TYPE OF REPORT: RESEARCH REPORT

MATERIAL 1: FORMAT
A. Preliminary Section
1. Title Page
2. Acknowledgments (if any)
3. Table of Contents
4. List of Tables (if any)
5. List of Figures (if any)
6. Abstract

B. Main Body
1. Introduction
a. Statement of the Problem
b. Significance of the Problem (and historical background)
c. Purpose
d. Statement of Hypothesis
e. Assumptions
f. Limitations
g. Definition of Terms

2. Review of Related Literature (and analysis of previous research)

3. Design of the Study

a. Description of Research Design and Procedures Used

b. Sources of Data
c. Sampling Procedures
d. Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering
e. Statistical Treatment

4. Analysis of Data

contains:
a. text with appropriate
b. tables and
c. figures

5. Summary and Conclusions

a. Restatement of the Problem

b. Description of Procedures
c. Major Findings (reject or fail to reject Ho)
d. Conclusions
e. Recommendations for Further Investigation

C. Reference Section

1. End Notes (if in that format of citation)

2. Bibliography or Literature Cited

3. Appendix

MATERIAL 2: HOW TO ORGANIZE

Title: Be specific. Tell what, when, where, etc. In one main title and a subtitle, give a
clear idea of what the paper investigated.

Acknowledgment: Include only if special help was received from an individual or group.

Abstract: Summarizes the report including the hypotheses, procedures, and major
findings.

Introduction: Sections may be combined in short reports.

Statement of the Problem: This is a general introduction to the topic.

Significance of the Problem: Comment on why this question merits investigation.

Purpose: What is the goal to be gained from a better understanding of this question?

Statement of the Hypothesis: In one statement (not a question) declare the question
which is investigated and the expected results. (For a null hypothesis, no difference is
predicted.)

Assumptions: Explain everything that is assumed in order for the investigation to be

undertaken.

Limitations: Explain the limitations that may invalidate the study or make it less than
accurate.

Definition of Terms: Define or clarify any term or concept that is used in the study in a
non-traditional manner or in only one of many interpretations.

Review of Related Literature: Gives the reader the necessary background to understand
the study by citing the investigations and findings of previous researchers and
documents the researcher's knowledge and preparation to investigate the problem.

Design of the Study: Gives the reader the information necessary to exactly replicate
(repeat) the study with new data or if the same raw data were available, the reader
should be able to duplicate the results. This is written in past tense but without
reference to or inclusion of the results determined from the analysis.

Description of the Research Design and Procedures Used: Completely explain step-by-
step what was done.

Sources of Data: Give complete information about who, what, when, where, and how
the data was collected.

Sampling Procedures: Explain how the data was limited to the amount which was
gathered. If all of the available data were not utilized, how was a representative sample
achieved?

Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering: Explain the procedures for obtaining the
data collected. Include the forms or manner by which it was recorded.

Statistical Treatment: Explain the complete mathematical procedures used in analyzing

the data and determining the significance of the results.

Analysis of Data: Describe the patterns observed in the data. Use tables and figures to
help clarify the material when possible.

Summary and Conclusions: This section condenses the previous sections, succinctly
presents the results concerning the hypotheses, and suggests what else can be done.

Restatement of the Problem: This is a short reiteration of the problem.

Description of the Procedures: This is a brief reiteration of important elements of the

design of the study.

Major Findings: The final results from the analysis are presented, the hypothesis stated,
and the decision about the rejection or the failure to reject the hypothesis is given.

Conclusions: Comments about the implication of the findings are presented.

Recommendations for Further Investigation: From the knowledge and experienced
gained in undertaking this particular study, how might the study have been improved or
what other possible hypotheses might be investigated?

End Notes: These are like footnotes but are located at the back rather than the bottom
of each page. These would include all of the references for all works cited in the Review
of Related Literature or any other sections of the report as well as the references for
quotations, either direct or indirect, taken from other sources, or any footnote comments
that might have been included. These are listed in numeric order as presented in the
text.

Bibliography or Literature Cited: These are the bibliographic reference for each of the
works cited in the End Notes.

Appendix: Any tables, figures, forms, or other materials that are not totally central to the
analysis but that need to be included are placed in the Appendix.

MATERIAL 3: GUIDELINE
General guidelines

The results of marketing research must be effectively communicated to management.

Presenting the results of a marketing research study to management generally involves
a formal written report as well as an oral presentation. The report and presentation are
extremely important. First, because the results of marketing research are often
intangible (after the study has been completed and a decision is made there is very little
physical evidence of the resources, such as time and effort, that went into the project),
the written report is usually the only documentation of the project. Second, the written
report and the oral presentation are typically the only aspect of the study that marketing
executives are exposed to, and consequently the overall evaluation of the research
project rests on how well this information is communicated. Third, since the written
research report and oral presentation are typically the responsibility of the marketing
research supplier, the communication effectiveness and usefulness of the information
provided plays a crucial role in determining whether that particular supplier will be used
in the future.

Every person has a different style of writing. There is not really one right style for a
report, but there are some basic principles for writing a research report clearly.

Preparing a research report involves other activities besides writing; in fact, writing is
actually the last step in the preparation process. Before writing can take place, the
results of the research project must be fully understood and thought must be given to
what the report will say. Thus, preparing a research report involves three steps:
understanding, organising and writing. The general guidelines that should be followed
for any report or research paper are as follows:

Consider the audience: The information resulting from the study is ultimately of
importance to marketing managers, who will use the results to make decisions. Thus,
the report has to be understood by them; the report should not be too technical and not
too much jargon should be used. This is a particular difficulty when reporting the results
of statistical analysis where there is a high probability that few, if any, of the target
audience have a grasp of statistical concepts. Hence, for example, there is a need to
translate such terms as standard deviation, significance level, confidence interval etc.
into everyday language. This is sometimes not an easy task but it may be the case that
researchers who find it impossible do not themselves have a sufficiently good grasp of
the statistical methods they have been using.

Qualitative research also presents difficulties. The behavioural sciences have their own
vocabulary, much of which is not encountered in everyday speech. Examples include:
cognitive dissonance, evoked set, perception, needs versus wants, self-actualisation. It
should be noted that these are extreme examples; many words, phrases and concepts
used a very precise way by behavioural scientists are also present in everyday speech
but often in a less precise or different way. This also presents opportunities for
misunderstandings.

Be concise, but precise: On the one hand, a written report should be complete in the
sense that it stands by itself and that no additional clarification is needed. On the other
hand, the report must be concise and must focus on the critical elements of the project
and must exclude unimportant issues. There is a great temptation, on the part of
inexperienced researchers, to seek to convey all that they did in order to obtain
information and to complete the research. This is done almost as if the researcher is
afraid that the audience will not other wise appreciate the time, effort and intellectual
difficulties involved. What the researcher has to come to realise is that he/she will be
judged by the contribution towards solving the marketing problem and not by the
elegance or effort involved in the research methodology.

Understand the results and drawing conclusions: The managers who read the
report are expecting to see interpretive conclusions in the report. The researcher must
therefore understand the results and be able to interpret these. Simply reiterating facts
will not do, and the researcher must ask him/herself all the time "So what?"; what are
the implications. If the researcher is comparing the client's product with that of a
competitor, for example, and reports that 60 percent of respondents preferred brand A
to brand B, then this is a description of the results and not an interpretation of them.
Such a statement does not answer the 'So what?' question.

The following outline is the suggested format for writing the research report:

· Title page
· Summary of findings
· Table of contents
· List of tables
· List of figures

Introduction

· Background to the research problem

· Objectives
· Hypotheses

Methodology-Data collection

· Sample and sampling method

· Statistical or qualitative methods used for data analysis
· Sample description

Findings

· Results, interpretation and conclusions.

The summary of findings is perhaps the most important component of the written report,
since many of the management team who are to receive a copy of the report will only
read this section. The summary of findings is usually put right after the title page, or is
bound separately and presented together with the report.

The introduction should describe the background of the study and the details of the
research problem. Following that, automatically the broad aim of the research can be
specified, which is then translated into a number of specific objectives. Furthermore, the
hypotheses that are to be tested in the research are stated in this section.

In the methodology chapter the sampling methods and procedures are described, as
well as the different statistical methods that are used for data analysis. Finally, the
sample is described, giving the overall statistics, usually consisting of frequency counts
for the various sample characteristics..

Once the sample has been described, the main findings are to be presented in such a
way that all objectives of the study are achieved and the hypotheses are tested. As
mentioned before, it is essential that the main findings are well interpreted and
conclusions are drawn wherever possible.

Data presentation

Easy-to-understand tables and graphics will greatly enhance the readability of the
written research report. As a general rule, all tables and figures should contain:

1. Identification number corresponding to the list of tables and the list of figures

2. A title that conveys the content of the table or figure, also corresponding to the list of
tables and the list of figures, and

3. Appropriate column labels and row labels for tables, and figure legends defining
specific elements in the figure.

There are a number of ways to produce tables and figures. When typing a report on a
typewriter or word-processor, it is sometimes easiest to type a table out by hand.
However, when complicated tables have to be produced, it is advisable to use
spreadsheet software like Lotus 123 or Excel.
Material 4: Outline of chapters and sections

TITLE PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I –Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
Statement of the problem
Purpose
Significance of the study
Research questions and/or hypotheses

CHAPTER II – Background
Literature review
Definition of terms

CHAPTER III - Methodology

Restate purpose and research questions or null hypotheses
Population and sampling
Instrumentation (include copy in appendix)
Procedure and time frame
Analysis plan (state critical alpha level and type of statistical tests)
Validity and reliability
Assumptions
Scope and limitations

CHAPTER IV - Results

CHAPTER V - Conclusions and recommendations

Summary (of what you did and found)
Discussion (explanation of findings - why do you think you found what you did?)
Recommendations (based on your findings)
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
Material 5: sample of research report

The Effects of Daily Life on Stress Levels

by Chad Clippingdale & Shannon Birk

Abstract

       Daily hassles, life experiences, and work are all predictors of stress, while sleep,
exercise, and social support have been found to reduce stress. To replicate these
findings, thirty participants, 15 males and 15 females (mean age of 30.4) were surveyed
with a variety of questionnaires. Significant positive correlations were found between
stress and the factors of daily hassles, life experiences, and work hours, while social
support and stress were significantly negatively correlated. However, expected
relationships between sleep and stress, and between exercise and stress, were not
significant.

Introduction

       Stress is a part of everyday life (Weiten, 2001). We experience stress each day,
sometimes positively and sometimes negatively. Without stress life would be dull;
however, we must learn to cope with all forms of stress to prevent it affecting our
psychological and physical health (Weiten, 2001).

       Kohn, Lafreniere & Gurevich (as cited in Weiten, 2001) found that routine daily
hassles can have a significant effect on our mental health. Although minor hassles
alone may not be stressful, many hassles may build up and overwhelm an individual,
causing stress. Also, Holmes & Rahe (as cited in Weiten, 2001) and others have found
that changes in life, positive or negative, require adjustment. During this time of
adjustment, one may be more susceptible to stress. More changes in one's life may
increase one's susceptibility to stress. However, not all life experiences are stressful.
Social support is very important to reducing stress (House, Landis & Umberson, 1988).
Having someone to listen and give empathy helps to justify our feelings and makes us
feel better. According to Davis, Morris & Kraus (1998), there is an inverse correlation
between social support and mental health.

       Exercise and getting a good night sleep are also very important to coping with
stress. Exercise provides an opportunity to release frustrations and increases resistance
to stress, while sleep deprivation decreases it. When deprived of sleep, one might
under-perform on cognitive tasks, which itself may increase stress levels (Weiten,
2001).

       Work stress is another important factor that has been the subject of much research.
Weiten (2001) noted that "pressure has turned out to be more strongly related to
measures of mental health than the SSRS" (p. 534), a measure of life change. A heavy
workload, a hectic work schedule, a poor work environment, and low job security are all
factors that can cause stress at work (Weiten, 2001). When one spends longer hours
exposed to these factors, stress levels may become greater.

       This study was designed to replicate past research and investigate the correlations
between stress and daily hassles; social support; life experiences; exercise; sleep; and
work levels.

Method

Participants
       There were 30 participants in this study, 15 men and 15 women. Ages ranged from
13 to 59. The mean age was 30.4. Participants were attending school, work, or both.

Materials
       Information was gathered using the Hassles Scale (Delongis, Folkman, & Lazarus,
1988), Life Experiences Survey (Sarason, Johnson, & Siegel, 1978), Stress Test
(Weiten, 2001), and Social Support Scale (Weiten, 2001). Participants were also asked
to report their average hours of work or school per week, average hours of sleep per
night, and average hours of exercise per week.

Procedure
       Each participant was asked to complete the questionnaire package. Confidentiality
was emphasized and participants were asked not to include their names. The
researchers then scored the tests and correlated the results using the Pearson product-
moment correlation.

Results

       Pearson product-moment correlations were computed to measure the relationship

between stress levels and the other factors studied. The following table presents the
findings.

Table 1

n = 30 ** p <.01, * p <.05

Correlations between Stress & Various

Stress Factors
Factors Stress
Daily Hassles .47**
Social support -.35*
Life experiences .42*
Weekly exercise -.08
Hrs of sleep -.21
Hrs of work .39*
       Daily hassles, life experiences, and hours of work were all significantly correlated
with stress. This indicates significant positive relationships exist between these factors
and stress levels. As hassles, life experiences, or work hours increase, so does stress.

       The correlation between social support and stress was r = -.35 (p<.05), indicating a
significant negative relationship between the two. (That is, lower levels of social support
are associated with higher levels of stress, and vice versa).

       However, the correlations between exercise and stress (r= -.08) and between sleep
and stress (r = -.21) were not significant.

Discussion

       The finding of a significant positive correlation (r = +.47, p < .01) between daily
hassles and stress levels supports Kohn et al.'s research on the stress effects of daily
hassles (as cited in Weiten, 2001). One hassle by itself may be small and insignificant,
but when hassles start to build up they may cause a great deal of stress. The finding of
a negative correlation (r = -.35, p < .05) between social support and stress also supports
past research (Davis, Morris & Kraus, 1998; House, Landis & Umberson, 1988). Social
support can be very important in reducing stress because it allows people to talk about,
and have others listen to their problems.

       The significant positive correlation (r = +.42, p < .05) between life experience and
stress also supports Holmes & Rahe's research (as cited in Weiten, 2001) that the more
changes in life one has, the more susceptible to stress one becomes.

       The significant positive correlation (r = +.39, p < .05) between work hours and
stress supports Weiten's (2001) research on the subject. The work environment can be
a very stressful place and the more time one spends there, the higher their stress levels
may become.

       However, the absence of the expected inverse correlation between exercise
(Brown, 1991) and stress was unexpected. Brown has shown that exercise can be
beneficial to reducing stress levels. Perhaps more participants were needed in order to
show an accurate correlation. Social desirability bias (Weiten, 2001) may also have
been a factor. The participants may have reported the amount of exercise that they
believed to be socially acceptable instead of the amount of exercise they actually did.

       The negative correlation between sleep and stress was not significant (r = -.21). A
stronger, more significant correlation was expected. A good night's sleep is essential to
resisting stress. One reason for these results might be that hours of sleep in this survey
were all around eight hours, while stress levels were scattered over a much larger
range. Again, the small sample size might be a factor; more participants might increase
the accuracy of the results.

References
Brown, J. D. (1991). Staying fit and staying well: Physical fitness as a moderator of life
stress [Abstract]. Journal of
       Psychology and Social Psychology, 60, 555-561.

Davis, M. H., Morris, M. M., & Kraus, L. A. (1998). Relationship-specific and global
perception of social support:
       Associations with well-being and attachments. Journal of Psychology and Social
Psychology, 74, 468-481. 

Delongis, A., Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). The impact of daily stress on health
and mood: Psychological
       and social resources as mediators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
54, 486-496.

House, J. S., Landis, K. R. & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health.
Science, 241, 540-545.

Sarason, I. G., Johnson, J. H., Siegel, J. M. (1978). Assessing the impact of life
changes: Development of
       the Life Experiences Survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46,
943-946.

Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and variations (2nd Cdn. ed.). Toronto:
Wadsworth.
outline chapter and guideline how to organize format
section consider the title premilinary section
title page audience abstract main body
table of content precise introduction review of related
chapter 1,2,3... understand result statement of problem literature
references and draw conclusion purpose design of the study
appendix statement of analysis of data
hipothesis summary and
method conclusion
analysis of data reference section
summary and
conclusion
appendix
Mind map
 TYPE OF REPORT: LABORATORY REPORT

Material 1: format

Lab Report Format

Lab reports should be word-processed and should begin with a cover page containing
the lab title, number, the date, team members names, and the name of your lab
instructor. The body of the report should be the original writing of team members. Team
reports must NOT be written by a single team member. All team members must
contribute to the writing of the report and it must be clear who wrote which part, either
with a table of contents with authors indicated for each section or subsection, or by
member names typed by each section heading. Each team member will receive both a
team grade and an individual grade for the report.

The report should have the following sections:

Abstract

The purpose of the abstract is to provide a brief overview of the report. In your own
words, state the purpose of the laboratory exercise, the basic concepts covered, a very
brief (one or two sentences) overview of the procedure followed, and a brief summary of
the actual results. Be specific about results - do not use phrases like "it worked". Be
very careful NOT to copy text from the lab handout. The abstract should be one or two
paragraphs of text.

Introduction

The introduction should introduce the reader to the topic of the lab and provide any
technical background material that is required to make the laboratory report complete.
Usually the concepts in the prelab are appropriate for the introduction. The introduction
should discuss concepts rather than procedure or results. Be sure to include all figures,
equations, and tables necessary to understand the rest of the lab report, but do not refer
to the RESULTS of the lab here. Also, do NOT simply refer to your prelab. A typical
introduction is about 1 or 2 pages of text and figures.

Procedure

Although the procedure section of your lab handout may be very long and detailed, the
procedure section of your report should be concise and only include the major parts of
the procedure. You should summarize each of the major parts of the procedure in your
own words. Please write this in paragraph form rather than list format. You do not have
to include all the detailed instructions - for those the reader can be referred to the lab
handout. Include the procedure of any exercises that are requested at the end of the lab
handout. The procedure section should be a few paragraphs and no longer than one
page. Remember to use past tense since you are reporting on the procedure you
followed.

Results

In this section you should include the results of the procedure, including the exercises at
the end of the lab handout. The results section will have subsections if there are more
than one result to present.  The results section will typically include VHDL code,
equations, delay results, circuit diagrams, simulation commands and waveforms. All
results must be explained and discussed - this means you should answer the
question "are these results what one expects or predicts?" with a complete
answer. It is best if the discussion is next to the figure or table illustrating the result in
the report. However, results that span more than one page, such as a VHDL program,
should be included at the end of the report as part of the appendices. You should
number and title each figure and table, including those in the appendix. Use the
numbers to refer to these results when you discuss them. If the figure or table is
included in the appendix, also refer to the page number where the reader can find it.
Conclusion

In this section you should write about the concepts that you learned in the laboratory
and how they relate to other aspects of the course or digital design in general. If you
experienced problems or obtained data that was incorrect, here is where you might
elaborate on the causes and ideas for solutions.

Appendices

Long report files and other material that is referred to in the report, but too large to
include within the report body, should be attached. Also, attach your original prelab work
and the lab handout to the end of the lab.
Material 2: how to write

Title Page

This should be the first (cover) page of the report.  When writing the title page of a lab
report, the following should be included:

1.  The title of the experiment.

2.  The students name in full.
3.  The instructor or person for whom the lab report is being compiled.
4.  The date on which the experiment was performed or the date the lab report was
written.

Introduction Page

Under this heading should be an overview of what the experiment was about.  A sound
definition of what was learned about the process being carried out during the
experiment should be included.

Materials and Methods

This section should contain a description, in the students own words, of the
experimental procedure that was followed in the performance of the experiment.  The
materials and methods section should be complete enough so that another student with
the same background, but unfamiliar with the experiment, could perform the same
experiment without additional instructions.  Procedures and equipment used should be
written in a sentence form.  Do not list!
 
 

Results

The result section should contain raw data.  Raw data consist of actual measured
values recorded during the experiment.  Use tables to present this information.  All
tables should have descriptive titles, and they should show the units of data entries
clearly.  The data section should also contain any graphs that are required.  This is an
effective method for communicating experimental results.  The following steps should
be taken into consideration while plotting a graph:

1.  Do not use tiny dots, use symbols like X or O.

2.  Do not draw a series of straight line segments between experimental data points
plotted on
     a graph.  The purpose of many of the experiments is to verify theoretical
relationships
     between variables.
3.  All graphs should have descriptive titles.  These titles should tell what the graph is
intended to show.  Each axis of a graph should be labeled with the variable and unit it
represents. Always use graph paper and always label graph coordinate lines so that it is
easy to see how many units each division represents.
 

Discussions and Conclusions

This is the interpretation-and-conclusion of your report.  This section should include the
following:

1.  How the conduct of the experiment met the objectives.

2.  What took place during the process.
3.  All questions should be answered within this section in a very logical and clear
manner. The questions should be put into statement form.
4.  The conclusions should be relevant to the experiment that was performed and
should be based on facts learned as a result of the experiment.
5.  You should also include any recommendations that you feel would improve the
experimental   procedure.  If you have any further investigations that might be
suggested by the data, you should also include them here.
 
Material 3: Tables, Graphs and Equations

All tables, graphs and equations should be introduced by a sentence of explanation.

Theyshould also have an explanatory label. The labels should be executed using the
sameformatting and numbered sequentially throughout the report. Units and variables
mustalways be identified (see sample lab report).

Don't expect figures or equations to serve where sentences and paragraphs are
needed.

Visual and verbal descriptions must always go together. There are two reasons for this
coupling: first, it assures that the information contained in the report is clear; second, it
allows the author of the report to take credit for interpreting the significance of the data.

Good reports will demonstrate to readers that the author is more than just
atechnician plugging numbers.

Objective

The “objective” of the lab is RARELY, IF EVER, to learn how to use a piece of

equipment (the exception is the oscilloscope experiment for Physics 221). Use action

verbs such as “investigate”, “determine”, “measure”, or “plot” in stating your objective.

Equations

Equations should be embedded in the text of report and formatted using the “Equation

Editor” tool on your word processor, as in the following example:

Using the results listed in Table 1, a percentage difference was calculated for each set
of readings taken by the two different instruments (the CMM and VernierCalipers).
Section Headings

Use separate headings for each section. The headings should be in bold type. The
formatused for the headings should be consistent throughout the report. Allow space
betweensections.

Language

A GUIDE TO LABORATORY REPORT WRITING

As you edit your report, delete unnecessary words, rewrite unclear phrases and clean
up grammatical errors.
Material 4: Checklist
The checklist is designed to assist you to write a complete, professional-quality report. It
will help you to ensure that all essential information is included in the appropriate place,
and that the report has been prepared in the proper format. Careful use of the checklist
will result in better grades. You must submit a completed, signed checklist with
eachreport.
The graders will pay special attention to the checklist. The following rules will apply:
• A report submitted without a checklist attached at the front will not be graded, and
no credit will be given for that report.
• If an item on the list is not checked, this will indicate to the grader that it has not
been addressed in the report, and the appropriate number of points will be
deducted.
• If an item has been checked, but has been covered only partially, or incorrectly, in
the report, partial credit will be given with an explanation of the omission or error.
• If an item has been checked but it has not been addressed in the report, grading
will be discontinued, and no credit will be given for the report, on grounds of
unethical behavior.
Material 5: sample of lab report

Temperature and Pressure Measurements of an Ideal Gas

That Is Heated in a Closed Container

Introduction

This report discusses an experiment to study the relationship of temperature and

pressure of an ideal gas (air) that was heated in a closed container. Because the ideal
gas was in a closed container, its volume remained constant. The objective of the
experiment is to test whether the ideal equation of state holds. In the equation,

pV = mRT,

where p is the pressure the gas, V is the volume, m is the mass, R is a constant, and T
is temperature. This report presents the procedures for the experiment, the experiment's
results, and an analysis of those results.

Procedures

In this experiment, air (an ideal gas) was heated in a pressure vessel with a volume of 1
liter. Attached to this pressure vessel was a pressure transducer and thermocouple to
measure the pressure and the temperature, respectively, of the air inside the vessel.
Both of these transducers produced voltage signals (in Volts) that were calibrated to the
pressure (kPa) and temperature (K) of the air (the atmospheric pressure for where the
experiment occurred is assumed to be 13.6 psia). In addition, the theoretical
temperature (K) of air was calculated as a function of the measured pressured values
(kPa).
Results and Discussion

This section analyses the results of the experiment. The experiment went as expected
with no unusual events that would have introduced error. The voltages as measured for
the pressure and temperature transducers appear in Table A-1 of the Appendix. Also
included in the Appendix are the equations used for calibrating those voltages with the
actual pressures and temperatures. These equations led to the values of pressure and
temperature that are shown the third and fourth columns of Table A-1. From these
values, a graph between temperature (K) and pressure (kPa) was created (Figure A-1).
As can be seen from the graph, the relationship of temperature versus pressure is
roughly linear.

As part of this experiment, the theoretical values of temperature were calculated for
each measured pressure value. In this calculation, which used the ideal gas equation,
the volume and mass were assumed to be constant. These theoretical values of
temperature are shown in the final column of Table A-1. From this final column arose
Figure A-2, a graph of ideal temperature (K) versus pressure (kPa). As shown in this
graph, the relationship between temperature and pressure is exactly linear.

A comparison between the graph showing measured data (Figure A-1) and the graph
showing theoretical data (Figure A-2) reveals differences. In general, the measured
values of temperature are lower than the ideal values, and the measured values are not
exactly linear. Several errors could explain the differences: precision errors in the
pressure transducer and the thermocouple; bias errors in the calibration curve for the
pressure transducer and the thermocouple; and imprecision in the atmospheric
pressure assumed for the locale. The bias errors might arise from the large temperature
range considered. Given that the temperature and pressure ranges are large, the
calibration equations between the voltage signals and the actual temperatures and
pressures might not be precise for that entire range. The last type of error mentioned,
the error in the atmospheric error for the locale where the experiment occurred is a bias
error that could be quite significant, depending on the difference in conditions between
the time of the experiment and the time that the reference measurement was made.

Conclusion

Overall, the experiment succeeded in showing that temperature and pressure for an
ideal gas at constant volume and mass follow the relation of the ideal gas equation.
Differences existed in the experimental graph of temperature versus and pressure and
the theoretical curve of temperature versus pressure. These differences, however, can
be accounted for by experimental error.

Appendix: Experimental Data and Plots

This appendix presents the data, calculations, and graphs from the experiment to verify
the ideal gas equation. The first two columns of Table A-1 show the measured voltages
from the pressure transducer and the temperature transducer. Column three shows the
measured values of pressures calculated from the following calibration curve for the
pressure transducer:

p = 4.3087(V·V) - 13.1176V + 10.7276

where V equals the voltage output (volts) from pressure transducer, and p equals the
absolute pressure (kPa). Column four presents the measured values of temperature (K)
calculated from the calibration curve for the thermocouple:

T = Tref + V/S

where Tref equals the ice bath reference temperature (0°C), V equals the voltage (volts)
measured across the thermocouple pair, and S equals the thermocouple constant, 42.4
µV/°C. Finally, column 5 presents the ideal values of temperature for the corresponding
measured values of pressure. These ideal values arise from the ideal gas equation
(PV=mrt). Figure A-1 shows the graph of temperature (K) versus pressure (kPa) for the
measured case. Figure A-2 shows the graph of temperature versus pressure for the
ideal case.

Table A-1.Data From Experiment

Voltagepr Voltagete Pressureme Temperatureme Temperatureid

es (V) mp (V) as (kPa) as (K) eal (K)

6.32 0.0011 99.90 298.94 312.17

6.39 0.0020 102.81 320.32 321.28

6.78 0.0031 119.82 346.26 374.44

7.31 0.0046 145.04 381.64 453.24

7.17 0.0052 138.14 395.79 431.69

7.35 0.0064 147.04 424.09 459.50

7.45 0.0073 152.11 445.32 475.32

7.56 0.0078 157.78 457.11 493.04

7.66 0.0097 163.02 501.92 509.43

8.06 0.0107 184.86 525.51 577.69

8.10 0.0114 187.12 542.02 584.75

8.34 0.0130 200.97 579.75 628.03

Figure A-1. Temperature versus pressure, as measured by the transducers.

Figure A-2. Temperature versus pressure, as calculated from the ideal gas
equation.
objection
equation
Equations
section heading
Tables, Graphs and
language
title page
introduction page
materials and method
how to write
result
discussion and conclusion
title
abstract
introduction format
procedure
result
appendices
Mind map
Vitamin C

Introductions

Vitamin C is an essential nutrient for humans and certain other animal species, in which
it functions as a vitamin. Ascorbate (an ion of ascorbic acid) is required for a range of
essential metabolic reactions in all animals and plants. It is made internally by almost all
organisms; notable mammalian group exceptions are most or all of the order chiroptera
(bats), and one of the two major primate suborders, the Anthropoidea (Haplorrhini)
(tarsiers, monkeys and apes, including mankind). Ascorbic acid is also not synthesized
by guinea pigs and some species of birds and fish. All species that do not synthesize
ascorbate require it in the diet. Deficiency in this vitamin causes the disease scurvy in
humans. Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C, which is required
for the synthesis of collagen in humans. The chemical name for vitamin C, ascorbic
acid, is derived from the Latin name of scurvy, scorbutus, which also provides the
adjective scorbutic ("of, characterized by or having to do with scurvy"). Scurvy leads to
the formation of spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from the mucous
membranes. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with
the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy
there are open, suppurating wounds and loss of teeth.

Scurvy was at one time common among sailors, pirates and others aboard ships at sea
longer than perishable fruits and vegetables could be stored (subsisting instead only on
cured and salted meats and dried grains) and by soldiers similarly separated from these
foods for extended periods. It was described by Hippocrates (c. 460 BC–c. 380 BC),
and herbal cures for scurvy have been known in many native cultures since prehistory.
Scurvy was one of the limiting factors of marine travel, often killing large numbers of the
passengers and crew on long-distance voyages. This became a significant issue in
Europe from the beginning of the modern era in the Age of Discovery in the 15th
century, continuing to play a significant role through World War I in the 20th century.

Notably, scurvy is today understood as a straightforward nutritional deficiency – lack of

vitamin C, full stop – but until the isolation of vitamin C and its direct link to scurvy in
1932, numerous theories and treatments were proposed, often on little or no
experimental data. This inconsistency is attributed to the lack of vitamin C as a distinct
concept, the varying vitamin C content of different foods (notably present in fresh citrus,
watercress, and organ meat), and how vitamin C can be destroyed by exposure to air
and copper. For our information, we can calculate the concentration / percentage of
vitamin C in fruit. Below is an experiment to identify the vitamin C content in fruit juices.
Topic Vitamin C content in fruit juices.

Aim : To identify the content f Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in fruit juices.

Theory : The greater the volume of fruit required to turn the DCPIP solution

colourless, the lower the content of vitamin C in that fruit juice.

Variables :

a) Manipulated : the volume of fruit required to turn the DCPIP solution to

colourless.
b) Responding : content (percentage/concentration) of vitamin C
c) Constant : Initial volume of each juice.

Materials : 0.1% ascorbic acid solution, DichlorophinolindoPhenol (DCPIP) solution,

lemon juice, pineapple juice and papaya juice.

Apparatus : Specimen tubes, syringes and measuring cylinder (5ml).

Method :

1. Four specimen tubes were labeled as A, B, C and D.

2. 1 ml of DCPIP solution was placed in each specimen tube.
3. A syringe is filled with 5 ml of ascorbic acid solution.
4. The needle of the syringe is then was immersed in the DCPIP
5. Next, the ascorbic acid solution is added to the DCPIP solution drop-by-drop. Th
tube is then shaken slowly. A precaution step is taken that the tube cannot be
shaking vigorously.
6. The amount of ascorbic acid solution is recorded to turn the DCPIP solution to
colourless.
7. The steps 2 to 6 were repeated using lemon juice, papaya juice and pineapple
juice.
8. The percentage and concentration of vitamin C in these three types of fruit juices
were calculated using the formulae below :

Percentage of vitamin C = volume of 0.1% ascorbic acid solution x 0.1

Volume of fruit juice

Concentration of vitamin C = volume of 0.1% ascorbic acid solution mg cm -3

Volume of fruit juice
 Results:

Initial Final Volume Percentage of Concentration

Solution volume (ml) volume (ml) used (ml) vitamin C (%) of vitamin C
(mg cm-3)

Ascorbic acid 5.0 4.0 1.0 - -

Lemon juice 5.0 2.5 2.5 0.04 0.4

Pineapple juice 5.0 1.4 3.6 0.03 0.3

Papaya juice 5.0 0.8 4.2 0.02 0.2

Discussions:

The DCPIP solution turns to colourless because of the reactions with the
reducing agent (ascorbic acid) which is strong reducing agent.

The tube cannot be shaken vigorously when the ascorbic solution or the fruit
juice is added to the DCPIP solution because the oxygen at atmosphere will
oxidize with the content. This will affect the percentage of the juice.

The relationship between the content of vitamin C in the fruit juice with the
volume of fruit juice required to turn the DCPIP solution to colourless is :

“The greater the volume of fruit required to turn the DCPIP solution colourless,
the lower the content of vitamin C in that fruit juice”

Conclusion :

The hypothesis/ theory are accepted. The greater the volume of fruit required to turn the
DCPIP solution colourless, the lower the content of vitamin C in that fruit juice. This also
proves that we can calculate the content of vitamin C in each fruit juices. Remember
that our body needs vitamin C. So, taking of vitamin C is very important. Lack of this
vitamin will trigger our health, contributing to scurvy disease.
Reference :

1) Kee Bee Suan, Pelangi Sdn. Bhd, Biology Latihan 2U, vitamin C content, 2007.

CONCLUSION:

Report writing is an important task. It is essential for communication, which is necessary

for maintaining transparency. The tips and guidelines here about writing reports are
valuable to workers at all levels, from the field to headquarters.

Avoid the passive voice. Know your audience and the needs of your readers. Organize
your reports by using an outline and by using subtitles. Write concisely (briefly but
completely). Write in easy to read, simple language.

Good reports are extremely valuable; bad reports are those that are not read. Use these
tips to improve your own report writing skills, and to train and supervise field workers.
 REFLECTION

By: Muhammad zulfikri

Finally, I had done my short coursework assignment completely. Through out this
coursework, I can highlight strengths and the weaknesses when doing this
assignment .. It became more interesting when doing works in group because we can
share ideas together and helps each others.

Although I had my own strength, but I had my own weaknesses in complete this task .
In the beginning, I felt the task was so hard for me and for my group to do it. It was
because a lot of assignment we need pass up before the holiday begin.. It was make
my confidence level down to do it as well as I can because I need to stay up until the
middle night to ensure this course work completely well.. Also, I had need to deal with
not enough time to complete the task. As a student, I need to do many assignments in
the same time and with the same date of submission.

From the assignment in group work, I had gained many knowledge, experience and
new skills. We learn about how to write a report, we learn how to prepare, write and
present effective report also we learn how to make report abstract.

To getting better reports .It seems, sometimes, that mobilizers and facilitators just do
not occupy the same universe as report writers. Perhaps it is because mobilizing and
facilitating is a very verbal occupation, and one where the action and the results are the
main focus. Reflecting, remembering and recording seem to be put at a lower priority
than the current action.
If you are a coordinator depending upon your field workers' reports in order to make
your own observations and assessment, then this can be very frustrating. It is time you
paid some attention to stimulating and discussing the need for good reports with your
field workers.

Similarly, if you are a community mobilizer, and depend upon reports from
representatives of your client communities, you need to find ways to encourage them to
write useful reports. Further, if you are anyone who needs reports in order to complete
your own work, you need to find ways to encourage and to guide good report writing.

It is easier than you might imagine.

At least once or twice a year, if you invest in one-day workshops about report writing,
you will obtain returns on you investment with value far greater than the costs. If you
use participatory training methods, and draw the answers out of the participants, you
can energize, and re-energize those from whom you want to receive reports.

If, in contrast, you neglect to inform them of the importance of report writing, they will
repay you with equal neglect in writing them. Treat your field staff (community leaders,
volunteers) with a one-day report-writing workshop; you will be happy if you do.

The main topics you want to cover are:

 Why write reports? (How important is the task?);

 Who should receive reports?
 What should reports contain? (Content; what are the different kinds of reports?);
 How should reports be organized? and
 How can we write better reports? (How can we make report writing easier?)

The documents in this module guide you in leading your participants to answering these
questions. Although two of the documents differ between report writing for mobilizers
and report writing for coordinators, the principles remain the same. By organizing
workshops and training sessions for those from whom you wish to receive reports, you
will stimulate them and guide them in writing reports that will be read, that will have
some effects, that will be easy to read, and that will be on time.

As conclusion, i got a lot of positive knowledge for my future from doing this
coursework. I will not forget to share this knowledge to another people. Thanks a lot to
my lecturer, and other my entire friend who constribute me to complete the task and had
gave me a full support for me.

REFLECTION

By: rozaini

From this activity, I see that this assignment is very hard at the first time. In this
coursework, it gave a wide theme and we don’t know what theme and our topic to
choose. After discussion, we choose health and fitness as our theme. It is very hard at
the first time as we have to distribute our work and discuss this problem but finally we
can solve this work together .So, it is important to have a group discussion with our
friends in order to get the best decision among us.

Other than that, what I can learn is I can learn that there are many type of report
in English language. There are many type of report such as research report, scientific
report, laboratory report and many more. Here also we can know the type of report and
also a few example of this type of report that we choose.

It is also difficult to make an article as I am not really used to it. I thought that to
make an article is very hard but it is not hard as I thought. To make an article in the
coursework, it teaches me on how to make a good essay about the article. Besides, I
can improve my grammar in English language as we had to find the information and I
had found so many new vocabularies and the way they make a good sentence to
elaborate about a point
 Reflection

BY: Sahibul Amin Bin Wardi

In all task, there also have the strengths and weaknesses. It is a usual thing. Let’s talk
about the weaknesses first. In task 3, the weaknesses is speechless, cannot elaborates
and hard to give supporting details (mind blocking). This is the common thing when I do
some oral presentation in front of the other. Thus, to overcome these problems, I had
prepared enough by understanding/learning well before presenting.

I also take some solutions by find other materials in many sources related to the report
to make my understanding better. Another way I find the meaning from the book/online
dictionary. In addition, I do not have enough self-confident to speak in front of others
and some of pronounciations are difficult.

The strengths in this task are we prepared it by group. Therefore it is easily for us to get
information by sharing/gathering/compile the information together. Working in teamwork
is better than working by self.

After have gone through this task, I realize that I had improve some of my skills in the
aspect of reading and writing skills majority.
 BORANG REKOD KOLABORASI KERJA KURSUS

Nama Pelajar : MUHAMMAD ZULFIKRI BIN MOHD YUSOF

Kumpulan : SN/BI/BM

Semester :2

Tahun : 2010

Kursus : 2PPISMP

Pensyarah Pembimbing : DR. ZAINAL ABIDIN BIN ABDUL HAMID

Tarikh Perkara yang Komen Tandatangan

dibincangkan

7/9/2010 Penerangan kerja

kursus

11/9/2010 Perbincangan
kumpulan dan
pembahagian tugas

12/9/2010 – Pencarian maklumat

18/9/2010
 20/9/2010– Penyediaan rekod
maklumat tugasan
27/9/2010 dan pembentangan

9/10/2010 Penyerahan tugasan

BORANG REKOD KOLABORASI KERJA KURSUS

Nama Pelajar : ROZAINI BIN ZULKIFFLE

Kumpulan : SN/BI/BM

Semester :2

Tahun : 2010

Kursus : 2PPISMP

Pensyarah Pembimbing : DR. ZAINAL ABIDIN BIN ABDUL HAMID

Tarikh Perkara yang Komen Tandatangan

dibincangkan

7/9/2010 Penerangan kerja

kursus

11/9/2010 Perbincangan
kumpulan dan
pembahagian tugas

12/9/2010 – Pencarian maklumat

18/9/2010
 20/9/2010– Penyediaan rekod
maklumat tugasan
27/9/2010 dan pembentangan

9/10/2010 Penyerahan tugasan

BORANG REKOD KOLABORASI KERJA KURSUS

Nama Pelajar : SAHIBUL AMIN BIN WARDI

Kumpulan : SN/BI/BM

Semester :2

Tahun : 2010

Kursus : 2PPISMP

Pensyarah Pembimbing : DR. ZAINAL ABIDIN BIN ABDUL HAMID

Tarikh Perkara yang Komen Tandatangan

dibincangkan

7/9/2010 Penerangan kerja

kursus

11/9/2010 Perbincangan
kumpulan dan
pembahagian tugas

12/9/2010 – Pencarian maklumat

18/9/2010
 20/9/2010– Penyediaan rekod
maklumat tugasan
27/9/2010 dan pembentangan

9/10/2010 Penyerahan tugasan

REFERENCES
Reports or an explanation about them:

1. ^ Moeller, Robert (2007). COSO Enterprise Risk Management: Understanding

the New Integrated ERM Framework. Wiley. ISBN 0471741159.

 Link, Morton and Hill, Winfrey (1970). Hill-Link Minority Report of the Presidential
Commission on Obscenity and Pornography. Random House.
 United States Immigration Commission (1911). Abstracts Of Reports Of The
Immigration Commission, With Conclusions And Recommendations And Views
Of The Minority. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1436616131.

The process of writing reports:

 Blicq, Ronald (2003). "Technically-Write!". Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131148788.

 Gerson, Sharon and Gerson, Steven (2005). Technical Writing: Process and
Product. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131196642.
 Lannon, John (2007). Technical Communication. Longman. ISBN 0205559573.