CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITIONS
All types of structures consist of two parts; the upper or superstructure and the lower
substructure or (foundation).
FOUNDATION: The soil beneath structures responsible for carrying the loads is the foundation.
But, in general, it is the lowest part of a structure or building that transmits its weight safely to
the underlying soil or rock.

Superstructure

Substructure

Fig. (1.1): Foundation definition.

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING: is the science of applying engineering judgments and

principles of soil mechanics to solve interfacing problems and retaining structures. Or it is the
branch of engineering science which deals with two problems:
1. Evaluate the ability of soil to carry a load without shear failure or excessive settlement.
2. To design a proper structural member which can transmit the load from superstructure
to soil taking economics into consideration.
Load / meter length

Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations can be classified basically into two types: shallow and deep.

Shallow Foundations:
These types of foundations are so called because they are placed at a shallow depth
(relative to their dimensions) beneath the soil surface. Their depth may range from the top of soil
surface to about 3 times the breadth (about 6 meters). They include spread footings as circular or
square or rectangular in plan which support columns, and strip footings which support walls and
other similar structures. In addition to, combined and mat foundations and soil retaining
structures (retaining walls, sheet piles, excavations and reinforced earth).

Deep Foundations:
The most common of these types of foundations are piles and drilled shafts. They are
called deep because they are embedded very deep (relative to their dimensions) into the soil.
Their depths may run over several tens of meters. They are usually used when the top soil layers
have low bearing capacities (the soil located immediately below the structure is weak, therefore
the load of the structure must be transmitted to a greater depth).

The shallow foundation shown in Fig.(1.2) has a width B and a length L. The depth of
embedment below the ground surface is equal to Df. This depth must be adequate to avoid:
1. Lateral expulsion of soil beneath the foundation.
2. Seasonal volume changes such as freezing or the zone of active organic materials.
3. The depth be sufficient enough that the foundation should be safe against overturning,
sliding, rotational failure, and overall soil shear failure and excessive settlement.

Theoretically, when B/L is equal to zero (that is, L = ), a plane strain case will exist in the
soil mass supporting the foundation. For most practical cases when B/L (1/5 to 1/6), the plane
strain theories will yield fairly good results.

Terzaghi defined a shallow foundation as one in which the depth, D f , is less than or equal
to the width B ( D f / B 1). Otherwise, it is considered as deep foundation.

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 a- Pure Cohesive Soil

Fig.Foundation
(1.4): Unconfined compressive
Engineering strength
/ Dr. Rafitest.
M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction
G.S.
In some cases, there is a different depth of embedment below the ground surface on both
sides of a foundation as shown in Fig. (1.3). For those cases, D f should be the depth at shallow
G.S.
side, in addition to, the overburden pressure must D
be fcompared
1 Dfto2decide the
with soil cohesion
type of footing required for design as follows:
B
Fig. (1.3): Depth of embedment.

qu
(D f 1. D f 2 . )
If > 2 .. Design the member as a retaining wall.
qu
(D f 1. D f 2 . ) 2
If Design the member as a footing.
where q u is unconfined compressive strength of soil.

From soil mechanics principles

1 3. tan 2 (45 / 2) 2.c. tan .(45 / 2)
1 q u and 3 0 ; Therefore:
For Unconfined Compressive Strength Test (U.C.T.):
For Pure Cohesive Soil ( u 0 ): q u 2.Cu
q u 2.Cu . tan .(45 / 2)
For C Soil:

Cu
Ground surface

Df

Fig. (1.2): Individual footing.

q
S Cu u , u 0
1.3 SETTLEMENT AT ULTIMATE LOAD 2

3
 1 q u
Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

Settlement means a vertical displacement of a structure or footing or road,etc.. The

settlement of the foundation at ultimate load, Su , is quite variable and depends on several factors.
Based on laboratory and field test results, the approximate ranges for Su values of soils are given
below. 3 0
Soil Df / B Su / B (%)
Sand 0 5 to 12
Sand Large 25 to 28
Clay 0 4 to 8
Clay Large 15 to 20

For any foundation, one must ensure that the load per unit area of foundation does not
exceed a limiting value, thereby causing shear failure in soil. This limiting value is the ultimate
bearing capacity, q ult. and generally using a factor of safety of 3 to 4 the allowable bearing
capacity, q all. can be calculated as:
q
q all. ult .
F.S .......(1.1)
However, based on limiting settlement conditions, there are other factors which must be taken
into account in deriving the allowable bearing capacity. The total settlement, ST , of a foundation
will be the sum of three components:
1. Elastic or immediate settlement, Si ; (major in sand),
S S
2. Primary and Secondary consolidation settlements, c and cs ; (major in clay).
ST = Si + Sc + S cs ......(1.2)
Most building codes provide an allowable settlement limit for a foundation which may be
well below the settlement derived corresponding to q all. given by Eq. (1.1). Thus, the bearing
capacity corresponding to the allowable settlement must also be taken into consideration. A given
structure with several shallow foundations may undergo two types of settlement:
1. Uniform or equal total settlement, and
2. Differential settlement.
Fig. (1.5a) shows a uniform settlement which occurs when a structure is built over rigid
structural mat. However, depending on the load of various foundation components, a structure
may experience differential settlement. A foundation may also undergo uniform tilt (Fig. 1.5b) or
non-uniform settlement (Fig. 1.5c). In these cases, the angular distortion, , can be defined as:
S t (max) S t (min)

L (for uniform tilt) .......(1.3)
S t (max) S t (min)

L1 (for non-uniform settlement) ...(1.4)
Limits for allowable differential settlement of various structures are available in building
codes. Thus, the final design of a foundation depends on:
(a) the ultimate bearing capacity, (b) the allowable settlement, and

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St
St
x

Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S. qall . 50.kg / cm 2

Chapter 1: Introduction

(c) the allowable differential settlement for the structure.

Example (1.1):
A 30 cm x 30 cm column is loaded with 40 Ton. Check whether the column can be placed
on soil directly or not if the allowable bearing capacity of soil is:
(a)
q all. = 50 kg/cm2, and
q all. = 1.0 kg/cm2.
(b)

Solution:
Q
q all.
(a) A
40000
A 800
or 50 cm2 (minimum required area) < 900 cm2 (area of column) O.K.
40000
q all. 44.4
or 30 x 30 kg/cm2 < 50 kg/cm2 O.K.
No failure may happen; and the column can be placed directly on the soil.

40000
A 40000
(b) 1.0 cm2 (minimum required area) > 900 cm2 (area of column) ..... N.O.K.
(Not safe) and the column in this case can not be placed directly on soil, therefore, an
enlarged base is required.
A = 40000 cm2 = 4 m2 , assuming square area: B A = 4 = 2m. (see Fig.
(1.6)).

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 Centerline

Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. (1.7): Types of failure in footing.

1.4 TYPES OF FAILURE IN FOOTINGS

M
It is possible due to load that a footing fails by one or u two of the following:
(1) Shear failure: thisMu failure must be checked against:-
(i) punching shear and (ii) wide beam shear. No shear failure is satisfied by providing an
(iii) Bending moment.
adequate thickness of concrete (see Fig. 1.7).
(2) Tension failure: this failure decides the locations and positions of steel distribution. No
tension failure is satisfied by providing an adequate steel reinforcement (see Fig. 1.7).
q ult .

Edge of footing
L
(ii) Wide beam shear at (d)

d
bo
d

1.5 TYPES OF FOOTINGS

(1) Spread or Isolated or Individual Column Footing:
It is a footing of plain or reinforced concrete that supports a single column. It may be either a
square or circular or rectangular in shape or cross sectional area (see Fig. 1.8). However, the
design of square or circular spread footings is simpler than that of rectangular one. This is evident
due to the twice calculation required for rectangular footing compared with other ones. The
rectangular footing is preferred in case of a moment, since the length is increased in the direction
of moment to make the resultant of loads within the middle third of footing.

B B

B B A L
Square footing Circular footing Rectangular footing
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Fig. (1.8): Spread footing.
 Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. (1.9: Rectangular combined footing.

(2) Combined Footing (reinforced concrete only):

It is a footing that connects several columns and can take one of the following shapes:
Rectangular Combined Footing (see Fig. 1.9):
(a) Used along the walls of building at property lines where the footing for a wall column
can not extend outside the limits of the structure.
(b) If the loads from several columns are transmitted to the same footing, the footing should
be proportioned so that its centroid coincides with the center of gravity of the column
loads.

Trapezoidal Combined Footing (see Fig.Resultant 1.10):

(a) If the maximum load exists at the exterior column,e =
Fig.
Fig. (1.10):
(1.11):(b)
StrapTrapezoidal
It iscombined combined
not possible footing.
to make
footing. the resultant of loads passes through the centroid of the footing.
L L
(i.e., If 2 > x > 3 ).
Strap or Cantilever Combined Footing (see Fig. 1.11):
(a) If there is an eccentricity, and/ or
ddfooting
strap
L
(b) If ( x < 3 ).

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 Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

(3) Wall or Strip Footing (plain or reinforced concrete only) (see Fig. 1.12):
This footing represents a plain strain condition, such as a footing beneath a wall. In this case,
350 kN
Total ..load / unit ..length
500 kN 400 kN
Area B.x.1
the footing area is calculated as: q all.
30
Fig. (1.13): Raft foundation.
Q / meter length Q = 200 kN/m

Fig. (1.12): Wall footing.

Df 0.75m
Sand
W.T.

Wall footing Wall footing

1.5m
B

(4) Raft Foundation (see Fig. 1.13):

Is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the
Q
q applied
walls and columns, such that: A < q all.
It is used when:
All spread footings areas represent greater than 50 % of the entire site area,
If there is a basement and ground water table problems,
The bearing capacity of soil is very low, and the building loads are so heavy, and
A large differential settlement is expected to occur.

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 Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

(5) Pile Foundation (see Fig. 1.14):

Pile is a structural member made of wood, steel or concrete used to transmit the load from
Fig. (1.14): Single
superstructure and groupsoil
to underlying piles.stratum in the following cases:
When the soil profile consists of weak compressible soils,
q .. ..q all.
If applied ,
To resist tension or uplift forces induced by horizontal forces acting on
superstructure due to wind or earthquakes loads.
Piles usually are of two types:
(a) Driven piles, suitable for granular soils,
(b) Bored piles, suitable for clayey soils,
Each type of these piles can be made of precast concrete or cast in place.

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Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

(6) Pier Foundation (see Fig. 1.15):

It is an underground structural member that serves the same purpose as a footing. However,
the ratio of the depth of foundation to the base width of piers is usually greater than 4 (Df /B >4),
whereas, for footings this ratio is commonly less than unity (Df /B 1). A drilled pier is a
cylindrical column that has essentially the same function as piles. The drilled pier foundation is
used to transfer the structural load from the upper unstable soils to the lower firm stratum.
A part of the pier above the
foundation is known as a pier shaft. The
base of a pier shaft may rest directly on a
firm stratum or it may be supported on
piles. A pier shaft located at the end of a
bridge and subjected to lateral earth
pressure is known as an abutment.
Essentially, piers and piles serve the
same purpose. The distinction is based on
the method of installation. A pile is
installed by driving and a pier by auger
drilling. In general, a single pier is used to
support the same heavy column load
resisted by group of piles.
Fig. (1.15): Pier foundations.

(7) Floating Foundation:

If the weight of the constructed structure or building equal to the weight of the replaced
excavated soil a foundation is known as fully compensated foundation. But if this condition is not
satisfied, it is considered as semi-compensated foundation.

(8) Retaining Walls:

Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability for earth or other materials at their
natural slopes. In general, they are used to support soil banks and water or also to maintain
difference in the elevation of the ground surface on each of wall sides. Retaining walls are
commonly supported by soil (or rock) underlying the base slab, or supported on piles; as in case
of bridge abutments and where water may undercut the base soil as in water front structures.
There are many types of retaining walls, each type serves different purposes and fit different
requirements. They're mainly classified according to its behavior against the soil as:

(a) Gravity Retaining Walls are constructed of plain concrete or stone masonry. They depend
mostly on their own weight and any soil resting on the wall for stability. This type of
construction is not economical for walls higher than 3m (see Fig. 1.16a).
(b) Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls are modification of gravity wall in which small amounts of
reinforcing steel are introduced. This helps minimizing the wall section (see Fig. 1.16b).
(c) Cantilever Retaining Walls are the most common type of retaining walls that used for wall
height up to 8m. It derives its name from the fact that its individual parts behave as, and are
designed as, cantilever beams. The stability of this type is a function of the strength of its
individual parts (see Fig. 1.16c).

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Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

(d) Counterfort Retaining Walls are similar to cantilever retaining walls, at regular intervals,
however, they have thin vertical concrete slabs behind the wall known as counterforts that tie
the wall and base slab together and reduce the shear and bending moment. They're
economical when the wall height exceeds 8m (see Fig. 1.16d).
(e) Buttress Retaining Walls this type is similar to counterfort retaining wall, except the
bracing is in front of the wall and is in compression instead of tension.
(f) Bridge Abutments are special type of retaining walls, not only containing the approach fill,
but serving as a support for the bridge superstructure (see Fig. 1.16f).
(g) Crib Walls are built-up members of pieces of precast concrete, metal, or timber and are
supported by anchor pieces embedded in the soil for stability (see Fig. 1.16g).

and
Amongthesewalls,onlythecantileverretainingwalls aremuchused.
bridgeabutments

(a) Gravity walls (b) Semi-gravity wall

(c) Cantilever wall (d) Counterfort wall

(f) Bridge abutment (g) Crib walls

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Fig. (1.16): Common types of retaining walls.
Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

(9) Sheet Piles Walls:

Theseareclassifiedas;anchoredandcantileveredsheetpilewalls;eachkindofthemmaybe
usedinsingleordoublesheetswalls.
(a) Cantilever or Free Sheet-Pile Walls are constructed by driving a sheet pile to a depth
sufficient to develop a cantilever beam type reaction to resist the active pressures on the wall.
That is, the embedment length which must be adequate to resist both lateral forces as well as
a bending moment (see Fig. 1.17a).
(b) Anchored or Fixed Sheet-Pile Walls are types of retaining walls found in waterfront
construction, which are used to form wharves or piers for loading and unloading ships (see
Fig. 1.17b). q s
A A

H H Anchor tie rod

Dredge line
Dredge line B
B
D
D C Point of rotation
C

(a) Cantilever sheet pile wall. (b) Anchored sheet pile wall.

Fig. (1.17): Types of sheet piling walls.

(10) Caissons:
A hollow shaft or box with sharp ends or cutting edges for ease penetrating into soil used to
isolate the site of project from the surrounding area. The material inside the caisson is removed
by dredged through openings in the top or by hand excavation. Whereas, the lower part of it may
be sealed from atmosphere and filled with air under pressure to exclude water from work space
(see Fig. 1.18).

(a) The method. (b) The Gow method.

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Fig. (1.18): Methods of caisson construction.
Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

(11) Cofferdams:

(a) Single and Double Sheet Pile Cofferdams: used for depth of water not exceeds 3.0 m.
(b) Cellular Cofferdams: used for higher depths of water, i.e., greater than 3.0 m.

These are relatively watertight enclosures of wood or steel sheet piles. Before the cofferdam
is pumped out, one set of bracing is installed just above the water line. The water level is then
lowered to the elevation at which another set of bracing must be installed. Successive lowering of
water level and installation of bracing continue until the cofferdam is pumped out (see Fig.
1.19).

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Foundation Engineering / Dr. Rafi M.S.
Chapter 1: Introduction

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