Lect- 1

1
 Lect-1

Turbomachinery Aerodynamics
A Video course by

Bhaskar Roy A M Pradeep

Aerospace Engineering Department
I.I.T., Bombay

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Course Outline
Introduction to Turbomachineries:
Axial flow compressors and Fans: Introduction;
Aero-Thermodynamics of flow thru axial flow compressor
stage; Losses in axial flow compressor stage; Losses and
Blade performance estimation; Secondary flows (3-D);
Tip leakage flow and scrubbing; 3-D flow analysis; Radial
Equilibrium Equation; Axial compressor characteristics;
Design of compressor blades-2-D blade designs; Airfoil
Data; Axial Flow Track Design; Multi-staging of
compressor characteristics; Transonic Compressors;
Shock Structure Models in Transonic Blades; Transonic
Compressor Characteristics; 3-D Blade shapes of Rotors
and Stators; Instability in Axial Compressors; Loss of
Pressure Rise; Loss of Stability Margin; Noise problems
in Axial Compressors and Fans
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Course Outline

Axial flow turbines : Turbine stage; Turbine

Blade 2-D analysis ; Work Done and Degree of
Reaction; Losses and Efficiency; Flow Passage and
flow track in multi-stage turbines; Subsonic,
Transonic and Supersonic turbines; Multi-staging of
Turbine; Exit flow conditions; Turbine blade
cooling; Turbine Blade design Turbine Profiles ;
Airfoil Data and Profile construction;3-D blade
design

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Course Outline
Centrifugal Compressors :Introduction;
Elements of centrifugal compressor/ fan; Inlet
Duct ; Impeller flow; Effect of Slip factor; Concept
of Rothalpy; Ideal and real work done; Incidence
and lag angles; Diffuser ; Centrifugal Compressor
Characteristics ; Surging and Rotating stall;
Design variants of modern centrifugal compressors
Radial Turbine: Introduction; Thermodynamics
and Aerodynamics of radial turbines; Radial
Turbine Characteristics; Losses and efficiency;
Design of radial turbine
Use of CFD for Turbomachinery analysis and
design

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Course Pre-requisites

A full course in Aerodynamics

It is necessary that students of this course are fully

conversant with various fundamental aerodynamic
theories, many which shall be used in the course of
this lecture. Some knowledge of fundamentals of
thermodynamics will be useful too.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Text/References
Nicholas Cumpsty, Compressor Aerodynamics,
2004, Kreiger Publications, USA
Johnson I.A., Bullock R.O. NASA-SP-36, Axial Flow
Compressors, 2002 (re-release), NTIS
NASA-SP-290, Axial Flow turbines, 2002 (re-
release), NTIS, USA.
J H Horlock, Axial flow compressors, Butterworths,
1958, UK
J H Horlock, Axial Flow Turbines, Butterworths,
1965, UK
B Lakshminarayana; Fluid Mechanics and Heat
Transfer in turbomachineries, 1995, USA

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Suggested /Additional Readings

1) Oates Gordon C; Aerothermodynamics of

Aircraft Engine Components; AIAA series,
1985

2) IGTI/ASME; The design of Gas Turbine

Engines Thermodynamics and Aerodynamics
(chapter 8 and 10), 2005, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (with video lectures)

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Lecture schedule
No. Topic Speak
er
1 Introduction to Turbomachineries : Syllabus, BR /
References and schedules AMP
2 Axial flow compressors and Fans : Introduction to AMP
compressor aerothermodynamics
3 A two dimensional analytical model (Cascade) AMP
4 2-D Losses in axial flow compressor stage AMP
primary losses
5 Tutorial-1 solved examples and tutorial problems AMP
6 3-D flows in Blade passages, Secondary flows, BR
Tip leakage flow, Scrubbing
7 Three dimensional flow analysis Radial BR
Equilibrium concept
8 Classical blade design laws Free vortex and other BR
Laws
9 Tutorial-2 - solved examples and tutorial BR
problems and Quiz 1
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

10 Full Radial Equilibrium Equation and Streamline BR

curvature theory
11 Axial compressor characteristics - Single AMP
stage, Multi-stage and Multi-spool
characteristics
12 Instability in Axial Compressors : Types of AMP
distortions
13 Inlet Distortion and Rotating Stall AMP
14 Compressor Instability and control mechanisms BR

15 Design of compressor blades- Airfoil Design BR

subsonic, transonic ,supersonic profiles
16 Transonic Compressors and Shock BR
Structure models, Transonic Compr.
Characteristics
17 Axial Flow Track Design ; Inter-spool duct ; BR
3-D Blade shapes of Rotors and Stators
18 Noise problem in Axial Compressors and Fans BR

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

19 Axial flow turbines : Introduction to BR

turbine aerothermodynamics
20 Axial flow turbines : Turbine Blade 2-D AMP
(cascade) analysis
21 Axial flow turbines : Work Done, Degree AMP
of Reaction, Losses and Efficiency
22 Axial flow turbines : Blade and Axial AMP
Flow Passages, Exit flow matching with
nozzle
23 Tutorial -3 : Axial Flow Turbines AMP
24 Multi-staging and Multi-spooling of BR
Turbine
25 3-D flows in Turbine : 3-D flow theories BR
Free vortex theories etc.
26 Tutorial 4 : 3-D flows in Axial low BR
Turbines

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

27 Turbine Blade Cooling 1 AMP

fundamental of heat transfer and blade
cooling
28 Turbine Blade Cooling Technologies - 2 BR
29 Turbine Blade design Turbine Profiles BR
: Airfoil Data and Profile construction
30 Turbine Blade design - 3-D blade BR
shapes
31 Centrifugal Compressors AMP
32 Centrifugal Compressors AMP
33 Tutorial 5 : Centrifugal Compressors AMP

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

34 Design of Centrifugal Compressors : BR

Design of impellers
35 Design of subsonic and supersonic BR
vaned diffusers, vaneless volutes
36 Radial Turbine : Thermodynamics AMP
and Aerodynamics of radial
turbines
37 Radial Turbine Characteristics BR
38 Tutorial 6 : Radial Turbines and BR
Quiz-2
39 Design of Radial Turbines BR

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

40 CFD for Turbomachinery: Computer aided BR

blade profiles and cascade analysis
41 Grid generation, Periodicity and Boundary AMP
Conditions and Flow Analysis
42 3-D blade generation and analysis using BR
CFD
43 Flow track and inter-spool duct analysis AMP
and design using CFD

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

A Brief Introduction
to
Compressors and Turbines

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Heat Engines require

Turbine compression before
Power to
Compr combustion for
efficient combustion
Jet
Thrust Compressed burnt gas
facilitates turbine work
production

For jet engines Jet

thrust creation requires
compressed gas
expansion through jet
nozzle

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Fan
Turbine
Compressor

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Centrifugal Compressor Components

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-1

Creation of Compressors and Turbines require

substantial knowledge of aerodynamic behaviour
of flow through these machines.

Modern compressor and turbine design is

substantially aided by Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD)

Final blade shaping requires sophisticated

geometric modelling softwares.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 2

1
 Lect-2

In this lecture...

Axial flow compressors and fans

Thermodynamics of compression
P-v and T-s diagrams of compressors
Thermodynamics of compression
process
Multi-stage compression
Basic operation of axial compressors/fans
Velocity triangles
Work and compression

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Introduction

Simplified aero-thermodynamic analysis

Optimised cycle design to precede the
detailed component design
Prediction of work requirements
Efficiency of the compressor
Enables faster design modifications

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Thermodynamics of compression

(i) Adiabatic (process 1-2/) , Pv=c

(ii) Isothermal process (1-2//), Pv=c

(iii) Isochoric (Process 1-2///), Pv =c

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Thermodynamics of compressors

i) Isentropic process (1-2/)

ii) Polytropic process (1-2)
iii) Isothermal process (1-2//)
iv) Isochoric Process (1-2///)

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Thermodynamics of compressors

The compression
process is usually
expressed in H-s or T-
s diagrams.
The ideal compression
process is assumed to
be isentropic.
Deviation from this is
expressed as
isentropic efficiency.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Thermodynamics of compressors

X1 , X2 are the
losses in the rotor
and the stator
respectively

Compression in terms
of static parameters

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Thermodynamics of compressors

Compression in terms
of total parameters

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Thermodynamics of multi-stage compressors

The flow at the rotor

exit with high kinetic
energy is still to be
converted to static
pressure through
diffusion.
Averaged T-s The exit kinetic energy
characteristics
of a compressor is of
the same order as the
Rotor isentropic, stator isothermal entry kinetic energy
Rotor polytropic, stator isothermal
and the entire work
input is expected to be
converted to pressure.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Basic operation of axial compressors

Axial flow compressors usually consists of a
series of stages.
Each stage comprises of a row of rotor
blades followed by a row of stator blades.
The working fluid is initially accelerated by
the rotor blades and then decelerated in the
stator passages.
In the stator, the kinetic energy transferred
in the rotor is converted to static pressure.
This process is repeated in several stages to
yield the necessary overall pressure ratio.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Basic operation of axial compressors

The compression process consists of a series of
diffusions.
This occurs both in the rotor as well as the
stator.
Due to motion of the rotor blades two distinct
velocity components: absolute and relative
velocities in the rotor.
The absolute velocity of the fluid is increased in
the rotor, whereas the relative velocity is
decreased, leading to diffusion.
Per stage pressure ratio is limited because a
compressor operates in an adverse pressure
gradient environment.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Basic operation of axial compressors

Turbines on the other hand operate under

favourable pressure gradients.
Several stages of an axial compressor can be
driven by a single turbine stage.
Careful design of the compressor blading is
essential to minimize losses as well as to
ensure stable operation.
Some compressors also have inlet Guide Vanes
(IGV) that permit the flow entering the first
stage to vary under off-design conditions.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Velocity triangles
Elementary analysis of axial compressors begins
with velocity triangles.
The analysis will be carried out at the mean height
of the blade, where the peripheral velocity or the
blade speed is, U.
The absolute component of velocity will be
denoted by, C and the relative component by, V.
The axial velocity (absolute) will be denoted by Ca
and the tangential components will be denoted by
subscript w (for eg, Cw or Vw)
denotes the angle between the absolute velocity
with the axial direction and the corresponding
angle for the relative velocity.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Velocity triangles
1 2 3
V2
2

V1

1 2
C2

V1 3
V2 C3
U
U
C1 C2

Rotor Stator

C = U +V
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Velocity triangles

V2
2 Vw2
2
V1 Vw1
Cw
U
1 C2 Cw2
1
C1 Cw1

Ca

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Property changes across a stage

Total enthalpy
h01 h02 h03

Absolute velocity
C1 C2 C3

Static pressure
P1 P2 P3

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Work and compression

Assuming Ca=Ca1=Ca2, from the velocity
triangles, we can see that
U U
= tan 1 + tan 1 and = tan 2 + tan 2
Ca Ca
By considering the change in angular
momentum of the air passing through the
rotor, work done per unit mass flow is
w = U(Cw 2 Cw1 ), where Cw1 and Cw 2are the tangential
components of the fluid velocity before and after the
rotor, respectively.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Work and compression

The above equation can also be written as,
w = UC a(tan 2 tan 1 )
Since, (tan 2 tan 1 ) = (tan 1 tan 2 )
w = UC a(tan 1 tan 2 )
In other words, w = UCw
The input energy will reveal itself in the
form of rise in stagnation temperature of
the air.
The work done as given above will also be
equal to the change in stagnation enthalpy
across the stage.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Work and compression

h02 h01 = UCw
UCw T0 UCw
T02 T01 = =
cp T01 cp T01
Since the flow is adiabatic and no work is done as
the fluid passes through the stator, T03 = T02
Let us define stage efficiency , st , as
h03s h01
st =
h03 h01
This can be expressed as
T03s T0
= 1 + st
T01 T01
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Work and compression

In the above equation, T0 = T03 T01

In terms of pressure ratio,
/ ( 1 )
P03 T0
= 1 + st
P01 T01
This can be combined with the earlier equation
to give,
/ ( 1 )
P03 UCw
= 1 + st
P01 cp T01

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Work and compression

From the above equation that relates the
per stage temperature rise to the pressure
ratio, it can be seen that to obtain a high
temperature ratio for a given overall
pressure ratio (for minimizing number of
stages),
High blade speed: limited by blades stresses
High axial velocity, high fluid deflection
(1-2): Aerodynamic considerations and
adverse pressure gradients limit the above.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

Work and compression

From the above equation that relates the
per stage temperature rise to the pressure
ratio, it can be seen that to obtain a high
temperature ratio for a given overall
pressure ratio (for minimizing number of
stages),
High blade speed: limited by blades stresses
High axial velocity, high fluid deflection
(1-2): Aerodynamic considerations and
adverse pressure gradients limit the above.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

In this lecture...

Axial flow compressors and fans

Thermodynamics of compression
P-v and T-s diagrams of compressors
Thermodynamics of compression
process
Multi-stage compression
Basic operation of axial compressors/fans
Velocity triangles
Work and compression

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-2

In the next lecture...

Two-dimensional analytical model

Performance parameters
Cascade aerodynamics

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 3

1
 Lect-3

In this lecture...

Design parameters
Two dimensional analysis: Cascade
aerodynamics

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Design parameters

The following design parameters are often

used in the parametric study of axial
compressors:
Flow coefficient,
= Ca / U
Stage loading,
= h0 / U 2 = Cw / U
Degree of reaction, Rx
Diffusion factor, D*

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Degree of reaction

Diffusion takes place in both rotor and the

stator.
Static pressure rises in the rotor as well as
the stator.
Degree of reaction provides a measure of
the extent to which the rotor contributes to
the overall pressure rise in the stage.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Degree of reaction
Static enthalpy rise in the rotor
Rx =
Stagnation enthalpy rise in the stage
h h1 h h1
= 2 2
h03 h01 h02 h01
For a nearly incompressible flow,

h2 h1 (P2 P1 ) for the rotor

1

(P03 P01 )
1
and for the stage, h03 h01

h2 h1 P2 P1
Rx =
h02 h01 P02 P01
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Degree of reaction
From the steady flow energy equation,
V12 V22
h1 + = h2 +
2 2
h2 h1 V12 V22
Rx = =
h03 h01 2U(Cw 2 Cw1 )
For constant axial velocity, V12 V22 = Vw21 Vw2 2
And, Vw1 Vw 2 = Cw1 Cw 2
1 Ca
On simplification, R x = (tan 1 tan 2 )
2 2U
Ca
or, R x = (tan 1 + tan 2 )
2U
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Degree of reaction

Special cases of Rx
Rx=0, 2 = 1 , There is no pressure rise in the
rotor, the entire pressure rise is due to the
stator, the rotor merely deflects the incoming
flow: impulse blading
Rx=0.5, gives 1 = 2 and 2 = 1 , the velocity
triangles are symmetric, equal pressure rise in
the rotor and the stator
Rx=1.0, 2 = 1 , entire pressure rise takes
place in the rotor while the stator has no
contribution.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Degree of reaction
2
2
2 = 1
V2 V2 V2
2 2
2 2
V1 V1
U U U
1 C2 1 C2 C2
1 1 V1
C1 C1
C1
2 = 1 1 = 2 and 2 = 1 1
1

Rx=0.0 Rx=0.5 Rx=1.0

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Diffusion factor
Fluid deflection (2-1)is an important
parameter that affects the stage pressure rise.
Excessive deflection, which means high rate of
diffusion, will lead to blade stall.
Diffusion factor is a parameter that associates
blade stall with deceleration on the suction
surface of the airfoil section.
Diffusion factor, D*, is defined as
Vmax V2
D = Where, Vmax is the ideal surface velocity at
V1
the minimum pressure point and V2 is the ideal velocity
at the trailing edge and V1 is the velocity at the leading edge.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Diffusion factor

Suction
surface
V1

Vmax
V2
Velocity

Pressure
surface

0 50 100
Percent chord

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Diffusion factor
Lieblein (1953) proposed an empirical
parameter for diffusion factor.
It is expressed entirely in terms of known or
measured quantities.
It depends strongly upon solidity (C/s).
It has been proven to be a dependable indicator of
approach to separation for a variety of blade
shapes.
D* is usually kept around 0.5.
V2 Vw1 Vw 2
D = 1 +
V1 C
2 V1
s
Where, C is the chord of the blade and s is the spacing
between the blades.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Cascade aerodynamics
A cascade is a stationary array of blades.
Cascade is constructed for measurement of
performance similar to that used in axial
compressors.
Cascade usually has porous end-walls to
remove boundary layer for a two-dimensional
flow.
Radial variations in the velocity field can
therefore be excluded.
Cascade analysis relates the fluid turning
angles to blading geometry and measure
losses in the stagnation pressure.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Cascade aerodynamics
The cascade is mounted on a turntable so
that its angular direction relative to the
inlet can be set at different incidence
angles.
Measurement usually consist of pressures,
velocities and flow angles downstream of
the cascade.
Probe traverse at the trailing edge of the
blades for measurement.
Blade surface static pressure using static
pressure taps: cp distribution.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Cascade wind tunnel

Linear open circuit cascade wind tunnel

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Cascade wind tunnel

Linear open circuit cascade wind tunnel

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Cascade nomenclature

C
C = Chord
s = spacing / pitch
t = thickness
= camber C
= stagger
i = incidence angle
= deflection angle

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Cascade aerodynamics
The cascade is mounted on a turntable so
that its angular direction relative to the
inlet can be set at different incidence
angles.
Measurement usually consist of pressures,
velocities and flow angles downstream of
the cascade.
Special nulling type probes (cylindrical,
claw or cobra type) are used in the
measurements.

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Performance parameters
Measurements from cascade: velocities,
pressures, flow angles ...
Loss in total pressure expressed as total
pressure loss coefficient
P01 P02
WPLC = 1
2 V1
2

Total pressure loss is very sensitive to

changes in the incidence angle.
At very high incidences, flow is likely to
separate from the blade surfaces,
eventually leading to stalling of the blade.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Performance parameters
Blade performance/loading can be
assessed using static pressure coefficient:
Plocal Pref
CP = 1
2 V1
2

Where, Plocal is the blade surface static pressure and

Pref is the reference static pressure (usually measured
at the cascade inlet)

The CP distribution (usually plotted as CP

vs. x/C) gives an idea about the
chordwise load distribution.
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Performance parameters

Deflection, degrees
Total pressure loss coefficient

Location of the
blade trailing edge

Position along cascade

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Performance parameters

C2
C2
2
2

1 Stalled or
C1
1 separated flow
C1

(a) Normal operation (b) Stalled operation

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

Performance parameters

Total pressure loss coefficient

Incidence angle, degrees

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

In this lecture...

Design parameters
Two dimensional analysis: Cascade
aerodynamics

23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-3

In the next lecture...

2-D losses in axial compressor stage

primary losses

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 4

1
 Lect-4

In this lecture...

Performance parameters: cascade

analysis
2-D losses in axial compressor stage
primary losses

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Performance parameters
Measurements from cascade: velocities,
pressures, flow angles ...
Loss in total pressure expressed as total
pressure loss coefficient
P01 P02
PLC = 1
2 V1
2

Total pressure loss is very sensitive to

changes in the incidence angle.
At very high incidences, flow is likely to
separate from the blade surfaces,
eventually leading to stalling of the blade.
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Performance parameters
Blade performance/loading can be
assessed using static pressure coefficient:
Plocal Pref
CP = 1
2 V1
2

Where, Plocal is the blade surface static pressure and

Pref is the reference static pressure (usually measured
at the cascade inlet)

The CP distribution (usually plotted as CP

vs. x/C) gives an idea about the
chordwise load distribution.
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Performance parameters

Deflection, degrees
Total pressure loss coefficient

Location of the
blade trailing edge

Position along cascade

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Performance parameters

C2
C2
2
2

1 Stalled or
C1
1 separated flow
C1

(a) Normal operation (b) Stalled operation

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Performance parameters

Total pressure loss coefficient

Incidence angle, degrees

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Losses in a compressor blade

Nature of losses in an axial compressor
Viscous losses
3-D effects like tip leakage flows, secondary
flows etc.
Shock losses
Mixing losses
Estimating the losses crucial designing loss
control mechanisms.
However isolating these losses not easy and
often done through empirical correlations.
Total losses in a compressor is the sum of
the above losses.
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Losses in a compressor blade

Viscous losses
Profile losses: on account of the profile or nature
of the airfoil cross-sections
Annulus losses: growth of boundary layer along
the axis
Endwall losses: boundary layer effects in the
corner (junction between the blade surface and
the casing/hub)
3-D effects:
Secondary flows: flow through curved blade
passages
Tip leakage flows: flow from pressure surface to
suction surface at the blade tip
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Losses in a compressor blade

The loss manifests itself in the form of stagnation
pressure loss (or entropy increase).
s P (Po )loss
= ln 02 = ln1
R P01 P01
Expanding the above equation in an infinite series,
2
s (Po )loss 1 (Po )loss
= + + ...
R P01 2 P01
s (Po )loss
Neglecting higher order terms, =
R P01
(Po )loss s P01
Since, = =
2 V1
1 2
R 12 V12
s V12
or, =
R 2P01
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Losses in a compressor blade

The overall losses in a turbomachinery can be
summarised as:

= P + sh + s + L + E
Where, P : profile losses
sh : shock losses
s : secondary flow loss
L : tip leakage loss
E : Endwall losses

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

2-D losses are relevant only to axial flow
turbomachines.
These are mainly associated with blade
boundary layers, shock-boundary layer
interactions, separated flows and wakes.
The mixing of the wake downstream
produces additional losses called mixing
losses.
The maximum losses occur near the blade
surface and minimum loss occurs near the
edge of the boundary layer.
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

2-D losses can be classified as:

Profile loss due to boundary layer, including
laminar and/or turbulent separation.
Wake mixing losses
Shock losses
Trailing edge loss due to the blade.

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

The profile loss depends upon:
Flow parameters like Reynolds number,
Mach number, longitudinal curvature of the
blade, inlet turbulence, free-stream
unsteadiness and the resulting unsteady
boundary layers, pressure gradient, and
shock strength
Blade parameters like: thickness, camber,
solidity, sweep, skewness of the blade,
stagger angle and blade roughness.

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

The mixing losses arise as a result of the
mixing of the wake with the freestream.
This depends upon, in addition to the
parameters mentioned in the previous slide,
the distance downstream.
The physical mechanism is the exchange of
momentum and energy between the wake and
the freestream.
This transfer of energy results in the decay of
the free shear layer, increased wake centre line
velocity and increased wake width.
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

At far downstream, the flow becomes
uniform.
Theoretically, the difference between the
stagnation pressure far downstream and the
trailing edge represents the mixing loss.
Most loss correlations are based on
measurements downstream of the trailing
edge (1/2 to 1 chord length) and therefore
do not include all the mixing losses.
If there is flow separation, the losses would
include losses due to this zone and at its
eventual mixing downstream.
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

The profile and mixing losses along a

streamline can be written as :
2(P0 t P02 )
p + m =
V12
To determine the above, it is necessary to relate
the static pressure difference and velocities to the
displacement and momentum thickness of the blade
boundary layer at the trailing edge.

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

Detailed derivation of these correlations are
given in Lakshminarayana' s book (Chapter 6).
2(P0t P02 ) 2(pt p 2 ) Vt2 V22
p + m = = +
V1 2
V12
V12
This is further expressed as :
2 + 2
(1 )2

p + m sec 1 =
2
+ tan 2
2
1
(1 ) (1 )
2 2

Neglecting higher order terms ,
p + m sec 2 1 = 2( + tan2 2 )
Where, is the blockage (related to displacement
thickness) and is the momentum thicknesss.
18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

Thus, in a simplified manner, we see that
the profile loss can be estimated based on
the momentum thickness.
The above loss correlation includes both
profile and wake mixing loss.
If flow separation occurs, additional losses
are incurred. This is because the pressure
distribution is drastically altered beyond
the separation point.
The losses increase due to increase in
boundary layer displacement and
momentum thicknesses.
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

In addition to the losses discussed above,
boundary layer growth and subsequent decay of
the wake causes deviation in the outlet angle.
An estimate of this is given as:
tan 2 (1 ) tan t
Hence, viscous effect in a turbomachine always
leads to decrease in the turning angle.
The values of displacement and momentum
thicknesses, depend upon, variation of freestream
velocity, Mach number, skin friction, pressure
gradient, turbulence intensity and Reynolds
number.
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

2-D Losses in a compressor blade

In general, the loss estimation may be carried

out using one of the following methods:
Separate calculation of the potential or
inviscid flow and the displacement and
momentum thicknesses. Subsequently, use
the equation discussed previously.
Using a Navier-Stokes based computational
code. Here the local and the integrated
losses can be computed directly.

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Mach number and shock losses

The static pressure rise in a compressor

increases with Mach number.
Thus the pressure gradient increases with
increase in Mach number.
This means that the momentum thickness and
hence the losses increase with Mach number.
Increasing Mach numbers also lead to
increase in shock losses.
At transonic speeds, the shock losses are very
sensitive to leading and trailing edge
geometries.
22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Mach number and shock losses

An estimate of the 2-D shock losses for a
compressor must include:
The losses due to the leading edge bluntness
with supersonic upstream Mach number.
The location of the passage shock can be
determined from inviscid theories. If the shock
strength is known, the losses can be
estimated.
The losses due to boundary layer growth and
the shock-boundary layer interaction are most
difficult to estimate. The contribution however
is small for weak shocks.
23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

Mach number and shock losses

One of the empirical correlations for the shock
loss was given by Freeman and Cumpsty
(1989).
(P0 )loss (P0 )loss
sh = =
P01 p1 P
01 p 1 normal shock

[ ]
+ 2.6 + 0.18(1' 650 ) 10 2 (1 1' )
where, 1' is the blade inlet angle.
This is valid for an incidence angle upto 5o.
These empirical correlations are however,
derived using the 2-D assumption.
Actual flows are seldom 2-D in nature.
24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

In this lecture...

Performance parameters: cascade

analysis
2-D losses in axial compressor stage
primary losses

25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-4

In the next lecture...

Tutorial: solved examples and tutorial

problems.

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 5

1
 Lect-5

In this lecture...

Tutorial on 2-D analysis of axial

compressors and cascades

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Problem 1
Air at 1.0 bar and 288 K enters an axial flow
compressor with an axial velocity of 150 m/s. There are
no inlet guide vanes. The rotor stage has a tip diameter
of 60 cm and a hub diameter of 50 cm and rotates at
100rps. The air enters the rotor and leaves the stator in
the axial direction with no change in velocity or radius.
The air is turned through 30.2 degree as it passes
through the rotor. Assume a stage pressure ratio of 1.2
and overall pressure ratio of 6. Find a) the mass flow
rate of air, b) the power required to drive the
compressor, c) the degree of reaction at the mean
diameter, d) the number of compressor stages required
if the isentropic efficiency is 0.85.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution : Problem # 1
V2
2
U
C2

V1
U
1
Ca

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 1

dt + dh 0.6 + 0.5
U= N = 100 = 172.76m / s
2 2
U
1 = tan = 49.2
1

Ca
2 = 49.2 30.2 = 19
U Ca tan 2
tan 2 = = 80.75
Ca
2 = 38.92

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 1

4
2
(
m = dt dh Ca 2
2
) & T1 = T01
Ca2
2Cp
= 276.8 K
1
P 02
T 02 = T 01 T 02 = 303.41K
P 01
C2 Ca
2

T 2 = 303.41 & cos 2 =

2Cp C2
Ca 150
C2 = = = 192.79m / s
cos 2 cos 38.92

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 1

192.79 2
T 2 = 303.41 = 284.91 K
2010
P 2 = 1.216 bar
1.216 101325
2 = = 1.507 Kg / m3
287 284.9

m = 19.53 Kg / s

P = U Ca m (tan 1 tan 2 )
= 172.76 150 19.53 (tan 49.2 tan 19 ) = 412 KW

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 1

Ca
RX = 1 (tan 1 + tan 2 )
2U
(tan 49.2 + tan 19 ) = 1 0.65
150
=1
2 172.76
= 0.35
U Ca
T0s = (tan 1 tan 2 )
Cp
172.76 150
= (tan 49.2 tan 19 ) = 20.99 K
1005

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 1

T1
1

T0overall = C 1
C

=
288
0.85
(
6 0.286 1 = 226.5K )
226.5
n= = 10.79 11
20.99

Therefore the number of stages required for the

given pressure ratio is 11.0.

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Problem # 2
An axial flow compressor is to be designed to
generate a total pressure ratio of 4.0 with an
overall isentropic efficiency of 0.85. The inlet and
outlet blade angles of the rotor blades are 45
degree & 10 degree respectively and the
compressor stage has a degree of reaction of 50
percent. If the blade speed is 220 m/s and the
work done factor is 0.86, find the number of
stages required. Is it likely that the compressor
will suffer from shock losses? The ambient air
static temperature is 290 K and the air enters the
compressor through guide vanes.
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 2
V2
2
2
V1
U
1 C2
1
C1

Ca

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 2

U
Axial velocity, Ca = = 187 m / s
tan 1 + tan 2

Ca
Absolute velocity at C1 = = 190m / s
cos 1
inlet,

The per stage temperature

rise,
U Ca (tan 1 tan 2 )
T0 s = = 29 K
Cp
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 2

Total temperature at compressor inlet,

2
C1
T 02 = T 2 + = 331.8 K
2Cp
Isentropic total temperature at compressor exit,
1

T 03 s = T 02 c
= 493.9 K

Actual total temperature at

compressor exit,
T 03 = T 02 +
(T 03 s T 02 )
= 522.5 K
c
13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 2

Therefore total temperature rise across the

compressor = T 03 T 02 = 190.74 K

The number of stages required=

Overall temperature rise across the compressor
Per stage temperature rise
190.74
= = 6.6 7
29

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 2
To determine whether the compressor
will suffer from shock losses, we need to
find the relative Mach number
V1
M rel =
RT2
Ca
V1 = = 264.5m / s
cos 1
M rel = 0.77
Since relative Mach number is less than
unity, the compressor is not likely to suffer
from shock losses.
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Problem # 3
The conditions of air at the entry of an axial
compressor stage are P1=1 bar and T1=314
K. The air angles are 1=51o, 2=9o, 1= 3=7o.
The mean diameter and peripheral speed are
50 cm and 100 m/s respectively. Given that
the work done factor is 0.95, stage
efficiency is 0.88, mechanical efficiency is
0.92 and the mass flow rate is 25 kg/s,
Determine a) air angle at stator entry, b)
blade height at entry and hubtip diameter
ratio, c)Stage loading coefficient, d) Power
required to drive the stage.

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 3
a) U
= tan 1 + tan 1
Ca
100
= tan 7 + tan 51 Ca = 73.65m / s
Ca
U
tan 2 + tan 2 =
Ca
100
tan 2 + tan 9 = 2 = 50.18
73.65

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 3
b)

m = Ca ( d h),
Substituti ng known values in the above, h = 0.19 m
dt = 50 + 19 = 69cm,
dh = 50 19 = 31cm
dh
The hub - tip ratio is = 0.449
dt

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

Solution: Problem # 3

c) = w & w = Ca U (tan 1 tan 2)

U 2

w = 0.95 100 73.65 (tan 51 tan 9) = 7534.8J / Kg

7534.8
= 2
= 0.7535, is the loading coefficien t.
100

d) P = m
w
= 204.75KW is the power required.
m

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-5

In this lecture...

Tutorial on 2-D analysis of axial

compressors and cascades

25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect - 6

1
 Lect - 6

3-D Flows in Blade Passages

of
Axial Flow Compressors

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

Local flow field decides blade shape

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

3-D Flows through axial compressor

Axial flow acquires rotational
component on entering the
blades
Axial compressors blades are
normally highly twisted
Airfoils used may significantly
vary in camber and stagger
settings from hub to tip
Solidity and spacing between
the airfoils vary from root to tip
As a result of the above, Cp
distributions on the blade
surfaces vary from root to tip
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

Fabricated Blades

Top View

3-D blade shapes

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

The flow, in passing

through the curved,
twisted blades,
develop asymetric
boundary layers on
its bounding
surface, which
promote strong
passage vortex
development

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

In certain
blade shapes
the flow, in
passing
through the
blades, develop
two passage
vortices

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

Boundary layer
development at
casing and hub
(due to adverse
pressure
gradient of
main flow)
further
contributes to
3-D flow
development
End-wall Boundary layer development

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

Scrubbing

Tip cross flow is

opposite in motion
to the rotation of
the rotor blades
Blade tip scrubs
through casing
boundary layer

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

Change of inlet velocity profile through stages

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

Flow entering the stages downstream of the

first stage becomes more and more non-axial

Boundary layers are developed at the two ends

of the blades casing and hub ends

The growing end wall boundary layers also act

as blockage and reduces the main flow rate

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

Flow across blade tip

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

Passage
vortex
development
across blade
passage

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

3-D Flow development in rotor blades

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

3-D Flow development in rotor blades

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 6

3-D Flow development in rotor blades

Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay 18

 Lect - 6

Next Class -----

3-D Flow Analysis

Simple Radial Equilibrium theory

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect - 7

1
 Lect - 7

Three Dimensional
Flow Analysis in
Axial Compressor

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Let us assume that

a small element
inside the rotating
blade passage
represents the fluid
flow inside the
rotor, such that the
analysis of the
status of this
element may
wholly represent
the status of the
whole flow inside
the rotor passage

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

It may be recalled
that this element is
also executing a
path through the
curved diffusing
passage between
the rotor blades.

w2

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Simple three dimensional flow analysis :

Initial assumptions

1)Radial movement of the flow is governed by the

radial equilibrium of forces
2) Radial movements occur within the blade
passage only and not outside it
3) Flow analysis involves balancing the radial force
exerted by the blade rotation
4) Gravitational forces can be neglected

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Consider this fluid element of unit axial length

subtended by an angle d, of thickness dr, along
which the pressure variation is from p to p+dp.

Subscript w refers
to tangential / whirl
component of the
flow

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Resolving all the aerodynamic forces, acting on

this element, in the radial direction,
we get,

(p+dp)(r+dr).d.1 p.r.1.d
2(p+dp/2).dr.(d /2).1

= . dr. r. Cw2 /r

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Neglecting the second order terms (products

of small terms e.g. dp.dr etc) the equation
reduces to

1 dp = 1 .C2
dr r w
This is called the
Simple Radial Equilibrium Equation

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Invoke the laws of fluid and thermo-dynamics

1) H = h + C2/2 = cpT + (Ca2 + Cw2)
Energy Eqn
2) cp.T =
p From Equation of state
-1
3)
p =c Isentropic Law

Where, H is total enthalpy, h is static enthalpy
pressure p, density , are the fluid properties
and cp and are the thermal properties of air
at the operating condition
8 9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

substituting for cp from Eqn(2) and then

differentiating the eqn (1) w.r.t. r ,
we get

dH dCa dCw 1 dp p dp
= Ca +Cw + . - 2
dr drdr drdr -1

9 10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Differentiating the eqn 3 (isentropic law) we get

d dp
=
dr .p dr
Substituting this in the new energy equation
we get
dH dCa dCw 1 dp
= Ca +Cw +
dr dr
dr dr

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Now invoking the simple radial equilibrium equation

developed earlier in the energy equation

1 dp = 1 .C2
dr r w
We get
2
dH dC a +C dC C
w+ w
= Ca w dr
dr dr r

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

At entry to the compressor, except near the hub

and the casing, enthalpy H (r) = constant.

Using the condition of uniform work distribution

along the blade length ( i.e. radially constant) we
can say
dH
=0
dr

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Thus, the energy equation would be written as,

2
dCa dCw Cw
+Cw + =0
dr dr r
Now, if Ca = constant at all radii, then the
first term is zero and the above equation
reduces to
2
dCw Cw
Cw =-
dr r

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Therefore, the equation becomes

dCw dr
=-
dr r
This yields, on integration

Cw . r = constant.
This condition is commonly known
as the Free Vortex Law

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

The term Free Vortex essentially denotes that

the strength of the vortex (or lift per unit length)
created by each airfoil section used from the root
to the tip of the blade remains constant
Lift , L = .V.
where, is the density,
V is the inlet velocity, and
is the strength of circulation

It, therefore, means that at the trailing edge of

the blade the trailing vortex sheet has constant
strength from the root to the tip of the blade

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 7

Next Class ---

Free Vortex Design Law

and
Other Blade design laws

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect - 8

1
 Lect - 8

Axial Flow Compressor

3-D Blade Design Laws

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

From Radial Equilibrium Condition and using

some simplifying flow conditions (constant
H, Ca, along the radius) we get :

Cw . r = constant.

This condition is commonly known as

Free Vortex Design Law

12 3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

The simple Radial Equilibrium may be used to

explain some of the basic characteristics of an
axial compressor

Radial equilibrium requires that in a medium

(<1.0) to low ( 1.0) hub/tip radius ratio in a
rotor blade, change of whirl component (Cw
or Vw ) must be very large near the hub
(root) compared to that near the casing (tip)

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

Radial equilibrium, thus, requires that flow

turning at hub must be much larger at
hub than at the tip.

Hence hub airfoil must be of much higher

camber than that of the tip airfoil

Whirl component downstream of the rotor

(Cw2 or Vw2) is higher than the upstream

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

The Radial static

pressure gradient
dp/dr will be greater
downstream of the
rotor than upstream

Static pressure rise across the blade root

will be lesser than that across the rotor tip

Thus degree of reaction, Rx across the root

will be much less compared to that at the tip

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

A 50% reaction stage blading

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

w1 w1

w2
w2

A high reaction stage bladings

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

If one looks at a stage consisting of a rotor and

a stator, the radial equilibrium would also impact
the flow across the stator

Stator blade rows reduce the whirl component

Downstream of stator radial pressure gradient

dp/dr will be much lower than upstream of the
stator

Static pressure rise, p across the stator at hub

would be higher than at the tip. This may lead to
high blade loading and even flow separation at
stator hub

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

In view of the simplifications and the

constraints of the free vortex design law,
a generalized vortex law may be written
as
Cw . rn = constant
Where, n =1 is gives us back the free
vortex law.
Normally, 1> n >2.

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

when 0.75< n 1.0 it yields near-

free vortex or relaxed-free-vortex
designs in which the blade sections are
slightly overloaded with respect to free
vortex blade loading.

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

when n>1 the blades are underloaded

w.r.t. FVD law;
n = -1 is rarely used - often known as
the forced vortex design
n = 0 is known as the Exponential
design law and often is used to arrive at
constant degree of reaction blade designs

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

The exact nature of the vortex formation depends

of the blade design laws, blade geometry and the
operating condition

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

Preliminary blade designs are also driven by the

radial variation of the degree of reaction along
the blade length

Three limiting possibilities are often started

with:
Rx = 0%
Rx = 50%
Rx = 100%

50% reaction means diffusion and hence blade

loading is equally shared by the rotor and stator

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

In case when the degree of reaction is much

different from 50%, one of the blades, either
rotor or stator is more loaded.

The two limiting cases are 0% and 100%

reaction split between the rotor and the stator.

As we have seen the reaction may vary from

the root to the tip (as in Free Vortex designs)

Which means the split between the rotor and

the stator vary from the root to the tip of a
stage

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

In Rx = 0% case entire diffusion happens in

stator and rotor is used for flow energization. Such
a rotor will not have any diffusion occurring in the
rotor blade passage, and may be called an impulse
rotor (as energy transfer happens due to flow
turning). A supersonic rotor may have Rx=0%

in Rx = 100% case entire diffusion happens in the

rotor along with flow energization. The stator is
used only for flow turning

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

Compulsions of these choices are often present

depending on whether one is designing a:

i) Small sized axial compressor

ii) Large sized axial fan (in a bypass turbofan)
iii) First stage of a multi-stage axial compressor
iv) Middle stage of a multi-stage compressor
v) End stage of a multi-stage compressor
vi) High hub/tip radius ratio stage
vii) Low hub/tip radius ratio stage

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

Axial Distribution of the specific work (Wth) and

efficiency (i) amongst the individual stages of a
typical multi-stage compressor must be completed
and are arrived at from early design choices :
Initial Stages Middle stages Last stages
0.86 0.92 0.88

1.5-1.8 1.3-1.4 1.1-1.2

T0oC 40-75 30-50 15-30

The radial distribution of these parameters are

then taken up for each stage design
18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

In the modern axial compressor designs the 3-D

flow features inevitably present are:

Radial variation of Mach number and Reynolds

number
Consequently radial variation of density and
pressure gradients
Radial variation of blade thickness due to Mach
number variation
Radial variation of work input
Hub or casing geometry introducing radial flow
Leakage at the tip and axial gaps
Air bleed in an intermediate stage

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

Secondary flow development is a consequence

of all the earlier points and the operating point
Some non-uniformity in the inlet flow
Combination of subsonic and supersonic flow
Radial variation of all the design parameters is
high for low hub/tip radius ratio stage, which
have high aspect ratio (h/c >2.0)
Radial variation of parameters is less in a high
hub/tip ratio blade e.g. in the last stages, which
have low aspect ratios (h/c<2.0)

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 8

More detailed discussion on Compressor

Blade Design in a later lecture

Next Lecture ----

3-D flow in full mathematical form

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect - 9

1
 Lect - 9

Three dimensional flow analysis

in
Axial Flow Compressors

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

The earlier assumption on blade flow theories

that the flow inside the axial flow compressor
annulus is twodimensional means that radial
movement of the fluid while passing through the
blade passages is ignored.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Radial flow can appear due to following reasons

1. Centrifugal action on being imparted rotational

motion is experienced by the fluid
2. Convergence of the annulus flow track introduces
radiality in highly loaded compressor stages.
3. Twist and taper (chord and thickness-wise) of the
blade introduces radial component to the fluid;
4. Tip clearance effects - effect of tip flow around
the open tip of the blade rotor

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

5 Passage vortex formation inside the blade

passages;
6. Temperature/ Enthalpy / Entropy gradient in
the radial direction (due to 1 to 4 above);
7. Blade solid body thickness blockage (including
the effect of camber and stagger)
8. End wall (casing and hub) boundary layer
blockage effects, that deflect the flow inward,
in addition to reducing the main flow rate

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

The radial equilibrium theory is based on the

premise that the radial gradients of forces
experienced by all the fluid contributes to the
radial movement of the flow and hence those
forces must be balanced by the static forces
exerted by the pressure gradient existing in the
flow, so that at any instant of time the fluid
system is in radial balance of forces i.e. in radial
equilibrium.

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Motion of a particle w.r.t. two coordinate systems

Assume that a
fluid particle, p
is moving in an
arbitrary path
O
within the two
coordinate
systems

o
In axial flow compressors rotors need a
rotating co-ordinate system, whereas the
stator may use a static co-ordinate system
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

The two reference

systems have relative
motion represented by
(motion of vector R
O
w.r.t. fixed origin, o).
is rotation of the
o particle with respect to
moving axes system
xyz, and vxyz is the
translational motion of
the particle with respect
to moving axes xyz.
Velocity of the particle
P with respect to fixed dr
axes system XYZ from V XYZ =
the figure is : dt XYZ
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

d'
Velocity of P w.r.to small xyz, v xyz =
dt xyz
Vectorially, motion of P is summation of the
motion of the moving system w.r.t the fixed



r = R + '
system and particle P w.r.t the moving system

dr ' dR d
Or, = +
dt XYZ dt XYZ dt XyZ
Velocity of P w.r.t .
V XYZ R V xyz + .'

the fixed system = +
XYZ

9 9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Definitions of the accelerations

Acceleration of P w.r.t. Fixed coordinates XYZ,

dV XYZ
a XYZ =
dt XYZ
And, acceleration of P w.r.t. Rotating coordinates
xyz,
dV xyz
a xyz =
dt xyz
10 10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Thus, total acceleration of P w.r.t the fixed

coordinate system XYZ,

d V XYZ =
a =
dt XYZ
XYZ

dV xyz ** ( '
d )
dt + R + dt
xyz XYZ

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

The acceleration of P w.r.t the body fitted rotating coordinates

xyz, is a summation of its translational and rotating motions

dV xyz dV xyz
dt = + .V xyz

XYZ dt xyz

Rotation in ( ) = d' + d '

d.'
dt
xyz system XYZ dt XYZ dt XYZ
may be
captured
d' = d' +
in the eqns
dt '
XYZ dt xyz

12 12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Acceleration of the particle p w.r.t the fixed origin

O may be written as
..
**

aXYZ = a vxyz +
xyz + R + 2 . . ' + '

For motion with constant angular velocity

a =a
a xyz+ 2 v xyz + '
XYZ

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

For a compressor blade passage, the flow velocities are

V xyz = V ( relative velocity )

V XYZ
XYZ
= C ( absolute velocity )
V XYZ = V xyz + ' = V + r = V + u
Differentiating,
d (V ) (
d ' )
a XYZ =
XYZ
-
dt XYZ
dt XYZ
Translational motion Rotation

Final accn.
a XYZ= a xyz +2 v xyz + ( ' )
14 14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Considering the equilibrium of forces along arbitrary

flow direction, s direction, we get, between any
two axial stations, separated by a small distances
s where area, Ai is constant.
Pr. Force, p.Ai = Ai..s. aXYZ (Mass x acceleration)

1p
Hence, =a
s XYZ

Thus, the acceleration equation from the last slide

may be written as :
1 Dv
. p = r +
+ 2V
2
Dt

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

As the flow in compressor blade is diffusing

DV is negative
Dt

1 Dv
.p = r +
- 2 Vx
2
x
Dt

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

New of axis notations

where r, w and a are the

radial, whirl(peripheral)
and axial directions
respectively.

17 17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Assumptions made are:-

The fluid is frictionless

The rotor is rigid and rotates with constant
angular velocity
The flow is steady relative to the rotor
The radial variation of density is neglected

This still leaves enough scope for formation of

i) vorticity,
ii) entropy gradients, and
iii) stagnation enthalpy gradients in the
flow field.

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Then from the definition of unit vectors

Di r
=

V
i rt r i trr
= rt

and
D i wt
=- i

= -V i
w
t

Dt Dt r
w r r

using, V = V r i r +Vwt i wt +V a i a

By D( ) = V D ( ) + ds s is length
definition in any
Dt Ds
dt direction

0
as
ds For Steady
=0 State flow
dt
19 19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Now, the equation for flow inside the compressor

blade passage may be recast using r, and z
coordinate system and modified to :

DV
DV r d DVw
DV a
d = i r + i t +i a
t
-V w +V r
Dt Dt dt w Dt dt Dt

Using the coordinate systems the flow velocity

in relative frame is V and its components may
be shown as Va , Vr , Vw

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Now, the equation may be resolved in its three

components, using r, and z coordinate system,

( )
2

1 D V r V tw+r
- =V - ---------- (a)
p r
1 D V a V tw.V r
- . =V + + 2.
r. p
r -------- (b)
.V r
1 D Va
- =V -------------- (c)
p
21 21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Using the
coordinate
systems the
vw flow velocity
in relative
frame is V
and its
components
may be
shown as Va ,
Vr , Vw

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

The velocity triangle for the flow gives us

C wt = V wt +
Then equation (a) and (b) from slide 21 can be
rewritten as
( )
2
1p DVr Cwt
- =V - ---------- (d)
r Ds r
1 p V D (r.Ctw)
- = ----------- (e)

Dr. s r
23 23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Now, we can write the kinematic relation as,

D( )= D( )
V Ds V a Da
Where Va and a are axial the
components of V and s respectively.
Define a meridional direction by

Dm i m = Dr i r + Da i a

( )
Now, equation 2
(d) from the last 1 DV r C wt
slide can be re- - =V m -
written as : p r
24 24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Meridional direction may be defined as

tan. Vr and V = Vm sin

= VZ
Hence the force balance equation only in the
radial direction is re-written as :
2
1 C 2 t
DV
p r = -V m - V m sin.
w m
Dsin.

Now, by our D( )= D( )
earlier definition V Ds V m
Dm
25 25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

D sin. D D 1
Now, = cos. and =-
Dm Dm Dm rm
Where rm is the radius of curvature of the meridional flow
The negative sign is arbitrary. But, for axial flow compressor the
flow track inside generally moves towards lesser or higher
rm , i.e. the flow later on flattens out. Hence,
2 2
1 p C V t D m V
r = + cos. w
V
m
r rDm r
- m
This is the full radial equilibrium Equation for
circumferentially averaged (blade to blade) flow properties
inside of a turbo machine blade row
21 27
27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

For old fashioned compressor designs Vm (instead

of constant axial velocity Va / Ca) is considered
constant and the last term is eliminated. In the
very early design of compressor the flow path was
considered linear and hence even the 2nd term
vanishes, giving us back the simple radial
equilibrium equation
2 2
1 p
. = C tw = C w
r r r
For modern compressor, this simple radial equilibrium
equation relationship is inadequate and it becomes
necessary to utilize the full radial equlibrium equation.
23 28
28
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Wherever the flow is not experiencing the centrifugal force,

the radial equilibrium can not be applied.
Experiments have shown that in between the blade rows, in
the axial gaps between the rotor and the stator, there could be
radial shift of the meridional path. Hence for accurate design
flow analysis the full radial equilibrium equation is be used.
For using the full REE, for computational purposes, further
steps need to be taken.
i) The R.E.E is to be transformed into a form that contains
partial derivatives of all parameters with respect to r and
ii) Next, the circumferential average of those parameters is
taken by integrating over from pressure side of one blade to
the suction side of the other blade.
iii) The flow is analysed at various axial stations with a) Energy
equation, b) Continuity condition and c) R.E.E.
29
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

30
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

It is necessary that flow properties obtained in this manner

at various axial stations be consistent with one another as
the flow properties are evaluated from hub to tip at each
station.
That means radial acceleration of the fluid particle is to be
accounted for in the R.E.E.
This can be achieved by assuming shapes for the meridional
streamlines consistent with the continuity condition
expressing the radial acceleration in terms of the
streamline slope and curvature.
This implies an iterative method of solution.
This method, in which surfaces are used to build up flow
inside a turbomachinery blade, has been widely used. The
equations on the blade-to-blade surface and those on the
meridional plane need to be solved separately.

31
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

The 3-D flow computations has provided immense assistance

to engine designers.
It has cut down on design time and has reduced dependence
on costly experimental analysis.
The 3-D methods have helped understand various flow
phenomena e.g. secondary flow development, chocking in the
stages, effects of end-wall flows etc.
However, the designer uses these solutions in conjunction
with many empirical relations and experimental data to make
the design.
There is still scope for improvement in these methods and
for reducing dependence on empirical relations

32
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 9

Next Class

Problem Solving and Tutorial problems

using
simple 3-D flow theories
on
Axial Flow Compressor

33
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect-10

1
 Lect-10

Lecture-10
Tutorial -2
Solved Problems and Tutorial Problems
On
Three Dimensional flow in Axial Flow
Compressor

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

Recap of simple 3-D flow theories

(These are mainly used for design)

1)Free Vortex Law : Cw .r = constant

2)Forced vortex Law : Cw /r = constant
3)Relaxed vortex law : Cw.rn = constant
A generalized version of the above laws
may be stated as :
a and b are
upstream : Cw1 = aRn - b/R constants to
n
and, downstream: Cw2 = aR + b/R be used for
the specific
where R is radius ratio, r/rmean case

4) Exponential law :n=0

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

Example 1. Free vortex design is being advocated for design

of an axial compressor rotor with high hub/tip radius ratio
(0.9) taken to be constant through the stage. At the rotor
tip (1m dia) the flow angles are given as : 1 =300 , 1= 600 ,
2=600, 2= 300 .
Also, RPM = 6000 ; =1.5. kg/m3 ; Enthalpy, H(r) = constant
and Entropy change, s (r)=constant - along blade length.

For such a rotor design determine the design point

performance parameters :
i) Axial velocity Ca , constant from root to tip
ii) Mass flow rate,
iii) Ideal minimum power to be supplied for this rotor
iv) Flow angles at the rotor blade root w.r.t axial dirn.
v) Degree of reaction at the blade root

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

Solution 1 :

(i) Rotor angular velocity , = 2 N/60 rad/s = 628.4 rad/s

Blade speed at rotor tip, Utip = rt = 314.2 m/s

and, Blade speed at root , Uhub = rh = 282.5 m/s
and, Blade speed at mean, Umean = rmean = 298.5 m/s

Now from standard velocity diagram of a rotor inlet,

Utip = Cw + Vw = Ca ( tan 1 + tan 1)tip
From which, Ca = 136 m/s

(ii) Mass flow rate , = Annulus area x density x axial velocity

2 2
= ( rt rh ). . Ca = 30.4 kg/s

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

iii) At inlet to the tip , Cw1-tip = Ca tan 1 = 78.6 m/s

By applying the Free Vortex Law

Cw1-mean = Cw1-tip .rtip /rmean = 82.73 m/s

At the exit to the tip, Cw2-tip = Ca tan 1 = 235.6 m/s

By applying the Free Vortex Law

Cw2-mean = Cw2-tip .rtip /rmean= 248 m/s

Minimum Power to be supplied (with 100% efficiency) is the

power absorbed by the rotor -- at any radial station , as per
free vortex law:
W = . Umean.(Cw2-mean - Cw1-mean)

= 1512924 j/s = 1.513 mW

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

iv) Using Free vortex law :

Cw1-hub = Cw1-tip .rtip /rhub = 87.3 m/s
Cw2-hub = Cw2-tip .rtip /rhub = 262 m/s
The flow angles at the hub are :
0
tan 1 = Cw1-hub / Ca = 87.3/136 = 0.642; 1 = 32.75
0
tan 2 = Cw2-hub / Ca = 262/136 = 1.928 ; 2 = 62.6
0
tan 1 = Uhub / Ca - tan 1 = 1.436 ; 1 = 55.15
0
tan 2 = Uhub / Ca - tan 2 = 0.152 ; 2 = 8.64

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

v) Degree of Reaction at the hub :

Rx-hub = (tan 2-hub - tan 1-hub) Ca /2Uhub

= 0.382

As one can see also from the answers (iv) the

velocity triangles at hub would be asymmetric
whereas the velocity triangles are symmetric at
the rotor tip (Rx = 0.5 ). One can calculate the
values at mean and it would be seen that velocity
triangle at the mean also would be asymmetric.
In free vortex design the velocity triangles can be
symmetric at only one radial location along the
blade length .
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

Example -2 .

An axial flow compressor is originally designed with free

vortex law, and has degree of reaction , Rx = 0.6 at the
mean , with hub/tip radius ratio of 0.6 at flow angles at
the mean radius are given as 1 =300 , 1= 600 ,
Calculate the relative and absolute flow angles, at the
hub and tip both at the inlet and the exit of the rotor
and the degree of reaction at both hub and tip.

Now if this axial compressor is to be re-designed with

exponential law, than recalculate the relative and the
absolute flow angles, at the hub and the tip both at the
inlet and at the exit of the rotor and, the degree of
reaction at both hub and tip. Prescribed, a = 100 ; b=40

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

Solution 2

Following the procedure adopted in the 1st problem the

solution for the original free vortex design may be found to
be :
1-hub = 37.60 ; 1-hub=24.80 ; 2-hub =66.60; 2-hub=-300
1-tip = 43.90 ; 1-tip =67.50; 2-tip= 54.2 ; 2-tip= 56.3

Using the degree of reaction relations developed

Rx-hub = 0.29

Rx-tip = 0.744

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

For exponential law re-design we apply the law :

upstream : Cw1 = a - b/R

and, downstream: Cw2 = a + b/R
where R is radius ratio, r/rmean
And a = 100 ; b=40 expressed in m/s

Cw1-hub = 46.7 m/s ; Cw1-tip = 68 m/s

Solving the velocity triangles we get :

Ca1-hub = 121.7 m/s; and Ca1-tip = 94.1 m/s

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

Using the prescribed law --- in front and behind the rotor;

At the hub :

Ca2-hub =142 m/s ; Cw2-hub =153 m/s ;

tan 1-hub = Cw1-hub / Ca1 = 0.384 ; 1-hub= 210

tan 2-hub = Cw2-hub / Ca2 = 0.93 ; 2-hub = 430

tan 1-hub= Uhub / Ca1 - tan 1 =1.157 ; 1-hub= 49.10

tan 2-hub= Uhub /Ca2 - tan 2 =0.392 ; 2-hub= 21.40

Degree of Reaction at the hub : Rx-hub = 0.59

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

Using the prescribed law --- in front and behind the rotor;

At the tip : Cw2-tip =132 m/s

tan 1-tip = Cw1-tip / Ca1 = 0.722 ; 1-tip = 35.850

0
tan 2-tip = Cw2-tip / Ca2 = 1.755 ; 2-tip = 60.32

tan 1-tip= Utip / Ca1 - tan 1 = 2.6 ; 1-tip= 690

tan 2-tip = Utip /Ca2 - tan 2 = 2.355 ; 2-tip = 67.40

Degree of Reaction at the tip : Rx-tip = 0.734

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

The values obtained for the Free Vortex and

the Exponential Law designs permit us to
conclude that :

1) The Degree of Reaction at hub for the

exponential design is much higher than that of
the free vortex design. That normally makes it
a safe design
2) The rotor twist i.e. 1 , 2 variation from
root to tip is much less for the exponential
design. This means it will have less structural
loading on the blades

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-10

Next Class :

Axial Compressor Instability and

Inlet Distortion Issues

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 11

1
 Lect-11

In this lecture...

Performance characteristics of axial

flow compressors
Single stage characteristics
Multi-stage characteristics

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Single stage performance characteristics

Let us consider a typical axial compressor

stage comprising of a set of rotor blades
followed by a set of stator blades.

V1
V2
U
U
C1 C2
3
C3

Rotor Stator

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Single stage performance characteristics

V2
2 Vw2
2
V1 Vw1
Cw
U
1 C2 Cw2
1
C1 Cw1

Ca

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Single stage performance characteristics

From the above velocity triangles,

Cw 2 = U Ca tan 2 and Cw1 = Ca tan

Since, h0 = UCw
h0 = U [U Ca (tan 1 + tan 2 )]
Cw h0
or , = 2 = 1
Ca
(tan 1 + tan 2 )
U U U

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Single stage performance characteristics

Change in the design mass flow rate
affects Ca, change in rotor speed affects U.
Change of either Ca or U changes the inlet
angle 1 at which the flow approaches the
rotor.
The above equation shows that the blade
performance depends upon the ratio Ca/U.
The stage performance is a function of the loading coefficien t,
flow coefficien t and the efficiency .
Thus,
Stage performance = f(, , )
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11
Single stage performance characteristics
Cw h0
= 2 = 1 a (tan 1 + tan 2 )
h0 Cw C
=
U2 U U U U
1
(tan 1 + tan 2 )design
Measured
Stage loading

Ca Ca

U design U

1.0

st
Measured
Stage efficiency

Ca Ca

U design U
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Single stage performance characteristics

V1 V1 V1

1 1 1

V1 V1
V1
U 1 U 1 U
1 1
1 1 C1
C1 C1
Ca Ca
Ca
Design condition : Off - design condition : Off - design condition :
Normal operation Positive incidence flow separation Negative incidence flow separation
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
= < >
U U design U U design U U design

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

Let us know consider a multi-stage

compressor. Inlet station is denoted by 1
and exit of the compressor by 2.
Therefore the overall pressure ratio of
the compressor is P02/P01.
The compressor outlet pressure, P02, and
the isentropic efficiency, C, depend upon
several physical variables

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

P02 ,C = f (m , P01 , T01 , , , R, , design, D)
In terms of non - dimensionless parameters,
P02 m RT01 D D 2
, C = f , , , , design
P01 P01 D 2 RT
01
For a given design, we can assume that and do not
affect the performance significantly. Also, D and R
are fixed. Therefore the above reduces to
P02 m T01 N
, C = f ,
P01 P01 T
01
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

Usually, this is further processed in terms of the

standard day pressure and temperature.
P02 m N
,C = f ,

P01
T01 P01
Where, = and =
(T01 )Std. day (P01 )Std. day
(T01 )Std. day = 288.15 K and (P01 )Std. day = 101.325 kPa

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

P02
P01

m

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

P02
P01

m

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

In a multi-stage compressor, a small departure
from the design point at the first stage causes
progressively increasing departure from design
conditions from the first stage onwards.
Thus, a small reduction in (ca/U)design at the first
stage could lead to positive incidence separation
at the last stage.
Similarly, a small increase in (ca/U)design could
lead to negative incidence separation in the last
stage.
The most extreme mismatching of the front and
rear stages occur during starting.

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

Design velocity triangles
V2 V2
2 2
2
2 V1
U U
V1 C2 1 C2
1 1
1
C1 C1

Ca Ca

First stages Last stages

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

Decreased Ca with 1 and 2 constant,

results in increased 2 and 1 or
increased loading on both rotor and
stator blades.
In the case of increased Ca, it results in
the opposite effect.
Designers use several solutions to allow
compressors to self-start: use of bleed
valves allowing some of the incoming air
to escape, variable IGVs, multi-spooling.

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

Axial compressors suffer from two

possible modes of unstable operation
Rotating stall: non-axisymmetric, aperiodic
Surge: axisymmetric, periodic
Rotating stall: progression around the blade
annulus of a stall pattern, in which one or more
adjacent blade passages are instantaneously
stalled, then are cleared for unstalled flow as
the stall cell progresses.
Rotating stall causes alternate loading and
unloading of the blades: fatigue failure.

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

P02
P01

m

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

Multi-stage performance characteristics

P0
U 2

Stage characteristics
Throttle characteristics

Ca
U

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-11

In this lecture...

Performance characteristics of axial

flow compressors
Single stage characteristics
Multi-stage characteristics

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 12

1
 Lect-12

In this lecture...

Instability in axial compressors

Rotating stall
Surge

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Instability in axial compressors

Compressor performance is a key factor in
the overall engine performance.
At a given rotational speed, the maximum
mass flow is determined by choking of the
compressor.
As mass flow is reduced/throttled, an
eventual breakdown of stable flow conditions
occur.
The requirement for a stable range of flow is
dictated by the performance characteristics
of downstream components such as turbine
or nozzle.
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Instability in axial compressors

The importance of this range lies in the

fact that engine operation at off-design
speeds may occur closer to surge or choke
depending upon its operating condition.
The ability to efficiently operate an engine
at all operating conditions depends upon
the matching of all components of an
engine within the confines of the stable
operating range.

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Instability in axial compressors

P02
P01

m

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Definition of Instability
Stability is related to the response of a
compressor to a disturbance which
perturbs compressor operation from a
steady operating point.
If the disturbance is transient, the
performance is considered stable if the
system returns to the original point of
equilibrium.
If the response is to drive the operation
away from the original point, the
performance is unstable.
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Definition of Instability

There are two areas of compressor

performance that relate to stability:
Operational stability
Aerodynamic stability
Operational stability: matching of
performance characteristics of the
compressor with downstream components.
Aerodynamic stability: limitation of steady
state operation due to stall and surge.

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Operational Stability
In this form of stability analysis, the complete
compressor system including inlet ducting,
guide vanes, rotors, stators and any pressure
recovery exhaust system are considered.
The operational stability depends upon the
rate of change of pressure rise or pressure
drop as mass flow rate varies.
System stability is established when the rate
of change of compressor pressure rise with
mass flow is algebraically less than the rate of
change of throttle pressure drop with mass
flow.
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Operational Stability

Compressor
Flow device

Matching characteristics
between the compressor and a
downstream flow device
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Aerodynamic Stability
Aerodynamic stability is the ability of the
entire compressor system to maintain or
increase the delivery pressure when the
compressor operation has been perturbed
to a lower flow.
The part of the compressor characteristic
with a positive slope is a region containing
subsystem stall or complete instability
resulting in surge.
In this region, operational stability may be
theoretically possible, but not aerodynamic
stability.
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Aerodynamic Stability

Pressure ratio

Flow

Progressive throttling characteristics

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Stall
There are two types of stall that have been
experimentally identified.
Individual blade stall
Rotating stall
Individual blade stall occurs when the
entire blade row stall at once. This type of
stall would be expected in airfoil or
cascade data.
If all the airfoils are identical, all the blades
would experience the stall incidence angle
and hence the complete row of blades
stall.
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Rotating Stall
Rotating stall is the most common type of
stall.
Rotating stall: progression around the
blade annulus of a stall pattern, in which
one or more adjacent blade passages are
instantaneously stalled, then are cleared
for unstalled flow as the stall cell
progresses.
Rotating stall causes alternate loading and
unloading of the blades: fatigue failure.

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Rotating Stall

Propagation of rotating stall

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Rotating Stall

Stall cells

Propagation of rotating stall cells

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Rotating Stall
Rotating stall often precedes surge.
The stall patterns move in a direction
opposite to that of the rotor revolution.
The stall frequency can be as high as
50% of the rotor frequency.

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Rotating Stall
Rotating stall may be initiated due to a
variety of reasons: off-design operation,
inflow distortion, blade stagger/profile
mismatch etc.
If allowed to propagate, rotating stall may
lead to surge of the compressor.
The number of stall cells can be as high as
9 or more or as low as one.
The number of stall cells is associated with
the type of stall.

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Rotating Stall
There are two types of stall: progressive and
abrupt.
Progressive stall has a gradual reduction in
total pressure ratio after initiation of stall.
Abrupt stall has a sharp discontinuity in the
pressure ratio characteristic.
Progressive stall usually has multiple stall cell,
whereas abrupt stall seems to always occur
with a single cell.
Some of the recent researchers have termed
progressive and abrupt stall as modal and
spike type of stall.

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Rotating Stall
Pressure rise

Pressure rise
Stall
Stall

Flow Flow

Progressive or modal stall Abrupt or spike stall

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Rotating Stall
Tip stall

Part-span
stall

Full-span
Pressure rise

stall

Deep stall

Flow
Variation of stall pattern during progressive stall
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Surge
Surge is a state of operation during which the
complete compression system is unstable.
Surge is characterised by fluctuations in the
average flow throughout the compressor.
The net flow through the compressor can be
positive or negative in this highly transient
state.
This differs from rotating stall wherein the
average flow through the compressor system
is constant with time.
During surge, the system is unable to attain
a stable match with a throttle.
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Surge
Surge line denotes the locus of unstable
operation of the compressor.
Surge is characterised by violent, periodic
oscillations in the flow.
Surge might lead to flame blow-out in the
combustion chamber.
Surge can lead to substantial damage to
compressors and must be avoided.
The operating line of the compressor is
therefore kept slightly away from the surge
line: surge margin.
22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Surge

P02
P01

m

23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Surge

Hysteresis

Overall performance of a single stage axial

compressor (Huppert, 1952)
24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

Surge

Steady state compressor Instantaneous velocity

characteristics (Grietzer, 1976) variation (Grietzer, 1976)

25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

In this lecture...

Instability in axial compressors

Rotating stall
Surge

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-12

In the next lecture...

Inlet distortion and its effect on

compressor stability
Control of instabilities

27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 13

1
 Lect-13

In this lecture...

Inlet distortion and its effect on

compressor stability
Control of instabilities

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Inlet distortion
Engine performance significantly depends
upon the quality.
Air inlets are required to provide the
necessary quantity of good quality air to
the engine.
The exit flow may become non-uniform
under a variety of circumstances:
manoeuvre, geometry of the intake,
boundary layer ingestion, wakes/jet plume
from freestream, cross-wind etc.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Inlet distortion
Intakes of civil and military combat aircraft
have very different geometries.
Combat aircraft intakes can have very complex
geometries leading to inherent problem of flow
non-uniformity.
Inflow non-uniformity or distortion is
detrimental to engine operation.
Several aircraft in the past, that were
operating with engines not designed for
distortion have had serious operational issues
including several engine failures.
Some of these are F100 (1954), F101 (1954),
Hunter (1955), Britannia (1956), F111 (1966)
etc.
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Inlet distortion

Transport aircraft intakes

Military aircraft intakes

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Types of inlet distortion

Inflow distortion here refers to the non-
uniformity in the inlet exit total pressure
distribution.
There are different types of inlet
distortion:
Static and dynamic distortion
Circumferential and radial
Combination of the above
The primary effect of inflow distortion on
the engine performance is on the
compressor operation.
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Inlet distortion
Inflow distortion can lead to earlier
initiation of instabilities: rotating stall and
surge.
Flow distortion causes local change in
incidence angles.
If these angles exceed the critical angles,
one or more adjacent blades falling in this
zone of distortion, stalls.
The stall cell(s) propagate if these are able
to withstand the system dynamics. Else,
they dissipate and the system does not
undergo any instabilities.
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Inlet distortion

Parallel compressor theory

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Distortion coefficient
Quantification of distortion: total pressure
non-uniformity
Most commonly used measure: distortion
coefficient.

P02 P02 min

DC =
1 / 2V2
Po 2 is the average outlet stagation pressure
P02 min is the average outlet stagnation pressure is
sector where stagnation pressure is minimum
1 / 2V2 is the inlet dynamic pressure
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Inlet distortion

Distortion coefficient definition

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Distortion coefficient

Based on the sector angle chosen, there

are different ways of defining distortion
coefficient.
The sector angle that is most commonly
used is 60o and therefore the distortion
coefficient is DC60.
Other angles like 45o and 90o are also
sometimes used.

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Effect of inlet distortion

Inflow distortion affects the surge margin
significantly.
The presence of inflow distortion can lead
to early initiation of instabilities.
If the inflow distortion is severe, it may
lead to surging of the engine.
Engine manufacturers attach a certain
distortion tolerance with each engine. This
indicates the extent of inflow distortion that
the particular engine can withstand without
the threat of surge.
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Effect of inlet distortion

Effect of circumferential distortion on

surge line (Hercock and William,1974)
13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Effect of inlet distortion

Static/steady inlet distortion is more
common form of distortion.
Considers spatial non-uniformity of time-
averaged total pressure.
Usually circumferential non-uniformity is
considered more severe as it significantly
affects the incidence angle.
Radial distortion is likely to occur due to
thickening of the boundary layer. A certain
amount of radial distortion will be present
due to the presence of boundary layer.
14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Effect of inlet distortion

Dynamic distortion involves unsteady flow
effects.
Distortion is time-variant and hence its effect
on the compressor performance is even more
severe.
Quantification of dynamic distortion is
challenging. There are no descriptors as such
for dynamic distortion.
It has been observed that surge is likely to
occur if the critical value of distortion
coefficient exceeded for a time period of the
order of that for one engine revolution-
typically about 5 ms.
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Effect of inlet distortion

Engine surge caused by dynamic distortion

(Hercock and William, 1974)
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Swirl
Many of the military aircraft have engines
that are offset from the intake centerline.
Such intakes referred to as S-type or Y-
type intake, inherently suffer from strong
secondary flows.
In the absence of guide vanes, the flow
entering the compressor is likely to have
some amount of swirl.
This swirl may get amplified under certain
operating conditions, leading to severe
inflow distortion.
17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Swirl

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Swirl

Structure of secondary flows in S-duct diffusers

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities
Compressor instabilities limit the operating
range of an engine.
Operating the compressor too much away
from the surge line compromises the
efficiency.
Ability to operate the compressor close to high
efficiency points (and possibly closer to the
surge line) is of immense interest.
This would require methods of preventing or
controlling the occurrence of instabilities.
The other way of preventing this altogether is
to control the inflow from the inlet by flow
control methodologies.
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities
There are several methods that have been
proposed by researchers over the past 50
years or so.
These can be broadly classified as Passive
and Active control techniques.
Passive control
Does not involve any external energy addition.
Control scheme incorporated by design changes
on the compressor blade and/or the compressor
casing.
Simpler to design and implement.
Disadvantage: cannot be controlled, may lead to
performance penalties when the control is not
required.
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities
Active control
Involves addition of energy external to
the system.
Separate control scheme and associated
components need to be designed and
integrated with the compressor system.
More complex, difficult to design and
implement.
Can be controlled, switched-off when
not required, minimal performance
penalties.
22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities
Passive control methods
Casing treatments
Proposed in late 40s
Involves making grooves/slots on the casing
above the rotor.
Affects the tip flow behaviour.
Delays stall and therefore offers better stall
margin.
However reduces the efficiency.
Area of active research to develop casing
treatments that improve stall margin without
efficiency penalty.

23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities

Casing treatment (Grietzer et. al, 1979)

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities
Passive control methods
Blade shape modifications
Sweep and dihedral
Non-radial blade stacking methods.
Depending upon the orientation, can
significantly alter the rotor tip flow
characteristics.
Envisaged to improve the stability
characteristics as well as the efficiency.
Currently under research and
development.
Other methods: tandem blading, vortex
generators, fins etc.
25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities

Sweep and dihedral

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities
Active control methods
Compressed air injection from casing
Energises the blade tip region, making the tip
flow more resistant to adverse pressure
gradients.
Use air from later stages of the compressor
for injection.
Expected to improve the stability margin and
possibly efficiency.
Variants of tip injection scheme: steady
injection, pulsed injection, injection at
varying angles (skew and pitch).

27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities

Tip injection schemes

28
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

Control of instabilities
Other active control methods
Variable IGVs
Bleed valves
Typically used during starting to
prevent stall due to front and rear
stage mismatch
Plasma actuators and synthetic jets
Are in premature state of research
Seem to show promise under certain
operating conditions.
29
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-13

In this lecture...

Inlet distortion and its effect on

compressor stability
Control of instabilities

30
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 14

1
 Lect 14

Transonic Compressors

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

Mach number in an axial compressor rotor

may transit from subsonic at the root to
supersonic at the tip of the blade

Alternately, the flow may transit from

subsonic to supersonic or from supersonic
to subsonic in passing through the blade
passage in chord wise direction

In axial passage the flow may transit from

supersonic in rotor to subsonic in stator, or
vice versa
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

V1 or C2
may be
supersonic
at tip or at
Normally a transonic many
compressor has either sections of
V1 or C2 supersonic the blade

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

1. Supersonic flow
enters the rotor.
2. Shock is
contained within
the rotor blade
and leaves the
rotor subsonically
3. Flow in the stator
is subsonic

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

1. Rotor performs a
large flow turning
subsonically
2. Very large energy
transfer in rotor
3. Rotor exit flow has
large K.E.
4. Large diffusion
needs to be done
in the stator
5. Thus, stator needs
to be supersonic

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

1. High stage
performance
2. Flow enter
both rotor
and stator
supersonically
3. And exit
subsonically
4. Both rotor
and stator
blades are
highly loaded

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

To utilize supersonic entry flow in a controlled

manner, new airfoils needed to be developed.
Airfoils with sharp leading edges were ruled out
due to requirements at off-design operations
Controlled supersonic diffusion followed by
subsonic diffusion, enable transonic compressors
to achieve higher compression ratios

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

Goes clearly supersonic on the blade surface

M = 0.9 Developed in
80s CFD

May go mildly supersonic on the blade surface

M = 0.8
Developed in
40s - NACA

Transits to subsonic later on the blade surface

M = 1.3 Developed in
60s 2 arcs

Transonic airfoils for axial compressor

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

CDA Blades :

Controlled Diffusion Airfoil (CDA) was conceptually

derived from supercritical airfoils, first used in
aircraft wings in the 60s. The CDA were created in
the 80s using the established CFD techniques.
Velocity or Cp distribution on the blade was
predetermined to arrive at a 2-D cascade for
smooth transition from subsonic-to- supersonic-to-
subsonic flow for the minimum loss and maximum
diffusion and optimized camber
CDA blades are also referred to as wide chord
blades. Longer chord allows the diffusion control.

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

DCA blades
Flow through a
transonic
blading would
diffuse through
the shocks
before further
diffusing and
exiting as
subsonic flow

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

Multiple
Circular Arc

M = 1.5

M = 1.8

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

Shocks in MCA blades

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

Flow through S-type

blades has minimal
camber but high
supersonic diffusion

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

Common features of the shock structures

Shock models allow designers to carry out detailed
performance prediction of axial compressors
The rounded L.E. creates a detached bow shock,
which stands in front of the row of blades
One leg of the bow shock bends inside and stands
across the blade passage, acting as the terminal
normal shock (passage shock). The other leg goes
outward approximately parallel to the face of the
blade row, and is considered an oblique shock .
The stand off distance is decided by the L.E radius
and the entry Mach number of the flow. The shape
of the bow shock is decided by the shape of the
profiles and the incident Mach number.

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

DCA Blades :

At low supersonic Mach number (<1.4) the flow

supersonically accelerates through a series of
expansion fans after the front oblique shock and
transits to subsonic through the passage shock.

According to the model used, the shock diffusion

and the supersonic expansion are approximately
equal to each other and the flow regains its original
entry Mach number in front of the normal shock.

Flow parameters to be estimated across the

passage shock using the normal shock theories

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

MCA Blades :
MCA blades are used for compressors /fans with
low solidity and higher Mach number (>1.4).
This shape was created for greater control of the
blade profile by using multiple arcs.
These blade shapes create a bow shock.
These MCA blades, used near the tips, are set at
high stagger, due to which the inflow experiences
a mildly converging (virtual) passage. The suction
surface of the blade is convexly curved resulting in
a series of mild shock fans.
The entry flow through the shock fans is, thus,
supersonically diffused till the passage shock ,
through which it finally becomes subsonic.

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

S-type Blades:

In S-type (MCA) blades the inflow Mach number

is higher (M>1.6) and the bow shock goes further
inside the passage and hits the next blade near its
trailing edge.

This results in a longer supersonic diffusion flow

through the passage in S-type blades. Most of the
diffusion is then conducted supersonically, and a
small amount of subsonic diffusion is done after
the passage shock

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

The rotor loses are

measured in relative
frame of reference and
thus relative total
pressure ratio gives a
measure of the losses
in the rotor.
Rotor or stage maps
(characteristics) of
transonic compressors
are much sharper and
are more sensitive to
inflow characteristics
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

When a designer tries

to maximize the
absolute total
pressure ratio by
increasing the total
temperature ratio,
the relative total
pressure ratio falls,
depending on the
design point
efficiency chosen
based on state of art
of design capability
available at hand.
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 14

Next Class :

Design of axial compressor : Flow tracks,

Inter spool ducts and Blade shapes.

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect-15

1
 Lect-15

Design of Axial Compressors

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Flow Track shapes in a multi-stage compressor

Constant Tip Diameter Flow Track
Typically used in
high pressure ratio
initial stages of a
multi-stage
compressor

Maintains High Utip and increasing Umean through the

stages
Caters to rapidly changing density through the stages
Uses the maximum size of the engine

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Constant Hub Diameter Flow Track

Typically used in
high pressure ratio
in the middle stages
of a multi-stage
compressor

Decreasing Umean through the stages

Caters to rapidly changing flow density
Reducing work done per stage
Avoid very small blade sizes in the end stages

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Constant Mean Diameter Flow Track

Holds Umean constant throughout the multi-stage

arrangement
Caters to medium size engines with single spool

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Constant Tip & Hub Diameter --Combination Flow Track

Umean changes throughout the multi-stage arrangement

Caters to large/medium size engines of multiple spool
Controls the work distribution and blade size through
flow track design
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Choice of Flow Tracks:

1)Actual flow track annular area is computed from

mass flow and continuity applied to the local
flow through the stages
2) Flow track needs to be smooth
3) Inter-spool duct flow track is estimated from
various engine design considerations
4) Substantial design and CFD analysis is required
to arrive at a correct flow track

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

180 A2 - A1 = * = 180 s cos 2 - cos 1

D
lc lc
180 c cos ( )
1 + - cos 1
D =
c
hc s

Generally
*
D = 6- 8
0 check on maximum flow track
angle

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Design Point Fixation

Functional relationship between various

compressor performance parameters may
be written down as :

PT
m T N
02
, 0C , 0
=f 01
,R e,
P01 T01 P01 T
01

Which are not actually dimensionless parameters.

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Stall
2

margin

N/T01

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Fixing of Initial Design Point Parameters

Distribution of specific work (Wth) and efficiency (i)

along the stages is the first step towards multi-stage.
Wth and i of the multi-stage compressor and the
individual compressor stages are arrived at from
engine cycle analysis as per following guidelines:
Initial Stages Middle stages Last stages
(Transonic) (Trans / Hi Subsonic) (Hi Subsonic)

0.86 0.92 0.88

1.4-1.8 1.2-1.4 1.05 -1.2
o
T0 C 40-75 30- 45 15-30

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Fixing of Initial Parameters

1) From mass flow balance between compr & turbine

From continuity, mC = mT, - between HPC & HPT
-- where
is the factor of change of mass flow.
2) From work balance,
mC = mT. H0T/ H0C, between LPC & LPT
3) Also, between Fan and HPC, mFan = B. mT-HPC
Where B is the bypass ratio
4) Rotating speed, NC = NT for both Fan + LP & HP spools
5) Power balance,WC = WT 0T 0C mech
13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Fixing of Initial Parameters

.
For a rotor Wth = (Cw1 - Cw2 ) U
Ca1 W th-i
Ca1 = = <1 Wth-i
= < 0.5 =
U 2
U
Actual work done on
W Ci =
(W . )
th1
the fluid
( gap .f )
Where, = work done factor,
gap = radial gap loss factor,
fan = fan loss factor.

W Ci = (1.01 - 1.03 )W th-i

4 14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Fixing of Initial Parameters

Work Done factor varies with the position of the stage

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Fixing of Initial Parameters

Generally for average stage work done first cut calculation
W
For subsonic stages.
W C,m = C-1

0.7 - 0.8
W
W C,m = C,1
For transonic stages
0.8 - 0.9

WC
number of stages Z=
WC,m

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Fixing of Initial Parameters

1. The work done, Wci , and the efficiencies for the

each stage is first decided upon. For correctness
of distribution, calculate pressure ratio of each
stage and check back that all the stages put
together give the design overall total pressure
ratio.
2. This leads us to density variation and annulus
area variation along the flow track - assuming
constant axial velocity. From aerodynamics point
of view, the annulus area must be smoothly
varied. Axial velocity may be then varied to
arrive at smooth flow track.

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

Next Lecture

Blade Design Methodology

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-15

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect - 16

1
 Lect - 16

Aerodynamic Design of Axial Compressor

---------------- Blade design Procedure

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

INDIVIUAL STAGE DESIGN METHOD

Ideal Work Required

Wth = (Cw1 Cw2) Um

Cw1 + Cw2 At Mean

Cwm =
2
Cwm .r = const For free vortex design

rm
Cw,1-r = Cw,1m .
r
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

INDIVIUAL STAGE DESIGN METHOD

C1-r = (C 2
a,1r +C 2
w,1r ) Absolute Vel

Cw.1r Ca,1r Absolute

1,r = sin -1
= cos -1
Angle
C1,r C1,r
r1
U1,r = U1,m . Blade Speed
rm
(U1,r - Cw,1r ) Relative
1,r = tan -1
Angle
C
a,1r
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

C1,a Relative Vel

V1,r =
cos
1,r

r2
U 2,r = U 2,m . If, dm = constant, U1,m=U2,m
r2,m

r2m Cw,rm
Cw,2r = Cw,2m . Check DR = 1 -
r 2.U.rm
Degree of Reaction, Rx should never be
zero anywhere on the rotor blade

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

INDIVIUAL STAGE DESIGN METHOD

Degree of
Reaction

100% reaction blade

50% reaction blade

11 6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

Ca,2r = Ca,m = const or assume a value for

AVDR = Ca1.1 /Ca2.2
V 2 < V 1 Generally accepted
1.0
V =V
2 1 Rarely Used

V 2
> V 1 transonic fan design possibility

2,r = tan
-1
Cw,2r
2,r = tan -1
(
U -C
2,r w,2r )
C Ca,2r
a,2r
= 2,r - 1,r
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

INDIVIUAL STAGE DESIGN METHOD

Ca,2r
V2,r =
cos
2,r
= 2,r - 1,r -> Flow Turning Angle

Provide angle of incidence, ir at design point

Usually, itip = -(1o to 2o) and

iroot =+(1o to 2o)
Need to choose solidity of the blade section
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

c/s = , solidity

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

Mu = U/a

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

INDIVIUAL STAGE DESIGN METHOD

= 1,r + i r
1,r

2,r = 2,r - r

(Carters deviation valid at design point)

At any radius
s
Deviation,

r
- 2,r
= 2,r = mr ..
c

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

Blade camber angle at any blade element

- i r
- 1,r
r = 2,r =
s
1+ mr
c
2
ai 90 - 2,r

Where, m = 0.23 2 * + 0.1
ci 50
a
ai
= 0.4 to 0.5
ci
c

17 12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

1.Degree of reaction vary along the radius

depending on the law of profile and its values
change from 0 to 0.2 at the root to 0.8 to 1 at
the tip.
2. There are certain other parameters that affect
the dynamics of flow. These geometrical
parameters are:-
Degree of divergence, D
Flow turning angle,
Blade solidity, c/s
These three are connected by
1 + -
180 c cos cos ( ) 1
D =
c
hc s
18 13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

19 14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

Transonic Compressor
Basic
Characteristics

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

3-D Blade Shapes

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 16

Follow similar step-by-step procedure for STATOR blade

design by building up airfoil sections from hub to tip to
match with the ROTOR blade design.
Stage design is completed after the rotor-matched stator
design is completed.

Modern Blade designers

have started using 3-D
airfoils which are set on
cylindrical coordinates,
even as they are radially
stacked.

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 17

1
 Lect 17

Axial Compressor Design

3-D Blade Shapes

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Standard axial compressor rotor blade design

is done with a vortex law as guiding principle
Such designs normally use airfoils picked from
cascade data available with the designers
Such designs normally produce twisted blade
Such blades normally have a flat tip
These designs often have strong secondary
flow characteristics , inspite of applying radial
equilibrium condition for blade design.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Design of Axial Fan

For driving the flow Initial Specifications:
mass flow rate (kg/sec) 8
Mean line design: In- N (rpm) 2400
1000
flow and out-flow P (Pa)
Tip Diameter (m)
0
0.496
parameters (Ca, Cw, , ) Hub Diameter (m) 0.25
at the mean diameter
Free Vortex design:
Radial variation of in-flow Deduced
Ca1(m/s)
Parameters
46.3
and out-flow parameters Ca2(m/s) 46.0
enables hub to tip design T (K) 0 0.93034
9.9733
= Cwm rm r
Power (KW) =
C w

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Design of Axial Flow Fan

Aerodynamic Parameters :
Station number 1 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 25 28 29 30 31
Radial distance 0.125 0.1291 0.1332 0.1373 0.1414 0.1537 0.1578 0.1619 0.1742 0.1783 0.1824 0.1865 0.1906 0.1947 0.1988 0.2029 0.207 0.2193 0.2234 0.2357 0.2398 0.2439 0.248
Diameter 0.25 0.2582 0.2664 0.2746 0.2828 0.3074 0.3156 0.3238 0.3484 0.3566 0.3648 0.373 0.3812 0.3894 0.3976 0.4058 0.414 0.4386 0.4468 0.4714 0.4796 0.4878 0.496
Annulus area (m )2
0.0491 0.0524 0.0557 0.0592 0.0628 0.0742 0.0782 0.0823 0.0953 0.0999 0.1045 0.1093 0.1141 0.1191 0.1242 0.1293 0.1346 0.1511 0.1568 0.1745 0.1807 0.1869 0.1932
Blade velocity (m/s) 31.4 32.4 33.5 34.5 35.5 38.6 39.7 40.7 43.8 44.8 45.8 46.9 47.9 48.9 50.0 51.0 52.0 55.1 56.1 59.2 60.3 61.3 62.3
1 34.2 35.0 35.9 36.7 37.5 39.9 40.6 41.3 43.4 44.1 44.7 45.4 46.0 46.6 47.2 47.8 48.4 50.0 50.5 52.0 52.5 53.0 53.4
2 1.3 3.8 6.2 8.5 10.7 16.8 18.7 20.5 25.5 27.1 28.5 29.9 31.3 32.6 33.8 35.0 36.2 39.4 40.4 43.1 44.0 44.8 45.6
1-2 32.9 31.3 29.7 28.2 26.8 23.0 21.9 20.8 17.9 17.0 16.2 15.4 14.7 14.0 13.4 12.7 12.2 10.6 10.1 8.9 8.5 8.1 7.8
Cw2 (m/s) 30.4 29.4 28.5 27.6 26.8 24.7 24.1 23.4 21.8 21.3 20.8 20.4 19.9 19.5 19.1 18.7 18.3 17.3 17.0 16.1 15.8 15.6 15.3
2 33.4 32.6 31.8 31.0 30.3 28.2 27.6 27.0 25.3 24.8 24.3 23.9 23.4 23.0 22.5 22.1 21.7 20.6 20.3 19.3 19.0 18.7 18.4
Degree of rection 0.5167 0.5469 0.5743 0.5994 0.6223 0.6803 0.6967 0.7119 0.7511 0.7624 0.7730 0.7829 0.7921 0.8008 0.8089 0.8166 0.8238 0.8430 0.8487 0.8641 0.8687 0.8731 0.8772
Specific Work 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99 934.99

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Designed Blade Geometry

Station number 1 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 25 28 29 30 31
chord 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
No. of blades 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
s, actual 0.0785 0.0811 0.0837 0.0863 0.0888 0.0966 0.0991 0.1017 0.1095 0.1120 0.1146 0.1172 0.1198 0.1223 0.1249 0.1275 0.1301 0.1378 0.1404 0.1481 0.1507 0.1532 0.1558
c/s, actual 1.0186 0.9862 0.9559 0.9273 0.9005 0.8284 0.8069 0.7864 0.7309 0.7141 0.6980 0.6827 0.6680 0.6539 0.6405 0.6275 0.6151 0.5806 0.5699 0.5402 0.5310 0.5220 0.5134
s/c, actual 0.9817 1.0139 1.0462 1.0784 1.1106 1.2072 1.2394 1.2716 1.3682 1.4004 1.4326 1.4648 1.4970 1.5292 1.5614 1.5936 1.6258 1.7224 1.7546 1.8512 1.8834 1.9156 1.9478
DF 0.4404 0.4447 0.4475 0.4492 0.4498 0.4466 0.4442 0.4413 0.4303 0.4260 0.4215 0.4168 0.4120 0.4070 0.4020 0.3969 0.3917 0.3762 0.3711 0.3558 0.3508 0.3459 0.3410
incidence, i 2.00 1.87 1.73 1.60 1.47 1.07 0.93 0.80 0.40 0.27 0.13 0.00 -0.13 -0.27 -0.40 -0.53 -0.67 -1.07 -1.20 -1.60 -1.73 -1.87 -2.00
m 0.3246 0.3196 0.3149 0.3102 0.3058 0.2935 0.2898 0.2861 0.2761 0.2731 0.2701 0.2673 0.2646 0.2620 0.2595 0.2571 0.2548 0.2484 0.2464 0.2409 0.2392 0.2376 0.2360
camber, 45.5 43.3 41.3 39.3 37.4 32.4 30.9 29.5 25.8 24.8 23.7 22.8 21.9 21.1 20.4 19.7 19.0 17.3 16.8 15.6 15.2 14.9 14.6
deviation, 14.6 14.0 13.3 12.7 12.1 10.5 10.0 9.5 8.3 8.0 7.7 7.4 7.1 6.8 6.6 6.4 6.2 5.6 5.5 5.1 5.0 4.9 4.8
corr deviation 17.6 17.0 16.3 15.7 15.1 13.5 13.0 12.5 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.4 10.1 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.2 8.6 8.5 8.1 8.0 7.9 7.8
final camber, 48.5 46.3 44.3 42.3 40.4 35.4 33.9 32.5 28.8 27.8 26.7 25.8 24.9 24.1 23.4 22.7 22.0 20.3 19.8 18.6 18.2 17.9 17.6
stagger 7.9 10.0 12.0 14.0 15.8 21.1 22.7 24.3 28.6 29.9 31.2 32.5 33.7 34.8 35.9 37.0 38.0 40.9 41.8 44.3 45.1 45.9 46.6
m (from plot) 0.138 0.145 0.15 0.152 0.158 0.174 0.178 0.182 0.195 0.2 0.205 0.209 0.213 0.217 0.22 0.224 0.229 0.239 0.242 0.251 0.253 0.257 0.259
camber, 35.8 34.4 33.1 31.6 30.4 27.1 26.1 25.2 22.7 21.9 21.3 20.7 20.1 19.5 19.0 18.5 18.1 17.0 16.7 15.9 15.7 15.5 15.4
deviation, 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5
corr deviation 7.9 8.0 8.1 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.5
final camber, 38.8 37.4 36.1 34.6 33.4 30.1 29.1 28.2 25.7 24.9 24.3 23.7 23.1 22.5 22.0 21.5 21.1 20.0 19.7 18.9 18.7 18.5 18.4
stagger 12.8 14.5 16.1 17.8 19.3 23.7 25.1 26.5 30.2 31.3 32.5 33.5 34.6 35.6 36.6 37.6 38.5 41.1 41.9 44.2 44.9 45.6 46.2

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Airfoils at various
radial stations are
arranged in a manner
such that the airfoils
are at constant radius
(from LE to TE).
The centroids of the
airfoils are in a radial
locus

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Flat Tip

Such designs normally

produce a flat airfoil tip
The entire L.E is linear
or in a smooth line
The blade T.E by design
is normally a smooth
non-linear line

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Casing
Smaller tip gap
Large tip gap at mid
chord section
Tip rounding
LE TE

Hub
A Flat tip creates a divergent-convergent tip gap (from LE to
TE) which is meridionally arranged as per tip-airfoil stagger

To ensure a constant tip gap along tip airfoil needs to be

arranged in a 3-D surface

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

3D Airfoil at tip section

During this tip

rounding all the
other airfoils along
the blade length may
be held in their flat
constant radius
meridional planes

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

3D Airfoils at all sections

Each of the airfoils at

various blade lengths
is set on a curved
meridional plane

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

3D Airfoil
Isometric View Top View

Axial View Circumferential View

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Cp distribution of a
standard airfoil shall
change when it is set
on a meridional plane
and in cylindrical
coordinate system
Restoration of the
original Cp
distribution shall
require the original
airfoil shape to be
altered

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Swept Blade Design

Direction of sweep

Radial stacking line

l

Trajectory of
sweep

12th airfoil Blade trailing edge

station
z
x Blade leading
edge

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Swept
blade
portion

LE TE

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Leaned Blade Design

Tip
Radially
stacked
airfoils

Straight
Original leaned
radial airfoils
stacking line
Lean
stacking line

Hub
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Leaned Blade Design

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Swept
Blades

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

A Fully Swept Blade Straight blade

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

3-D Blades are developed from 2-D airfoil

stacked blades by geometrical modelling
These blades are then subject to 3-D CFD
analysis under design operating conditions
Further modification of the blade shapes are
done after studying the CFD results
Further blade shape optimization may be
done for off-design operating conditions

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 17

Next Lecture

Compressor / Fan Noise

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect - 18

1
 Lect - 18

Noise problem in Axial

Compressors and Fans

2
Prof Bhaskar Roy, Prof A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Compressor or Fan noise coming out of the

front of the engine is a different kind of noise
than the jet noise from the rear of the engine.
It is mainly due to rotating blades cutting
through the air at high speed
Noise escalates air speed relative to the
rotating blades increases. This may due either
to higher rotating speed or to higher incoming
axial velocity
Modern transonic / supersonic compressors,
thus, make more noise than the old subsonic
compressors and fans

3
Prof Bhaskar Roy, Prof A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Fundamentals of acoustics:

1) All sound is due to fluctuation of pressure levels

and travel of this fluctuation
2) Sound is measured in decibels A,B & F scales
3) Sound pressure level (SPL) is defined as :
SPL = 20 log10(p/pref) dB
where p is the RMS pressure fluctuation and pref
is the reference RMS of pressure fluctuation , is
taken equal to 2x105 N/m2
4) Acoustic power is defined as Power Watt Level
PWL = 20 log10(W/Wref) dB
where W is the acoustic power in watt, and Wref
is the reference acoustic power = 10-12 watt .

4
Prof Bhaskar Roy, Prof A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Fundamentals of acoustics:

The pressure changes or fluctuations travel in

waves with certain frequency and amplitude.
Normally higher the frequency, lower is the
amplitude these are the high pitched noise of
low power
Conversely, high amplitude noise often has lower
frequencies these are bass sound and carry
high power
A particular source may carry a whole spectrum
of noise frequencies these are broadband noise

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Measure of Sound

1) The overall noise is often measured as overall

sound pressure level (OSPL) which is RMS
pressure level of the entire noise signal.
2) However, for more detailed understanding the
overall noise signal is broken down into its
spectral components mathematically
through Fourier Transform.
3) FT produces spectral density, for which the
bandwidth is 1 Hz.
4) Noise is measured from 10 Hz to 20kHz

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Measure of Sound

Noise is measure in many scales : A, B,C, D and F

scales.
Human perception of sound is restricted between
10 Hz and 12 kHz beyond which it is often called
ultra-sonic sound
The above scales have been artificially created
for various purposes to meet industrial noise
regulatory requirements
A scale has been created to correspond to
human hearing very low and very high frequency
noise are reduced artificially and noise from 400
Hz to 10 kHz are shown dominantly.

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Measure of Sound

A more evolved noise rating is the Perceived

Noise Level (PNL)
It is measured as perceived noise decibel (PNDB)
A further evolved version is used to judge the
annoyance created to any person at any time
which normally carried at least one strong tone.
The spectrum analysis shows the presence of the
dominant tone. A correction is added to account
for the presence of a tone.
This is measured as effective perceived noise
decibel (EPNDB)

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Pressure fluctuations are expressed as :

(derived)
cos f
p= . .A
4. .r a
Where, A is the amplitude of the oscillating
force, f is the frequency of oscillations, at a
distance r from the point of observation, and a
is the speed of sound.
This allows an approximate estimate of the
pressure fluctuations and may provide an
approximate estimate of the power associated
with it. Power is proportional to sixth power of
The blade speed.

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Noise meters
are designed
to measure
either in 1/3
octave spectra

Or

In Full Spectra

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

As long as the compressors

and fans were subsonic the
compressor & fan noise was
mainly from the blade
passing frequency , which
was clearly the most intense
noise source, approx. 10 dB
above the rest of the noises.

As the compressors went

transonic/supersonic shock
generated noise got mixed
up with BPF noise peaks

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Noise due to
interaction between
the rotor and the
stator may propagate
or decay

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Rotor stator
spacing plays an
important role in
noise generation.
Higher spacing
produces less
noise but also
reduces
compressor stage
efficiency and
increases engine
size and weight

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Flow Ingestion into Inlet of Aero Engine

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Stationary Blade noise is higher than In-flight

blade noise

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Noise created
during
different
operations
are different
in nature

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Noise Levels of various jet engine components

:

Jet noise 90 to 140 dB - sub/ supersonic jet

Fan/Compr 90 to 100 dB subsonic fans/ compressors

100 to 140 dB trans/supersonic fans/compr

Noise permitted by regulations : 80 to 95 dB

This calls for noise suppressing methods

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Acoustic Treatment attenuation of noise

A perforated metal sheet casing surrounded by

a honeycomb annular outer structure provides
very large attenuation
Depth of honeycomb structure determines the
frequency most attenuated
Porosity of the sheet metal determines the
frequencies over which the attenuation takes
place
The treatment works best for high frequency
noise
High amplitude noise is most difficult to
attenuate

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 18

Next Class

Axial Turbine Introduction

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 19

1
 Lect 19

Axial Turbine -----

Fundamental Aerothermodynamics

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Introduction
Gas Turbine engine derives its name from the turbine,
which is at the heart of the work producing
mechanism of the engine.

Principle
A fluid with large kinetic energy content is allowed to
hit a freely rotating set of blades, certain amount of
energy can be extracted from the passing fluid as shaft
power

3 3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Shaft energy from the turbine is used to run:

i) A compressor, or a fan , which raises the internal

energy content of the fluid before it goes into
the combustor, for hot thrust

ii) A Fan that produces cold propulsive thrust

iii) A propeller to create the propulsive thrust

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

A Multi-stage 2-spool axial turbine layout

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Elemental Turbine stage

Rotor + Stator
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Thermodynamic changes in Turbine in a GTE Cycle

03 is the
delivery
from C.C.

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Impulse turbines
High energy flow is accelerated in a stator and made
to impinge on the rotor with high momentum and
then made to take huge turn through the passage
between the blades. The work transfer is through
large angular momentum change through the blades.
Reaction turbines
The flow is accelerated through the rotor blade
passage which is an converging curved nozzle
passage; Jet effect creates a reaction force as per
Newtons 3rd law of motion. This work is in addition
to the work done by large turning.

8 8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Flow over the blade

surfaces

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Axial flow turbine

a1 2-D cascade
velocity diagram

Impulse turbines
V2=V3
reaction turbines
V3>V2
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

; Isentropic Efficiencies
T0T
Total-to-total 0T = /
efficiency, T0T
Static-to-static TT TT
efficiency,
= =
TT TStator + TRotor
T / / /

Total-to-static T0T T0T

efficiency, = =
TT TStator + TRotor
TS / / /

12 12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Total-to-total isentropic efficiency of

the rotor only

T0 -Rotor T02 -T03

0 -Rotor
= =
T0 -Rotor T02 -T03
/ /

Specific Work (per unit mass flow)

Done
HTh = U Cw +Cw
2 3

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

Next Class :

Detailed 2-D Turbine Aerodynamics

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 19

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 20

1
 Lect-20

In this lecture...

Axial flow turbine

Impulse and reaction turbine stages
Work and stage dynamics
Turbine blade cascade

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Axial flow turbines

Axial turbines like axial compressors

usually consists of one or more stages.
The flow is accelerated in a nozzle/stator
and then passes through a rotor.
In the rotor, the working fluid imparts its
momentum on to the rotor, that converts
the kinetic energy to power output.
Depending upon the power requirement,
this process is repeated in multiple stages.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Axial flow turbines

Due to motion of the rotor blades two
distinct velocity components: absolute and
relative velocities in the rotor.
This is very much the case in axial
compressors that was discussed earlier.
Since turbines operate with a favourable
pressure gradient, it is possible to have
much higher pressure drop per stage as
compared with compressors.
Therefore, a single turbine stage can drive
several stages of an axial compressor.
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Axial flow turbines

Turbines can be either axial, radial or mixed.
Axial turbines can handle large mass flow
rates and are more efficient.
Axial turbine have same frontal area as that
of the compressor.
They can also be used with a centrifugal
compressor.
Efficiency of turbines higher than that of
compressors.
Turbines are in general aerodynamically
easier to design.
5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Axial flow turbines

Nozzle/stator Rotor

Hot gas Exhaust

Disc

1 2 3

An axial turbine stage

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Velocity triangles
Elementary analysis of axial turbines too begins
with velocity triangles.
The analysis will be carried out at the mean height
of the blade, where the peripheral velocity or the
blade speed is, U.
The absolute component of velocity will be
denoted by, C and the relative component by, V.
The axial velocity (absolute) will be denoted by Ca
and the tangential components will be denoted by
subscript w (for eg, Cw or Vw)
denotes the angle between the absolute velocity
with the axial direction and the corresponding
angle for the relative velocity.
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Velocity triangles
C1 1
1
Stator/Nozzle

2
2 V2
C2 2

U
Rotor

3
V3 3 3
C3

U
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Types of axial turbines

There are two types of axial turbine
configurations: Impulse and reaction
Impulse turbine
Entire pressure drop takes place in the
nozzle.
Rotor blades simply deflect the flow and
hence have symmetrical shape.
Reaction turbine
Pressure drop shared by the rotor and the
stator
The amount of pressure drop shared is given
by the degree of reaction.
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Work and stage dynamics

Applying the angular momentum equation,
P=m (U2Cw 2 U3Cw3 )
In an axial turbine, U2 U3 = U.
Therefore, the work per unit mass is
wt = U(Cw 2 Cw3 ) or wt = cp (T01 T03 )
Let T0 = T01 T03 = T02 T03
The stage work ratio is,
T0 U(Cw 2 Cw3 )
=
T01 cp T01

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Work and stage dynamics

Turbine work per stage is limited by
Available pressure ratio
Allowable blade stresses and turning
Unlike compressors, boundary layers are
generally well behaved, except for local
pockets of separation
The turbine work ratio is also often defined
in the following way:
wt h0 Cw 2 Cw3
2
= 2 =
U U U
11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Impulse turbine stage

1 2 3

C3
Cw3 C2
3 U
C
Cw2
3 2 2
Vw3
V3 V2 3
V2 2 V3
Vw2
2 2
U
Ca
Stator/Nozzle Rotor
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Impulse turbine stage

In an impulse turbine, the rotor simply deflects
the flow. Therefore,
3 = 2 Vw3 = Vw 2
and Cw 2 Cw3 = 2Vw 2 = 2(Cw 2 U)
Ca
= 2U tan 1
U
Or, the turbine work ratio is
h0 Ca
2
= 2U tan 2 1
U U

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

50% Reaction turbine stage

1 2 3

C3
C2

U 2
V3
V2
C2
2
V2 3
U
V3

Stator/Nozzle Rotor

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Impulse turbine stage

In a 50% reaction turbine, the velocity triangles are

symmetrical. Therefore, for constant axial velocity,
Cw3 = (Ca tan 2 U)
And the turbine work ratio becomes
h0 Ca
2
= 2 tan 2 1
U U

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade
A cascade is a stationary array of blades.
Cascade is constructed for measurement of
performance similar to that used in axial
turbines.
Cascade usually has porous end-walls to
remove boundary layer for a two-dimensional
flow.
Radial variations in the velocity field can
therefore be excluded.
Cascade analysis relates the fluid turning
angles to blading geometry and measure
losses in the stagnation pressure.
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade
Turbine cascades are tested in wind tunnels
similar to what was discussed for compressors.
However, turbines operate in an accelerating
flow and therefore, the wind tunnel flow driver
needs to develop sufficient pressure to cause
this acceleration.
Turbine blades have much higher camber and
are set at a negative stagger unlike
compressor blades.
Cascade analysis provides the blade loading
from the surface static pressure distribution
and the total pressure loss across the cascade.

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade
From elementary analysis of the flow through
a cascade, we can determine the lift and drag
forces acting on the blades.
This analysis could be done using inviscid or
potential flow assumption or considering
viscous effects (in a simple manner).
Let us consider Vm as the mean velocity that
makes and angle m with the axial direction.
We shall determine the circulation developed
on the blade and subsequently the lift force.
In the inviscid analysis, lift is the only force.
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade

Inviscid flow through a turbine cascade

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade
Circulatio n, = S(Vw 2 Vw1 )
and lift, L = Vm = VmS(Vw 2 Vw1 )
Expressing lift in a non - dimensiona l form,
L VmS(Vw 2 Vw1 )
Lift coefficien t, CL = 1 =
2
V 2
m C 1
2
VmC
2

S
=2 (tan 2 tan 1 ) cos m
C

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade
Viscous effects manifest themselves in the
form to total pressure losses.
Wakes from the blade trailing edge lead to
non-uniform velocity leaving the blades.
In addition to lift, drag is another force that
will be considered in the analysis.
The component of drag actually contributes to
the effective lift.
We define total pressure loss coefficient as:
P01 P02
= 1
2
V2
2

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade

Viscous flow through a turbine cascade

23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade

Drag is given by, D = S cos m

The effective lift
L + S cos m = Vm + S cos m
Therefore, the lift coefficien t,
S
CL = 2 (tan 2 tan 1 ) cos m + CD tan m
C

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

Turbine Cascade
Based on the calculation of the lift and drag
coefficients, it is possible to determine the
blade efficiency.
Blade efficiency is defined as the ratio of ideal
static pressure drop to obtain a certain change
in KE to the actual static pressure drop to
produce the same change in KE.
CD
1 CL tan m
b = CD
1+ CL cot m
If we neglect the CDterm in the lift definition,
1
b =
2CD
1+
CL sin 2m
25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

In this lecture...

Axial flow turbine

Impulse and reaction turbine stages
Work and stage dynamics
Turbine blade cascade

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-20

In the next lecture...

Axial flow turbine

Degree of Reaction, Losses and
Efficiency

27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 21

1
 Lect-21

In this lecture...

Axial flow turbine

Degree of Reaction, Losses and
Efficiency

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Degree of reaction

Acceleration takes place in both rotor and

the stator.
Enthalpy drop in the rotor as well as the
stator.
Degree of reaction provides a measure of
the extent to which the rotor contributes to
the overall enthalpy drop in the stage.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Velocity triangles
C1 1
1
Stator/Nozzle

2
2 V2
C2 2

U
Rotor

3
V3 3 3
C3

U
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Degree of reaction
Static enthalpy drop in the rotor
Rx =
Stagnation enthalpy drop in the stage
h h3
= 2
h01 h03
Since, in a coordinate system fixed to the rotor, the
apparent stagnation enthalpy is constant,
V32 V22
h2 h3 =
2 2
If the axial velocity is the same upstream and downstream
of the rotor, this becomes,
h2 h3 = 1
2
(Vw2 3 Vw2 2 ) = 1
2
(Vw3 Vw 2 )(Vw3 + Vw 2 )
Also, sin ce h01 h03 = U(Cw 2 Cw3 )
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Degree of reaction

(Vw3 Vw 2 )(Vw3 + Vw 2 )
RX =
2U(Cw 2 Cw3 )
Since, (Vw3 Vw 2 ) = (Cw3 Cw 2 )
(Vw3 + Vw 2 )
Therefore, R X =
2U
We know that, Vw3 = Ca tan 3
and Vw 2 = Ca tan 2 U
Ca
so that R X = 1
2 1 U (tan 2 + tan 3 )

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Degree of reaction

It can be seen that for a special case of

symmetrical triangles, 2 = 3 , R X = 0.5.
When, Vw3 = Vw 2 , R X = 0 Im pulse turbine
For a given stator outlet angle, the impulse
turbine stage requires a much higher axial velocity
ratio than does the 50% reaction stage. In the
impulse turbine stage, all the flow velocities are
higher and that is one of the reason why its efficiency
is lower than that of a 50% reaction stage.

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Impulse turbine stage

1 2 3

C3
Cw3 C2
3 U
C
Cw2
3 2 2
Vw3
V3 V2 3
V2 2 V3
Vw2
2 2
U
Ca
Stator/Nozzle Rotor
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

50% Reaction turbine stage

1 2 3

C3
C2

U 2
V3
V2
C2
2
V2 3
U
V3

Stator/Nozzle Rotor

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Efficiency
We noted that the aerodynamic losses in
the turbine differ with the stage
configuration, or the degree of reaction.
Improved efficiency is associated with
higher reaction, which implies less work
per stage and therefore a higher number of
stages for a given overall pressure ratio.
The understanding of losses is important to
design, not only in the choice of the
configuration, but also on methods to
control these losses.
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Efficiency
There are two commonly used turbine
efficiency definitions.
Total-to-static efficiency
Total-to-total efficiency
The usage of the efficiency definition depends
upon the application.
In land-based power plants, the useful turbine
output is in the form of shaft power and
exhaust KE is a loss.
In this case the ideal turbine process would be
isentropic such that there is no exhaust KE.
11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Efficiency
P01
P1
T
01
P2
1
2 P03
03 P3
C 32
2s 2c p
03s 3

3s

Expansion process in a turbine stage

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Efficiency

The ideal turbine work with no exhaust KE would be

WT, ideal = cP (T01 T3s )
The total - to - static efficiency is defined as
T01 T03
ts =
T01 T3s
T01 T03 1 (T03 / T01 )
= =
[
T01 1 (P3 / P01 )( 1) /
] [
1 (P3 / P01 )( 1) / ]

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Efficiency
In many applications (turbojets), the exhaust KE is
not considered a loss as this is converted to thrust
in such machines.
The ideal turbine work in such cases would be
WT, ideal = cP (T01 T03s )
The total - to - total efficiency is defined as
T01 T03
ts =
T01 T03s
T01 T03 1 (T03 / T01 )
= =
[
T01 1 (P03 / P01 )( 1) /
] [
1 (P03 / P01 )( 1) / ]
14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Efficiency
We can compare the two definition s of efficiency by making
an approximation :
T03s T3s T03s T3 = C 32 / 2c p
ts
Therefore, tt =
1 C 32 [2c p (T01 T3s )]
We can see that, tt > ts

The efficiency definition s can also be related to the specific

work done in the following way :
P ( 1) / P ( 1) /
w t = tt c p T01 1 03 and w t = ts c p T01 1 3
P01 P01

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Efficiency

Influence of loading on the total-to-static efficiency

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Losses in a turbine
Nature of losses in an axial turbine
Viscous losses
3-D effects like tip leakage flows, secondary
flows etc.
Shock losses
Mixing losses
Estimating the losses crucial designing loss
control mechanisms.
However isolating these losses not easy and
often done through empirical correlations.
Total losses in a turbine is the sum of the
above losses.
17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Losses in a turbine
Viscous losses
Profile losses: on account of the profile or nature of
the airfoil cross-sections
Annulus losses: growth of boundary layer along the
axis
Endwall losses: boundary layer effects in the corner
(junction between the blade surface and the
casing/hub)
3-D effects:
Secondary flows: flow through curved blade passages
Tip leakage flows: flow from pressure surface to
suction surface at the blade tip
3-D effects are likely to be stronger in a turbine blade
as compared to compressor blade due to high camber
and flow turning
18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Losses in a turbine

Variation of profile loss with incidence

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

2-D Losses in a turbine

2-D losses are relevant only to axial flow
turbomachines.
These are mainly associated with blade
boundary layers, shock-boundary layer
interactions, separated flows and wakes.
The mixing of the wake downstream
produces additional losses called mixing
losses.
The maximum losses occur near the blade
surface and minimum loss occurs near the
edge of the boundary layer.
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

2-D Losses in a turbine

2-D losses can be classified as:

Profile loss due to boundary layer, including
laminar and/or turbulent separation.
Wake mixing losses
Shock losses
Trailing edge loss due to the blade.

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Total losses in a turbine

The overall losses in a turbine can be summarised
as:

= P + sh + s + L + E
Where, P : profile losses
sh : shock losses
s : secondary flow loss
L : tip leakage loss
E : Endwall losses

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Deviation
Flow at the exit of the rotor does not leave
at exactly the blade exit angle.
It has been found from experience that the
actual exit angle at the design pressure
ratio is well approximated by
2 = cos 1 (d / s)
This is true as long as the nozzle is not
choked.
Under choked condition, a supersonic
expansion may alter the flow direction at
the exit.
23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

2
s

Flow at the nozzle exit

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

Trailing edge shock

Reattachment shock

2
Flow

Flow at the nozzle exit in

the presence of shocks
25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

In this lecture...

Axial flow turbine

Degree of Reaction, Losses and
Efficiency

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-21

In the next lecture...

Axial flow turbine

Performance characteristics
Exit flow matching with nozzle

27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 22

1
 Lect-22

In this lecture...

Axial flow turbine

Performance characteristics
Axial turbine blades
Exit flow matching with nozzle

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

We have seen that for an axial compressor,
P02 , C = f(m
, P01 , T01 , , , R, , design, D)
In terms of non - dimensionl ess parameters,
P02 m RT01 D D 2
, C = f , , , , design
P01 P01D 2
RT01

For a given design, we can assume that and do not
affect the performance significan tly. Also, D and R
are fixed. Therefore the above reduces to
P02 m T01 N
, C = f ,
P01 P01 T
01
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

In a similar manner, we can define performance

characteristics for a turbine as well.
Therefore, for a given turbine operating with a given
fluid at a sufficient ly high Reynolds number,
P02 m T01 N
, C = f ,
P01 P T
01 01
Where, subscripts 01 and 02 denote the inlet and exit of
the turbine, respectively.

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

Choking mass flow

P02
P01
N / T01

m
T01
P01
5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

1.0
0.8
1.0
0.8 0.6
0.4
0.6
t 1.0 N / T01
0.8

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

P02 / P01
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

The efficiency plot shows that it is constant
over a wide range of rotational speeds and
pressure ratios.
This is because the accelerating nature of
the flow permits turbine blades to operate
with a wide range of incidence.
Maximum mass flow is limited by choking of
the turbine.
The mass flow characteristics tend to merge
into a single curve independent of speed,
for larger number of stages.
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

When the turbine operates close to its
design point (low incidence), the
performance curves can be reduced to a
single curve.
As the number of stages are increased,
there is a noticeable tendency for the
characteristic to become ellipsoidal.
With increase in the number of stages, the
choking mass flow also reduces.
Stodola (1945) formulated the ellipse law,
which has been used extensively by
designers.
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

Multistage
3-stage
P02
2-stage
P01 1-stage

m
T01
P01
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

The performance of turbines is limited by two
factors:
Compressibility
Stress
Inlet temperature
Compressibility limits the mass flow that can
pass through a turbine.
Stress limits the rotational speed.
It is also known that the performance also
strongly depends upon temperature.
Temperature in turn affects the stress.
Hence, in a design exercise, there must be a
compromise between the maximum
temperature and the maximum rotor speed.
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine performance

For a given pressure ratio and adiabatic
efficiency, the turbine work per unit mass is
proportional to the inlet stagnation
temperature.
Therefore typically a 1% increase in the turbine
inlet temperature can produce 2-3% increase in
the engine output.
Therefore there are elaborate methods used for
cooling the turbine nozzle and rotor blades.
Turbine blades with cooling can withstand
temperatures higher than that permissible by
the blade materials.
11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine blades

Blade shapes used in turbines are quite
different from that used in compressors.
The design of these blades depend upon the
passage Mach number, stress levels and
various other parameters.
The thickness distributions, suction surface
curvature and trailing edge shape are varied
for particular applications.
Turbine blades could be designed specifically
for subsonic, transonic or supersonic Mach
numbers.
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine blades

Profiles can be generally classified as:
Profiles derived from various agencies like
NACA, AGARD etc.
Profiles with circular arc and parabolic arc
camber.
Profiles derived graphically or empirically
from a specified pressure or Mach number
distribution.
Each industry has developed their own
proprietary profiles to meet their
requirements.
Recent trend towards custom-designed or
custom-tailored airfoils.
13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine blades

NACA basic turbine profiles

Profile for subsonic inlet and

supersonic outlet

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine blades

Typical steam turbine tip section airfoils

Profile for supersonic inlet and supersonic outlet

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine blades

1 P2 P1
C1 1
C12
2

SS
PS
SS PS

2 1
C 22
P2 2 P0
C2

Pressure distribution around a typical turbine blade

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine blades

Spacing between blades is a critical parameter
in turbomachine performance.
Closer spacing means lower loading per blade,
but more number of blades, increased weight
and frictional losses.
Larger spacing means higher blade loading and
lower weight, losses etc.
Optimum number of blades usually empirical.
2FW
Zwifel (1945) criterion : Z = FW :blade force; C : chord
V22 C
2FW S
This can be simplified as Z = = 2 cos 2
2
(tan 1 tan 2 )
V2 C
2
C
17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Axial turbine blades

There are several differences between the
flow through a turbine blade passage as
compared with a compressor:
Pressure drop in a turbine is much larger than
the pressure rise in a compressor.
The flow turning in a compressor: 20o-35o
whereas in a turbine: as high as 160o.
Turbine designer usually delays formation of
shocks (to minimize losses); in a compressor
shocks are one of the modes of deceleration.
Therefore transonic compressors usually have
lower efficiency than transonic turbines.
18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Exit flow matching

The operation of a turbine is affected by
components upstream (compressor) and
downstream (nozzle).
The compressor and turbine performance
characteristics form an important part of
this performance matching.
It was discussed earlier that turbines do not
exhibit any significant variation in non-
dimensional mass flow with speed.
However the turbine operating region is
severely affected by the nozzle.
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Exit flow matching

The nozzle exit area has a significant influence
on the off-design operation of a turbine and the
engine in general.
The operation of the nozzle under choked or
unchoked condition also influences the
matching.
The similarity between the flow characteristic of
a nozzle and a turbine is the fact that
thermodynamically, both are flow expanders.
The matching between the turbine and the
nozzle is identical to that between a free-
turbine / power-turbine and the main turbine.
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Exit flow matching

Once the nozzle is choked, the nozzle non-
dimensional flow will reach its maximum
value and will become independent of the
nozzle pressure ratio and therefore the
flight speed.
This results in the turbine operating point
getting fixed because of matching
requirement between turbine and nozzle.
Therefore, when the nozzle is choking, the
equilibrium running line will be uniquely
determined by the fixed turbine operating
point and will independent of flight speed.
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Exit flow matching

1 2 3
Turbine
Nozzle

Turbine
m
To m
To3 m
To Nozzle
Po Po3 Po

m
To 2
m
To 2 Po 2
Po 2

a P02/P03 c b a P03/P0
c b

Matching characteristics of turbine and nozzle

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

Exit flow matching

Most of the modern engines operate with
choked nozzle during majority of the
operation.
Only when the engine is operating with a
low thrust say, when preparing to land or
taxiing, the nozzle may be un-choked.
Therefore at low speeds too one must
ensure that the matching is maintained as
at low speeds, the operating line is closer to
the surge line.

23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

In this lecture...

Axial flow turbine

Performance characteristics
Axial turbine blades
Exit flow matching with nozzle

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-22

In the next lecture...

Tutorial on axial flow turbines

25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 23

1
 Lect-23

In this lecture...

Tutorial on axial flow turbines

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 1
A single stage gas turbine operates at its
design condition with an axial absolute flow at
entry and exit from the stage. The absolute
flow angle at the nozzle exit is 70 deg. At
stage entry, the total pressure and
temperature are 311 kPa and 850oC
respectively. The exhaust static pressure is
100 kPa, the total to static efficiency is 0.87
and mean blade speed is 500 m/s. Assuming
constant axial velocity through the stage,
determine (a) the specific work done (b) the
Mach number leaving the nozzle (c) the axial
velocity (d) total to total efficiency (e) stage
reaction.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 1
C1 1
1
Stator/Nozzle

2
2 V2
C2 2

U
Rotor

3
V3 3 3
C3

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 1
We know that total to static efficiency,
wt
ts =
[ ]
c p T01 1 (P3 / P01 )( 1) /
[
Specific work is, w t = ts c p T01 1 (P3 / P01 )( 1) / ]
[
= 0.87 1148 1123 1 (1 / 3.11)0.248 ]
= 276 kJ / kg

(b) At the nozzle exit, the

Mach number is
M2 = C 2 / RT2
From the velocity triangle, C w3 = 0, w t = UC w 2
C w 2 = w t / U = 276 10 3 / 500 = 552 m / s
5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 1
C 2 = C w 2 / sin 2 = 588 m / s
We know that T 2 = T01 12 C 22 / c p = 973 K
Hence, M2 = 588 / 1.33 287 973 = 0.97

(c) The axial velocity, C a = C 2 cos 2 = 200 m / s

(d) The total - to - total efficiency is related to the

total - to - static efficiency as :
1 1 C 32 1 200 2
= = = 1.0775
tt ts 2w t 0.87 2 276 10 3

tt = 0.93

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 1
P01
P1
T
01
P2
1
2 P03
03 P3
C 32
2s 2c p
03s 3

3s

Expansion process in a turbine stage

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 1

(e) Degree of reaction, R x = 1 12 (C a / U)(tan 3 tan 2 )

From the velocity triangle,
tan 3 = U / C a and tan 2 = tan 2 U / C a
R x = 1 12 (C a / U) tan 2
= 1 200 0.2745 / 1000
= 0.451

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 2
Combustion gases enter the first stage of a gas
turbine at a stagnation temperature and
pressure of 1200 K and 4.0 bar. The rotor blade
tip diameter is 0.75m, the blade height is 0.12
m and the shaft speed is 10,500 rpm. At the
mean radius the stage operates with a reaction
of 50%, a flow coefficient of 0.7 and a stage
loading coefficient of 2.5. Determine (a) the
relative and absolute flow angles for the stage; (b)
the velocity at nozzle exit; (c) the static
temperature and pressure at nozzle exit assuming a
nozzle efficiency of 0.96 and the mass flow.
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 2
1 2 3

C3
C2

U 2
V3
V2
C2
2
V2 3
U
V3

Stator/Nozzle Rotor
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 2

(a) The stage loading is given by

= h0 / U2 = (Vw3 + Vw 2 ) / U = (C a / U)(tan 3 + tan 2 )
Also, R x = (C a / U)(tan 3 tan 2 ) / 2
Simplifyin g the above equations,
tan 3 = ( / 2 + R) /(C a / U) and tan 2 = ( / 2 R) /(C a / U)
Substituti ng values of , (C a / U) = and R x
3 = 68.2 o and 2 = 46.98 o
For a 50% reaction stage, 2 = 3 = 68.2 o and 3 = 2 = 46.98 o

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 2
(b) At the mean radius, rm = (0.75 0.12) / 2 = 0.315m
the blade speed, Um = (10500 / 30) 0.315 = 346.36 m / s
The axial velocity, C a = Um = 242.45 m / s and
Therefore, velocity at the nozzle exit,
C 2 = C a / cos 2 = 242.45 / cos 68.2 = 652.86 m / s

(c) The static temperature at the nozzle exit,

T2 = T02 C 22 / 2c p = 1200 652.86 2 /(2 1160) = 1016.3 K

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 2

h01 h 2 1 T2 / T01
The nozzle efficiency, n = =
h01 h 2s 1 (P2 / P01 )( 1) /
1 T2 / T01
(P2 / P01 )( 1) / = 1 = 0.84052
n
P2 = 4 0.84052 4.0303 = 1.986 bar

The mass flow rate is m

= 2 A 2 C a = (P2 / RT2 )A 2 C a
= (1.986 105 / 287 1016.3) 0.2375 242.45 = 39.1 kg / s
m

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 3
A single stage axial flow turbine operates with
an inlet temperature of 1100 K and total
pressure of 3.4 bar. The total temperature drop
across the stage is 144 K and the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine is 0.9. The mean blade
speed is 298 m/s and the mass flow rate is
18.75 kg/s. The turbine operates with a
rotational speed of 12000 rpm. If the
convergent nozzle is operating under choked
condition determine (a) blade-loading coefficient
(b) pressure ratio of the stage and (c) flow
angles.

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 3
C1 1
1
Stator/Nozzle

2
2 V2
C2 2

U
Rotor

3
V3 3 3
C3

U
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 3
(a) The blade loading is defined as
c p T0 1148 144
= = = 1.8615
U2 298 2

(b) T02 = T01 = 1100 K

T03 = T01 T0 = 1100 144 = 956 K
T01 T03
The isentropic efficiency of a turbine, t =
T01 T03s
T0
=
[
T01 1 (P03 / P01 )( 1) / ]
/( 1)
P03 T0
or = 1 = 0.533
P01 T
t 01

The pressure ratio of the turbine is

P01
= 1.875 and P03 = 1.813 bar
P03
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 3
(c) Since the nozzle is choked, the exit Mach number is unity.
Therefore, C 2 = RT2
T02 +1
and = = 1.165
T2 2
The static temperature at the nozzle exit is T2 = 944.2 K.
The absolute velocity of the gases leaving the choked nozzle is
therefore, C 2 = 600.3 m / s.
The axial velocity C a = U = 298 0.95 = 283 m / s.
From the velocity triangles,
cos 2 = C a / C 2 = 283 / 600 = 0.4716 and 2 = 62 o

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 3
U 1
= tan 2 tan 2 =
Ca
1
tan 2 = tan 2 = 0.828 or 2 = 39.6 o

The turbine specific work, w t = c p To = UC a (tan 2 + tan 3 )
c p To 1148 144
or tan 3 = tan 2 = 1.8807 = 0.0793
UC a 298 283
or 3 = 4.54 o
U 1
= tan 3 tan 3 or tan 3 = + tan 3 = 1.132
Ca
and therefore, 3 = 48.54 o

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 4
A multi-stage axial turbine is to be designed
with impulse stages and is to operate with
an inlet pressure and temperature of 6 bar
and 900 K and outlet pressure of 1 bar. The
isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 85 %.
All the stages are to have a nozzle outlet
angle of 75o and equal inlet and outlet rotor
blade angles. Mean blade speed is 250 m/s
and the axial velocity is 150 m/s and is a
constant across the turbine. Estimate the
number for stages required for this turbine.
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Problem # 4
1 2 3

C3
Cw3 C2
3 U
C
Cw2
3 2 2
Vw3
V3 V2 3
V2 2 V3
Vw2
2 2
U
Ca
Stator/Nozzle Rotor
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 4
Since the overall pressure ratio is known,
( 1) /
T01 P
= 01 = 6 0.33 / 1.33
T0es P0e
T0es = 576.9 K
Hence, T0overall = t (T01 T0es ) = 0.85(900 576.9) = 274.6 K
From the velocity triangles, C 2 = C a / cos 2 = 150 / cos 75 = 579.5 m / s
T02 = T2 + C 22 / 2c p T2 = T02 C 22 / 2c p
Since, there is no change in stagnation temperature in the nozzle,
T2 = T01 C 22 / 2c p = 900 579.5 2 / 2 1148 = 753.7 K

Since this is an impulse turbine, the degree of reaction, R x = 0

h 2 h3
Rx = or h 2 = h3 T2 = T3 = 753.7 K
h01 h03
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Solution: Problem # 4
From the velocity triangles at rotor entry,
tan 2 = (C 2 sin 2 U) / C a = (579.5 sin 75 250) / 150 = 2.065
2 = 64.16 o
V2 = C a / cos 2 = 344.15 m / s
We can see that V2 = V3 = C 3 for cons tan t axial velocity.
Therefore, T03 = T2 + C 32 / 2c p = 753.7 + 344.14 2 / 2 1148
= 805.28 K
The temperature drop per stage is
T01 T03 = 900 805.28 = 94.7 K
The number of stages required for the turbine is
T0overall /(T01 T03 ) = 274.6 / 94.7 = 2.89 3 stages.
22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Exercise Problem # 1
An axial flow turbine operating with an
overall stagnation pressure of 8 to 1 has a
polytropic efficiency of 0.85. Determine the
total-to-total efficiency of the turbine. If the
exhaust Mach number of the turbine is 0.3,
determine the total-to-static efficiency. If, in
addition, the exhaust velocity of the turbine
is 160 m/s, determine the inlet total
temperature.

Ans: 88%, 86.17%, 1170.6 K

23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Exercise Problem # 2
The mean blade radii of the rotor of a mixed
flow turbine are 0.3 m at inlet and 0.1 m at
outlet. The rotor rotates at 20,000 rev/min and
the turbine is required to produce 430kW. The
flow velocity at nozzle exit is 700 m/s and the
flow direction is at 70 to the meridional plane.
Determine the absolute and relative flow angles
and the absolute exit velocity if the gas flow is 1
kg/s and the velocity of the through-flow is
constant through the rotor.

Ans: 2=70 deg, 2=7.02 deg, 3=18.4 deg,

3=50.37 deg
24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Exercise Problem # 3
An axial flow gas turbine stage develops 3.36MW at
a mass flow rate of 27.2 kg/s. At the stage entry
the stagnation pressure and temperature are 772
kPa and 727C, respectively. The static pressure at
exit from the nozzle is 482 kPa and the
corresponding absolute flow direction is 72 to the
axial direction. Assuming the axial velocity is
constant across the stage and the gas enters and
leaves the stage without any absolute swirl velocity,
determine (a) the nozzle exit velocity; (b) the blade
speed; (c) the total-to-static efficiency; (d) the
stage reaction.

Ans: 488m/s, 266.1 m/s, 0.83, 0.128

25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-23

Exercise Problem # 4
A single stage axial turbine has a mean radius
of 30 cm and a blade height at the stator inlet
of 6 cm. The gases enter the turbine stage at
1900 kPa and 1200 K and the absolute velocity
leaving the stator is 600 m/s and inclined at an
angle of 65 deg to the axial direction. The
relative angles at the inlet and outlet of the
rotor are 25 deg and 60 deg respectively. If the
stage efficiency is 0.88, calculate (a) the rotor
rotational speed, (b) stage pressure ratio (c)
flow coefficient (d) degree of reaction and (e)
the power delivered by the turbine.
Ans: 13550 rpm, 2.346, 0.6, 0.41, 34.6 MW

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 24

1
 Lect 24

Axial Flow Turbine

Multi-staging and Multi-spooling

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Multi-staging

Requirement for multi-staging of turbines comes

from the aggregate of shaft work that needs to be
produced .
Typically if turbine pressure ratio requirement is
more than 2.5 / 3.0 - multi-staging is required.
As compression ratio over the years have kept on
increasing, multi-staging has become inevitable in
all aero-engines.
Number of integer stages to be decided by the
state of art of turbine design

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Multi-spooling of Turbines

Multi-spooling of turbines is necessary if the

compressors have been split in more than one
spool
Multi-spooling is necessary in a turbo-prop
engine if the propeller is needed to be run
separately (with a gear box)
Most modern aero-engines are 2-spool engines
and there are few with 3-spool arrangements

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

A single spool engine with multi-staged turbine

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

C.C

Multi-stage HP + LP turbine layout: Military Engine

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

IP Turbines
HP Turbines LP Turbines

3-spool
Civil
aircraft
engine

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

h2 - h1
tan =
2S
S =S + S i= S.Z p+ S .Z
i

where Z is the number of stages, and Zp=2.Z-1

h1

tan =
h2 - h1
=
(
Si h2 - h1
=
)
h2 1 -
h2
2Z p ( SS
i + ) 2Z S 1+ S 2Z 1+ S
p i p
S i S i

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Flow through the blades is non-axial and

varies from the root to the tip

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Axial Flow track in modern multi-stage

turbines is often curved

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Multi-stage flow analysis

Flow track design decision comes from

continuous application of continuity condition
The track is diverging in axial direction
Flow paths through the blades are generally
in curved converging passages.
This, thus, requires application of 3-D flow
analysis to get accurate notion of the flow
Most modern turbines are analyzed using
3-D CFD analytical techniques

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Multi-staging of Turbine

Multi-stage HP + LP turbine layout; Civil Engine

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Compressor Turbine Matching

SINGLE SPOOL ENGINE

TWO-SPOOL TURBOJET
ENGINE

16 13
13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

TWO-SPOOL HIGH BYPASS TURBOFAN ENGINE

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

1. Single spool : power produced by turbine is

equal to the power into the compressor (for
matching).

Cp(T02-T01) = Cp-gas kH T03

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

2. Two spool arrangement

HP turbine work :
WHP/ m = Cpg.(T03 T034)
= Cpg.T03 (1- T034 / T03)
= Cpg.kHP.T03
: LP turbine
WLP/ m = Cp-gas.(T034 T04)
= Cp-gas.T034 (1- T04 / T034)
= Cp-gas.kLP.T03

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Turbine Spool Matching

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

THREE-SPOOL HIGH BYPASS TURBOFAN ENGINE

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Compressor-Turbine spool-by-spool
matching needs to be augmented
with various engine controls that
facilitates better matching and safer
operation at all operating conditions

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

Axial Turbine -----

3-D Flow theories for turbine blade design

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 24

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 25

1
 Lect 25

Axial Flow Turbines

3-D Flow theories

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

It is assumed that radial motion takes place in

the blade passage only
Cr << Ca ; Cr << Cw
The stream surface has a cylindrical shape

rm
simplified radial equilibrium equation is valid
1 dp = 1 .C2
dr r w
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

Following Three 3-D flow models in axial turbines

are often used for design and analysis

1) Free Vortex flow

2) Constant nozzle exit angle, 2

3) Arbitrary vortex case, Cw = rn

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

1) Free Vortex Flow model

Cw . r = constant, applied on the rotor flow

which normally entails a few assumptions :

At turbine rotor entry ,

dH02/dr = 0 ; Cw2.r = constant; Ca2 = const

Rotor specific work done :

H02 H03= U (Cw2+ Cw3)= (r2.Cw2- r3.Cw3)
= constant
With Cw3.r = constant, it follows Ca3 = const

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

Hence, for obtaining various parameters along

blade length following may be adopted:

1) All thermodynamic properties are constant in

the annulus
2) tan2 = (rm/r)2 tan 2m

3) tan2 =(rm/r)2 tan 2m -(r/rm)2.Um/Ca2

4) Cw3.r = constant, Ca3 = const= Ca2
5) tan3 = (rm/r)3 tan 3m
6) tan3 =(rm/r)3 tan 3m +(r/rm)3.Um/Ca3
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

Constant Nozzle exit angle model

This model has been utilized for the practical

purpose of creating stator-nozzle blades with
zero twist. When stator-nozzles are facing very
high inlet temperature elaborate cooling
mechanism is embedded inside the blades; to
facilitate efficient cooling of the blades, it is
thought that such blades may not be twisted at
all.

2 = constant

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

C a2
cot 2 = = const
Cw2
; dC a2 dCw2
C a2 = Cw2 .cot 2 which yields = .cot 2
dr dr
Now invoking the radial equilibrium equation in
energy eqn
2
dH dC a +C dC C
w+ w and, dH = 0
= Ca w dr
dr dr r dr
dCa dCw Cw 2
We get, Ca +Cw + =0
dr dr r

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

2
dCw2 dCw2 Cw2
Cw2 .cot 2 .
2
+ Cw2 . + =0
dr dr r
2
dCw2 Cw2
Cw2( 1 + cot 2 ) .
2
+ =0
dr r
dCw2 dr
= sin 2 .
2
dr r
which, on integratio n yields

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

sin 2
sin
2 rm 2
Cw2 .r = const ; and then C =C
w2m r
2
w2
sin
2
alternate l y, C a2 .r 2
= const
sin 2
rm 2
and then C =C
a2 a2m r
and finally in terms of absolute velocity ,
sin 2
rm 2
C =C
2 2m r

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

So, at the rotor inlet station one can say,

if 2 = constant
then,
C C C
w2 = a2 = 2 = r
C C C rm
w2m a2m 2m

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

Now,
There are three possibilities:

a) Constant H03 at the rotor outlet

b) Zero whirl velocity at the outlet, i.e. 3 = 0

c) Free Vortex continued at the outlet

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

a) Constant Total Enthalpy at the outlet

condition, if applied
U (Cw2+ Cw3)= H0
And, whirl component of the velocity at rotor
outlet is found from :
H 0 K
Cw 3 = Cw2 = Ca 2 tan 2
U r
H 0
where, K =
And, subsequently Ca3 may be also computed
Both of which are computed from root to tip,
using the variation shown in slide 10
13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

b) Zero rotor exit whirl velocity 3 = 0

this means, dH/dr = Ca3 .dCa3/dr
And ,
2
H03=H02 U Cw2= H02-U.Cw2m(rm /r)Sin

Which, produces the enthalpy distribution radially

at exit :
sin 2
2
dH 03 d rm
= U .Cw 2 m .
dr dr
r

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

c) Free Vortex continued at rotor exit

The exit axial velocity field may be expressed

as :
cos2
r
Ca23 = Ca23m + 2U mCw2m 1
rm

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

3) Arbitrary vortex case, Cw = rn

Depending on the value of n there are four

flow variation possibilities
i) n = -1 -- resolves to Free Vortex Model
ii) n= 0 ----- resolves to constant free vortex
iii) n= 1 ---- gives solid body rotation model
iv) n= -2 --- produces strong vortex flow

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

All these flow models are considered for

use in Turbine design and preliminary
analysis

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 25

Next Class -----

Problem Solving on
Turbine 3-D flow theories

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 26

1
 Lect 26

Tutorial - 4
Solved Problems
And
Exercise Problems
On
3-D flows in Axial Flow
Turbine

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Example 1.

Following data apply to a constant nozzle exit angle

(2) axial turbine design :
Temp. drop, T = 150 K; at hub U2h = 300 m/s ; at
tip U2t = 400 m/s ; 2 = 60 ; 3 = 0 ; and Radius
ratio given is, rh /rt = 0. 75

(a) Complete the design velocity diagrams at hub,

mean and tip of the stage
(b) Calculate the velocity components if the design
is free vortex for the turbine and compare the
values with (a)

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Solution 1 :
At the rotor inlet station we know,
sin 2
C C C r 2
w2 = a2 = 2 =
C C C r
w2m a2m 2m m
And, at the rotor exit
cos2
r 2
Ca 3 = Ca 3m + 2U mCw2m 1
2 2

r
m
and
rm /rt = 0.875, and rm /rh = 1.166

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Work done by the rotor is given by (for 3 = 0)

U (Cw2+ Cw3)= H0 = cp.T = Um.Cw2m

From which we can write Cw2m = 492 m/s

Ca2m = Cw2m cot 2 = 284 m/s = Ca3m

At the rotor hub inlet

sin 2
rm 2
Ca2h = C
a2m r = 318.8 m/s
sin 2
rm 2
C
w2h
=C
w2m r = 552.2 m/s

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

At the rotor tip inlet

sin 2
rm 2
Ca2t C
=
a2m r = 257 m/s

sin 2
rm 2
C
w2t
=C
w2m r = 447 m/s

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

At the rotor tip outlet

cos2
2
Ca 3 = C 2 + 2U C r
m w2 m r
1
a 3m
m

From which we can calculate the axial velocities,
Ca3t = 262 m/s
Ca3h = 306 m/s; Cw3 =is constant radially

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

(b) Free vortex stage design and comparison

For Free vortex design we have established in
the last lecture
Cw3.r = constant, Ca3 = const= Ca2
Constant Nozzle Free Vortex
Ca2h 318.8 284
Ca2m 284 284
Ca2t 257 284
Cw2h 552 574
Cw2m 492 492
Cw2m 447 430
Ca3h 306 284
Ca3m 284 284
Ca3t 262.6 284
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Example 2
It is proposed that for design of an axial flow
turbine two design methods are to be explored :

A) Cw2m = Cw2h = Cw2t

sin 2
r 2
B) Ca2t = Ca2h h and,
r
t
c) Cw2t/ Cw2h = rh /rt
Common design data prescribed are: Cam=200 m/s
; 2 = 60 ; 3 = 0 ; Rx = 0.5 ; and rh /rt = 0.8

Complete the velocity diagrams for all the cases.

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Solution 2 :

From the prescribed data :

One can calculate that: rm /rt =0.889; rt /rm =1.11

Cw2m = Ca2m x tan2 =346.5 m/s ; and Cw3m =0

For all the cases, Rx = 0.5 is prescribed at mean

Hence, from symmetrical blading concept
2m = 3m = 600 ; 3m = 2m = 00

Also, Um = Cw2m = 346.5 m/s and hence at any

radius, Uh = 308 m/s ; Ut = 385 m/s

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

For Case (A)

This is a fluid behaving like a solid body case for

which n = 0 in the equation Cw = rn

The axial speed is calculated from the axial velocity

expression derived from the energy equation for
the case n=0

1 2 tan ln
2 r
Ca 2 = Ca 2 m
2m r
m
All the angles across the rotor may be also calculated
from above

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Tabulated results of Case A

Ca2 Ca3 Cw2 Cw3 2 3 2 3

Hub 261.3 200 346.5 0 53 0 8.4 57

Mean 200 200 346.5 0 60 0 0 60

Tip 121.3 200 346.5 0 70.7 0 -17 62.5

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Case (B)
sin 2
r 2
C = C h
Prescribed condition is a2t a2h r
t
C C C
a2t = a2t = a2m
Which essentially means : C C C
a2h a2m 2h
sin 2
For constant nozzle angle: rm 2
C =C
a2 a2m r
sin 2
2 sin 2
rm rm 2
C =C C =C
w2 w2m r ; 2

2m r

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

At station 3, exit of the rotor,

3 = 0 ; Cw3 = 0

And the expression for axial velocity is

cos2
r 2
Ca 3 = Ca 3m + 2U mCw2m 1
2 2

r
m

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Tabulated results of Case B

Ca2 Ca3 Cw2 Cw3 2 3 2 3

Hub 218.5 216.7 378.5 0 60 0 17.9 54

Mean 200 200 346.5 0 60 0 0 60

Tip 185 183.3 320 0 60 0 -19.4 69

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

For Case (C)

Since Cw2t/ Cw2h = rh /rt this is Free Vortex law

Same may be applied at rotor outlet also :

Ca2 = const = Ca3 at mean radius

The results are summarized in the table :

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Tabulated results of Case C

Ca2 Ca3 Cw2 Cw3 2 3 2 3

Hub 200 200 389.7 0 62.8 0 22.25 57

Mean 200 200 346.5 0 60 0 0 60

Tip 200 200 311.8 0 57.3 0 -20.8 62.55

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

All Three cases compared : Design velocity diagrams

Stn Case Ca2 Ca3 Cw2 Cw3 2 3 2 3

Hub A 261.3 200 346.5 0 53 0 8.4 57

Hub B 218.5 216.7 378.5 0 60 0 17.9 54
Hub C 200 200 389.7 0 62.8 0 22.25 57

Mean A 200 200 346.5 0 60 0 0 60

Mean B 200 200 346.5 0 60 0 0 60
Mean C 200 200 346.5 0 60 0 0 60
Tip A 121.3 200 346.5 0 70.7 0 -17 62.5
Tip B 185 183.3 320 0 60 0 -19.4 69
Tip C 200 200 311.8 0 57.3 0 -20.8 62.55

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 26

Next Lecture -----

Turbine blade cooling

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 27

1
 Lect-27

In this lecture...

Turbine Blade Cooling

Blade cooling requirements
Fundamentals of heat transfer

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Turbine blade cooling

For a given pressure ratio and adiabatic
efficiency, the turbine work per unit mass is
proportional to the inlet stagnation
temperature.
Therefore, typically a 1% increase in the
turbine inlet temperature can cause 2-3%
increase in the engine output.
Therefore there are elaborate methods used for
cooling the turbine nozzle and rotor blades.
Turbine blades with cooling can withstand
temperatures higher than that permissible by
the blade materials.
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Turbine blade cooling

Thrust of a jet engine is a direct function of the
turbine inlet temperature.
Brayton cycle analysis, effect of maximum cycle
temperature on work output and efficiency.
Materials that are presently available cannot
withstand a temperature in excess of 1300 K.
However, the turbine inlet temperature can be
raised to temperatures higher than this by
employing blade cooling techniques.
Associated with the gain in performance is the
mechanical, aerodynamic and thermodynamic
complexities involved in design and analysis of
these cooling techniques.
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Turbine blade cooling

The environment in which the nozzles and
rotors operate are very extreme.
In addition to high temperatures, turbine
stages are also subjected to significant
variations in temperature.
The flow is unsteady and highly turbulent
resulting in random fluctuations in
temperatures.
The nozzle is subjected to the most severe
operating conditions.

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Turbine blade cooling

Because the relative Mach number that the
rotor experiences, it perceives lower
stagnation temperatures (about 200-300 K)
than the nozzle.
However the rotor experience far more
stresses due to the high rotational speeds.
The highest temperatures are felt primarily
by the first stage.
Cooling problems are less complicated in
later stages of the turbine.

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Turbine blade cooling

There are several modes of failure of a
turbine blade.
Oxidation/erosion/corrosion
Occurs due to chemical and particulate
attack from the hot gases.
Creep
Occurs as a result of prolonged
exposure to high temperatures.
Thermal fatigue
As a result of repeated cycling through
high thermal stresses.
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Turbine blade cooling

Combustion products
Stator Rotor

Average radial
temperature profile

Average temperature profile entering a turbine stage

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Turbine blade cooling involves application of
concepts of heat transfer.
Heat transfer is a well established area and
substantial knowledge base is available in
the form of books, journals and other forms
of literature.
We shall take a brief overview of the
concepts of heat transfer that are required
for understanding of the problems involved
in turbine blade cooling.

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction
Heat transfer between two bodies or two parts of
the same body through molecules which are more or
less stationary.
In liquids and gases, conduction results from
transport of energy by molecular motion near the
walls and in solids it takes place by a combination of
lattice vibration and electron transport.

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Conduction involves energy transfer at a
molecular level with no movement of
macroscopic portions of matter relative to one
another.
Convection
Involves mass movement of fluids
When temperature difference produces a
density difference leads to mass movement
Free convection
Caused by external devices like a pump, blower
etc. Forced convection

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Radiation
Energy transfer taking place through
electromagnetic waves
Radiation does not require a medium
For the temperatures that are encountered
in a turbine, conduction and convection are
the major modes of heat transfer.
Radiative heat transfer is usually negligible
and is normally not considered in turbine
heat transfer analysis.
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Heat transfer by conduction
The rate of heat transfer by conduction
can be written as (Fouriers conduction
law)
Q dT
= q = k
A dy
Where, Q / A is the rate of heat transfer per unit area of the
surface, and dT/dy is the temperature gradient.
k is the thermal conductivi ty defined as the amount of heat
conducted per unit time per unit area per unit negative
temperature gradient.

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

The generalized governing equation is a three dimensiona l
Poisson equation
k T
2T =
c p t
k
This is known as the Fourier equation. The parameter is
c p
called thermal diffusivit y and is a property of the conducting
material.

Simplified forms of this equation has been used extensively

over the years by several researchers.

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Heat transfer by convection
Unlike in a solid, heat transfer in a fluid
can take place through conduction as
well as convection.
In general, the temperature and velocity
fields are coupled and have strong
influence on each other.
In modern day turbines, velocity as well
as temperature gradients are high.
Forced convection is the dominant
phenomena in turbine flows.

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

In a typical turbine blade, the boundary layer
developing on the blade surface and the
freestream temperature are of interest.
The boundary layer that acts as a buffer
between the solid blade and the hot
freestream, offers resistance to heat transfer.
Heat transfer occurs in this viscous layer
between the blade and the fluid through both
conduction and convection.
The nature of the boundary layer (laminar or
turbulent) plays an important role in the heat
transfer process.
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Possibility of
shock-boundary
layer interaction

Unsteady wake
Stagnation point flow

Possibility of transition followed by

relaminarisation
Variation of heat transfer around a turbine blade
17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Due to close coupling between fluid
mechanics and heat transfer, each of the
regions around a blade require special
analysis valid for that region.
The overall heat transfer is related to the
temperature difference between the fluid
and the solid through the Newton's law of
cooling:
T
qw (x) = h(x)(Tr Tw ) = k
y w
where, qw (x) is the heat flux from the fluid to the wall,
h(x) is the heat transfer coefficien t.
18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

The heat transfer coefficient is non-
dimensionalised by the thermal conductivity
and characteristic length:
h(x)L L T
Nux = = Nux is the Nusselt number.
k Te Tw y w
In addition to Nusselt number there are other
important non-dimensional groups namely,
Reynolds number (Re), Prandtl number (PR),
Eckerts number (Ec), Grashof number (Gr)
Richardson number (Ri) and Stanton number
(St).
All these numbers play a significant role in a
transfer analysis depending upon the
application.
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Laminar boundary layer (forced

convection)
Consider an incompressible laminar flow over a flat
plate. We can write the transport equation for such a
case as :
(u) (v) 2
+ = 2
x y y
where, = u or , = / or k / c p and = (T Tw ) /(Te Tw )
The boundary conditions being :
y = 0, = v = 0 and y , = u = = 1

The transport equations for velocity and

temperature are similar and therefore the
coupling is obvious.
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27
Laminar boundary layer (forced
convection)
It can be shown that the heat transfer is
related to the Reynolds number and Prandtl
number through the Nusselt number.
1/ 2 1/3 Cf
Nux = 0.332(Re x ) (PR ) = (PR )1 / 3 Re x
2
Heat transfer is a function of (Rex)1/2 and
PR1/3 and Cf.
A thin boundary layer has a larger heat
transfer.
Therefore maximum heat transfer in a
turbine blade occurs near the stagnation
point and the leading edge.
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27
Turbulent boundary layer (forced
convection)
The heat transfer due to turbulent
fluctuations is written as:
T
qt = c p v' T' = c p t where, t is the eddy diffusivit y.
y
There is a close coupling between the
momentum transfer and heat transfer,
which in turn translates to coupling
between heat flux and shear stress.
We can therefore define the turbulent
Prandtl number as
t
PR t =
t
22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27
Turbulent boundary layer (forced
convection)
Hence the ratio of heat flux and momentum flux is given by
qt c p (T / y)
=
t PR t (u / y)
The total rate of heat transfer due to both molecular and
turbulent motions is
t T
q = qmolecular + qturbulent
= c p +
PR PR t y

There is a clear difference between PR and PRt.

The Prandtl number (PR) is a physical property of
the fluid, whereas the Turbulent Prandlt number
(PRt) is a property of the flowfield.
23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27
Turbulent boundary layer (forced
convection)

For a flat plate with a turbulent boundary layer, the following

equation is commonly used :
Nux = 0.029(Re x )4 / 5 PR 1 / 3
A general equation for both laminar and turbulent flow analysis
can be written as Nux = A Re m
x PR
n

where, A, m and n are constants for a particular flow. This is

called the Nusselt' s equation.

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Fundamentals of heat transfer

Based on our discussion on laminar and
turbulent flows:
Heat transfer is higher for a thin boundary
layer than a thick boundary layer as the
temperature gradient is higher for a thin
boundary layer.
Heat transfer for a turbulent boundary layer
is higher than a laminar boundary layer.
Heat transfer in thin viscous regions like
stagnation point or leading edge, is very
high. The velocity and temperature
gradients are extremely high in these zones.
25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

Turbine blade cooling

In order to decide the cooling methodology to
be used in a turbine blade, a very strong
understanding of the heat transfer mechanisms
are essential.
Turbine blade cooling requires significant
amount of compressor air (as high as 20%).
The cooling air also mixes with the turbine flow
leading to losses.
Due to the above, vigorous analysis is carried
out to minimize the amount of cooling as well
as the negative aerodynamic effects of cooling.
26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-27

In this lecture...

Turbine Blade Cooling

Blade cooling requirements
Fundamentals of heat transfer

27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 28

1
 Lect 28

Axial Flow Turbine

Blade Cooling Technologies

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Time history of Turbine blade cooling

1950 Uncooled blade Temp. 1000 to 1100 K

1960 - Internal 1 or 2 pass cooling, 1200-1400 K
1970 Distributed internal convection cooling
1300 1500 K
1980 - Film Cooling + Internal cooling 1600-
1800 K
1990 Film + Impingement cooling 1600-1900 K

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Temperature on turbine blade surface (felt by it)

2 Where,
T01 +T02 U mean
T0 -bl = - (1 - 2.DR) DR= Rx
2 2.c p-gas
Heat transfer coefficient = Where,
t time ;
Quantity of heat transferred T Temp
surface area x t x T between hot gas & surface difference

Nu f1 (Re).f2 (Pr), Where, Nu Nusselts No. ;

Pr Prandtl no.;
Re Reynolds no.
Nu = 0.0296.Re 0.8 .Pr 1/ 3
5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Heat Transfer
The heat transfer is mainly by surface convection,
conduction and then internally mainly by forced convection.
Radiation heat transfer is negligible.

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Internal
Cooling
air
Hot spot
Hot spot at LE passages
at TE

Large Temperature gradient along the chord

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

CFD
simulation

Internal
Cooling
air
passages
Blade
Fabrication
Distributed
Internal
Blade cooling

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Blade Temperature may vary along the blade

surface from LE to TE by 200 to 300 K
Blade temperature may also vary from the root
to the tip of a rotor
Maximum blade temperature is felt at the LE of
the first stator as the flow comes from C.C.
HP turbine blades have maximum temperature
and maximum temperature gradient across both
the rotor and the stator
Blades are thermally loaded in cycles of operation
Turbine failure occurs mostly in creep (thermal
fatigue)

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Turbine blade internal temperatures

captured : ref : ONERA, France

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Turbine Cooling
Lect 28

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Need for
high turbine
temperature
was reduced
due to high
compressor
pressure
ratio

Advanced
cooling has
extended
both TET and
Compr ratio

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Inside surfaces of the

holes are often ribbed to
promote turbulence and
higher flow through the
internal holes
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 28

Next Lecture ---

Design of Axial Turbine Blades

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect - 29

1
 Lect - 29

Axial Flow Turbine

Blade design - Profiles

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Axial Turbine Design Considerations :

1) Selection of design point from engine cycle

2) Selection of fundamental design parameters
0T ,gas , Dmax , Tg , Pa , Ta at design point

3) Compute : Stage Loading Coeff, = H0T/U2

Flow Coefficient, = Ca /Umean
Degree of Reaction, Rx
Blade Flow Turning,
Velocity Triangles, 1, 2 ,3 , 2 , 3
C1, C2, C3, V2, V3

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Selection of

1) Design requirements *
T , T*g-max, *exit, M*2
2) Design constraints : for both HPT & LPT

i) n1, n2, Um1, Dm1, Um2,Dm2

ii) Blade and Disk Stress levels
iii) Materials Technology
iv) Blade cooling Technology

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Airfoils for Gas Turbine

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Important
Aerodynamic
Parameters for
blade airfoil
selection

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Airfoil Geometry
Selection

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Airfoil pressure
distribution
applied as per
requirement to
deviate from a
starting profile

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Blade loading vs Blade Spacing

If the spacing between the blades is small, the

blades provide maximum guidance of the fluid ,
but the surface area goes up and the surface
friction loss (primary loss) goes up.

Zweifel criterion specifies: Zw=H0T/H0T-ideal 0.8

Which in terms of blade tangential loads ,
Zw = 2.s/c.cos22 (tan1 + tan2)
The above criterion allows the designed to arrive
at a minimum loss blade spacing.
However modern design exploration has proven
that the specification is valid for 60o< 2<700
14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

HPT turbines and LPT Turbines

HPT blades are short

and run at high rpms
LPT blades are long
and run at low rpms
HPT blades face high
temperature Because of vastly different
LPT blades work with loading patterns the airfoils
high velocity flows used for HPT and LPT are
often quite different from
each other

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Airfoils designs are generally done in cascade

format
A starting airfoil shape (T6 or T106) with
appropriate starting camber matching the flow
turning angle () is selected
The airfoil is suitably modified by interactive or
Direct method of numerical analysis
At the final stage when a acceptable blade
loading has been reached, Indirect method may
be used by specifying a Cp distribution over the
blade to arrive at a final airfoil shape in cascade

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Supersonic
Turbine airfoils

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 29

Next Class

Design of 3-D Turbine blade shapes

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect - 30

1
 Lect - 30

Axial Flow Turbine

3-D blade design

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

Design Steps : Design steps in brief are

Selection of parameters
Design at mean diameter, Dm
Radial variation of parameters
Profiling of stator and rotor blades

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

1. Design at Dm
a) Parameters to be selected from the preliminary cycle
(thermodynamic) calculations are: (@ flt velocity & altitude),
Tg, g , Pa , Ta at design point Pg , ,TP T
* * *

and the engine parameters

T = 0.88 0.90 for one stage
*

= 0.91 0.94 for each stage for multi-stage

b) Parameters selected from compressor-turbine matching are:
Exit Umean , Dmean , Dtip , d , , or M2
2
[ is a total temperature based critical speed ratio, =V/acr ]
and, acr= g RT0i
z
All these should lead to a work distribution,
r HT = H i
and number of stages Z. 1

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

2. Design at Dm
Matching : Peripheral velocity, u is selected from
turbine-compressor matching criteria. The outlet
velocity from the nozzle may be supersonic, but inlet
relative velocity to rotor is generally brought down
below sonic speeds. The respective sonic speeds are:

At nozzle exit a2 =RT 2

At rotor exit
a3 =RT 3

Total Temp based critical acr2 = g R.T02

speed at the nozzle exit

5 5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

Blade passage wall temperature at Dm

2 2
-1 2
( )
C 2 -V2
Twt = T - =T - C2 -V22
0t 2C R 0t 2 p
2
2 sin
V = C + U - 2UC
2
2
2
2
2

-1
Twt
T0t + 1
(
= 1 - . ..sin
2. u -2 2
2
u )
where
2-abs cos2 Twt 2-abs =C2 /acr
and = 2-rel =V2/acr
2-rel cos2 T0t u =U/acr

6 6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

Choice of velocity triangle for the rotor inlet is obtained

by the relation,

M
2-rel
=J
1 ( M 2 - M 2u ) , where

1 - sin 1
J1 = 1 +
M1 M1u
+
M1u M1
-1
2
= 1.2 to 1.4, is a flow coefficient

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

At the exit of the stage, Mach number can be expressed as,

M =J M
3 2 3-rel (
-M
3u )
Where, another flow coefficient J2 is used,
1 - sin 3
J2 = 1 + = 2.5 to 4.5
M 3-rel M 3u
+
M 3u M 3-rel
-1
2
T2
M 3u = M 2u .
T3

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

For moderate pressure drops ( <2.0) the flow in the rotor may
be entirely subsonic. However for high pressure drops ( >2.5),
the flow becomes transonic at the stator trailing edge.
Stator Exit flow conditions:
From continuity, for an unit length of the blade, at throat
t .Vt .st .1 = s.1.3 .V3 .sin3eff
s = blade spacing or pitch
st = O = Throat width, Subscript t for throat

'3 = blade exit angle

3 = flow exit angle
3 -eff = Mass - averaged effeective flow exit angle

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

Generally, because of diffusion

t .Vt > 3 .V3 Subscript t for throat

st
sin3-eff = Throat area ratio
s
The exact relationship between and st / s can be found
2
experimentally by accurate cascade analysis

st
3 = sin k 2 -1 Initially assume K2 = 1
s

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

a) Actual Rx ,

hrotor hrotor V 2 -V 2
Rx = = = 3 2
hrotor + hstator h 2h
T T

Degree of Reaction - ideal to actual change

DR 0 0.1 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.5

DRact 0.03 0.073 0.226 0.33 0.433 0.485

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

b) Distribution of work in a multi-stage turbine

z
HT = H i
1

c) Selection of flow track i.e. angle (local)

12 12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

d) Velocity triangle and other parameters.

H T -actual
i) HT = , where w rotor = 0.97 - 0.98
w rotor (Loss coefficient)
HT
ii) C 2w + C 3w =
U
C 2w - C 3w = 2U ( 1 - DR )

From which Cw are selected at mean diameter

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

iii) Select three probable values of 2 and for each one of

them calculate the velocity triangle parameters at
various radial stations
C 2w C 2a C2
C 2a = C=
where, =
2 = ,
tan2 cos2 2C
acr2
cr2 = 0.85 to 0.9
And ,
iv) Assume velocity coefficient , and calculate pressure loss
coefficient noz
2


noz = ; P02 = P01 .noz
( 2 )
14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

v) m g
A2 =
.C2 a
From which A2
Blade height h2bl =
Dm2
h2
passage
r= h2
bl
( 1+ )

the rotor tip r

radial gap
r = = 0.010 - 0.015
h1bl

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

vi)
( D m2 h2
bl
)-1
(D )+ 1
d=
m2 h2
bl

C 2w - U
vii) 2 = tan -1

C 2a
Find V2 and 2-rel

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

viii)C2a, C2, and V2, leads to and 3 . Calculate for blade

3, 3
geometry and check for 2 ,2 within limits mentioned.

also 1.0 1.1

2-rel

ix) Assume for rotor, calculate P 0

2-rel and calculate P03-rel
From empirical rotor loss correlations, e.g. those given here:
3-rel( ) P*
P3* = P3-rel
* ; ; P3 = P3* . ( 3) * =01
3 ( ) T P*
03

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

The stage efficiency is calculated from :

H Ti
Ti =

kg *
1
RgTgi 1 - k g -1
kg + 1 *

T
kg

The best efficiency consideration often determines the
selection of 2 from the three initial considered. In
some cases e.g. military a/c engine, best pressure ratio 0T
may be used for making the final decision on 2

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

Exit area A3 may now be found from various

aerothermodynamic parameters and using the
continuity condition.
2 For Dtip = const
D D A3
h3 = - - d = Dm - hbl
bl 2 4

d 2 A3 d For dhub = const

h = - -
3
bl 4 2 D = d + 2hbl

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

After these calculations divergence angle is checked

and if >15o , the blades angles are modified to
allow for more expansion.

Radial variation: either use 2 as constant from

hub to tip or use some vortex law e.g. constant
reaction law or the free vortex law

Profiling: same as in last lect use turbine specific

airfoils e.g. T6 (HPT) or T106 (LPT) airfoils

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect - 30

A modern turbine
blade obtained through
design, optimization
and stress calculations

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 31

1
 Lect-31

In this lecture...

Centrifugal compressors
Thermodynamics of centrifugal
compressors
Components of a centrifugal
compressor

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors
Centrifugal compressors were used in the
first jet engines developed independently
by Frank Whittle and Hans Ohain.
Centrifugal compressors still find use in
smaller gas turbine engines.
For larger engines, axial compressors
need lesser frontal area and are more
efficient.
Centrifugal compressors can develop
higher per stage pressure ratios.
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors
Besides small aero engines, centrifugal
compressors are used in the auxiliary
power units (APUs) in many aircraft.
Some of the aircraft air conditioning
systems employ centrifugal compressors.
In a few engines, centrifugal compressors
are used as the final stage of the
compression process downstream of a
multi-stage axial compressor. Eg. GE T
700, P&W PT6, Honeywell T53.

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors stage

Typical centrifugal compressor rotors

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors stage

3

2
1

Schematic of a typical centrifugal compressor

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors stage

Total losses
P02
Impeller losses P03
T
T02=T03 02 03 P3
C 32
02s 2c p
C 22
3 P2
2c p 03s
P01
T2
2 P1

T01 C12 01
2c p
T1
1

s
T-s diagram for a centrifugal compressor
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors stage

The torque applied on the fluid by the rotor
=m [(rC w )2 (rC w )1 ], where 1 and 2 denotes the
compressor inlet and outlet, respectively.
The total work per unit mass is therefore,
= [(rC w )2 (rC w )1 ]
w = / m
or, w = (UC w )2 (UC w )1 in which, U = r
From the steady flow energy equation,
C 22 C12
w = h02 h01 = h2 h1 +
2 2
C 22 C12
or, h 2 h1 = (UC w )2 (UC w )1 +
2 2
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors stage

b U2

U1
r2
r1

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors stage

The above equation gets transformed to,
U22 U12 V22 V12
h 2 h1 =

2 2 2 2
2r 2 dV 2
i.e., dh = d
2 2
Since, Tds = dh dP /
dP 2r 2 dV 2
= d Tds
2 2
dP 2r 2 V2
For an isentropic flow, = d d
2 2
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors stage

For axial compressors, dr0 and the above
equation reduces to dP / = d(V 2 / 2)
Thus in an axial compressor rotor, pressure
rise can be obtained only be decelerating
the flow.
In a centrifugal compressor, the term
d( 2r 2 / 2) > 0, means that pressure rise can
be obtained even without any change in
the relative velocity.
With no change in relative velocity, these
rotors are not liable to flow separation.
11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Centrifugal compressors stage

However most centrifugal compressors do

have deceleration and hence are liable to
boundary layer separation.
Centrifugal compressor rotor is not
essentially limited by separation the way
axial compressor is.
It is therefore possible to obtain higher per
stage pressure rise from a centrifugal
compressor as compared to axial flow
compressors.
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Conservation of Rothalpy
If we were to assume steady, viscous flow
without heat transfer
C12 C 22
h1 + U1C w1 = h 2 + U2 C w 2 = I
2 2
Here, I, is the rotational enthalpy or rothalpy.
It is now known that rothalpy is conserved for
the flow through the impeller.
Any change in rothalpy is due to the fluid
friction acting on the stationary shroud (if
considered in the analysis).

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Impeller
Impeller draws in the working fluid. It is
the rotating component of the centrifugal
compressor.
The diverging passages of the impeller
diffuses the flow to a lower relative
velocity and higher static pressure.
Impellers may be single-sided or double-
sided, shrouded or un-shrouded.
In the impeller, the working fluid also
experiences centripetal forces due to the
rotation.

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Impeller

In principle, there are three possibilities for

a centrifugal compressor rotor.
Straight radial
Forward leaning
Backward leaning
Forward leaning blades are not used due
inherent dynamic instability.
Straight and backward leaning blades are
commonly used in modern centrifugal
compressor rotors.
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Impeller
2 2

U2 U2 U2
V2 V2 V2
C2 2 C2 C2
2
Forward leaning blades Straight radial Backward leaning blades
(2 is negative) (2 is positive)
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Inducer

Inducer is the impeller entrance section

where the tangential motion of the fluid is
changed in the radial direction.
This may occur with a little or no
acceleration.
Inducer ensures that the flow enters the
impeller smoothly.
Without inducers, the rotor operation
would suffer from flow separation and high
noise.
17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Inducer
m m

rt
rm
rh
Inducer Ut Um Uh

t Ct
Vt
h
m
Leading edge velocity triangles
U1
1 C1
V1
Section m-m
18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

Inducer

It can be seen from the above that

Vt' = V1t cos 1t
Where, V ' denotes the relative velocity at the
inducer outlet.
It can be seen that V ' < V1 , which indicates
diffusion in the inducer.
Similarly, we can see that the relative
Mach number from the velocity triangle is,
M1rel = M1 / cos 1t
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

The diffuser
High impeller speed results in a high
absolute Mach number leaving the impeller.
This high velocity is reduced (with an
increase in pressure) in a diffuser.
Diffuser represents the fixed or stationary
part of the compressor.
The diffuser decelerates the flow exiting the
impeller and thus reduces the absolute
velocity of the working fluid.
The amount of deceleration depends upon
the efficiency of the diffusion process.
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

The diffuser

The fluid flows radially outwards from the

impeller, through a vaneless region and then
through a vaned diffuser.
Both vaned and the vaneless diffusers are
controlled by boundary layer behaviour.
Pipe and channel type diffusers are used in
aero engines due to their compatibility with
the combustors.

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

The diffuser

Diffuser vanes

Vaneless space
r3
r3>r2>r1
r2

r1
Impeller

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

The diffuser

Logarithmic spiral
Radial direction

Cr
C

CW

Streamlines in a radial diffuser

23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

The diffuser

Let us consider an incompressible flow in a vaneless region of

constant axial width.
From continuity , m
= (2 rh)Cr = constant.
From conservation of angular momentum,
rC w = constant
C w /Cr = constant = tan, where is the angle between the
velocity and the radial direction.
Thus, the velocity is inversely proportion al to radius. This means
that there is diffusion taking place in the vaneless space.

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

In the next lecture...

Centrifugal compressors
Coriolis acceleration
Slip factor
Performance characteristics
Stall and surge

25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-31

In this lecture...

Centrifugal compressors
Thermodynamics of centrifugal
compressors
Components of a centrifugal
compressor

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 32

1
 Lect-32

In this lecture...

Centrifugal compressors
Coriolis acceleration
Slip factor
Performance characteristics
Stall and surge

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Coriolis acceleration

We have discussed earlier that pressure

change due to the centrifugal force field is
not a cause of boundary layer separation.
This can also be explained by the Coriolis
forces that are present in centrifugal
compressor rotors.
Let us consider a fluid element travelling
radially outward in the passage of a rotor.
We shall examine the velocity triangles of
this fluid during a time period dt.
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Coriolis acceleration

dCw
dr Vd

dC V
C C
d
r

(r+dr)

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Coriolis acceleration

The magnitude of the relative velocity is

unchanged, but the particle has suffered
an absolute change of velocity.
dC w = dr + Vd
or, dC w = Vdt + Vdt,
Thus, the Coriolis acceleration , a = 2V
and it requires a pressure gradient in the tangential
1 P
direction of magnitude, = 2V
r

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Coriolis acceleration
The existence of the tangential pressure
gradient means that there will be a positive
gradient of V in the tangential direction.
1 dP
=
d V2 / 2
=
(
V dV )
rd rd r d
1 dV
Therefore, = 2
r d
This means that there will be a tangential
variation in relative velocity.
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Coriolis acceleration
Cw2

C2
V2
U2

Straight radial blades

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Slip factor
Towards the outlet of the impeller, as the
Coriolis pressure gradient disappears, there
will be a difference between Cw2 and U2.
This difference in the velocities is expressed
as slip factor, s = C w 2 / U2
The slip factor is approximately related to
the number of blades of the impeller.
For a straight radial blade, the slip factor is
empirically expressed as s 1 2 / N, where
N is the number of blades.
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Slip factor
As the number of blades increases, the slip
factor also increases and thus the slip lag at
the tip of the impeller reduces.
The effect of slip is to reduce the magnitude
of swirl velocity and therefore the pressure
ratio.
The presence of slip means that to deliver
the same pressure ratio, either the impeller
diameter or the rotational must be
increased.
This in turn may lead to either increase in
frictional losses or stresses on the impeller.
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics
The centrifugal compressor performance
characteristics can be derived in the
same way as an axial compressor.
Performance is evaluated based on the
dependence of pressure ratio and
efficiency on the mass flow at different
operating speeds.
Centrifugal compressors also suffer from
instability problems like surge and
rotating stall.

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics
The compressor outlet pressure, P02, and
the isentropic efficiency, C, depend upon
several physical variables
P02 , C = f(m
, P01 , T01 , , , R, , design, D)
In terms of non - dimensionl ess parameters,
P02 m RT01 D D 2
, C = f , , , , design
P01 P01D 2 RT
01
P02 m T01 N
The above reduces to , C = f ,
P01 P01 T
01
11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics

Usually, this is further processed in terms of the

standard day pressure and temperature.
P02 m N
, C = f ,
P01

T01 P01
Where, = and =
(T01 )Std. day (P01 )Std. day
(T01 )Std. day = 288.15 K and (P01 )Std. day = 101.325 kPa

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics

Surging limit
B
D
Constant speed line
Pressure ratio

A E

Choking limit

Mass flow C

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics

Surge line
P02 Locus of points of
P01 maximum efficiency

m

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics
There are two limits to the operation of
the compressor.
Operation between A and B are limited
due to occurrence of surge.
Surging: sudden drop in delivery pressure
and violent aerodynamic pulsations.
Operation on the positive slope of the
performance characteristics: unstable
Surging usually starts to occur in the
diffuser passages.

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics
The pressure ratio or the temperature rise in
a centrifugal compressor also depends upon
the blade shaping.
There are three possible types of blade
shapes: forward leaning, straight radial and
backward leaning.
Theoretically, the forward leaning blading
produces higher pressure ratio for a given
flow coefficient.
However such a blading has inherent dynamic
instability.
Therefore, straight radial or backward leaning
blades are popularly used.
17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Performance characteristics

P03 / P01 or,

T0 Forward leaning
2
U
( 1) 2 T01
a01 Straight radial

Backward leaning

or Cr 2

m U
2
Performance characteristics for different
blade geometries
18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Rotating stall
Rotating stall might also affect the
compressor performance.
In this case a stall cell (that might cover
one or more adjacent blades) rotates
within the annulus.
Full annulus rotating stall may eventually
lead to surge.
Rotating stall may also lead to
aerodynamically induced vibrations and
fatigue failure of the compressor
components.

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Rotating stall

Propagation of rotating stall

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Choking in a compressor stage

The other limiting aspect of centrifugal
compressors is choking.
As the mass flow increases, the pressure
decreases, density reduces.
After a certain point, no further increase in
mass flow will be possible.
The compressor is then said to have
choked.
The right hand side of the constant speed
lines together form the choking line.

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Choking in a compressor stage

Choking behaviour for rotating passages is
different from that of stationary passages.
Inlet:
Choking takes place when M=1
T 2
=
T0 +1
Assu min g an isentropic flow, the choking mass flow rate is
( + 1) / 2( 1)
m
2
= 0 a0
A + 1
Since 0, a0 refer to the inlet stagnation
conditions and are constant, the mass flow
rate is also a constant: choking mass flow.
22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Choking in a compressor stage

Impeller:
In rotating passages, the flow conditions
are referred through rothalpy, I.
During choking, it is the relative velocity, V,
that becomes equal to the speed of sound.
I = h + 12 (V 2 U2 ) T01 = T + (RT / 2c p ) (U2 / 2c p )
( + 1) / 2( 1)
T 2 U2 m
T
= 1 + and = 01a01
T01 + 1
2c p T01 A T01
( + 1) / 2( 1)
m
2 + ( 1)U2 / a01
2

or, = 01a01
A + 1
23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Choking in a compressor stage

In an impeller, the choking mass flow is a

function of the rotational speed.
Therefore, the compressor can, in
principle, handle a higher mass flow with
an increase in speed.
This also requires that no other
component like the inlet or the diffuser
undergoes choking at this new rotational
speed.

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

Choking in a compressor stage

Diffuser:
The choking mass flow in a diffuser has an
equation similar to that of an inlet:
( + 1) / 2( 1)
m
2
= 0 a0
A + 1
The stagnation conditions at the inlet of
diffuser depend upon the impeller exit
conditions.
It can be shown that the choking mass
flow is a function of the rotational speed
and therefore can be varied by changing
the rotational speed.
25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

In this lecture...

Centrifugal compressors
Coriolis acceleration
Slip factor
Performance characteristics
Stall and surge

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-32

In the next lecture...

Tutorial on centrifugal compressors

27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 33

1
 Lect-33

In this lecture...

Tutorial on centrifugal compressors

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 1
At the inlet of a centrifugal compressor
eye, the relative Mach number is to be
limited to 0.97. The hub-tip radius ratio of
the inducer is 0.4. The eye tip diameter is
20 cm. If the inlet velocity is axial,
determine, (a) the maximum mass flow
rate for a rotational speed of 29160 rpm,
(b) the blade angle at the inducer tip for
this mass flow. The inlet conditions can be
taken as 101.3 kPa and 288 K.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 1

U1
1 C1
rt V1
rm
rh

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 1
The rotational speed at the inducer tip is
U1 = dN / 60 = 0.2 29160 / 60 = 305.36m / s
From the velocity traingle, we can see that
V1 C12 + U12
M1rel = =
RT1 RT1
T1 = T01 C12 / 2c P = 288 C12 / 2010
C12 + U12
M1rel =
R(288 C12 / 2010)
C 2
+ 305 .63 2
0.97 2 = 1

115718.4 0.2C12
Simplifyin g, C1 = 114.62m / s
5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 1

T1 = T01 C12 / 2c P = 288 C12 / 2010 = 281.464K

/( 1)
P01 T01
=
P1 T1
Substituti ng, P1 = 93.48kPa
1 = P1 / RT1 = 1.157kg / m3
2
Annulus area at the inlet, A 1 = d (1 rh / rt )
4
A 1 = 0.0264m 2

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 1

Since the flow is axial,

C a1 = C1
m = 1 A 1C1 = 1.157 0.0264 114.62 = 3.5kg / s
The blade inlet angle at the tip is
tan 1 = C1 / U1
1 = 20.57 o

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 2

A centrifugal compressor has a pressure

ratio of 4:1 with an isentropic efficiency of
80% when running at 15000 rpm and
inducing air at 293 K. Curved vanes at the
inlet give the air a pre-whirl of 25o to the
axial direction at all radii. The tip diameter
of the eye of the impeller is 250 mm. The
absolute velocity at inlet is 150 m/s and
the impeller diameter is 600 mm.
Calculate the slip factor.

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 2

C1 25 V1

Cw1 U1

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 2
Exit stagnation temperature is
T02 = T01 ( c ) = 293(4)
( 1) / (1.4 1) / 1.4
= 435.56K
Therefore the isentropic temperature rise,
T0s = 435.56 293 = 142.56K
The actual temperature rise, T0 = T0s / c
T0 = 178.2K
Work done per unit mass is, w = c P T0
w = 1.005 178.2 = 179 kJ/kg

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 2

Peripheral velocity at the tip of the eye,

U1 = dN / 60 = 0.25 15000 / 60 = 196.25m / s
C w1 = C1 sin 25 = 63.4m / s
Peripheral velocity at the tip of the impeller,
U2 = DN / 60 = 0.60 15000 / 60 = 471.2m / s

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 2

We know that power input is, w = U2C w 2 U1C w1

179 10 3 = 471.24 C w 2 196.35 63.4
or, C w 2 = 406.27m / s
Therefore, the slip factor is,
s = C w 2 / U2 = 0.862

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 3
Air at a stagnation temperature of 22C enters
the impeller of a centrifugal compressor in the
axial direction. The rotor, which has 17 radial
vanes, rotates at 15,000 rpm. The stagnation
pressure ratio between diffuser outlet and
impeller inlet is 4.2 and total-to-total efficiency
is 83%. Determine the impeller tip radius.
Assume the air density at impeller outlet is
2kg/m3 and the axial width at entrance to the
diffuser is 11mm, determine the absolute Mach
number at that point. Assume that the slip factor
= 1 - 2/N, where N is the number of vanes.

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 3
The specific work required is
w c = U2 C w 2 U1C w1
Since C w1 = 0, w = U2 C w 2 = U22
Expres sin g U2 in terms of efficiency and pressure ratio,
c p T01 ( (c 1) / 1)
U22 =
c tt
= 1 2 / N = 1 2 / 17 = 0.8824
Substituti ng all other values, U2 = 452 m / s
Since, = 15000 2 / 60 = 1570 rad / s
Therefore, the impeller radius is
rt = U2 / = 0.288 m
14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 3
Mach number, M2 = C 2 / a2 = C 2 / RT2
where, C 2 = C w2 2 + Cr22
Cr 2 = m
/( 2 2rtb 2 ) = 2 /(2 2 0.288 0.011) = 50.3 m / s
C w 2 = U2 = 400 m / s
C2 = 50.3 2 + 400 2 = 402.5 m / s
We know that h02 = h01 + w c = h01 + U22
or, h2 = h01 + U22 12 C 22
or, T2 = T01 + (U22 12 C 22 ) / c p
= 394.5 K
Therefore, M2 = 402.5 / 1.4 287 394.5 = 1.01
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 4
A centrifugal compressor with backward leaning
blades develops a pressure ratio of 5:1 with an
isentropic efficiency of 83 percent. The
compressor runs at 15000 rpm. Inducers are
provided at the inlet of the compressor so that
air enters at an absolute velocity of 120 m/s.
The inlet stagnation temperature is 250 K and
the inlet air is given a pre-whirl 22o to the axial
direction at all radii. The mean diameter of the
eye of the impeller is 250 mm and the impeller
tip diameter is 600 mm. Determine the slip
factor and the relative Mach number at the
impeller tip.
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 4
U2
2 V2 Ca
C2
Inducer

U1
1
V1 C1

Fixed inlet
guide vane

Exit velocity triangle

Inlet velocity triangle

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 4
T01 = 300 K
T02s = T01 ( c )
( 1) /
= 250 (5)0.4 / 1.4 = 395.95 K
T0s = 395.95 300 = 95.95 K
Actual temperature rise, T0actual = T0s / c = 95.95 / 0.83
= 115.6 K
The specific work required, w c = c p T0actual = 1005 115.6
= 116.186 kJ / kg
Given that C1 = 150 m / s, C w1 = C1 sin 1 = 150 sin 22
= 56.2 m / s

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 4

U1 = dmN / 60 = 0.25 15000 / 60 = 196.3 m / s

and U2 = dtN / 60 = 0.6 15000 / 60 = 471.24 m / s
Since, w c = U2 C w 2 U1C w1
116.186 10 3 = 471.24 C w 2 196.3 56.2
C w 2 = 269.96 m / s
The slip factor, = C w 2 / U2 = 269.96 / 471.24 = 0.573

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Problem # 4
U2
2 V2 Ca
C2
Inducer

U1
1
V1 C1

Fixed inlet
guide vane

Exit velocity triangle

Inlet velocity triangle

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-33

Solution: Problem # 4
From the impeller exit velocity triangle,
V2 = C a2 + (U2 C w 2 )2 = (C1 cos 1 )2 + (U2 C w 2 )2
= 222.9 m / s
Mrel = V2 / RT2
T2 = T02 C 22 / 2c p
T02s T01
T02 = T01 + = 365.61K
c
and C 2 = C w2 2 + C a2 = 269.9 2 + 139.08 2 = 303.68 m / s
T2 = 365.61 303.68 2 / 2 1005 = 319.73 K
The relative Mach number at the impeller tip is
Mrel = 222.9 / (1.4 287 319.73) = 0.62
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 34

1
 Lect 34

Centrifugal Compressors

Design of Centrifugal Compressor

elements Impellers, Vanes etc.

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

a) Impeller
b) Diffuser
Vanes
c) Vaneless
diffuser
e) Inlet Guide
vanes
f) Volute

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Other Design Possibilities:

a) Double-sided impeller :
b) Multi-staged compressor

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Other
important
issues to be
designed

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

The velocity
Diagrams

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Slip factor
In a real compressor relative velocity vector V2 is at
angle 2 because of non-radial exit from the impeller tip
as the real viscous flow detaches near the tip from the
impeller vane (trailing) surface

Stanitz formula , 0.63. / N No dependence

s = 1 -
1 - 2 . tan
2* on backsweep
Cr2
Where 2 = & N= no. of blades
U2 0.63. 2 <-450 ; N>8
which, for a radial vane, s = 1-
N

( /N) cos2
Stodola Definition = 1 00 < 2 <-600
1 (Vr2/U2 ) tan2
/N) cos
Wisners definition = 1 ( 2 >-450 ; N>20
2

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Forward Small High High speed

Curved Volume Pressure High noise ,
Vanes ratio Low
Efficiency
Backward Large Low to High High
curved Volume and Pr Ratio Efficiency,
Vanes size Low Noise
Radial Vanes Medium Medium to Good
Volume and High Pr ratio Efficiency
Size
Radial Vaned CCs have been used in A/C engines for 50
years. Now, well designed backward curved vaned CCs
are increasingly being used for higher efficiency.

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

In highly
forward and
highly backward
curved
(2 >-600 )
impellers
slip factor
looses its
meaning

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

At the compr. entry face

Ca1 U1 = .reye where reye varies from
tan1 =
U1 the root to the tip of the eye

Thus for a high speed compressor (or large sized)

1 shall vary hugely from root to tip of the eye.
To be
Under off-design operations,
( - 1
ir = *
) decided by
at any radius, incidence, ir 1 r
designer

High positive incidence i ( +50) may precipitate

early flow separation inside the impeller vane
passage, even near the eye, specially if high
diffusion (i.e. high adverse pressure gradient) is
being attempted inside the impeller vanes.

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

At the exit plane of the impeller, the exiting

flow deviates from the trailing edge and lag
behind in rotational mode. This is often
referred to as the lag or deviation angle.
which is an average at the
-=
* passage exit, and 2* is the
av 2 2 impeller vane exit angle set
by design

Diffusion Limit :

An upper limit of realistic diffusion limit V2/V1 0.6

In rotating diffuser V2/V1 < 0.6
In Impeller design, 1 A1 / 2 A2 > 2.0

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Design of the vaneless space

Vaneless space
is often used to
decelerate
impeller exit
flow from
supersonic to
subsonic speed
A completely
vaneless diffuser
is lighter , has
broader mass
flow operating
range but has a
lower efficiency

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Reduction in deviation angle at the impeller exit

under off-design operating conditions is to be
designed in to the impeller and the vane designs.

Vaneless diffuser

Backward curved vanes +

splitter
13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

The general relationship for Compressor Pressure ratio is

given by


03 ( . U0c-.(
U -.C 2
) -1
0C =
p.
= 1 +
1). s
2
2 1 w1

p01 a 01
Theoretical energy density (Hth) transfer is highest with
forward curved vanes, in which most of the energy would be
available in kinetic form, Hdyn at the impeller exit.
While a radial impeller gives almost 50-50 split of static
(Hstatic ) and dynamic heads (Hdyn) at the impeller exit, the
backward curved vanes give high static pressure development
in the impeller.
Pre-swirl ( 1 > 0 ) reduces the work done by compressor
14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

The theoretically
obtained points to
the right of b are
considered
choked, i.e. the
compressor
cannot process
greater mass
flows. The
compressor is
said to go in to
stall at m a , this
happens when
high pressure rise
is attempted at
low mass flow With Mass Flow Control only
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

In aircraft engines,
rotating speed is
variable during
actual running.
Thus the zone of
operation is bounded
between the points
a,b,c and d .
The min lines and
the speed lines, nmax
and nmin, define the
boundaries (shaded
area) of operation.
With Speed Control and Flow Control
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

If more control variables are available it may

be possible to extend the zone of operation of
the compressor. All possible means of extending
these boundaries further are being explored.
Variable geometry (stagger) Inlet and exit
(diffuser) guide vanes to be explored

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Centrifugal Compressor characteristics with multiple controls

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Stall and Surge control

Surging tends to originate
in diffuser passages where
frictional effects of the vane
retard the flow.
Flow reversal may vary
from one blade passage to
the next.
The surging is reduced by
making the number of
diffuser vanes an odd
number mis-match of the
impeller vanes. In this way
pressure fluctuations are
more likely to be evened
out over the annular
vaneless circumference.
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Losses : Ideal and

Real Characteristics

Most of the losses

are still found by
rigorous rig test.
CFD gives good 1st
cut estimation of
loss analysis

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Efficiency, is borne out of loss analysis,

whereas work done factor , is borne out
of flow analysis as shown in the last slide.
A value of s is also arrived at by either
CFD analysis or a first cut value by simple
flow analysis.
The flow parameters need averaging both
at the compr. inlet (eye) along the vane
height as well as the impeller exit along
the depth of the vane.

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 34

Next Lecture

Radial Turbines

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 35

1
 Lect-35

In this lecture...

Radial flow turbines

Types of radial flow turbines
Thermodynamics and aerodynamics
Losses in radial flow turbines

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Radial turbines

Development of radial flow turbines dates

back to 1830s by Fourneyron, who
developed the radial outflow type turbine.
Later on Francis and Boyden developed
the radial inflow type turbine.
The inward-flow radial (IFR) turbine
covers tremendous ranges of power, rates
of mass flow and rotational speeds.
IFR turbines are used in a variety of
applications ranging from hydroelectric
power plants to small gas turbines.
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Radial turbines
There are two types of inward flow radial
turbines
Cantilever turbine
90o IFR turbine
Cantilever turbine
Similar to the impulse type turbine
Little change in relative velocity across the rotor
Aerodynamically very similar to the axial impulse
turbine
Can be designed in a similar manner as axial
turbines.

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Radial turbines

1
Nozzle blades
2
Rotor blades
3

Flow

C2 V3
V2 Ca3

U2 U3

Cantilever turbine arrangement and velocity triangles

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Radial turbines
90o IFR turbine
This turbine has a striking similarity with a
centrifugal compressor.
The flow direction and blade motion are
reversed.
The flow enters the turbine radially and exits the
turbine axially.
Straight radial blades are generally preferred as
curved blades would incur additional stresses.
The rotor or impeller ends with an exducer.
Usually the flow exiting the rotor passes through
a diffuser to recover KE, which would otherwise
be wasted.
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Radial turbines
Volute/Scroll
1 Nozzle blades

2 Rotor blades

3 4 Flow
Diffuser

C2 2 3 V 3
V2 Ca3

U2 U3

90o IFR turbine arrangement and velocity triangles

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

We shall consider a 90o IFR turbine.

Components include: nozzle, radial bladed
rotor and diffuser.
We shall assume complete adiabatic
expansion in the turbine.
Frictional processes cause the entropy to
increase in all the components.
There is no change in stagnation
enthalpy/temperature across the nozzle and
the diffuser.
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

T P01 P02
01 02 P1
T01=T02
1 P2
02rel
V22
U 22 2c p
2 2 P03 P04
T03=T04 03 P4
2
4 P3 C 3
2c p
3
3s
3ss

s
T-s diagram for an IFR turbine
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Radial turbines
Volute/Scroll
1 Nozzle blades

2 Rotor blades

3 4 Flow
Diffuser

C2 2 3 V 3
V2 Ca3

U2 U3

90o IFR turbine arrangement and velocity triangles

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

Nominal design
Defined by a relative flow of zero
incidence at the rotor inlet (V2=Cr2).
An absolute flow at the rotor exit that is
axial (C3=Ca3).
Therefore, with Cw3=0 and Cw2=U2, the
specific work for nominal design is
W=U22 .

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

T P01 P02
01 02 P1
T01=T02
1 P2
02rel
V22
U 22 2c p
2 2 P03 P04
T03=T04 03 P4
2
4 P3 C 3
03ss 2c p
3
3s
3ss

s
T-s diagram for an IFR turbine
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Thermodynamics of radial turbines

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Losses in radial turbines

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Losses in radial turbines

21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Losses in radial turbines

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Losses in radial turbines

In general, losses in a IFR turbine can be
classified as:
nozzle blade row boundary layers,
rotor passage boundary layers,
rotor blade tip clearance,
disc windage (on the back surface of the
rotor),
kinetic energy loss at exit.
The above sources of losses are of
significance for determining the optimum
design geometry.

23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Losses in radial turbines

Incidence losses
At off-design conditions, the fluid is likely to
enter the rotor at a relative flow angle different
from the optimum angle.
This leads to an additional loss component due
to incidence angles.
Often defined as equal to the kinetic energy
corresponding to the component of velocity
normal to the rotor vane at inlet.
There is an increase in entropy and hence a
corresponding loss in enthalpy due to incidence.

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

Losses in radial turbines

T P01 P02
01 02 P1
1: before
entry to 2 1 P2
V2 02rel
rotor V22
U 22 2c p
2 2 P03 P04
03 P4
2

2: after 4 P3 C 3

V2 2, opt 2c p
entry to
rotor 3
3s
3ss

s
T-s diagram for an IFR turbine
25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-35

In this lecture...

Radial flow turbines

Types of radial flow turbines
Thermodynamics and aerodynamics
Losses in radial flow turbines

26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 36

1
 Lect-36

In this lecture...

Tutorial on radial flow turbines

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Problem # 1
The rotor of an IFR turbine, which is
designed to operate at the nominal
condition, is 23.76 cm in diameter and
rotates at 38,140 rpm. At the design
point the absolute flow angle at rotor
entry is 72o. The rotor mean exit
diameter is one half of the rotor
diameter and the relative velocity at
rotor exit is twice the relative velocity at
rotor inlet. Determine the specific work
done.
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 1
Volute/Scroll
1 Nozzle blades

2 Rotor blades

3 4 Flow
Diffuser

C2 2 3 V 3
V2 Ca3

U2 U3

90o IFR turbine arrangement and velocity triangles

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 1

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 1
We can sum up the three terms and divide
by 2 to get the specific work as

W=225, 142 m2/s2

The fractional contributions of each of the

three terms to the work output is 0.375 for
U2, 0.158 for V2 and 0.467 for C2.

We can also calculate the specific work by

W=U22 =474.52 =225, 150 m2/s2

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Problem # 2
A radial inflow turbine develops 60 kW
power when running at 60,000 rpm. The
pressure ratio (P01/P3)of the turbine is
2.0. The inlet total temperature is 1200
K. The rotor has an inlet tip diameter of
12 cm and an exit tip diameter of 7.5 cm.
The hub-tip ratio at exit is 0.3. The mass
flow rate is 0.35 kg/s. The nozzle angle is
70o and the rotor exit blade angle is 40o.
If the nozzle loss coefficient is 0.07,
determine the total-to-static efficiency of
the turbine and the rotor loss coefficient.
7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 2
Volute/Scroll
1 Nozzle blades

2 Rotor blades

3 4 Flow
Diffuser

C2 2 3 V 3
V2 Ca3

U2 U3

90o IFR turbine arrangement and velocity triangles

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 2
The rotor tip rotational speed is
U2=D2N/60=377 m/s
From the velocity triangle at the rotor
inlet, 2=0, therefore,
sin 2 =U2/C2
C2=U2 cosec 2 = 401.185 m/s
T2=T02-(C22/2cp)=1130 K
To calculate the stagnation temperature
drop (isentropic) across the turbine, we
shall use the pressure ratio.
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 2

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 2

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 2

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Problem # 3
An IFR turbine with 12 vanes is required to
develop 230 kW at an inlet stagnation
temperature of 1050 K and a flow rate of 1
kg/s. Using the optimum efficiency design
method and assuming a total-to-static
efficiency of 0.81, determine (i) the
absolute and relative flow angles at rotor
inlet; (ii) the overall pressure ratio, P01/P3;
(iii) the rotor tip speed and the inlet
absolute Mach number.

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 3
For optimum design, we use the Whitfields
equation, cos22=1/N, where, N is the
number of vanes.

For 12 vanes, 2= 73.22o

As a consequence of the Whitfields

equation,

2=2(90- 2)=33.56o

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 3

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 3

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 3

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Problem # 4
Compare the specific power output of axial
and radial turbines in the following caseL
Axial turbine : 2=3=60o and 3=2=0o

Radial turbine: 2=60o and 3=3=2=0o

The rotational speed is the same in both the

cases.

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 4

U2=U3=U
2 3
C3 V2
C2
V3
Axial turbine

C2 2 3 V3
V2 Ca3

U2 U3
Radial turbine
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-36

Solution: Problem # 4
Axial flow turbine:
Since 2=3=60o and 3=2=0o
The specific work is
Waxial= U(Cw2+Cw3)=U2
Radial flow turbine:
2=60o and 3=3=2=0o
The specific work is
Wradial= U2Cw2-U3Cw3)= U2U2-U3x0
=U22
Therefore, the specific work done in both the
turbine configurations are the same, given the
conditions of operation.
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 37

1
 Lect 37

Radial Flow Turbines

Characteristics and Design

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Thermodynamic
parameters of
Radial Flow Turbine

(a)

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Aerodynamics of
Radial flow Turbine

4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Losses in
Radial
turbine
components

[Courtesy : NASA, USA]

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Radial Turbine
Characteristics

[Courtesy : NASA, USA]

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Design of Radial Inflow Turbines

Design of a radial turbine is often an exercise in
selecting a size and a shape that maximizes the
performance and minimize the losses
Selection of flow parameters e.g. flow angles 2
and 3 are made on the basis of earlier design
data bank or correlations.
Selection of rotor tip to rotor eye tip diameter
ratio, D2/ D3s , and rotor exit hub to tip diameter
ratio ,D3h/ D3s, need to be done judiciously
Flow coefficient, Ca3/U2 also needs a selection
All the above flow and geometric parameters
are selected by the designer.

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Selection of Design Parameters

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Design of Radial Inflow Turbines

1) It is assumed, to begin with, that the exit flow
at rotor exit is axial.
2) From the earlier characteristics plots one can
start with a D3h/ D3s 0.4 and D3s/ D2 0.7.
Such selections provide maximum efficiency of
about 87%. [refer slide 6]
3) Blade tip speed to spouting velocity ratio U2/Co
and the flow coefficient at the rotor exit Ca3/U2
is selected from available characteristics plots
as given in slide 10.

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Selection of number of vanes

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Design of Radial Inflow Turbines

4. Number of vanes are selected with the help of

some connected parameters e.g. nozzle exit flow
angle [slide 11]. The correlation 2 gives a more
realistic selection choice. Higher number of vanes
would result in large surface friction losses, and
lower efficiency. High nozzle exit flow angle
requires large flow turning and guidance and
hence asks for higher number of vanes

5. A size parameter, solidity, Z.L/D2 has been

used to create the design selection plot in slide
13. (L is the curvilinear length of the rotor vane)

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Design of Radial Inflow Turbines

6. Thus the design of the rotor or impeller of a
conventional radial turbine can be proceeded
with the help of a number of graphs and plots
that the first cut design.

7. This design would then be subject to CFD

analysis to finalize and fine tune the design for
best efficiency

8. Radial turbines are normally not cooled.

However, new cooling technologies may emerge
in future.

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Micro Gas Turbines

Cross-section of the demonstration micro gas turbine

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Compressor
Turbine

Turbine blade design. The

rotor spins anti clockwise.

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 37

Next class

Use of CFD in Turbomachines

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 38

1
 Lect-38

In this lecture...

Computational Fluid Dynamics for

turbomachinery
Introduction and overview
Grid generation
Boundary conditions

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a
powerful analytical tool.
Is a third approach for analysis besides
experimental approach and theoretical
approach.
CFD compliments theory and
experiments and is not primarily
intended to replace these.
CFD is currently a commonly used
research tool.
CFD is an essential component of the
design, analysis and optimization cycle.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

There are various levels of CFD analysis
Simple Euler (potential flow) solutions
2-D/axisymmetric Navier-Stokes solution
3-D Navier-Stokes solution
Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
and Unsteady RANS (URANS)
Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
CFD analysis could also be
Steady or unsteady
Incompressible or compressible
Laminar or turbulent
Internal or external flow
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

CFD involves solving the fundamental
governing equations of fluid flow:
Conservation of mass
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of energy
Equation of state
Species conservation (reacting
flows)

5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Steps in CFD solution
Setting up the domain
Discretisation of the domain in space
and time (for unsteady solution)
Defining boundary conditions
Solving the appropriate governing
equations for the domain on the
discretised points
Post-processing and analysis of the
converged solution.
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Turbomachinery: complex shear

flows
Shear layers on rotating surfaces
Shear layers developing on curved
surfaces
Separated flows: shock-boundary
layer interaction, corner separation
Swirling flows and vortices
Interacting boundary layers

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Challenges in turbomachinery CFD
Grid generation
Complex geometry
Rotating domain
Flow is 3-D, highly unsteady, rotating,
and turbulent
Capturing the losses and other
viscous effects
Turbulence modelling
Fluid-structure interactions
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Types of simulations
2D, quasi-3D, 3D
2D
Conceptual design phase
Long blades/vanes (LP turbines)
Reasonable results
Quasi-3D
Area of flow path changes
Extra source terms for
acceleration/deceleration or boundary
layer growth
9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Types of simulations
3D
True geometry required
Simulate secondary flows, shock locations
End wall boundary layers
Transient or stationery
Stationery simulations more common
Transient: flow unsteadiness, vortex
shedding, wake interaction with rotors
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Solver
Euler
3D NS
RANS, URANS
DES, DDES


LES

DNS
11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation
Grid/mesh
Structured, unstructured and hybrid grids
Structured grid
More suited for well-defined geometries
More difficult to generate
Easier to control near-wall clustering of cells
Unstructured grid
Primarily intended for complex geometries
Easier to generate
Not much control over the near-wall clustering of
cells
Easily automated
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation

Blocks

Structured grid with multiple blocks

13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation

Unstructured grid
14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation
Multi-block structured grid
In order to generate structured grid
over curved surfaces, multiple blocks
need to be defined.
Interface of the blocks need to be
carefully managed.
Grid topology needs to be
appropriately defined.
The Grid topology also needs to
account for the change in geometry of
the blade from hub to tip.
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation
Topology
Is a structure off blocks that acts as a
framework for placing mesh elements.
Blocks are laid out without gaps with
shared edges and corners.
Blocks contain same number of
elements along each side.
Is usually invariant from hub to tip.
Can be edited on 2-D layers from hub to
tip sections.
Number of blocks will dictate the
skewness of the grid elements.
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation
Grid topology schemes
O-grid:
Usually used around the blade by
forming a continuous loop around it
Yields excellent boundary layer
resolution
gives good control over the y+
values that needs to be tightly
monitored
Provides near orthogonal elements
on the blades
17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation

O-grid topology
18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation
J-grid:
Usually used near leading and trailing
edges
Wraps up in opposite directions at the
leading and trailing edges
H-grid:
Tends to complete the meshing by
adding some blocks in an unstructured
manner
The structured blocks extend from
upstream of the LE, downstream of
the TE and between the blades and
the periodic surfaces
19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation

J-grid topology H-grid topology

20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation
Other topology options include C-grid
and L-grid.
These are also often used at the
leading and trailing edges.
All the above grid topologies are used
along with an O-grid for proper
resolution of the boundary layer.
Proper resolution of the leading and
trailing edge radii are important.
Establishing grid-independence or
grid-insensitivity of the results is now
a standard practice.
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Grid Generation

L-grid topology C-grid topology

22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Boundary conditions
To capture the flow physics correctly, the
boundary conditions must be set
appropriately.
Quality of the solutions is a strong
function of the boundary conditions.
Turbomachinery flows
Inlet boundary
Exit boundary
Periodic boundary
Walls or surfaces
23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Boundary conditions

Typical flow domain with the boundaries

24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Boundary conditions
Inlet boundary conditions
Depends upon the application
Flow conditions (incompressible or
compressible)
Total pressure, total temperature,
velocity components/profile (most
commonly used)
There are other forms of specifying
the inlet boundary conditions: velocity
inlet, mass flow inlet etc.: not
commonly used due to several
limitations.
25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Boundary conditions
Exit boundary conditions
Exit static pressure to achieve the
required mass flow
It is also possible to specify a static
pressure distribution at the exit domain.
Alternatively, mass flow can be directly
specified at the exit.
For incompressible flows, using either of
the two does not affect the results.
However, for compressible flows, static
pressure outlet condition yields better
results.
26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Boundary conditions
For single passage simulations, periodic
boundary conditions are used for
simulating the effect of a blade row.
The domain must be appropriately
chosen to ensure that periodic boundary
conditions are indeed valid.
On surfaces (blade, hub and shroud),
no-slip and adiabatic conditions are
usually used.
In turbines with hot gases present, the
adiabatic condition may be replaced by
constant heat flux condition.
27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

Boundary conditions

Typical flow domain with the boundaries

28
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-38

In this lecture...

Computational Fluid Dynamics for

turbomachinery
Introduction and overview
Grid generation
Boundary conditions

29
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect- 39

1
 Lect-39

In this lecture...

Computational Fluid Dynamics for

turbomachinery
Turbulence modelling
Prediction of 3D flows: case studies
Computing requirement
Errors and uncertainties

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Turbulence models
Reynolds averaging of the Navier-Stokes
equation can be expressed as time, space
or ensemble.
The main idea of Reynolds averaging is to
decompose the mean and fluctuating
components: Reynolds decomposition.
However this introduces additional
variables for which there are no available
relations: closure problem.
Modelling this is a major challenge in CFD
even today.
3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Turbulence Models
Zero equation or algebraic eddy viscosity
model
Use an algebraic form for the turbulent
stresses
Valid for simple 2D shear flows
Mild pressure gradient
3D boundary layers with small cross
flows
Not accurate for flows with pressure or
turbulence driven secondary flows
Cannot predict shock-induced separated
flows
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Turbulence Models
One equation model: Spalart Allmaras
Employ an additional PDE for a
turbulence velocity scale
Usually used in design-iteration type
simulations
Popular in recent times due to
inherent problems with more refined
models
Very robust models, rarely produce
completely unphysical results
5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Turbulence Models
Two equation models:-,- models
One PDE for turbulence length scale and
one PDE for velocity scale
Good for 2D flows with moderate pressure
gradients
Not satisfactory for flows with rotation,
strong swirl, and separated flows
Modified two equation models: improved
results
Modified via ARSM
Coupled -/ARSM
Realizable -
6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Turbulence Models
Near wall treatment
On-design flows without large separated
regions, wall function model close to the
wall
Off-design, low Re model, over
production of turbulent KE must be
checked
Menters SST - and Durbins v2f
Works well for adverse pressure
gradients and separating flows

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Turbulence Models

Reynolds stress models

Use seven different PDEs for all the
components of the turbulence
stresses.
Reasonably better in cases where
two-equation models were not
satisfactory
More realistic physical simulation of
turbulent flows
8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Transition prediction

Natural and by-pass transition

Turbomachinery flows usually involve
by-pass transitions: wakes, vortices etc
Separate transition model may be
required
Common models: Abu-Ghannam and
Shaw (1980), Mayle (1991), Menter
(2003)

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Case studies

Types of shear flows

Tip leakage flow
Scraping vortex
Corner separation
Passage vortex
Secondary flows
Shock boundary layer interaction
Inflow distortion

10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Tip leakage flows

Several papers on simulation of tip leakage
flows
Steady computations reasonably good
Vortex fluctuations close to compressor stall
for eg. not predicted well.
Case: Hah et al. 2008
Full annulus flow simulation
LES of Darmstadt transonic rotor
25 million grid points
60 CPU hours on 124 CPU NASAs Columbia!
Results compared with experimental data
from TU Darmstadt
11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Tip leakage flows

Casing static pressure distribution and

particle traces near stall (Hah et al. (2008)
2008 ASME TURBO EXPO Conference, Berlin, Germany
12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Measured

Vortex fluctuations close to

stall (Hah et al. 2008)
Computed
13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Passage vortex

Strength of secondary flows, passage

vortices depend upon the blade
loading
Case: Hjarne et al. , 2007
Secondary flow studies on turbine
OGV cascade
Different turbulence models
Realizable -, SST - and RSM
Simulations compared with
experimental data
14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Passage vortex

Streamwise vorticity at downstream location

of 0.5C of the blade (Hjarne et al. 2007)
2007 ASME TURBO EXPO Conference, Montreal, Canada
15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Passage vortex

W-velocity at downstream location of

0.5C of the blade (Hjarne et al. , 2007)
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Transonic rotor: shocks, tip flow

unsteadiness

Tip flow
Significant effect on flow stability,
pressure rise, and efficiency
Self induced unsteadiness related to
spike initiated stall?
Role of shock wave in the flow physics
Experimentally capturing the tip flow
dynamics very challenging

17
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Transonic rotor: shocks, tip flow

unsteadiness

Case: Du et al. 2008

Studies on NASA rotor 67
Used Fluent with standard and realizable
-
Validation of total pressure ratio and
efficiency with experimental data
Effect of increasing tip clearance

2008 ASME TURBO EXPO Conference, Berlin, Germany

18
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Shock positions at two operating points (Du et al , 2008)

19
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Property variation transience during stalled operation

(Du et al , 2008)
20
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Relative total pressure distribution for

three tip clearances (Du et al , 2008)
21
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Secondary flows
Secondary flow losses: significant portion of the
total losses
Accurate prediction of secondary flow: reduction
in total losses
Literature on secondary flows: mostly cascades
Case 2: Yu (2004)
Turbine flow simulations using structured and
unstructured grids
In-house code (Penn State)
Secondary flow structures well captured
Validation with experimental data
Tran. ASME, Journal of turbomachinery, 2004
22
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Secondary flows

Secondary flow vectors downstream of a turbine

IGV (Yu, 2004)
23
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Secondary flows

Computed Experimental

Flow deviation angles downstream of a

turbine IGV (Yu, 2004)
24
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Aeroelasticity

Blade flutter, inflow distortion effect

on fan blades
Fluid structure coupling
Calls for real-time FEM-CFD interface
Grid interpolation between FEM and CFD
Grid deformation under aerodynamic
loads
Efficient transfer to data between FEM
and CFD
25
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Computing requirements

3D compute requirements (Pullan,

2008)
Steady computations
1 blade 0.5 1 M cells (1-2 CPU hours)
1 stage 1-2 M cells (3 CPU hours)
Unsteady computations
1 stage 50 100 M cells (20000 CPU
hours)
1 component (5 stages) 500 M cells (0.1 M
CPU hours)!
26
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Errors and uncertainties

Sources
Type of simulation Systematic
procedure for
Geometry errors
estimating these
Modeling errors errors like say the
Boundary ASME / AIAA
conditions standards for
Numerical errors experimental
Discretization uncertainty
Round-off analysis
Convergence
27
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

Some concluding remarks

Combine a simpler code like MISES
with a commercial package
Use MISES for preliminary blade design
optimization
Efficient grid generation tools
Hybrid turbulence models
Improved transition models
Acoustics and noise predictions
Real time aeroelastic computations
28
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-39

In this lecture...

Computational Fluid Dynamics for

turbomachinery
Turbulence modelling
Prediction of 3D flows: case studies
Computing requirement
Errors and uncertainties

29
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
Lect 40

1
 Lect 40

Fundamentals of CFD
for use in
Turbomachinery Analysis

2
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Physics of fluid mechanics are often captured in

Partial Differential Equations (PDEs), mostly 2nd
order PDEs.
Generally the governing equations are a set of
coupled, non-linear PDEs valid within an arbitrary
(or irregular) domain and are subject to various
initial and boundary conditions.
Purely analytical solutions of many fluid mechanic
equations are limited due to imposition of various
boundary conditions of typical fluid flow problems.
Experimental data are often used for validation
of CFD solutions. Together they are used for design
purposes.

3
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Linear and Non-linear PDEs

Linear :
u u
= -a where, a > 0
(1-d Wave Equation) t x
Non-Linear
u u (Inviscid Flow)
= -u
t x
Laplaces
2 2 where normally x and
Equation + = 0 y are independent
x 2
y 2 variables and is a
dependant variable
Poissons 2 2
equation + = f ( x, y )
x 2
y 2

4
4
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

2 2 2 2
A 2 +B +C 2 + D 2
x x .y x y

A,B,C,D,E,F,G are functions of x,y & +E + F + G =
0
y
Assume that f = f (x,y) is a solution of the above
differential equation.
This solution, typically is a surface in space, and
the solutions produce space curves called
characteristics.
2nd order derivatives along the characteristics are
often indeterminate and may be discontinuous
across the characteristics.
The 1st order derivatives are continuous.
5
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

A simpler version of the 2nd order equation may be

written as:
2
dy dy
A - B +C = 0
dx dx

Solution of this yields the equations of the

characteristics in the physical space :

2
dy B B - 4AC
dx =
2A

6
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

These characteristic curves can be real or imaginary

depending on the values of (B2 4AC).
A 2nd order PDE is classified according to the sign of
(B2 4AC) :
(a) (B2 4AC) < 0 Elliptic - M<1.0 Subsonic flow
(b) (B2 4AC) = 0 -- Parabolic M =1.0 Sonic flow
(c) (B2 4AC) > 0 -- Hyperbolic M>1.0 Supersonic
flow
PDEs Algebraic equations : Finite Difference Equations

Various Finite Difference Techniques

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

An Elliptic PDE has no real characteristics . A

disturbance is propagated instantly in all
directions within the region
The domain solution of an elliptic PDE is a
closed region. Providing the boundary condition
uniquely yields the solution within the domain
The solution domain for a parabolic PDE is
open region.
For Parabolic PDE one characteristic line exists
A hyperbolic PDE has two characteristic lines
A complete description of 2nd order hyperbolic
PDE requires two sets of initial conditions and
two sets of boundary conditions

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Initial and Boundary conditions (ICs and BCs)

ICs : A dependant variable is prescribed at some initial condn

BCs : A dependent variable or its derivative must satisfy on the
boundary of the domain of the PDE
1) Dirichlet BC : Dependent Variable prescribed at boundary
2) Neumann BC: Normal gradient of the D.V. is specified
3) Robin BC : A linear combination of Dirichlet & Neumann
4) Mixed BC : Some part of the boundary has Dirichlet BC and
some other part has Neumann BC

BCs Body Surface Far Field Symmetry In / Outflow

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Computational space

11 10
10
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Domain
Transformation

11
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Structured Grid generation

Orthogonal
Grid
Grid without
Orthogonality

12
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Unstructured Grid
generation

13 13
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Unstructured Grid generation

14
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

CFD in Blade Design

15
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Blade design system

Through Flow
Blade-to-Blade design

Blade Section Design

Blade-to-Blade Analysis
Blade section stacking

Three-Dimensional Flow
Analysis Full Blade Structural and
Aero-elastic analysis

Blade Construction

16
16
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Through Flow Program

Input : a) i) Annulus Information

ii) Blade row exit information
iii) Inlet profiles of Pr, Temp, a1
iv) Inlet Mass flow
v) Rotational speeds of rotors
vi) Blade geometry, Loss distributions
vii) Passage averaged perturbation
terms

Output : b) i) Blade row inlet and exit conditions

ii) Streamline definition and streamtube
height

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Blade-to-blade Flow Program

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Blade-to-blade Flow Program

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Blade-to-Blade program
Input : Blade geometry
Inlet and Exit Velocity
distribution
Streamline Definition
Output : Surface velocity distribution
Profile and loss distribution
Section Stacking Program

Input : Blade section geometry

Stacking points and stacking line
Axial and Tangential leans (sweep
and Dihedral)
Output : Three-Dimensional blade geometry
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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Blade-to-Blade program
2D MISES code for
Cascade Analysis

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

2D MISES code for Cascade Analysis Cp contour

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Three-Dimensional
Flow Analysis

Solution of :
1) Continuity Equation
2) Momentum equation
3) Energy Equation
4) Radial Equilibrium
Equation

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Final Output : Compressor Rotor Characteristics

2000
P0 vs mass flow

1800 Speed
Lines
P1600
0 (Pa) 90%
100%

80%
1400

1200

1000
Mass Flow rate kg/s
1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect 40

Thank you
for
participating in this
NPTEL course

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Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay