Lecture Two

Solar Energy

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 The Sun at 5800K and a hot
campfire at perhaps 800 K
give off radiation at a rate
proportional to the 4th
power of the temperature.

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 Even over the vast distance, an enormous amount
of energy reaches Earth from the sun.

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 Solar irradiance and Insolation/Irradiation

Solar Irradiance is solar power per unit

area. Solar Irradiance is a measure of how
much solar power you are getting at your
location. This irradiance varies throughout
the year depending on the seasons. It also
varies throughout the day, depending on the
position of the sun in the sky, and the
weather.
Solar Insolation/Irradiation is a
measure of solar irradiance over of period of
time - typically over the period of a single
day.
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 World Solar Insolation Values

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 The inverse square law states that irradiance is
reduced in proportion to the inverse square of the
distance from the source.

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 Solar irradiation equals the total solar irradiance over time.

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 Solar radiation entering Earths atmosphere consists of direct,
diffuse, and albedo radiation.

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 Albedo Radiation

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 Diffuse Radiation

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 Air mass is a representation of the amount of
atmosphere radiation that must pass through to reach
Earths surface.

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 Peak sun hours is an equivalent
measure of total solar irradiation in a
day.
For example, a day with an average
irradiance of 600 W/m2 over 8 hr may
only reach peak sun condition for an
hour or less around noon. However,
the total irradiation of 4800 Wh/m2
(600 W/m2 8 hr = 4800 Wh/m2) is
equivalent to 4.8 peak sun hours (4800
Wh/m2 1000 W/m2 = 4.8 peak sun
hr)

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 The ecliptic plane is formed by Earths elliptical orbit around
the sun.
In one year, Earth makes a slightly elliptical orbit around the
sun. Perihelion is the point in Earths orbit when it is closest
to the sun.Aphelion is the point in Earths orbit when it is
farthest from the sun. Perihelion occurs around January 3
and aphelion occurs around July 4.

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 The equatorial plane is tipped 23.5 from the ecliptic
plane. As Earth revolves around the sun, this
orientation produces a varying solar declination.

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 The summer solstice occurs
when the Northern
Hemisphere is tipped towards
the sun. The winter solstice
occurs when the Northern
Hemisphere is tipped away
from the sun.

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 The fall and spring equinoxes
occur when the sun is directly
in line with the equator. The
spring equinox occurs around
March 21 and the fall equinox
occurs around September 23

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 Two angles are used to define the suns position, relative to
an observer on Earth: Solar azimuth and altitude angles are
used to describe the suns location in the sky.

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 Array orientation can be described using azimuth and tilt angles.

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 Energy production at certain times of the year can be optimized by
adjusting the array tilt angle.

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 The average seasonal
declinations define the optimal
tilt angles for those periods.

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Solar Concentrating Collectors
 Introduction
For applications such as air conditioning, central power
generation, and numerous industrial heat requirements, flat
plate collectors generally cannot provide carrier fluids at
temperatures sufficiently elevated to be effective.
Alternatively, more complex and expensive concentrating
collectors can be used.
These are devices that optically reflect and focus incident solar
energy onto a small receiving area.
As a result of this concentration, the intensity of the solar
energy is magnified, and the temperatures that can be achieved
at the receiver (called the "target") can approach several
hundred or even several thousand degrees Celsius.
The concentrators must move to track the sun if they are to
perform effectively
 Concentrating collectors
Concentrating, or focusing, collectors intercept direct radiation
over a large area and focus it onto a small absorber area.
These collectors can provide high temperatures more
efficiently than flat-plate collectors, since the absorption surface
area is much smaller.
However, diffused sky radiation cannot be focused onto the
absorber.
Most concentrating collectors require mechanical equipment
that constantly orients the collectors toward the sun and keeps
the absorber at the point of focus.
Therefore; there are many types of concentrating collectors
Types of concentrating collectors

There are four basic types of concentrating

collectors:
Parabolic trough system
Parabolic dish
Power tower
Stationary concentrating collectors
 Parabolic trough system Power tower Parabolic dish

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Parabolic trough system
Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter u.The
troughs concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that is positioned
along the focal line of the trough.

Figure 3.1.1 Crossection of parabolic trough Figure 3.1.2 Parabolic trough system
 Parabolic trough system

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 Parabolic troughs often use single-axis or dual-
axis tracking

Figure 3.1.3 One Axis Tracking Parabolic Trough Figure 3.1.4 Two Axis Tracking Concentrator
with Axis Oriented E-W
 Solar Thermal for Electricity

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 Temperatures at the receiver can reach 400 C and produce steam
for generating electricity. Multi-megawatt power plants have been
built using parabolic troughs combined with gas turbines
(California).

Figure 3.1.5 Parabolic trough combined with gas turbines

Parabolic dish systems
A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large
satellite dish, but has mirror-like reflectors and an absorber
at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker

Figure 3.2.1 Crossection of parabolic dish

 A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the
sun and concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver
located at the focal point in front of the
dish. Parabolic dish systems can reach 1000 C at
the receiver.
 Power tower system
A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct solar
energy to a large absorber located on a tower. To date the only
application for the heliostat collector is power generation in a
system called the power tower (solar tower)

Figure 3.3.1 Power tower system

Figure 3.3.2 Heliostats
 Power tower system

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 Solar Thermal for Electricity

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 Power tower system

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 A heliostat (from helios, the Greek word for sun, and
stat, as in stationary) is a device incorporating a mirror
which moves so as to keep reflecting sunlight toward a
predetermined target or receiver, despite the sun's
apparent motions in the sky.

The target is stationary relative to the heliostat, so the

light is reflected in a fixed direction.

Most modern heliostats are controlled by computers.

The computer is given the heliostat's position on the
earth (latitude and longitude) and the time and date, and
uses them to calculate the direction of the sun as seen
from the mirror.
 A power tower has a field of large mirrors that follow the sun's path
across the sky. The mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on
top of a high tower. A computer keeps the mirrors aligned so the
reflected rays of the sun are always aimed at the receiver, where
temperatures well above 1000C can be reached. High-pressure
steam is generated to produce electricity.

Figure 3.3.3 Power tower system with heliostats

 Stationary concentrating solar
collectors
oStationary concentrating collectors use compound
parabolic reflectors and flat reflectors for directing solar
energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture through a
wide acceptance angle.

oThe wide acceptance angle for these reflectors eliminates

the need for a sun tracker.
 Stationary concentrating solar collectors

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Working principles of concentrating
collectors
o Unlike solar (photovoltaic) cells, which use light to produce
electricity, concentrating solar power systems generate electricity
with heat.

o Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors and lenses to concentrate

and focus sunlight onto a thermal receiver, similar to a boiler tube.

o The receiver absorbs and converts sunlight into heat. The heat is then
transported to a steam generator or engine where it is converted into
electricity.

o A concentrating solar power system that produces 350 MW of

electricity displaces the energy equivalent of 2.3 million barrels of oil
.