining, it is observed that as the cutting speed increases, the velocity of
abrasion also increase which leads to higher flank wear. The flank wear of alumina tools
increase with speed and machining time. From an experimental work, the result shows that
Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool fails after 8 min of machining at 250 m/min and fails
after 6 min of machining at 300 m/min. In addition to flank wear analysis, this paper also
deals with measurement of surface roughness of GFRP composite.

Surface finish of end product is the critical factor to affect the quality of machining process.
The measurement of surface roughness of GFRP composite material is not easy than that of
metals because of strong glass fiber undergoes sharp brittle fracture with deformation of
matrix material, fibre micro cracking and pulverization. It is observed that as the cutting
speed increases, the formation of a built-up edge is greatly reduced which leads to surface
roughness decreases. SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool produce lower surface
roughness than the Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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I take the opportunity to express my heartfelt adulation and gratitude to my supervisor/guide,
Er. Gurvinder Singh, Assistant professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
JCDM College of Engineering, Sirsa for their unreserved guidance, valuable and
constructive suggestions, thought provoking discussions and unabashed inspiration in the
nurturing work. It has been a benediction for me to spend many opportune moments under
the guidance of the perfectionist at the acme of professionalism. The present work is
testimony to their activity, inspiration and ardent personal interest, taken by him during the
course of this work in its present form.

Its my privilege to convey my sincere thanks to Dr. Himanshu Monga, Principal, JCDM
College of Engineering, Sirsa for his valuable input and encouraging enthusiasm during my
study.

I also express my deep sense of gratitude to my dear parents and my friends for their
moral support throughout the period of my work.
I want to express my sincere thanks to all those who directly or indirectly helped me
at the various stages of this work. Above all, I express my indebtedness to the ALMIGHTY
for all his blessing and kindness.

(Sandeep Kumar)

CONTENTS

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Certificate I
Candidates declaration II
Abstract III
Acknowledgement IV
Contents V
List of figures VIII
List of Tables IX
List of Abbreviation X
List of Publication XI

CHAPTER1 INTRODUCTION 1-30

1.1 Composites Material 1
1.1.1 Phases of Composites 1
1.2 Classifications of composite materials 3
1.2.1 According to arrangement and nature of reinforcement 3
1.2.2 According to Types of Matrix Material 5
1.2.3 According to Types of structural composites 8
1.3 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) 10
1.3.1 Typical applications 10
1.3.2 Processing of Fibre-Reinforced Composites 12
1.3.3 Main Types of FRP 15
1.3.3.1 Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer 15
1.3.3.2 Glass fiber reinforced polymer 16
1.4 Main Types of Material Used In Production of GFRP 17
1.4.1 Glass Fibres 17
1.4.1.1 Types of glass fiber used 18
1.4.2 Reinforcement Format 18
1.4.2.1 Woven Rovings 19
1.4.2.2 Chopped Strand Mat (Emulsion) 20
1.4.3 Matrix Resins 20
1.5 Typical Application of GFRP 22

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 1.6 Examples of fiberglass use 23
1.7 Machining 24
1.8 Cutting Tool Materials 24
1.8.1 Cutting Tools of Pure Alumina 26
1.8.2 Alumina Based Cutting Tools 26
1.9 GFRP Manufacturing Methods 28
CHAPTER2 LITERATURE REVIEW 31-35
2.1 Overview 31
2.2 Background and Rationale 31
CHAPTER3 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH AND PROBLEM 36-37
FORMULATION
3.1 Introduction 36
3.2 Identification of Research Gap 36
3.3 Formulation of Research Questions 36
3.4 Problem Formulation of Research Questions 37
3.5 Objectives of Present Research 37
CHAPTER--4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 38-42
4.1 Introduction 38
4.2 Research Design and Methodology 38
4.3 Experimental Procedure 38
4.3.1 Preparation of GFRP Composite rod 38
4.3.2 Machining Study 39
4.3.3 Measurement of Experimental Values at Diff. Parameters 41
CHAPTER--5 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS 43-45
5.1 Flank wear of the alumina cutting tool 43
5.2 Surface Roughness 44
5.3 Cutting Force 45
CHAPTER--6 CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE 47-50
SCOPE
6.1 Summary of Objective of Research 47

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 6.2 Conclusions 47
6.3 Recommendations 48
6.3.1 Recommendations for Government of India 48
6.3.2 Recommendations for Technical Institutions 48
6.3.3 Recommendation for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises 49
6.3.4 Recommendation for Fibre Enterprises 49
6.4 Scope for Future Research 50
REFERENCES 51

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Particulars Page No.

Fig. 1.1 Fibre Reinforcement Polymer 3
Fig. 1.2 Reinforcement Composite 4
Fig. 1.3 Laminated Composite 4
Fig. 1.4 Hybrid Composite 5
Fig. 1.5 Metal Matrix Composite 7
Fig. 1.6 Ceramic Matrix Composite 8
Fig. 1.7 Layers for a Laminar Composite 9
Fig. 1.8 Honeycomb Core Sandwich Panel 10
Fig. 1.9 Windmill Blades 11

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Fig. 1.10 Pultrusion Process 12
Fig. 1.11 Prepreg Production Process 13
Fig. 1.12 Helical, Circumferential, and Polar Filament Winding Techniques 15
Fig. 1.13 Woven Rovings 19
Fig. 1.14 Chopped Strand Mat 20
Fig. 1.15 Storage Tanks 22
Fig. 1.16 Fiberglass Dome House 22
Fig. 1.17 Filament Winding Process 29
Fig. 1.18 Fiberglass hand lay-up operation 29
Fig. 1.19 Fiberglass spray lay-up operation 30
Fig. 1.20 Pultrusion Process 30
Fig. 4.1 Filament Winding Process 39
Fig. 4.2 E-glass fibre reinforced composite rod 39
Fig. 4.3 BHARAT all-geared lathe of model NAGMATI-175 40
Fig. 4.4 Metzer Toolmakers Microscope 41
Fig. 4.5 TR200 Surface Profile meter 41
Fig. 4.6 Lathe Tool Dynamometer 42
Fig. 5.1 Flank wear versus machining time of alumina cutting tools 43
Fig. 5.2 Flank wear versus cutting velocity of alumina cutting tools 44
Fig. 5.3 Surface Roughness versus cutting velocity 44
Fig. 5.4 Principle cutting force versus cutting velocity 45

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Particulars Page No.

Table 4.1 Properties of E-glass fibre roving 38
Table 4.2 Composition of E-glass Fibre 39
Table 4.3 Properties of the alumina based ceramic cutting tool material 40
Table 4.4 Flank Wear of Alumina Cutting Tools at diff. Machining Time 41
Table 4.5 Flank Wear at 6 min. in diff. cutting velocity 41
Table 4.6 Surface Roughness at different cutting speed for 9 minute 42
Table 4.7 Cutting Forces at different Cutting Velocity 42

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 NOMENCLATURE/ ABBREVIATIONS

CBN Cubic boron nitride

CFRP Carbon fibre reinforced plastic
CNC Computerized Numerical Control
Cp Specific heat
CTE Coefficient of thermal expansion
CVD Chemical vapour deposition
E-glass Electrical glass
FEM Finite element method
FRP Fibre reinforced polymer
GFRP Glass fibre reinforced plastic
GPa Giga Pascal
HM Higher-modulus
HS High-strength
HSS High-speed steels
IM Intermediate modulus
ISO International Organization for Standardization
K Kelvin
K Thermal conductivity
KFRP Kevlar fibre reinforced plastics

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Kg Kilogram
kJ Kilojoule
m Meter
min Minute
N Newton
Pa Pascal
PAN Polyacrylonitrile
PCBN Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride
PCD ` Polycrystalline diamond
PEEK Polyetheretherketone
PVD Physical vapour deposition
Rev Revolution
Sc Compressive strength
S-glass High strength glass
Tg Glass transition temperature
Tm Melting temperature
TRS Transverse rupture strength
VB Width of the flank wears
W Watt
wt. Weight
Degree
SiC Silicon Carbide
Ti[C,N] Titanium Carbonitride

Chapter 1
Introduction

Composite Material: Composite is a combination of two or more material having individual

chemical, mechanical and physical properties. After combining this material, the property of
the particular material change and a better single material is obtained, as a composite. Now
this composite have many advantages of being used in fields like shipping, aerospace, and
aircraft industries. A composite has enough specific stiffness, high specific strength [1], less
thermal expansion coefficient, high moisture absorption ability with time [2] and a real ability
for corrosion protection.
Composite materials are fully different from conventional materials. In conventional
material, machining is easy in comparison with polymer composite. The machining of
composites is performed under consideration of some behaviour as it depends on physical
and mechanical properties of fiber of the composite. And also the properties depend on the
amount of fiber, quality of fiber, type of fiber and chemical composition of fiber [3].
The fibrous material is the most advanced composite, made by resin matrix. Its
laminated in a sequence of particular direction hence get enough material stiffness and better

10
strength. Composite stiffness and strength also depends the orientation of fibers. The value of
orientation is determined by applying proper load on fiber filament. Carbon composite
material has little orientation value as compare to glass composite material. The composite
consists of two primary phases: matrix and reinforcement.

1.1.1 Phases of Composites:

1. Matrix: Matrix is the first phase in composition present in large amount and is continuous.
In structure composite, matrix possesses individual property and enhances the overall
property of the product. The two types of matrix describes below;
I. Organic Matrix: Polymers are common matrices (especially used for fiber reinforced
plastics). Road surfaces are often made from asphalt concrete which uses bitumen as a
matrix. Mud(wattle and daub) has seen extensive use. Typically, most common polymer-
based composite materials, including fiberglass, carbon fiber, and Kevlar, include at least two
parts, the substrate and the resin.
Vinyl ester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint. This resin has lower
viscosity than polyester resin, and is more transparent. This resin is often billed as being fuel
resistant, but will melt in contact with gasoline. This resin tends to be more resistant over
time to degradation than polyester resin, and is more flexible. It uses the same hardeners as
polyester resin (at a similar mix ratio) and the cost is approximately the same. Epoxy resin is
almost totally transparent when cured. In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a structural
matrix material or as structural glue.
II. Inorganic Matrix
Cement (concrete), metals, ceramics and sometimes glasses are employed. Unusual matrices
such as ice are sometime proposed as in pykecrete.
2. Reinforcement: It is more strong, more stiff and harder than the first phase that is the
matrix. Reinforcement changes the physical properties like thermal resistance, wear
resistance, and thermal conductivity. In this phase machining operation such as extrusion,
rolling, forging and drilling, etc. can be performed. Carbon fiber, silicon fiber or glass fiber is
monofilament fiber that is used in continuous reinforcement. When both phase meet its make
other physical identification [4].
I. Fiber Reinforcement: Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack
propagation. Thin fibers can have very high strength, and provided they are mechanically
well attached to the matrix they can greatly improve the composite's overall properties.Fiber-
reinforced composite materials can be divided into two main categories normally referred to

2
as short fiber-reinforced materials and continuous fiber-reinforced materials. Continuous
reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated structure [5].
The woven and continuous fibre styles are typically available in a variety of forms,
being preimpregnated with the given matrix (resin), dry, uni-directional tapes of various
widths, plain weave, and harness satins, braided, and stitched. The short and long fibers are
typically employed in compression moulding and sheet moulding operations. These come in
the form of flakes, chips, and random mate (which can also be made from a continuous fibre
laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply / laminate is achieved).Common
fibers used for reinforcement include glass fibers, carbon fibers, cellulose(wood/paper fiber
and straw) and high strength polymers for example aramid. Silicon carbide fibers are used for
some high temperature applications

Fig. 1.1 fibre reinforced polymer

1.2 Classifications of composite materials:

Due to many property of composite materials it has been classified in two phase that are
described below.
1.2.1 According to arrangement and nature of reinforcement
I. Reinforced composites
II. Laminated composite
III. Particulate reinforced composite
IV. Hybrid composite

3
 I. Reinforced Composite: When a length of the reinforcement is higher than cross
sectional dimension, this type of composite is known as the Reinforced composite. In a
single layer composite, length of reinforcement may be long or short It depends on the
size of the reinforce [6].
Orientation of long reinforced fiber composite is in one way or one direction, this type
of fiber is known as the continuous fiber reinforced composite and the length of fiber is
neither too short nor too long, is this type of composite known as discontinuous fiber
reinforcement composite.

Fig 1.2 Reinforced Composite

II. Laminated Composite: The layer of fibrous is arranged in a particular way or particular
direction, by bonding some unusual condition that increases the engineering property tensile
strength by 33% and tensile modulus by 75% [7] of the composite. For better bonding of
fibrous, three layers are arranged in alternative way between reinforcement and polymer
matrix. Combining individual layers result in increment of the property of high modulus [1],
high strength and corrosion resistance. An example of laminated composite is paper and
plywood. Shown fig.2

4
 Fig.1.3 Laminated Composite

III. Particulate Reinforced Composite: Reinforcement used equally in all the available
directions results in making Particulate reinforced composite. This phenomenon results in
improved stiffness but at the same time it also affects the strength of particulate composite.
Advantages of particulate composites are high wear resistance, high thermal performance of
composite, low coefficient of friction and very small shrinkage in the composite in compared
to others.
IV. .Hybrid Composite: A relatively new fiber-reinforced composite is the hybrid, which is
obtained by using two or more different kinds of fibers in a single matrix; hybrids have a
better all-around combination of properties than composites containing only a single fiber
type. A variety of fiber combinations and matrix materials are used, but in the most common
system, both carbon and glass fibers are incorporated into a polymeric resin. The carbon
fibers are strong and relatively stiff and provide a low-density reinforcement; however, they
are expensive. Glass fibers are inexpensive and lack the stiffness of carbon. The glasscarbon
hybrid is stronger and tougher, has a higher impact resistance, and may be produced at a
lower cost than either of the comparable all-carbon or all-glass reinforced plastics.
Principal applications for hybrid composites are lightweight land, water, and air
transport structural components, sporting goods, and lightweight orthopedic components.

5
 Fig 1.4 Hybrid
Composite

1.2.2 According
to Types of Matrix Material
I. Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC)
II. Metal Matrix Composite (MMC)
III. Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC)
I. Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC): Polymer matrix composite are most useful in the
field of structural components due to their unique properties. The use of reinforced polymer
in matrix improves the strength and stiffness. Polymer matrix composite doesnt need high
temperature and high pressure in the processing phase. Manufacturing of polymer matrix
composite is simple with compare to Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) and Ceramic Matrix
Composite (CMC) which makes it viable in structure field. Particles reinforced polymer
(PRP) and Fiber reinforced polymer are the type of polymer matrix composite.
II. Metal Matrix Composite (MMC): In composites, when a metal is used as matrix phase
then composite is called as metal matrix composite (MMC). Due to the metal matrix, MMCs
can be distinguished from conventional metal in terms of increased strength, higher elastic
modulus, high temperature sustainability, improved abrasion and wear resistance, high
electrical and thermal conductivity, lighter weight and low coefficient of thermal expansion.
These properties of MMCs can be controlled by the proper choice of matrix and
reinforcement [8]. Generally metal matrix serves the function of proper distribution and
transfer of load to the reinforcement. Because of these properties MMCs are used in typical
applications such as fabrication of satellite, missile, helicopter structures, structural support,
piston, sleeves and rims, high temperature structures, drive shaft, brake rotors, connecting
rods, engine block liners various types of aerospace and automotive applications etc. shown
in fig.
Aluminum is the most common metal matrix material used as a structural design
especially in the aerospace industry because of its light weight properties. Aluminum having
low strength as well as low melting point therefore we cant able to use only Aluminum metal

6
as structural material. This problem can be solved by using Aluminum as matrix material
with a reinforced element such as SiC particles and whiskers. Mostly SiC particles are used
as reinforcement purpose because of its having many advantages over the various
reinforcement material such high modulus and strengths, excellent thermal resistance, good
corrosion resistance, good compatibility with the Aluminum matrix, low cost and ready
availability. In industrial applications, Aluminum alloy-based composites with silicon carbide
reinforcement have created significant interest due to its high-strength, high-specific modulus
and low density.
Advantages and Disadvantages of MMC
Compared to monolithic metals, PMC and CMCs, MMCs have:
a) Higher strength-to-density ratio and stiffness-to-density ratios.
b) Better fatigue resistance and lower creep rate.
c) Better elevated temperature properties.
d) Lower coefficients of thermal expansion.
e) Better wear resistance and radiation resistance.
f) Higher temperature capability with fire resistance.
g) Higher transverse stiffness and strength.
h) No moisture absorption and no outgassing.
i) Higher electrical and thermal conductivities.
j) Fabric ability of whisker and particulate-reinforced MMCs with conventional metal
working equipment.
Some of the disadvantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals, PMCs and CMCs are
a) Higher cost of some material systems.
b) Relatively immature technology.
c) Complex fabrication methods for fiber-reinforced systems (except for casting).
d) Limited service experience.

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 Fig 1.5 Metal Matrix Composite

III. Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC):

In matrix phase, ceramic materials are used to make the composites. The primary aim in
manufacturing ceramic composite is, it has improved strength and stiffness along with the
toughness of the material. It is able to performs in very high-temperature condition, even in
stressed placed. Its also used in construction field.
Ceramic materials are inherently resilient to oxidation and deterioration at elevated
temperatures; were it not for their disposition to brittle fracture, some of these materials
would be ideal candidates for use in high-temperature and severe-stress applications,
specifically for components in automobile and aircraft gas turbine engines. Fracture
toughness values for ceramic materials are low and typically lie between 1 and 5 MPa (0.9
and 4.5 ksi ).
In general, increasing fiber content improves strength and fracture toughness; this is
for SiC whisker-reinforced alumina. Furthermore, there is a considerable reduction in the
scatter of fracture strengths for whisker-reinforced ceramics relative to their unreinforced
counterparts. In addition, these CMCs exhibit improved high-temperature creep behavior and
resistance to thermal shock (i.e., failure resulting from sudden changes in temperature).
Ceramic-matrix composites may be fabricated using hot pressing, hot isotactic
pressing, and liquid phase sintering techniques. Relative to applications, SiC whisker-
reinforced aluminas are being utilized as cutting tool inserts for machining hard metal alloys;
tool lives for these materials are greater than for cemented carbides.

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 Fig. 1.6 Ceramic Matrix Composite
1.2.3 According to Types of structural composites
Structural composite: A structural composite is normally composed of both homogeneous
and composite materials, the properties of which depend not only on the properties of the
constituent materials but also on the geometrical design of the various structural elements.
Laminar composites and sandwich panels are two of the most common structural composites;
only a relatively superficial examination is offered here for them.
I. LAMINAR COMPOSITES
Laminar Composites: A laminar composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or
panels that have a preferred high-strength direction such as are found in wood and continuous
and aligned fiber-reinforced plastics. The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented
together such that the orientation of the high-strength direction varies with each successive
layer (Figure 1.7). For example, adjacent wood sheets in plywood are aligned with the grain
direction at right angles to each other. Laminations may also be constructed using fabric
material such as cotton, paper, or woven glass fibers embedded in a plastic matrix.

9
Fig.1.7 The stacking of successive oriented, fiber-reinforced layers for a laminar composite.

II. SANDWICH PANELS

Sandwich Panels: Sandwich panels considered to be a class of structural composites, are
designed to be light-weight beams or panels having relatively high stiffnesses and strengths.
A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets, or faces, that are separated by and adhesively
bonded to a thicker core. The outer sheets are made of a relatively stiff and strong material,
typically aluminum alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics, titanium, steel, or plywood; they impart
high stiffness and strength to the structure, and must be thick enough to withstand tensile and
compressive stresses that result from loading. The core material is lightweight, and normally
has a low modulus of elasticity. Core materials typically fall within three categories: rigid
polymeric foams (i.e., phenolic, epoxy, polyurethanes), wood (i.e., balsa wood), and
honeycombs (see below).
Another popular core consists of a honeycomb structurethin foils that have been
formed into interlocking hexagonal cells, with axes oriented perpendicular to the face planes;
Figure 1.8 shows a cutaway view of a honeycomb core sandwich panel. The honeycomb
material is normally either an aluminum alloy or aramid polymer. Strength and stiffness of
honeycomb structures depend on cell size, cell wall thickness, and the material from which
the honeycomb is made. Sandwich panels are used in a wide variety of applications including
roofs, floors, and walls of buildings; and, in aerospace and aircraft (i.e., for wings, fuselage,
and tailplane skins).

10
 Fig. 1.8 Schematics diagram showing the construction of a honeycomb core sandwich panel.

1.3 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP): Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite is made
up of a polymer matrix (it may be either a thermoplastic or thermoset resin, such as polyester,
vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic) incorporated with a reinforcing material like glass, carbon,
aramid and boron etc. [9].which have sufficient aspect ratio (length to thickness) to provide a
discernable reinforcing function in one or more directions. Some times in FRP composite
core materials and additives are also added to improve properties of the final product. During
machining of FRP composites many problems arises such as fiber pull-out, burr,
delamination and burning etc. it is due to the non-homogeneity of the constituent of the
composite materials. Carbon fiber and glass fiber are the most common example of fiber
reinforcement polymer composite. GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic) composites are the
most common used FRP composites.
Advantages of FRP Composites
a) Lighter weight.
b) The design can be optimized to meet stiffness, strength and manufacturing requirements.
c) Part consolidation to provide pre-fabricated/pre-assembled product.
d) Complex shapes are easily accomplished.
e) Corrosion resistance.

1.3.1 Typical applications

I. Building and Construction
With its low maintenance and low weight,[10] FRP is finding many applications building and
infrastructure projects. UP resins can be mixed with glass fiber and fillers to cast synthetic

11
marble and solid surfaces for kitchens and bathrooms, as well as roof tiles. For large projects
such as bridges and wind generators, low weight for easier installation combined with low
Maintenance and durability make FRP an ideal alternative to conventional materials.

Fig.1.9 Low weight and high strength makes FRP ideal for windmill blades.

II. Marine industry

Marine is an excellent example of an industry that has been completely transformed with the
advent of FRP. Especially in the leisure boat sector, FRP has largely replaced traditional
wood and steel building methods. An outer layer of gel coat gives unlimited color options,
weather protection and a high gloss, low maintenance finish to boat hulls and decks. FRP is
used in the construction of boats in all shapes and sizes from competition kayaks to sailing
yachts to floating gin palaces. The material is also used for naval vessels such as
submersibles, mine hunters and high speed patrol boats.
III. Transportation
Low weight, mouldability and high quality surface finishes make FRP an ideal material for
automotive car body panels such as tailgates, fenders, roofs and complete truck cabs. High
dimensional tolerance and heat resistance also makes FRP parts highly suitable for structural
and under-bonnet parts such as engine sumps, valve covers and front assemblies. Separate
metal components can be replaced by a single multi-functional FRP part. Special grades of
UP resins are available that give high levels of fire retardancy and low smoke emission.
These are important requirements for public transport applications, especially in trains and in-
tunnel applications like cladding and seating.

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IV. Chemical plant and pipes
With its excellent resistance to corrosion and chemical attack, FRP is widely used in the
chemical industry for the construction of pipe work and for chemical storage vessels, fume
scrubbers and many other high performance applications. Vinyl ester and epoxy vinyl ester
resins have been developed to give high levels of chemical resistance even in the most
aggressive environments.

1.3.2 MANFACTURING PROCESS OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES

To fabricate continuous fiber-reinforced plastics that meet design specifications, the fibers
should be uniformly distributed within the plastic matrix and, in most instances, all oriented
in virtually the same direction. In this section several techniques (pultrusion, filament
winding, and prepreg production processes) by which useful products of these materials are
manufactured will be discussed.
I. Pultrusion
Pultrusion is used for the manufacture of components having continuous lengths and a
constant cross-sectional shape (i.e., rods, tubes, beams, etc.).With this technique, illustrated
schematically in Figure

Fig. 1.10 Schematics diagram showing the pultrusion process.

Continuous fiber rovings, or tows,3 are first impregnated with a thermosetting resin; these are
then pulled through a steel die that preforms to the desired shape and also establishes the
resin/fiber ratio. The stock then passes through a curing die that is precision machined so as
to impart the final shape; this die is also heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix. A pulling
device draws the stock through the dies and also determines the production speed. Tubes and
hollow sections are made possible by using center mandrels or inserted hollow cores.
Principal reinforcements are glass, carbon, and aramid fibers, normally added in

13
concentrations between 40 and 70vol %. Commonly used matrix materials include polyesters,
vinyl esters, and epoxy resins.
Pultrusion is a continuous process that is easily automated; production rates are relatively
high, making it very cost effective. Furthermore, a wide variety of shapes are possible, and
there is really no practical limit to the length of stock that may be manufactured.
II. Prepreg Production Processes
Prepreg is the composite industrys term for continuous fiber reinforcement preimpregnated
with a polymer resin that is only partially cured. This material is delivered in tape form to the
manufacturer, who then directly molds and fully cures the product without having to add any
resin. It is probably the composite material form most widely used for structural applications.
The prepregging process, represented schematically for thermoset polymers in Figure begins
by collimating a series of spool-wound continuous fiber tows. These tows are then
sandwiched and pressed between sheets of release and carrier paper using heated rollers, a
process termed calendering. The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of
heated resin solution of relatively low viscosity so as to provide for its thorough impregnation
of the fibers. A doctor blade spreads the resin into a film of uniform thickness and width.
The final prepreg productthe thin tape consisting of continuous and aligned fibers
embedded in a partially cured resinis prepared for packaging by winding onto a cardboard
core. As shown in Figure. 1.11, the release paper sheet is removed as the impregnated tape is
spooled. Typical tape thicknesses range between 0.08 and 0.25 mm tape widths range
between 25 and 1525 mm (1 and 60 in.), whereas resin content usually lies between about 35
and 45 vol %.

14
 Fig 1.11 Schematic diagram illustrating the production of prepreg tape using a thermoset polymer.
At room temperature the thermoset matrix undergoes curing reactions; therefore, the prepreg
is stored at or lower. Also, the time in use at room temperature (or out-time) must be
minimized. If properly handled, thermoset prepregs have a lifetime of at least six months and
usually longer.
Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized; carbon, glass, and aramid
fibers are the common reinforcements. Actual fabrication begins with the lay-uplying of
the prepreg tape onto a tooled surface. Normally a number of plies are laid up (after removal
from the carrier backing paper) to provide the desired thickness. The lay-up arrangement may
be unidirectional, but more often the fiber orientation is alternated to produce a cross-ply or
angle-ply laminate. Final curing is accomplished by the simultaneous application of heat and
pressure.
The lay-up procedure may be carried out entirely by hand (hand lay-up), wherein the
operator both cuts the lengths of tape and then positions them in the desired orientation on the
tooled surface. Alternately, tape patterns may be machine cut, then hand lay. Fabrication costs
can be further reduced by automation of prepreg lay-up and other manufacturing procedures
(e.g., filament winding, as discussed below), which virtually eliminates the need for hand
labor. These automated methods are essential for many applications of composite materials to
be cost effective.
III. Filament Winding
Filament winding is a process by which continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately
positioned in a predetermined pattern to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape. The fibers,

15
either as individual strands or as tows, are first fed through a resin bath or then are
continuously wound onto a mandrel, usually using automated winding equipment (Figure
1.12). After the appropriate number of layers has been applied, curing is carried out either in
an oven or at room temperature, after which the mandrel is removed. As an alternative,
narrow and thin prepregs (i.e., tow pregs) 10 mm or less in width may be filament wound.
Various winding patterns are possible (i.e., circumferential, helical, and polar) to give
the desired mechanical characteristics. Filament-wound parts have very high strength-to
weight ratios. Also, a high degree of control over winding uniformity and orientation is
afforded with this technique. Furthermore, when automated, the process is most economically
attractive. Common filament-wound structures include rocket motor casings, storage tanks
and pipes, and pressure vessels.

Fig.1.12 Schematic representations of helical, circumferential, and polar filament winding techniques

Manufacturing techniques are now being used to produce a wide variety of structural shapes
that are not necessarily limited to surfaces of revolution (e.g., I-beams).This technology is
advancing very rapidly because it is very cost effective.

1.3.3 Main Types of FRP

1.3.3.1 Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites

16
Carbon is a high-performance fiber material that is the most commonly used reinforcement in
advanced (i.e., non-fiber glass) polymer-matrix composites. The reasons for this are as
follows:
1. Carbon fibers have the highest specific modulus and specific strength of all reinforcing
fiber materials.
2. They retain their high tensile modulus and high strength at elevated temperatures;
High-temperature oxidation, however, may be a problem.
3. At room temperature, carbon fibers are not affected by moisture or a wide
Variety of solvents, acids and bases.
4. These fibers exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical characteristics, allowing
composites incorporating these fibers to have specific engineered Properties.
5. Fiber and composite manufacturing processes have been developed that are relatively
inexpensive and cost effective.

Use of the term carbon fiber may seem perplexing since carbon is an element and the stable
form of crystalline carbon at ambient conditions is graphite. Carbon fibers are not totally
crystalline, but are composed of both graphitic and non-crystalline regions; these areas of
non-crystallinity are devoid of the three-dimensional ordered arrangement of hexagonal
carbon networks that is characteristic of graphite.
Carbon-reinforced polymer composites are currently being utilized extensively in
sports and recreational equipment (fishing rods, golf clubs), filament-wound rocket motor
cases, pressure vessels, and aircraft structural componentsboth military and commercial,
fixed wing and helicopters (e.g., as wing, body, stabilizer, and rudder components).

1.3.3.2 Glass fiber reinforced polymer: Fiberglass is simply a composite consisting of glass
fibers, either continuous or discontinuous, contained within a polymer matrix; this type of
composite is produced in the largest quantities [7]. The composition of the glass that is most
commonly drawn into fibers (sometimes referred to as E-glass). fiber diameters normally
range between 3 and 20 m. Glass is popular as a fiber reinforcement material for several
reasons:
1. It is easily drawn into high-strength fibers from the molten state.
2. It is readily available and may be fabricated into a glass-reinforced plastic
economically using a wide variety of composite manufacturing techniques.
3. As a fiber it is relatively strong, and when embedded in a plastic matrix, it produces a

17
 composites having a very high specific strength.
4. When coupled with the various plastics, it possesses a chemical inertness that renders
the composite useful in a variety of corrosive environments.
The surface characteristics of glass fibers are extremely important because even minute
surface flaws can deleteriously affect the tensile properties. Surface flaws are easily
introduced by rubbing or abrading the surface with another hard material. Also, glass surfaces
that have been exposed to the normal atmosphere for even short time periods generally have a
weakened surface layer that interferes with bonding to the matrix. Newly drawn fibers are
normally coated during drawing with a size, a thin layer of a substance that protects the
fiber surface from damage and undesirable environmental interactions. This size is ordinarily
removed prior to composite fabrication and replaced with a coupling agent or finish that
produces a chemical bond between the fiber and matrix.
Advantages of GFRP Composites
1. The weight of Glass fiber reinforced composite is lesser than the conventional materials.
2 Corrosion resistance of GFRP is high.
3. Stiffness, Strength, and modulus can be improved by the design of manufacturing.
4. GFRP composite can be made in any shape and size according to the requirement.
5. It possess excellent damping characteristic that provides better fatigue resistance.
6. GFRP composites can be easily fabricated.
Disadvantages of GFRP
1. Economically use of GFRP is costlier.
2. Waste while drilling GFRP is very harmful for health.
3. Difficult to manufacture a delicate shape.
4. Application of GFRP is limited.

1.4 Main Types of Material Used In Production of GFRP

1.4.1 GLASS FIBRES
The most extensively used class of fibres in composites is those manufactured from E-glass.
E-glass is a low alkali borosilicate glass originally developed for electrical insulation
applications. It was first produced commercially for composite manufacture in 1940s, and its
use now approaches 2 MT per year worldwide. Many different countries manufacture E-glass
and its exact composition varies according to the availability and composition of the local
raw materials. It is manufactured as continuous filaments in bundles, or strands, each
containing typically between 200 and 2000 individual filaments of 10-30 m diameters.

18
These strands may be incorporated into larger bundles called roving and may be processed
into a wide variety of mats, clothes, and performs and cut into short-fibre formats [11].
Glass filaments have relatively low stiffness but very high tensile strength (~3GPa). In
spite of their initial very high strength, glass filaments are relatively delicate and may become
damaged by abrasion and by attack from moist air. It is therefore always necessary to protect
the newly drawn strands with a coating or size (also referred to as a finish). This is usually
applied as a solution or emulsion containing a polymer that coats the fibres and binds the
fibres in the strand together (film former), a lubricant to reduce abrasion damage and improve
handling, additives to control static electric charges on the filaments, and a coupling agent,
usually a silane, that enhances the adhesion of the filaments to the matrix resin and reduces
property loss on exposure to wet environments [12].
1.4.1.1 Types of glass fiber used
Composition: The most common types of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E-glass,
which is alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used
for glass-reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-glass (Alkali-lime glass
with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-
lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass
(alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and
insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low Dielectric constant), R-glass
(alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as
Reinforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO
content with high tensile strength)[13].
Naming and use: Pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into a
glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass, but has the
drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures. In order to lower the
necessary work temperature, other materials are introduced as "fluxing agents" (i.e.,
components to lower the melting point). Ordinary A-glass ("A" for "alkali-lime") or
soda lime glass, crushed and ready to be remelted, as so-called cullet glass, was the
first type of glass used for fiberglass. E-glass ("E" because of initial Electrical
application), is alkali free, and was the first glass formulation used for continuous
filament formation. It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world,
and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally. It is susceptible to
chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications. S-glass ("S" for

19
 "stiff") is used when tensile strength (high modulus) is important, and is thus an
important building and aircraft epoxy composite (it is called R-glass, "R" for
"reinforcement" in Europe). C-glass ("C" for "chemical resistance") and T-glass ("T"
is for "thermal insulator" a North American variant of C-glass) are resistant to
chemical attack; both are often found me insulation-grades of blown fiberglass [14].
1.4.2. REINFORCEMENT FORMAT
The reinforcement fibres are generally available in the form of a tow, or in a band. In some
processing operations (e.g. filament winding), tows, or rovings, of continuous fibres are
converted directly into the component. Following forms of GFRP are generally available:
CSM (Emulsion)
CSM (Powder)
WR
Spray - up Rovings
SMC Rovings
Assembled Rovings
Direct Roving
Among these forms, the present study deals with CSM (Emulsion) and WR.
1.4.2.1 Woven Rovings
Woven clothes and rovings are very widely used in the manufacture of laminated structures.
A simple plain weave WR allows a Vf of up to 0.6 to be achieved in the laminate. In-plane
strengths are much higher than for the random materials. Stiffness, strength, and drape are
also influenced by the weave pattern. The plain weave leads to a high degree of crimp, which
may reduce stiffness by up to about 15% compared with a similar fraction of Straight fibres.
Twill and satin weaves offer better drape, and the satin weaves in particular have less crimp.
Five and eight-harness satin weaves are widely used in composite laminates,
especially in the lighter weights, which are more appropriate in many highly stressed designs.
The tighter fibre structure in cloths renders them more difficult to infiltrate and consolidate
than the random mats. WR fabrics are specifically designed to meet most demanding
performance, processing and cost requirements. These fabrics deliver a unique combination
of properties. They offer one of the highest strength-to-weight ratios possible for reinforced
plastics and through careful selection and placement of fabrics, designers can put the strength
exactly where it is needed, making optimum use of the fibre strength. WR fabrics provide the
most economical solution for raising glass content of laminates and increasing laminate

20
stiffness and impact resistance without adding thickness, weight or other non-reinforcing
materials. Figure 1.13 shows the typical WR mat.

Fig.1.13 Woven rovings

1.4.2.2 Chopped Strand Mat (Emulsion)

Chopped strands are produced by cutting continuous strands into short lengths. The ability of
the individual filaments to hold together during or after the chopping process depends largely
on the type and amount of size applied during the fibre manufacturing operation. Strands of
high integrity are called hard and those that separate more readily are called soft. Longer
Strands are mixed with a resinous binder and spread in a two dimensional random fashion to
form CSMs. Thus a CSM is made up of random yet evenly distributed strands chopped from
continuous E Glass fibres into 50mm length and bonded with Emulsion binder. It
possesses excellent surface bonding efficiency. These mats are suitable for hand lay - up
mouldings and provide nearly equal properties in all directions in the plane of the structure.
Figure shows a typical CSM.

Fig. 1.14 CSM 450 E gsm MAT

21
1.4.3 MATRIX RESINS
There are mainly three different types of matrix materials- organic polymers, ceramics and
metals. Thermosetting polymer resins are the type of matrix material commonly used for civil
engineering applications. Polymers are chain like molecules built up from a series of
monomers. The molecular size of the polymer helps to determine its mechanical properties.
Polymeric matrices have lowest density, hence, produce lightest composite materials. A major
consideration in the selection of matrices is the processing requirement] of the selected
material. The most common thermosetting resins used in civil engineering applications are
polyesters, epoxies, and to a lesser degree, phenolics. ISO and ER have been used in the
study. Polyester resins are relatively inexpensive, and provide adequate resistance to a variety
of environmental factors and chemicals. Epoxies are more expensive but also have better
properties than polyesters. Some of the advantages of epoxies over polyesters are higher
strength, slightly higher modulus, low shrinkage, good resistance to chemicals, and good
adhesion to most fibres.
The matrix resin must have significant levels of fibres within it at all important load-bearing
locations. In the absence of sufficient fibre reinforcement, the resin matrix may shrink
excessively, can crack, or may not carry the load imposed upon it. Fillers, specifically those
with a high aspect ratio, can be added to the polymer matrix resin to obtain some measure of
reinforcement. However, it is difficult to selectively place fillers. Therefore, use of fillers can
reduce the volume fraction available for the load-bearing fibres. Another controlling factor is
the matrix polymer viscosity.
1.4.3.1 Epoxy Resins
ERs are used in advanced applications including aircraft, aerospace, and defense, as well as
many of the first- generation composite reinforcing concrete products currently available in
the market. ERs are available in a range of viscosities, and will work with a number of curing
agents or hardeners. The nature of epoxy allows it to be manipulated into a partially cured or
advanced cure state commonly known as a prepreg. If the prepreg also contains the
reinforcing fibres the resulting tacky lamina can be positioned on a mold (or wound if it is in
the form of a tape) at room temperature. ERs are more expensive than commercial polyesters
and vinyl esters.
1.4.3.2 Hardeners for Epoxy
ERs can be cured at different temperatures ranging from room temperature to elevated
temperatures as high as 347oF (175oC). Post curing is usually done. Epoxy polymer matrix

22
resins are approximately twice as expensive as polyester matrix materials. Compared to
polyester resins, ERs provide the following general performance characteristics:

A range of mechanical and physical properties can be obtained due to

the diversity of input materials
No volatile monomers are emitted during curing and processing
Low shrinkage during cure
Excellent resistance to chemicals and solvents
Good adhesion to a number of fillers, fibres, and sub-strates

1.5 Typical Application Of GFRP

I. Storage tanks: Several large fiberglass tanks at an airport Storage tanks can be made of
fiberglass with capacities up to about 300 tonnes. Smaller tanks can be made with chopped
strand mat cast over a thermoplastic inner tank which acts as a preform during construction
[15].

Fig.1.15 Several large fiberglass tanks at an airport

Much more reliable tanks are made using woven mat or filament wound fiber, with the fiber
orientation at right angles to the hoop stress imposed in the side wall by the contents. Such
tanks tend to be used for chemical storage because the plastic liner (often polypropylene) is
resistant to a wide range of corrosive chemicals. Fiberglass is also used for septic tanks.
II. House building: Glass-reinforced plastics are also used to produce house building
components such as roofing laminate, door surrounds, over-door canopies, window canopies
and dormers, chimneys, coping systems, and heads with keystones and sills. The material's
reduced weight and easier handling, compared to wood or metal, allows faster installation.

23
 Fig.1.16 A fiberglass dome house in Davis, California

Mass produced fiberglass brick-effect panels can be used in the construction of composite
housing, and can include insulation to reduce heat loss.
III. Piping
GRP and GRE pipe can be used in a variety of above- and below-ground systems, including
those for:
Desalination
Water treatment
Water distribution networks
Chemical process plants
Firewater
Hot and Cold water
Drinking water
Wastewater/sewage, Municipal waste
Natural gas, LPG

1.6 Examples of fiberglass use

Kayaks made of fiberglass
DIY bows / youth recurve; longbows
Pole vaulting poles
Equipment handles (Hammers, axes, etc.)
Traffic lights
Ship hulls

24
 Waterpipes
Helicopter rotor blades
Surfboards, tent poles
Gliders, kit cars, micro cars, karts, body shells, kayaks, flat roofs, lorries
Pods, domes and architectural features where a light weight is necessary
High-end bicycles
Auto body parts (for instance, body kits,[14] hoods, spoilers, etc.), and entire auto
bodies (e.g. Lotus Elan, Anadol, Reliant, Quantum Quantum Coup, Chevrolet
Corvette and Studebaker Avanti, and DeLorean DMC-12 underbody)
Antenna covers and structures, such as radomes, UHF broadcasting antennas, and
pipes used in hex beam antennas for amateur radio communications
FRP tanks and vessels: FRP is used extensively to manufacture chemical equipment
and tanks and vessels. BS4994 is a British standard related to this application.
Most commercial velomobiles
Most printed circuit boards consist of alternating layers of copper and fiberglass FR-4
Large commercial wind turbine blades
RF coils used in MRI scanners
Drum Sets
Sub-sea installation protection covers
Reinforcement of asphalt pavement, as a fabric or mesh interlayer between lifts
Helmets and other protective gear used in various sports.

1.7 Machining
Machining is manufacturing process that involves removing materials using cutting tools for
getting rid of the unwanted materials from some workpiece and converting it into the shape
you desire. A large piece of stock is used for cutting the workpiece. The large stock might be
in any shape such as solid bar, flat sheet, beam or even hollow tubes. The process can also be
performed on some existing part like forging or casting.
Need of Machining on GFRP: As above discussed GFRP is used in various
industries due their extensive properties. Many mechanical operations are done in
GFRP such as drilling, turning, milling, etc. Presently the conventional materials are

25
 not been used in the shipping industry, aircraft and aerospace field due to the cost of
the material, weight of material and difficulty of fabrication. While GFRP gives more
advancement, compared to conventional materials. Its costs less, weight of this
composite is very less with compare to conventional material, and can easily perform
any mechanical operation. So due to these qualities of Glass Fiber reinforced polymer
is used in building, equipment bodies and industrial field.
Machining Operations Machining operations are classified into 3 principle
processes and they are turning, drilling and milling. There are other operations too
that fall in miscellaneous categories such as boring, sawing, shaping, and broaching.
A specific machine tool is required for taking care of each machining operation.

1.8 Cutting Tools Materials: There is an axiom in metal working that urges the use of the
right tool for the job. Selecting the correct cutting tool material for a specific machining
operation is the first step in creating the most effective process plan for manufacturing a part.
The cutting tool material is dependent on the work material to be machined and the operation
to be performed. Often, there are several possible choices of tool materials that will
successfully (but not cost-effectively) produce parts. Additional factors then must be
considered and these include:
Machine tool horsepower, speed range, rigidity,
Productivity demands,
Tooling budget limitations
Machine tool burden rate.
In an increasing number of applications, the right tools for the jobs are ceramic cutters.
According to some data, application of ceramic cutting tools is about 5% of all the other
cutting tool materials, while available as solid body tools, the most popular form of ceramic
cutters is the indexable ceramic insert. With the development of high speed machining, the
requirements for cutting tool materials have become higher and higher. In recent years, a new
kind of material has been widely used as cutting tool material because of its good resistance
to oxidation, relatively high hardness (compared with that of cemented carbide cutting tool
materials) and low friction coefficient with metals. Main trends in research ceramic materials
are shifting from single phase of high purity to multiphase composite ceramics.
Advances in ceramic processing technology have resulted in a new generation of high
performance ceramic cutting tools exhibiting improved properties. Considerable

26
improvements have been achieved in tool properties such as flexural strength, fracture
toughness, thermal shock resistance, hardness, and wear resistance by incorporating one or
more other components into the base material to form ceramicmatrix composite tool
materials. The reinforcing component is often in the shape of particles or whiskers. Ceramic
tool materials with oxide matrices, particularly alumina, Al203, are of increasing interest, as
They exhibit high hot-hardness and very high abrasion resistance, thus making it suitable for
high speed machining.
Addition of hard particles or whiskers to the Al203 matrix may enhance its mechanical
properties considerably. Some of these tool materials, such as Al203/TiC, Al203/TiB2,
Al203/ZrO2, Al203/Ti(CN), Al203/WC, and Al203/SiC, have been used in various
machining applications and offer advantages with respect to friction and wear behaviors. A
large variety of strengthening and toughening mechanisms, including particle dispersion
toughening, transformation toughening, whisker reinforcing as well as micro-crack
toughening, have been developed to improve toughness, strength and thermal shock
resistance of ceramic tool materials.

1.8.1 CUTTING TOOLS OF PURE ALUMINA

Cutting tools from alumina, Al203, are used since the beginning of twentieth century for
cutting low hardness steel, but are usually used for grey cast iron. Cutting tools of pure Al203
are usually used in mass production, as they are cheap. Material for cutting tool is fine grain
at least 99% pure Al203 (less than 5 m), with high relative density, i.e. containing less than
2% porosity. Hardness of alumina at room temperature is at the same level as that of
cemented carbides (1600HV, 16GPa Knoop).
Hot hardness and compression strength are larger than that for cemented carbides. However,
fracture toughness is low, with the value KIC for alumina tools being 1.75 to 4.3 MPa m1/2,
much lower than those for cemented carbide.
One way to address the toughness issue of pure alumina was by mixing (ceramic + carbide).
Ceramic composite cutting tool material contains Al203 and 30% or more carbide of
refractory metals. TiC or (Ta,Ti)C are widely used since 1960. Nowadays, WC and NbC are
added. Al2O3-based ceramic composites reinforced with refractory carbides have been
developed as an alternative to cemented carbide.

1.8.2 ALUMINA BASED CUTTING TOOLS

Al203 + TiC composite

27
The Al203/TiC composites consist of small titanium carbide grains dispersed in an alumina
matrix. Microstructure is fine grain Al203 with dispersed carbide grains of diameter equal to
few microns. These cutting tools are mainly used for working on gray cast iron with high
speed, and it is expected to be used more widely than pure Al203, as its toughness is
increased by addition of TiC, 4,92 MPam1/2 When a few of volume percent of carbon is
added, a fracture toughness approximately 20% higher than that of the corresponding ceramic
material containing no carbon additive is achieved, while the hardness and the flexural
strength do not decrease much . Strip-like graphite (carbon) with a width of about 100 nm, is
distributed at the boundary area of Al203 and TiC and Al203 grains. It is found that micro
cracking, crack deflection, crack branching and crack bridging may contribute dominantly to
the increase in the fracture toughness of the carbon containing Al203/TiC ceramic tool
material. Therefore, it can get higher fracture resistance while retaining good wear resistance
in continuous and interrupted machining of hardened carbon steel. This composite has been
widely used for high speed cutting of hard steel, super-alloys, or cast iron.

Al203TiCCo composite
Incorporation of a ductile phase into a brittle ceramic matrix has been proved to be an
effective mechanism to toughen the ceramic because the existence of ductile phase can
dissipate the energy of crack initiation and propagation through plastic deformation, thus
making a larger contribution to the increment of toughness of brittle ceramic materials. Thin
film of metal cobalt was cladded on the surface of Al203 and TiC powder by a chemical
deposition method before the mixture of powder was hot pressed into an Al203TiCCo
(about 70 wt.% Al203Co and 30 wt.% TiCCo) . Due to the presence of cobalt film, ceramic
exhibits higher fracture strength and fracture toughness than Al203TiC (about 70 wt. %
Al203 and 30 wt. % TiC).

Al2O3/TiCN composite
The problem with these tools is obtaining them, i.e. sintering. By using new technique of
sintering, i.e. repetitious-hot-pressing technique Al203/Ti(C0.3N0.7), cutting tool material
was fabricated successfully. TiCN is very attractive as a cutting tool due to its lower friction
coefficient in comparison to TiC. The obtained material contains 45% of Al203, 55% of
Ti(C0.3N0.7), with Nickel + Molybdenum (4,5%) being added as binders. A small amount of
MgO (0,5%) was used to limit the abnormal growth of Al203 grains during sintering. This
composite has good mechanical properties (Flexural strength 820 MPa, Fracture toughness

28
7.4MPam1/2, Vickers Hardness 20.4 GPa), especially high fracture toughness compared to
other Al203-based ceramics. The reason of the toughness increment of this composite is the
formation of a spatial net structure during sintering. Ti(C0.3N0.7) grains surround almost
each grain of Al203 and vice versa. This can be attributed to the molybdenum existence
between hard phases and bonding phase, separating the hard phase from the liquid during
sintering thus preventing the grain growth of the hard phase owing to dissolution and
reprecipitation, so its addition can fine Ti(C0.3N0.7) grains. The combined effects of trans
granular fracture and grain bridging mechanisms lead to the higher toughness of the
composite, compared with Al203-based ceramics. Inserts of this cutting tool material
Al203/Ti(C0.3N0.7), is suitable for continuously cutting of cast iron, hardened steel,
especially intermittent cutting hardened steel.

Al203 - SiC composite

The SiC can be added as powder, as whiskers or as Nano composite. It increases the hardness
and the toughness. Al2O3SiC composites containing up to 30 wt.% of dispersed SiC
particles (280 nm) were fabricated by hot-pressing and machined as cutting tools. The
Al203SiC particulate composites exhibit higher hardness than their unreinforced matrix
because of the small grain structure, i.e. inhibited grain growth by adding SiC and the
presence of hard secondary phase (SiC). For machining composite, the tool showed the
longest tool life, seven times longer than a commercial tool made of Al203TiC composite.
The fracture toughness of the composites remains relatively constant. The large SiC particles
on the grain boundary is believed to contribute to the increment of the toughness at high (20
wt.%) SiC loadings. The reduced grain size and the transformation of the fracture mode from
intergranular to intragranular of the composites may lead to the reduction of the fracture
toughness whereas crack deflection by SiC particles is expected to contribute the increase in
toughness. Thus, these two competing effects seemed to result in the small change of the
fracture toughness in the composites.

1.9 GFRP Manufacturing methods:

I. Filament winding

29
Filament winding is a fabrication technique mainly used for manufacturing open (cylinders)
or closed end structures (pressure vessels or tanks). The process involves winding filaments
under tension over a male mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a wind eye on a carriage
moves horizontally, laying down fibers in the desired pattern. The most common filaments
are carbon or glass fiber and are coated with synthetic resin as they are wound. Once the
mandrel is completely covered to the desired thickness, the resin is cured, often the mandrel
is placed in an oven to achieve this, though sometimes radiant heaters are used with the
mandrel still turning in the machine. Once the resin has cured, the mandrel is removed,
leaving the hollow final product. For some products such as gas bottles the 'mandrel' is a
permanent part of the finished product forming a liner to prevent gas leakage or as a barrier to
protect the composite from the fluid to be stored.

Fig.1.17 Filament Winding Process

Filament winding is well suited to automation, and there are many applications, such as pipe
and small pressure vessel that are wound and cured without any human intervention. The
controlled variables for winding are fiber type, resin content, wind angle, tow or bandwidth
and thickness of the fiber bundle. The angle at which the fiber has an effect on the properties
of the final product then a high angle "hoop" will provide circumferential or "burst" strength,
while lower angle patterns (polar or helical) will provide greater longitudinal tensile strength.
II. Fiberglass hand lay-up operation
A release agent, usually in either wax or liquid form, is applied to the chosen mold to allow
finished product to be cleanly removed from the mold. Resintypically a 2-part polyester,
vinyl or epoxyis mixed with its hardener and applied to the surface. Sheets of fiberglass
matting are laid into the mold, then more resin mixture is added using a brush or roller. The
material must conform to the mold, and air must not be trapped between the fiberglass and
the mold. Additional resin is applied and possibly additional sheets of fiberglass. Hand
pressure, vacuum or rollers are used to be sure the resin saturates and fully wets all layers,

30
and that any air pockets are removed. The work must be done quickly, before the resin starts
to cure, unless high temperature resins are used which will not cure until the part is warmed
in an oven.[16] In some cases, the work is covered with plastic sheets and vacuum is drawn
on the work to remove air bubbles and press the fiberglass to the shape of the mold.

Fig. 1.18 Fiberglass hand lay-up operation

III. Fiberglass spray lay-up operation
The fiberglass spray lay-up process is similar to the hand lay-up process, but differs in the
application of the fiber and resin to the mold. Spray-up is an open-molding composites
fabrication process where resin and reinforcements are sprayed onto a mold. The resin and
glass may be applied separately or simultaneously "chopped" in a combined stream from a
chopper gun. Workers roll out the spray-up to compact the laminate. Wood, foam or other
core material may then be added, and a secondary spray-up layer imbeds the core between the
laminates. The part is then cured, cooled and removed from the reusable mold.

Fig. 1.19 Fiberglass spray lay-up operation

iv Pultrusion operation
Pultrusion is a manufacturing method used to make strong, lightweight composite materials.
In pultrusion, material is pulled through forming machinery using either a handover- hand
method or a continuous-roller method (as opposed to extrusion, where the material is pushed

31
through dies). In fiberglass pultrusion, fibers (the glass material) are pulled from spools
through a device that coats them with a resin. They are then typically heat-treated and cut to
length. Fiberglass produced this way can be made in a variety of shapes and cross-sections,
such as W or S cross-sections

Fig.1.20 Diagram of the pultrusion process

Chapter 2
Literature Review

2.1 Coverage
The aim of literature review is to provide background information on the issues to be
considered in this dissertation and highlight the significance of the present study. This
dissertation highlights the various machinability aspects and the advantages of multiobjective
optimization methods during machining of GFRP composite.

2.2 Background and Rationale

Meenu Gupta and Surinder Kumar (2015) investigated that the machinability of
unidirectional glass fiber reinforced plastics (UD-GFRP) Composite in turning process.
Taguchi orthogonal array is used for experimental design. From experimental results they
concluded that the surface roughness increases as feed rate increases. It is found that feed rate
is more significant factor followed by depth of cut and cutting speed [17].

Shiv Sharma, Santosh Tamang, D. Devarasiddappa and M. Chandrasekran et al (2014)

conducted turning experiments on GFRP composites and developed a predictive model based
on fuzzy logic and optimization of processes parameters using Desirability Function
Analysis. The analysis of variance of composite desirability at 95% confidence level showed
that depth of cut is the most significant parameter with 39.38% contribution followed by feed
and depth of cut [18].

32
Hariprasad, Dharmalingam, & Praveen Raj, (2013) investigated that the machining of
fiber-reinforced materials requires special considerations about the wear resistance of the
tool. High speed steel (HSS) is not suitable for cutting owing to the high tool wear and poor
surface finish Hence, carbide and diamond tools are used as suitable cutting tool materials
[19].

Kumar et al., (2012) investigated the turning process of the unidirectional glass fiber
reinforced plastic (UD-GFRP) composites. polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool on turning
machine was used and six parameters such as tool nose radius, tool rake angle, feed rate,
cutting speed, depth of cut and along with cutting environment (dry, wet and cooled (5-7
temperature)) on the surface roughness produced. It was found that the feed rate is the factor,
which has great influence on surface roughness, followed by cutting speed [20].

Adam khan et al. (2011) has carried out machining studies on GFRP composites using two
alumina cutting tools. The machining process was performed at different cutting speeds at
constant feed rate and depth of cut. The performance of the alumina cutting tool was
evaluated by measuring the flank wear and surface roughness of the machined GFRP
composite material [21].

Hussain et al. (2010) developed a surface roughness prediction model for the machining of
GFRP pipes using Response Surface Methodology by using carbide tool (K20). Four
parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut and work piece (fiber orientation)
were selected and the surface roughness was measured by using form taly surf tester. It was
found that, the depth of cut shows a minimum effect on surface roughness as compared to
other parameters [22].

Senthilkumar and Karthikeyan (2009) investigation focused on the multiple performance

optimizations of machining characteristics of glass fiber reinforced plastics composites by
using a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm. Three parameters, cutting speed, feed rate
and depth of cut, were selected to minimize the surface roughness and tool flank wear and to
maximize the material removal rate. A polycrystalline diamond tool was used for the turning
operation [23].

Xu CH, Feng YM, Zanga RB (2009) founded that an alumina based ceramic cutting tool is a
cost effective, better alternative solution for machining a hard material with good surface
finish at higher cutting speed. It can with stand up to 1500 0 C. Xu developed an

33
Al2O3/Ti[C,N]/SiC whisker cutting tool and conducted machining studies on hard materials
and found that such multiphase ceramic cutting tools have good wear resistance [24]

Palanikumar (2008) studied the effect of cutting parameters on surface roughness on

machining of GFRP composites by polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool by developing a
second order model for predicting the surface roughness [25].

Sreejith et al., (2007) observed that the cutting force and the cutting temperature affect the
performance of the cutting tools while machining carbon/carbon composites [26].

Rao et al. (2007) simulated orthogonal machining of unidirectional carbon fiber-reinforced

polymer and glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites using finite element method. The
cutting force was the response studied both for experimentally and numerically for a range of
fiber orientations, depths of cut, and tool rake angles [27].

Palanikumar et al. (2006) demonstrated that the users of FRP are facing difficulties when
machining it, because knowledge and experience acquired for conventional materials cannot
be applied for such new materials, whose machinability is different from that of conventional
materials. Thus it is desirable to investigate the behavior of FRPs during the machining
process [28].

Zhou et al. (2006) presented a particle swarm optimization technique in training a multi-
layer feed forward neural network which was used for a prediction model of diameter error in
boring machining. It was observed that the networks for diameter error prediction trained by
the PSO algorithm or by the back propagation algorithm both improved the precision of the
boring machining, but the neural networks trained by the PSO algorithm performed better
than those trained by the back propagation algorithm [29].

Davim et al. (2005) used a polycrystalline diamond (PCD) cutting tool to machine FRP tubes
and obtained optimal cutting parameters for surface roughness [30].

Aslan (2005) made an attempt to machine hard materials using cubic boron nitride (CBN),
Al2O3 + Ti[C, N] cutting tool, coated cermet cutting tool and carbide cutting tool. From the
Investigation, it is found that the Al2O3 + Ti[C, N] cutting tool and CBN exhibit better
performance and higher tool life than coated cermet and carbide cutting tools 31].

34
Davim et al. (2004) studied the cutting parameters (cutting velocity and feed rate) under
specific cutting pressure, thrust force, damage and surface roughness in Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polymers (GFRP's). A plan of experiments, based on the techniques of Taguchi,
was established considering drilling with prefixed cutting parameters in a hand layup GFRP
material. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to investigate the cutting
characteristics of GFRP's using Cemented Carbide (K10) drills with appropriate geometries
[32].

Lee (2001) investigated the machinability of glass fiber reinforced plastics by means of
different tool materials and geometries. Three parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate and
depth of cut were selected and cutting force measurements were taken using the Kistler
(9257B) piezoelectric dynamometer. Single crystal diamond, poly crystal diamond and cubic
boron nitride were used for turning process. It was found that, the single crystal diamond tool
is excellent for GFRP cutting [33].

Sreejith et al. (2000) evaluated the performance of a PCD cutting tool while machining
carbon/phenolic composite material, by observing the tool wear, cutting force, and cutting
temperature [34].

Ulhmann et al. (2000) conducted a machining study using diamond-coated carbide and
ceramic cutting tools on FRP material, and observed that the diamond-coated carbide and
ceramic cutting tools exhibited high wear resistance and high tool life[35]
.
Rehman et al (1999) demonstrated that the selection of cutting parameters and the cutting
tool are dependent on the type of fiber used in the composites and which is very important in
the machining process[36].

Yang and Tang (1998) demonstrated for parametric optimization in machining of glass fiber
reinforced polyester composites while considering multiple surface roughness characteristics
of the machined work piece[37]

Afaghani et al. (1996) stated that the presence of whiskers in a composite material resists
the extension of crack propagation during machining. A SiC whisker reinforced alumina

35
cutting tool can produce a two fold increase in fracture toughness and it has received
widespread acceptance in the aerospace industry, where it is regarded as the state-of-the-art
cutting-tool material for the finishing and rough machining of nickel-based super-alloys
because of its high wear resistance and fracture toughness [38].

Li XS, Low IM (1994) studied that A SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool can
produce a twofold increase in fracture toughness and it has received widespread acceptance
in the aerospace industry, where it is regarded as the state-of-the-art cutting-tool material for
the finishing and rough machining of nickel-based super alloys because of its high wear
resistance and fracture toughness [39].

Santhanakrishnan et al. (1989) presented machinability in turning process of GFRP, CFRP

and Kevlar fiber reinforced plastics composite using P20 carbide, Tic coated carbide, K20
carbide and HSS tool. Three parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were
selected to minimize surface roughness by using. Scanning electron microscope was use for
micrograph Cutting force, feed force and radial force were measured by using inductive type
lath tool dynamometer. It was found that, the K20 carbide tool performed better in machining
fiber reinforced plastics composites [40].

Santhanakrishnan et al. (1988) carried out face turning on glass fiber reinforced plastics
(GFRP), carbon fiberreinforced plastics (CFRP) and kevlar fiber reinforced plastics (KFRP)
cylindrical tubes to study their machined surfaces for possible application as friction surfaces.
The mechanisms of material removal and tool wear are also discussed and illustrated with
scanning electron micrographs. The cutting forces encountered during machining of
composites were also investigated [41].

Konig et al. (1985) found that measurement of surface roughness in FRP is less dependable
than in metal, because protruding fiber tips may lead to incorrect results or at least large
variations of the reading. The machined surface of Kevlar fibers reinforced plastics (KFRP)
exhibits poor surface finish due to the fussiness caused by delaminated, dislocated and strain
ruptured tough Kevlar fibers[42].

It can be observed from the literature that PCD, CBN, and PcBN are widely used to machine
GFRP composite. Though ceramic cutting tools are cheaper than PCD and PcBN tools, they
provide equivalent performance than hard materials. Hence machining studies have been

36
conducted on GFRP material using Ti[C,N] mixed alumina cutting tool and SiC whisker
reinforced alumina cutting tool on GFRP composite with unsaturated polyester resin with E-
glass fibre reinforcement. Here the machining parameters are taken as cutting speed at
constant feed rate and depth of cut whereas machining evaluation characteristics are flank
wear and surface roughness.

CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH AND PROBLEM FORMULATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the identification of research gaps, objectives of the research work and
problem statements based on the literature review. The identification of research gaps related
to the machining of GFRP composites materials and analysis of flank wear, surface roughness
is presented in section 3.2. In section 3.3, 3.4 and section 3.5 presented the formulation of
Research Questions, Problem formulation and the objectives of research work.

3.2 IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH GAP

In present scenario, with increasing use of GFRP composites material in manufacturing of
goods, there is also increase the concern related to the quality of GFRP composites materials.
The main problem which affects the quality of composite material is machining of GFRP.
From literature review, we identified two factors related to machining which are flank wear
and surface roughness of composite materials. So, if we want to improve the quality of GFRP,
we would have to identify the tools which will use for better finishing of material.

3.3 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research questions have been developed based on the research gap and exhaustive
literature survey as shown below:
RQ-1 What are the critical factors that affects the Machining of GFRP composite material?
Sub questions: (i) How the machining critical factors affects the surface quality of GFRP?
(ii) How the uncontrollable factors affect the performance?
(iii) How can determine which factor is causing most variation in the result?

37
RQ-2 Which type of Alumina cutting tools is used to produce better quality corresponds to
GFRP machining?
Sub Questions: (i) What are the factors that affect the surface Roughness of GFRP Products?
(ii) What are the factors that affect the Flank Wear of GFRP Products?
RQ.-3 How the cutting tools help to optimize better machining of GFRP composites
material?
Sub questions: (i) How these cutting tools act?
(ii) What are the most common types of machining tools is used?
3.4 PROBLEM FORMULATION OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
GFRP composite materials are best suited for varieties of application like automobile sector,
medical sector, sports sector, and textile sector. The advantage of GFRP material includes
savings in weight, improvement in strength and decreased cost of material and fabrication.
Glass fibre reinforced plastics are developed to meet the requirements of the industry with
high strength to weight ratio. Instead of all such great properties machining of glass fibre
composite is a major problem, because of their high hardness and inert nature. Because of
their different applications, the need for FRP machining has not been fully eliminated. For a
perfect machining process, it is very important to proper selection of cutting parameters like
cutting speed, geometry of cutting tool and type of tool material.
The mechanism of machining GFRP is quite different from metals because of non-
homogenous, anisotropic nature. From research study we identify that alumina based ceramic
cutting tools are cost effective, better alternative solution for machining a hard material with
good surface finish at higher cutting speed. It can with stand up to 15000 C. These tools have
high corrosive and chemical resistance. Though ceramic cutting tools are cheaper than PCD
and PcBN tools, they provide equivalent performance than hard materials. Here we have
identified two Alumina based ceramics cutting tools which have good surface finishing
properties.
Hence machining studies have been conducted on GFRP material using Ti[C,N]
mixed alumina cutting tool and SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool on GFRP
composite with unsaturated polyester resin with E-glass fibre reinforcement.

3.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH

Based on the exhaustive literature survey, research gaps are identified and objectives are
defined. To meet the objectives of machining of GFRP, an attempt is made by using two

38
different alumina cutting tools; namely a Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool (CC650) and a
SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool (CC670).
The broad objectives set are as follows:
1. Study and analyse the machining of GFRP composite materials.
2. Study the performance of Ti[C,N] and SiC Alumina cutting tools for GFRP machining.
3. Study and analyze the machining factors like cutting speed, machining time on Flank Wear
and Surface Roughness.
4. Compare the machining results like flank wear, surface roughness etc. for both Alumina
Cutting Tools.

CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents an overview of the conceptual framework, design, action plan and
methodology employed in the research. It also describes the phases of research, use of
Alumina Cutting Tools for machining of GFRP composite materials, define process
parameter like cutting forces & Flank Wear, Surface Roughness. This chapter addresses the
development of a process and quality characteristics for consistency of performance by the
application of Design of Experiment.

4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The primary objectives of the present research work are as follows:
1. Study and analyses the machining of GFRP composite materials.
2. Study the performance of Ti[C,N] and SiC Alumina cutting tools for GFRP machining.
3. Study and analyze the machining factors like cutting speed, machining time on Flank
Wear and Surface Roughness.
4. Compare the machining results like flank wear, surface roughness etc. for both
Alumina Cutting Tools.

TABLE 4.1 Properties of E-glass fibre roving

Material Density (g/cm3) Tensile Modulus Tensile Strength ksi (MPa) Tensile Strength
ksi(GPa)
E glass Fibre 2.6 11,000(76) 500(3450) 4.7

39
It can be observed from the literature that PCD, CBN, and PcBN are widely used to machine
GFRP composite. Though ceramic cutting tools are cheaper than PCD and PcBN tools, they
provide equivalent performance than hard materials. Hence machining studies have been
conducted on GFRP material using Ti[C,N] mixed alumina cutting tool and SiC whisker
reinforced alumina cutting tool on GFRP composite with unsaturated polyester resin with E-
glass fibre reinforcement.
4.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
4.3.1 Preparation of GFRP Composite rod
The GFRP composite rod was prepared by filament winding process (shown in fig 1.) in
which E-glass fibre is passed through a polyester resin and wound to be on a steel rod having

Fig 4.1: Filament Winding Process

a diameter of 15mm with fibre orientation angle of 90 0. Glass fibres are strongly bonded and
homogenously impregnated with polyester matrix material.Fig. 2 shows the GFRP composite

TABLE 4.2 Composition of E-glass Fibre

Composition SiO2 AlO2 CaO B2O3
Content % 52-56 % 12-16 % 16-25 % 8-13 %

Rod with a steel rod at the centre E-glass fibre is selected for its excellent properties (Table
4.1), and its composition is presented in Table 4.2.

Fig 4.2. E-glass fibre reinforced composite rod.

4.3.2 Machining Study

40
Machining studies were carried out to turned GFRP composite rod in a BHARAT all-geared
lathe of model NAGMATI-175 with a maximum speed of 1200 rpm and power of 2.25KW.
The ISO specification of the toll holder used for the turning operation is a WIDAX tool
holder PC LNR 2020 K12 and the tools used are Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool
(CC650) and a SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool (CC670). The properties of both
the alumina-based ceramic cutting tools are given in Table 4.3.

Fig. 4.3 BHARAT all-geared lathe of model NAGMATI-175

TABLE 4.3 The properties of the alumina based ceramic cutting tool material
Details of tool Unit Ti[C,N]mixed SiC alumina(CC670)
material alumina(CC650)
Composition Al2O3 70% Al2O3 80%
TiN 22.5% SiCw 20%
TiC 7.5%

Density g/cm3 4.26 3.74

Vickers Hardness (HV10) 1800 2000

Transverse Rupture MPa 550 900
Strength
Youngs Modulus GPa 400 390
Fracture Toughness MPa m1/2 4.0 8.0
Thermal Conductivity W/mK 24 18
Coefficient of K-1.10-6 8.6 6
Thermal Expansion

41
The machining process was performed with various cutting speed at constant feed rate and
depth of cut. During the machining process flank wear, surface roughness, and the cutting
force was measured. The flank wear was measured using a Metzer Toolmakers microscope,
the surface roughness was measured using a TR200 surface profile meter, and the cutting
force was measured using a strain gauge dynamometer.

4.3.3 Measurement of Experimental Values of Different Parameters

1. Flank wear of the alumina cutting tools: The flank wear of Alumina Cutting Tools
occurs due to the abrasion of work piece with cutting tool. In this experimental procedure we
will study the flank wear of Alumina Cutting Tools at different machining time while
machining of GFRP composite rod. The other parameters like cutting speed (250m/min), feed
rate (0.06mm/rev) and depth of cut (0.2mm) will be fixed. The experimental values obtained
during operation calculated from Metzer Toolmakers microscope are shown in table 4.4 and
4.5.

Table 4.4 Flank Wear of Alumina Cutting Tools at diff. Machining Time
Sr. No. Machining Time(min) Flank Wear of Diff. Alumina Cutting Tools(mm)
Ti[C,N] (CC650) SIC(670)
1 2 0.16 0.13
2 4 0.28 0.20
3 6 0.35 0.28
4 8 0.40 0.32
5 10 0.45 0.40

2. Surface Roughness of GFRP Composite Rod: Surface Roughness occurs due to brittle
fracture and delamination of composite materials. The cutting velocity is the main factor for
that affects surface roughness. Here we will observe different surface roughness values at
different cutting velocity for both Alumina Cutting Tools. The observed values obtained from

42
 Fig. 4.4 Metzer Toolmakers microscope Fig.4.5 TR200 surface profile meter
TR200 surface profile meter are shown in table 4.6.
3. Cutting Force: The cutting force in the machining process is produced due to the relative
sliding motion of cutting tool against the work piece in order to remove the material from the
work piece. The cutting force was measured by lathe tool dynamometer while machining of

Table 4.5 Flank Wear at 6 min. in diff. cutting velocity

Sr. No. Cutting Speed(m/min) Flank Wear of Alumina Cutting Tools (mm)
Ti[C,N] (650) SiC(670)
1 100 0.10 0.06
2 200 0.26 0.20
3 300 0.42 0.37

GFRP composites using alumina cutting tool at a constant feed rate & depth of cut of 0.06
mm/rev and 0.2 mm respectively. The other experimental values as shown in table 4.7.

Fig. 4.6 Lathe Tool Dynamometer

Table 4.6 Surface Roughness at different cutting speed for 9 minute

Sr. No. Cutting Speed(m/min) Surface Roughness of Diff. Cutting Tools(m)
Ti[C,N] (650) SIC(670)
1 150 6.25 5.15
2 200 5.5 4.7
3 250 5.15 4.25

43
 4 300 4.5 3.7

Table 4.7 Cutting Forces at different Cutting Velocity

Sr. No. Cutting Cutting Forces of Diff. Cutting Tools(Newton)
Velocity(m/min)
Ti[C,N] (650) SiC(670)
1 150 267 220
2 200 213 190
3 250 200 182
4 300 208 187

CHAPTER -5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Flank wear of the alumina cutting tool

Flank wear is the main form of wear in machining of FRP composite that affects the tool life,
surface quality and production cost. Tool wear occurs due to the rubbing of the hard fibres to
the cutting edge of the tool which result abrades the cutting tool and removes some of the tool
material at the flank face. The wear is due to crack development, and the intersection caused
by hard fibre chips acting as small indenters on the cutting face. As the cutting speed
increases, the velocity of abrasion and the rate of contact of broken fibre chips also increase,
leading to a higher flank wear at high speed. Fig.5.1 shows the variation of flank wear with
respect to machining time while machining of GFRP composite material suing the Ti[C, N]
alumina cutting tool and the SiC whisker alumina cutting tool at 250 m/min.

44
 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.32
0.3
0.28 0.28
0.25
Flank Wear, mm
0.2 0.2 CC670

0.15 0.15 CC650

0.13
0.1
0.05
0
2 4 6 8 10

Machining Time, min

Fig.5.1: Flank wear versus machining time of alumina cutting tools while machining GFRP composites.

Fig.5.2 shows the flank wear versus cutting velocity of the alumina cutting tools after 6 min
of machining. The flank wear of alumina cutting tool increases with respect to speed &
machining time. From Fig.2, it can be noted that Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool fails
after 8 min of machining at 250 m/min. Tool failure of the Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting
tool after 6 min of machining at 300 m/min. From the above discussion, it can be noted that
chip formation while machining GFPR material is an important factor in addition to fibre
orientation, fibre delamination and direction of machining.

0.45
0.42
0.4
0.37
0.35
0.3
0.25 0.26
Flank Wear, mm 0.2 0.2 CC670
0.15
CC650
0.1
0.1
0.06
0.05
0
100 200 300
Cutting Velocity. m/min

Fig.5.2: Flank wear versus cutting velocity of alumina cutting tools while machining GRP composite at 6 min.

5.2 Surface Roughness

45
In machining process, surface integrity is the main requirement to determine the quality of
finished product. The measurement of surface roughness of FRP composite is not easy than
that of metals because of strong glass fibre undergoes sharp brittle fracture with deformation
of matrix material, fibre micro cracking and pulverization. Surface flaws due to delamination
and interlaminar crack are also observed while machining of GFRP materials.
7
6.25
6
5.5
5.15
5 5.15
4.7 4.5
4 4.25
3.7
Surface Roughness - Ra (m) 3
CC670
2 CC650
1
0
150 200 250 300
Cutting Velocity, m/min

Fig.5.3: Surface Roughness versus cutting velocity after machining GFRP composite material with alumina
cutting tool for 9 min.

The cutting velocity is the main factor that affects the surface roughness. Fig.5.3 shows the
surface roughness versus cutting velocity after machining GFRP composite with alumina
cutting tool. From Fig.4, it can be concluded that the surface roughness was to be improved
by increasing cutting velocity and the surface roughness of machined GFRP composite
ranges from 4.5 to 6.5 m. The advantage of machining GFRP material by using alumina
based ceramic cutting tool is that they produce better surface finish other conventional cutting
tools. Ceramic cutting tool eliminate a built-up edge (BUE) forming during machining.

As the cutting speed increases, the formation of a BUE is greatly reduced which result
surface roughness decreases. From the above observation, it can be concluded that SiC
whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool is to produce lower surface roughness with less
surface damage than the Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool.

5.3 Cutting Force

The cutting force in the machining process is produced due to the relative sliding motion of
cutting tool against the work piece in order to remove the material from the work piece. The
cutting tool geometry, tool materials, and machining parameters are responsible for higher
cutting force. Two main mechanism shows the cutting force in machining FRP composite are

46
Shearing & Buckling. In this study, cutting tool will be perpendicular to the fibre orientation,
and the shearing mechanism persists.

300
267
250
220 213
200 200 208
190 182 187

Principle Cutting Force (N) 150

CC670
100 CC650
50

0
150 200 250 300
Cutting Velocity, m/min

Fig.5.4: Principle cutting force versus cutting velocity of alumina cutting tools while machining GFRP
composite at 6 min

The cutting force was measured by lathe tool dynamometer while machining of GFRP
composite using alumina cutting tool at a constant feed rate & depth of cut of 0.06 mm/rev
and 0.2 mm respectively as shown in Fig.5.4. The maximum cutting force occurs in the
direction of cutting velocity. The cutting force does not exhibit any particular trend because
of fluctuation of cutting force in machining of hard abrasive fibres & soft matrix material.
Due to soft matrix material & amorphous nature of GFRP material, the principle cutting force
is considerably lower than that on machining of steel.

From Fig.4 it can be concluded that Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool produced a higher
cutting force of 265 N at the cutting velocity of 150 m/min than that of the SiC whisker
reinforced alumina cutting tool (220 N for the same cutting conditions). The cutting force
initially decreases as the cutting speed increase but tends to increase at higher cutting speed
above 250 m/min. The initial decrease in cutting force with respect to cutting speed is due to
decrease in tool chip contact area, leading to higher reduction in shear strength of the work
piece. As the cutting speed increases, work hardening occurs in the work piece leads to
increase in tool wear and make it difficult for the cutting tool to machine the work piece.

47
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Any research is fruitful only if the results of the research are critically concluded. The
carefully drawn conclusions from the findings add new dimensions to the existing body of
knowledge of the subject. In view of this an outline of the research objectives, research
questions addressed, research hypotheses are developed in brief. Conclusions,
recommendations and machining based on the Alumina Cutting Tools of the research study
are presented. The chapter also concludes with limitations and scopes for future research.

6.1 SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The objectives of the present research were developed on the basis of the case study on GFRP
Composite Material for machining Improvement. The focus of the research is to optimize the
machining of GFRP composite material by successful implementation of Alumina Cutting
Tools.
1. Study and analyse the machining of GFRP composite materials.

48
 2. Study the performance of Ti[C, N] and SiC Alumina cutting tools for GFRP
machining.
3. Study and analyze the machining factors like cutting speed, machining time on Flank
Wear and Surface Roughness.
4. Compare the machining results like flank wear, surface roughness etc. for both
Alumina Cutting Tools.
Research objectives were defined after the detailed study of the literature survey. To meet the
objectives, Experimentation Procedures had been developed in section 4.3 of chapter 4.

6.2 CONCLUSIONS
From the above study and analysis, it can be concluded that the abrasive wear is quite smooth
and less with the SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool than the Ti[C, N] mixed
alumina cutting tool while machining of GFRP composite material. The SiC whisker
reinforced alumina cutting tool produce a better surface finish than the Ti[C, N] mixed
alumina cutting tool. Overall conclusion is the performance of SiC whisker reinforced
alumina cutting tool is better than the Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool on machining of
GFRP composite.

This Research illustrates the application of Alumina Cutting Tools for machining of GFRP.
Following are the major outcomes of the present research:

1. The research study result shows that the abrasive wear is quite smooth and less with
The SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool than the Ti[C, N] mixed alumina
cutting tool.
2. In machining of GFRP composite material the SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting
tool produce a better surface finish than the Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool.
3. The performance of SiC whisker reinforced alumina cutting tool is better than the
Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool on machining of GFRP composite.

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Glass Fibre plays a very important role for the economic development of the country.
Therefore the recommendations are proposed for the government, technical institutions and
fibre Enterprises. These recommendations have been enumerated in the following sub-
section.

49
6.3.1 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
I. The government has launched various schemes such as STEP (Support to training &
Employment Programme), EDP (Entrepreneurship Development Programme) cell, IIP
(Individual Investor Programme) cell, IPS (Industrial Promotion Subsidy) for the
development of MSME sector. The government should also focus on the importance
of industry/institute interaction for the development of MSME sector.
II. Most of the small entrepreneurs are unaware of govt. policies for the development of
Glass Fibre sector. Govt. should make their system effective that will make the Fibre
entrepreneurs aware about the govt. policies. This will be beneficial for the industrial
development of the nation.
III. Govt. industrial development agency should establish a link with MSME
entrepreneurs and make them aware about the new technology and production
methods and various ways to sustain in these competitive environments.

6.3.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS

I. Full time cells are established by the institutes and should clearly define the objective
and function of the cell.
II. Technical institutions should provide a forum for industry partners to share their
technical and employment requirement.
III. Curriculums are required to be more flexible so that a student could, if required, work
in the industry for a considerable period of time instead of doing some courses in
college and still gain the required credits.
IV. Exchange of industry and institute experts is required for a fixed term to understand
their working culture.
V. Technical institutions can provide library for the access of industry and institutions
may have access to the resources available in industry.

6.3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MICRO, SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES

I. The MSME entrepreneurs need to increase the level of interactions with technical
institutions for the productivity improvement.
II. The entrepreneurs should attend the entrepreneurship development programmes to
keep themselves updated, which will benefit their enterprise growth.

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III. As student of engineering colleges wants to do the study visits, projects and summer
training in big industries, therefore MSME entrepreneurs should approach to the
technical institutions for these activities. This will be helpful for change in MSMEs.
IV. Apart from Academia associations, the entrepreneurs should also establish linkages
with govt. agencies which are engaged in industrial development activities.

6.3.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FIBRE ENTERPRISES

I. The Fibre industries need to optimum utilization of Resources, Reduce Wastage, &
adopt Rework facility in an effective manner.
II. The Entrepreneurs should follow Work Study Approach consisting of Work
Measurement, Motion study, Method study and implement in an effective way to set
standard time of process and implement it.
III. Fibre Industrialist should follow Quality Development Approach by implementation
of various Quality related tool like Alumina Cuttting Tools for better machining of
GFRP composite materials at minimum cost with minimum Flank Wear, minimum
wastage of tool material and Scrap.

6.4 SCOPES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

All research works have some limitations such as research design and methods used to attain
the objectives of research. The present research also has some limitations.

The impact of machining of GFRP composites using Alumina Cutting Tools was
studied at P.G level. At the next stage, effective implementation of Alumina Cutting
Tools at Ph.D. level making them highly effective to optimize process parameter.
The Trial approach of performing experiments by taking process parameters is a
tedious way to find optimum solution. Computer Aided Implementation of Alumina
Cutting Tools in GFRP machining save lot of time and make process easy and
accurate, Open Avenue for future research.
In future present effort can be extended to examine the effect of using different tools.
Mainly, keep on testing until a complete analysis of tool wear were possible.

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 The study has been conducted in MSME unit at small scale. Large Glass Fiber
Industries with highly automation technique provide a deep sense of knowledge and
open a wide area for work.

This research study concludes with many recommendations and machining concept of GFRP
composites and sustainable growth Glass Fiber sector in India.

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