Department of Civil Engineering, Major/ Minor Project, December-2014

Observed Consolidation in a Ring with Vertical and Radial Drainage

Name of the Project

Sr. Sr.
Name of the Students Roll No. Signature Supervisor/Joint Designation of The Supervisor
No. No.
Supervisors
1 Prashant Chaubey 2K13/CE/085 1

2 Pankaj Kumar 2K13/CE/079 2

3
Certificate Project work qualifies for submission
4
Approval of the Supervisor Approved/Rejected/Needs Revision

5
Signature of the Supervisor/s

Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India

1. ABSTRACT

Underwater concrete construction is a critical component of foundations and which subsequently becomes an integral
the any project. Therefore, its significance in the project far part of the substructure. A cofferdam is an enclosure within
beyond the concreting operations themselves, in essence, a water environment constructed to allow water to be
underwater concrete can be constructed with the same displaced by air for the purpose of creating a dry work
degree of reliability as above-water construction. But if it is environment. Commonly used for oil rig construction and
not carried out properly, with the proper concrete mixture repair, bridge and dam work, the cofferdam is usually a
and placement procedure, underwater concrete construction welded steel structure that is temporary, typically
can result in a major cost and schedule overrun. This is the dismantled after work is completed. Its components consist
area where sound design and competent construction of sheet piles and cross braces.
planning can achieve a meaningful reduction in risk and
cost. 3. CAISSONS

2. INTRODUCTION The caisson method is one method of producing

deep foundations, i.e the load exerted by the building
During the construction of brides, dams or any other structure is transferred to firm, deeper strata. Caisson
structure where the foundation part of the structure is most foundation is most commonly used underwater for a
likely to lie underwater, we have to opt for underwater bridge, but sometimes used in building construction
construction. Construction in water poses many difficulties Caissons are normally made of reinforced concrete, various
especially in the places where there the depth is cross sections being possible, depending on the
considerable. During underwater construction our main requirements. These are constructed such that the water
objective is to create dry and water free environment for can be pumped out, keeping the working environment dry.
working in such a manner that the structural stability of the It is a large hollow structure that is sunk down through the
structure is not compromised. earth by workers excavating from inside it, ultimately it
For those used to concreting on dry land, becomes a permanent part of the pier. The outer walls of
concreting under water presents various challenges. large caissons should be at least 1m thick, and the caissons
Transporting, compacting, quality control, finishing and should have horizontal and vertical stiffening walls. A
accuracy must all be carried out successfully in this round hole is dug or bored to a stable layer of earth and
different, and often difficult, environment. There are, temporarily supported by a steel shell, then filled with
however, many common aspects, chief of which is that air concrete poured around a cage of reinforcing bars.
is not required for the setting and hardening of concrete it
sets and hardens just as well, and often even better, under 3.1 Uses of caissons:
water but it must be fluid enough to flow into position
and be self compacting as conventional vibration is not 1) To reach the hard bearing stratum for transferring
practicable under water. the load coming on supports for bridge piers and
The caissons and cofferdams are the techniques used building columns.
for the construction of underwater structures. A caisson is a 2) To serve as an imperious core wall of earth dams,
retaining, watertight structure used, for example, to work on when placed adjacent to each other.
the foundations of a bridge pier, for the construction of a 3) To provide an access to a deep shaft or a tunnel.
concrete dam, or for the repair of ships. 4) To provide an enclosure below water level for
Caissons are sunk through ground or water to exclude water installing machinery, pump, etc.
and semi-fluid material during the process of excavation of
 3.2 Materials used for the construction of caissons:

The common materials which are usually employed for

the construction of a caisson are as follows,
1) Cast-iron
2) Reinforced cement concrete
3) Steel
4) Timber

The cast-iron is suitable for caissons of open-well type.

New segments of cast-iron are bolted as the caisson sinks.
This material is unsuitable for pneumatic caissons as there
is risk of failure due to tension developed by the
compressed air. The cost also works out to be more in
relation to the steel or R.C.C.
The reinforced cement concrete is suitable for caisson
shoes. This material has more weight and therefore it
creates difficulties in handling and floating the caisson in
the early stage of construction. It therefore becomes
economical to construct a steel caisson with concrete Schematic Diagram of Box Caisson
filling.
The steel is found to be the most suitable material for
the construction of a caisson. It is usually in the form of a 3.3.2 OPEN CAISSON
double skin of steel plating and the hollow space is then
filled with cement concrete. The structure is open at the top and is
The timber was used as a material for the construction of a manufactured wholly or partially at ground level. In that
caisson in the early stages of development of a caisson. But phase it rests on the shoe, the making of which requires
this material is now practically not adopted mainly because special care and experience. The sinking process begins
of its bulk and risk of fire. with the step-by-step removal of material inside structure
under atmospheric pressure. First, above groundwater
3.3 TYPES OF CAISSONS level, the material is excavated then, below ground water
level, it is dredged. Interior and exterior groundwater levels
All caissons feature the shape of a tube, often with a must always be the same to prevent piping and to prevent
cylindrical contour but it may also be rectangular, elliptical, material being sucked in from the outside as a result.
or some other form. Some caissons are open at both ends, Friction between the structure and the surrounding
some are open only at the top, and some are open only at soil is minimized by a gap around the structure filled with
the bottom. It depends on the way each type of caisson is to bentonite. As a rule it is 5 to 10cm wide and is produced
be used. automatically as the shoe projects beyond the outer wall of
The four main types of caisson are, the caisson. Since the friction forces increase with
1. Box caisson increasing depth, the weight must be raised by additional
2. Open caisson loads.
3. Pneumatic caisson When the final depth is reached, an underwater
4. Suction caisson concrete floor is built in to facilitate subsequent pumping
of the interior, attention always being paid to safety against
3.3.1 BOX CAISSON uplift. Open caissons used in soft grounds or high water
tables, where open trench excavations are impractical, can
This method is applied mainly in underwater also be used to install deep manholes, pump stations and
tunneling, harbor, foundation for bridge pier reception/launch pits for micro tunnelling.
constructions. Box caissons are prefabricated concrete
boxes of various shapes and comprise hollow bodies
with water-tight floors and walls. After manufacture,
they are launched, towed to the place where they are to
be built in, sunk to the sea bed or river bed, which has
been prepared accordingly, and finally ballasted. In this
process, individual construction elements usually have
to be connected and sealed off from each other. One
problem with box caissons is that hollow concrete
structures float and so they must be ballasted or
anchored to prevent this until they can be filled with
concrete. Adjustable anchoring systems combined with
a GPS survey allow engineers to position a box caisson
with pinpoint accuracy. Elaborate anchoring systems Schematic Diagram of Open Caisson
may be required in tidal zone.
3.3.3 PNEUMATIC CAISSON

A caisson closed at the top and open at the bottom

is a pneumatic caisson. This type of caisson generally is
used in underwater construction projects. It can be used
only if air is pumped in to produce a pressure greater than
water pressure outside. Workers entering a pneumatic
caisson must first pass through an intermediate chamber
that allows their bodies to adjust from normal atmospheric
pressure to the higher pressure within the caisson or vice
versa. Pneumatic caissons cannot be used at a depth of
more than 120 ft (36.6 m). Beyond that point the air
pressure needed inside the caisson to keep out water is too
great for the human body to withstand.

As with the open caisson, the structure is

Working Chamber of Pneumatic Caisson
manufactured wholly or partially ( at least the working
chamber and part of the vertical walls) at ground level.
3.3.4 SUCTION CAISSON
Material is excavated in the working chamber, the
groundwater being kept out with compressed air. Due to the
As offshore exploration and development of oil
constant shear failure below the shoe- as a consequence of
fields reach water depths of 1,000 to 3,000 m, novel
the gradual material removal- the structure sinks in to the
methods of anchoring production platforms become
ground slowly under its own weight.
attractive due to cost savings associated with installation.
Surface production systems that are viable in these water
As with the open caisson, this process may be depths include Tension Leg Platforms (TLP), spar
accelerated by friction minimizing measures and additional platforms, and laterally moored ship-shaped and semi-
loads. The vertical walls are concreted up to the desired submersible vessels. Possible anchor systems for TLP and
height during the sinking process. As soon as the final depth spar platforms include the traditional driven piles, drag
is reached, the working chamber is filled with concrete. anchors and suction caissons.

Advantages of pneumatic caisson: Suction caissons become better alternatives to

driven piles in deepwater because of technical challenges
1. The soil condition in the working chamber may be and costs associated with the installation equipment. In
checked constantly. addition, suction caissons also provide a greater resistance
2. The construction work is not hampered by to lateral loads than driven piles because of the larger
groundwater rushing in. diameters typically used.
3. The floor of the structure may be built in the dry.
Initial penetration of the suction caisson into the
Disadvantages of pneumatic caisson: seabed occurs due to the self weight. Field observations
have shown that the initial penetration of the pile in to
1. working in compressed air may leads to caisson ocean sediments under self-weight is substantial enough to
disease. develop an adequate seal to facilitate suction installation.
2. locking in and out of material and equipment is a Subsequent penetration is by the suction created by
tedious process. pumping water out from the inside of the caisson( fig 2.5 ).
A submersible pump attached to the top of the sealed
caisson applies suction pressure. By evacuating water from
the inside, a pressure differential is created. The limiting
value of this pressure differential, such that cavitations
does not occur, is the sum of the atmospheric pressure and
hydrostatic pressure outside the caisson. In very deep
waters, large penetration or suction pressures can be
created, which is only limited by the capacity of the pump.
Once the required depth are reached, the pumps can be
disconnected and retrieved.

Schematic Diagram of Pneumatic Caisson

 A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure, soil,
and water. The loads imposed include the hydrostatic
forces of the water, as well as the dynamic forces due to
currents and waves.

In construction of cofferdams maintaining close

tolerances is difficult since cofferdams are usually
constructed offshore and sometimes under severe weather
conditions. Under these circumstances, significant
deformations of cofferdam elements may happen during
the course of construction, and therefore it may be
necessary to deviate from the design dimensions in order to
complete the project according to plan.

The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by

construction equipment and operations must be considered,
both during installation of the cofferdam and during
construction of the structure itself.

Removal of the cofferdam must be planned and executed

Installation Sequence Of Suction Caissons (a) Touchdown
with the same degree of care as its installation, on a stage-
Phase (b) Penetration Due To Self Weight/Ballast (c)
by-stage basis. The effect of the removal on the permanent
Water Pumped Out To Create Suction Penetration
structure must also be considered. For this reason, sheet
piles extending below the permanent structure are often cut
Advantages of caisson foundation: off and left in place, since their removal may damage the
foundation soils adjacent to the structure.
1. Economic.
2. Minimizes pile cap needs. In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern,
3. Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations. since workers will be exposed to the hazard of flooding
4. Easily adaptable to varying site conditions. and collapse.
5. High axial and lateral loading capacity.
6. Minimal handling equipment is required for
Safety requires that every cofferdam and every part
placement of reinforcing cage.
thereof shall be of suitable design and construction, of
7. Placement is sometimes possible in types of soil
suitable and sound material and of sufficient strength and
that a driven pile could not penetrate.
capacity for the purpose for which it is used, proper
construction, verification that the structure is being
4. COFFERDAMS
constructed as planned, monitoring the behavior of the
cofferdam and surrounding area, provision of adequate
A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep
access, light and ventilation, and attention to safe practices
water and/or soil out of the excavation in which a bridge
on the part of all workers and supervisors, and shall be
pier or other structure is built. The cofferdam may or may
properly maintained.
not be pumped out completely dry. Cofferdams may be
installed by driving sheet piles around a designated area or
by submerging a pre-fabricated structure made of concrete, 4.1 TYPES OF COFFERDAM
steel, or combination of concrete and steel. Cofferdams may Following are the most common types of cofferdams:
even be formed by using inflatable rubber bags to surround 1. Dikes
a site, fabricated boxes to attach to existing structures, or, in 2. Single wall cofferdams
the case of large dewatered areas, perimeter rock dikes or 3. Double wall cofferdams
sand-filled structures. Now a days cofferdam will be 4. Cellular cofferdams
fabricated steel structure hoisted in to place by a derrick 5. Rock-filled crib cofferdams
barge powered by electricity, or a precast concrete structure 6. Concrete cofferdams
floated in to place and set on bottom. 7. Suspended cofferdams

Following are some of the points which should be 4.1.1 DIKES

remembered in connection with the construction of
cofferdams. A dike is an embankment of some material. The
materials commonly employed for the construction of a
dike are earth, rock and sand-bags. The dikes are generally
Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water
employed for a short duration, particularly to enable the
and soil so as to permit dewatering and construction of the
construction of a more durable cofferdam behind them.
permanent facility (structure) in the dry.
 4.1.2 SINGLE WALL COFFERDAMS Components Of Cofferdam

This type of cofferdam is suitable when available 4.2.1 SHEET PILING

working space is limited and the area to be enclosed is
small. A single row of piles is used on either side of the Sheet piling is a manufactured construction
cofferdam. product with a mechanical connection interlock at both
ends of the section. These mechanical connections
4.1.3 DOUBLE WALL COFFERDAMS interlock with one another to form a continuous wall of
sheeting. Sheet pile applications are typically designed to
When the area to be enclosed is large, it becomes create a rigid barrier for earth and water, while resisting the
essential to provide the double wall construction so as to lateral pressures of those bending forces. The shape or
give stability to the cofferdam. geometry of a section lends to the structural strength. In
addition, the soil in which the section is driven has
4.1.4 CELLULAR COFFERDAMS numerous mechanical properties that can affect the
performance.
The cellular cofferdam is made of steel sheet piles
and this type of cofferdam is proved successful in
dewatering large areas.

4.1.5 ROCK-FILLED CRIB 4.2.2 BRACING FRAME

COFFERDAMS
These are structural members used for the lateral
A rock-filled crib cofferdam consists of timber stability of cofferdam. These are made up of steel or wood.
cribs. A crib is a box or a cell open at the bottom and it
essentially consists of a framework of horizontal timbers 4.2.3 CONCRETE SEAL
laid in alternate courses. The pockets thus formed are then
filled with rock or gravel or earth to give stability to the
The typical cofferdam, such as a bridge pier,
crib against overturning and sliding.
consists of sheet piles set around a bracing frame and
driven into the soil sufficiently far to develop vertical and
4.1.6 CONCRETE COFFERDAMS
lateral support and to cut off the flow of soil and, in some
cases the flow of water. The structure inside may be
These are actually small concrete dams and they
founded directly on rock or firm soil or may require pile
have been used economically on many jobs. The
foundations. In the latter case, these generally extend well
framework usually consists of pre-cast R.C.C. piles and
below the cofferdam. Inside excavation is usually done
sheets. The pre-cast R.C.C. sheet piles are provided with
using clam shell buckets. In order to dewater the
suitable edges and they are driven in a similar manner to
cofferdam, the bottom must be stable and able to resist
steel sheet piles. The design of different units should be
hydrostatic uplift. Placement of an underwater concrete
properly made. The main disadvantage of a concrete
seal course is the fastest and most common method. An
cofferdam is that it is costly. But when it is to be
underwater concrete seal course may then be placed prior
incorporated as part of a permanent structure, it proves to
to dewatering in order to seal off the water, resist its
be economical.
pressure, and also to act as a slab to brace against the
inward movement of the sheet piles in order to mobilize
4.1.7 SUSPENDED COFFERDAMS
their resistance to uplift under the hydrostatic pressure.
Sometimes, a cofferdam is designed in such a way
that a single unit of it is used several times. The cofferdam Advantages of Cofferdam:
as such is lifted, floated and placed in another position as
soon as its purpose is served. Such cofferdams are also Performing work over water has always been more
known as the movable cofferdams. difficult and costly than performing the same work on land.
And when the work is performed below water, the
4.2 COMPONENTS OF COFFERDAM difficulties and cost difference can increase geometrically
with the depth at which the work is performed. The key to
performing marine construction work efficiently is to
minimize work over water, and perform as much of the
work as possible on land. Below some of the advantages of
cofferdams are listed.

1. Allow excavation and construction of structures in

otherwise poor environment
2. Provides safe environment to work

3. Contractors typically have design responsibility

 4. Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed placement planning should include the relevant subjects of
detail as well as the construction logistics( the relationship
5. Materials can typically be reused on other projects among various concreting operations and their relationship
with other construction operations)
The choice of a proper placement plan for a
specific project has to be ultimately determined by the site
condition and engineering requirements, including the
Comparison between Cofferdam and caisson:
required in-place concrete properties, volume and
thickness of the concrete placement, water velocity during
The main difference between a cofferdam and a caisson
concrete placement, presence of reinforcement or
is that the former is a temporary structure while the latter
obstacles, availability of equipment, technical feasibility,
forms the part of the permanent work. Following factors
and cost.
are to be considered while making a choice between
cofferdam and caisson for a particular foundation work.
5.2 UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT
A cofferdam becomes uneconomical in cases
METHODS
where the plan area of the foundation work is
small as compared to the depth of water. Under
Following are the methods used for underwater
such circumstances, a caisson would prove to be
concrete placement,
the most suitable.
At places where the cofferdams cannot be
1. Tremie method
dewatered successfully, the caissons are used. 2. Pump method
This may be due to the following reasons: 3. Toggle bags
a) Depth of water 4. Bagwork
b) Nature of soil to be penetrated and
c) Permeability of soil below foundation For the underwater construction of navigation
level structures, the tremie method is the only sound method for
The process of constructing a cofferdam is greatly placing high-quality underwater concrete. However, some
simplified in cases of soils which allow easily the contractors will request to use the pump method because it
driving of sheet piles. The caissons, on the other slightly reduces the labor cost. The following sections
hand, are useful where obstructions or boulders provide a critical examination of these two methods. The
would prevent the successful driving of the sheet other placement methods are not appropriate for high-
piles quality underwater concrete for major structures, although
For heavy foundation works which are to be they may find application in special cases.
provided at a depth of about 12 meters to 15 For placement of underwater concrete, the tremie
meters below the level of standing water surface, method and pump method function in fundamentally
the caissons would prove to be more economical different ways. Tremie placement deposits concrete solely
than the cofferdams. by its own gravity in a open system where as the pump
method employs surges of pump pressure to deliver
5 UNDERWATER CONCRETING concrete in a closed system. The technical difficulties and
the inherent risk of failure with these two methods are
For in-the-wet construction of the navigation substantially different.
structure, underwater concrete construction is a critical
component of the entire project. It is technically 5.2.1 TREMIE METHOD
demanding, usually on the critical path of the project. It is
technically demanding, usually on the critical path of the The principle of this method is that concrete is
project schedule, and involves complex construction poured down a pipe or tube from above the surface and is
logistics. Therefore, its significance in the project far forced into the mass of concrete already in place by the
beyond the concreting operations themselves, in essence, weight of concrete in the tube. The tube is surmounted by a
underwater concrete can be constructed with the same hopper (tremie in French) and the whole is suspended
degree of reliability as above-water construction. But if it is from a staging or frame, mounted so that it can be moved
not carried out properly, with the proper concrete mixture vertically when held by a crane. As the pour rises, sections
and placement procedure, underwater concrete construction of the tube can be removed to facilitate working. A
can result in a major cost and schedule overrun. This is the convenient diameter for the tube is 8 to 16 times the
area where sound design and competent construction maximum aggregate size and 250 mm is a common
planning can achieve a meaningful reduction in risk and diameter. Figure shows a diagrammatical representation of
cost. a tremie.

5.1 UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT

The technical requirements for underwater

concreting cover the areas of placement method and
technique, placement sequence, placement equipment
layout, finishing, and protection of concrete. Concrete
 Pumping concrete has the advantage of operational
efficiency with potential savings of time and labor. In
recent years pump method has become increasingly
popular for above-water structures due to the advancement
of pumping equipment and techniques. Pumping concrete
directly under deep water(>9m or 30ft in water depth) is a
technically flawed procedure. Although pumping concrete
in shadow water is feasible, it still involves significant
risks and potentially poor concrete quality. For massive
underwater concrete construction of navigation structures,
the pump method should be prohibited. However, the
pump method is an excellent way to deliver concrete
horizontally to a tremie hopper. It is also an excellent way
of placing grout or flowable sand underwater.

Pumping the mass concrete directly down to the

structures on the riverbed or seafloor has several technical
Schematic Of A Tremie problems that will increase the risk of construction failure
or poor concrete,
Before starting the pour, a plug is inserted into the a) In tremie placement by gravity feed, the concrete
tube to stop the concrete and water flow rate can be controlled by the rate at which
intermixing. This plug can be purpose-made (similar to a concrete is fed in to the tremie. On the other hand,
bath plug), a sponge rubber ball the pump system fully fills the pumpline with
or exfoliated vermiculite, which is the most common concrete. For placement in deep water, the weight
method in the UK. of concrete in the pumpline is much greater than
At start-up the bottom of the tube should be on or the hydrostatic head from the water and concrete
very close to the sea or river bed, sufficient to allow the outside the pipe. Thus, the concrete exists the pipe
water in the tube to escape and to force the first load of at an uncontrollably high speed, causing significant
concrete to spread out horizontally into a mound shape. The disturbance of already placed concrete and
concrete pouring should be continuous with the bottom of segregation of the concrete being poured.
the tube always inside previously placed concrete. If this
immersion depth, normally at least 0.5 m, is not sufficient, a b) A pump system is closed to the atmosphere. When
breakthrough will occur and the pour will have to be concrete is pumped down to deep water, concrete
abandoned for the day. Any air that is in the concrete being may fall through and exit a pumpline at a rate
placed will pass through the previously placed concrete faster than the pump output. Thus, a vacuum will
and bubble to the surface, disrupting the settled concrete as be created in the line. The vacuum pressure so
it goes. created will suck away the cement paste from
The flow of concrete in the tube is governed by aggregates, causing segregation and plugging of
gravity and friction with the tube wall, so the tremie has to the line.
be moved up and down to regulate the flow. A crane driver
with a good feel for this is useful. The tube should be c) Pressure surges from the pump can cause
restrained from lateral movement whilst placing concrete. disruption of the concrete flow and plugging of the
The placed concrete spreads out horizontally on the bed in a line.
circle, with the top of the pour domed upwards.
Tremies are best used for thick pours of any area. d) A concrete mixture optimized for pumping may
For large area pours, multiple tremies are used, spaced at not be the optimum concrete mixture for
about 46 m apart, depending on the flatness required for underwater applications.
the top level. The slope of the concrete surface from a
tremie is likely to be in the range 1 in 9 for tremies close e) Pumping in to confined space can potentially result
together to 1 in 6 for those spaced far apart as the slope in excessive pressures.
increases with distance from the pipe.
The concrete flow pattern is dependent upon the f) If the end of the pumpline is not adequately buried,
consistency of the concrete mixture and the placement rate. excessive pump pressure surge can kick the
In addition, the flow pattern is also affected by the pumpline out of the in-place concrete, causing
thickness of the concrete placement and the tremie mixing of the concrete with water.
embedment depth in concrete.

5.2.4 TOGGLE BAGS

5.2.3 PUMP METHOD
Where small amounts of concrete are required,
Pump method is defined as pumping concrete directly such as in repair work, the toggle bag is ideal. The
into its final position, involving both horizontal and vertical waterproof bag is filled in the dry with wet concrete and
delivery of concrete in a closed system of discharge pipes. the mouth is closed with a tie rope and toggle. At the
placing location the concrete is squeezed out by a diver and c. Foundation engineering- by R. B. Peck, W. E
rammed into place. The use of a diver adds to the cost of Hanson, T.H. Thornburn
the operation.
d. Concrete technology by M S
5.2.5 BAGWORK Shetty`

The type of bags used here are normally made

from an open-weave material such as hessian. They should
be half-filled with plastic concrete, sealed and then taken
under water and placed by a diver. Partial filling allows
them to be moulded into shape and gives them good contact
areas with adjacent bags. Grout from the mix seeps through
the open textured material allowing bond to be established
with adjacent bags. For additional stability the bags can be
spiked together with small-diameter reinforcing bars.
Divers prefer to handle bags of dry-mixed concrete
and to grout up between bags. However, this system places
too great a responsibility on the diver. The dry mix concrete
is never fully wetted-out by water seeping in, the concrete
cannot be fully compacted and contact surfaces are
minimal.
Diver-handled bags are usually of 10 to 20 litres capacity
but 1 m3 bags can be placed using a crane.

6. CONCLUSION

Cofferdams are temporary structures and used in

cases where the plan area of foundation is very
large, depth of water is less and for the soft soils,
where soils allow easy driving of sheet piles.
Caissons are permanent structures and becomes
economical in cases where the plan area of
foundation is small, large depth of water and for
loose soils.
Suction caisson anchors are gaining considerable
acceptance in the offshore industry. The suction
caisson is a highly versatile and efficient anchor
concept that can be installed easily as compared to
driven piles, especially in deep waters. The
installation procedure is simple and requires no
heavy lift vessel. The geometry to be used is
dependent on the soil type.
At present, the tremie placement method is the
standard way of placing high-quality concrete
underwater. The other placement method are not
able to reliably place high-quality underwater
concrete for major structures, although they may
find application in special cases
For massive underwater concrete construction of
navigation structures, the pump method should be
prohibited.

7. REFERENCES

a. Assessment of underwater concrete

Technologies for in-the-wet construction of
navigation structures- by Sam X. Yao, Dale E.
Berner, Ben C. Gerwick

b.Underwater concrete- by Dr Jagadish R