Chapter 12 Inventory

Management
WHAT IS INVENTORY?
Inventory = accumulations of materials, customers or information as they flow
through processes or networks.
Physical inventory = accumulation of physical materials
Queues = accumulations of customers
Databases = accumulations of digital information

All processes, operations and supply networks have inventories

Most things that flow do so in an uneven way. Its the same in operations. Because
most operations involve flows of materials, customers and/or information, at some
point in time they are likely to have material and information inventories and queues
of customers waiting to be processes.
Inventories are often a result of uneven flows. If there is a difference between the
timing of the rate of supply and demand at any point in a process or network, then
accumulations will occur. When the rate of supply exceeds the rate of demand,
inventory increases; when the rate of demand exceeds the rate of supply, inventory
decreases.

Inventories of information can either be stored because of uneven flow, in the same
way as materials or people, or stored because the operation needs to use the
information to process something in the future. A database thus is the accumulation
of information but may not cause an interruption to the flow. Managing databases is
about the organization of the data, its storage, security and retrieval.

WHY SHOULD THERE BE ANY INVEOTRY?

See table 12.2, page 372 (reasons to avoid inventory)

So why have inventory?

Physical inventory is an insurance against uncertainty
Inventory can act as a buffer against unexpected fluctuations in supply and demand.
It can also compensate for the uncertainties in the process of the supply of goods
into the store.

Physical inventory can counteract a lack of flexibility

Where a wide range of customer options is offered, unless the operation is perfectly
flexible, stock will be needed to ensure supply when it is engaged on other activities.
This is called cycle inventory. So, even when demand is steady and predictable,
there will always be some inventory to compensate for the intermittent supply of
different types of products.

Physical inventory allows operations to take advantage of short-term

opportunities
Sometimes opportunities arise that necessitate accumulating inventory, even when
there is no immediate demand for it. (price-advantage etc.)
Physical inventory can be used to anticipate future demands
Medium-term capacity management may use inventory to cope with demand.
Rather than trying to make a product only when it is needed, it is produced
throughout the year ahead of demand and put into inventory until it is needed. This
type of inventory is called finished goods inventory.

Physical inventory can reduce overall costs

Holding relatively large inventories may bring savings that are greater than the cost
of holding the inventory. This may be when bulk-buying gets the lowest possible cost
of inputs, or when large order quantities reduce both the number of orders placed
and the associated cost of administration and material handling.

Physical inventory can increase value

Sometimes the items held as inventory can increase in value and so become an
investment.

Physical inventory fills the processing pipeline

Pipeline inventory exists because transformed resources cannot be moved
instantaneously between the point of supply and the point of demand.

Queues of customers help balance capacity and demand

This is especially useful if the main service is expensive. By waiting a short time
after their arrival, and creating a queue of customers, service always has customers
to process.

Queues of customers enable prioritization

In cases where resources are fixed and customers are entering the system with
different levels of priority, the formation of a queue allows the organization to serve
urgent customers while keeping other less urgent ones waiting.

Queues gives customers time to choose

Time spend in a queue gives customers time to decide what product/service they
require.

Queues enable efficient use of resources

By allowing queues to form customers can be batched together to make efficient
use of operational resources.

Databases provide efficient multi-level access

Databases are relatively cheap ways of storing information and providing many
people with access, although there may be restrictions or different levels of access.

Databases of information allow single data capture

There is no need to capture data at every transaction with a customer or supplier,
through checks may be required.

Databases of information speed the process

Reducing physical inventory (see table 12.3, page 375)

The effect of inventory on return on assets
One can summarize the effects of financial performance of an operation by looking
at how some of the factors of inventory management impact on return on assets.
Inventory governs the operations ability to supply its customers. The absence
of inventory means that customers are not satisfied with the possibility of
reduced revenue
Inventory may become obsolete as alternatives become available, or could be
damaged, deteriorate, or simply get lost. This increases costs and reduces
revenues
Inventory incurs storage costs. This could be high if items are hazardous to
store.
Inventory involves administrative and insurance costs. Every time a delivery
is ordered, time and costs are incurred.
Inventory ties up money, in the form of working capital, which is therefore
unavailable for other uses, such as reducing borrowings or making investment
in productive fixed assets.
Inventory contracts with suppliers can dictate the timing of when suppliers
need to be paid. If they require paying before the operation receives payment
from its customers, the difference between the amount the operation owes
suppliers and the amount suppliers owe the operation adds to working capital
requirements.
See figure 12.4, page 375

Day-today inventory decisions

Wherever inventory accumulates, operations managers need to manage the day-to-
day tasks of managing inventory. Orders will be received from internal or external
customers; these will be dispatched and demand will gradually deplete the
inventory. Orders will need to be placed for replenishment of stock; deliveries will
arrive and require storing. In managing the system, operations managers are
involved in three major types of decisions:
How much to order
When to order
How to control the system

HOW MUCH TO ORDER THE VOLUME DECISION

Inventory costs
In making a decision on how much to purchase, operations managers must try to
identify the costs which will affect some of the important components of return on
assets.
1. Costs of placing the order every time that an order is placed to replenish
stock, a number of transactions are needed which incur costs to the company.
2. Price discount costs often suppliers offer discounts for large quantities and
cost penalties for small orders.
3. Stock-out costs if we misjudge the order quantity decision and our inventory
runs out of stock, there will be lost in revenue of failing to supply customers.
4. Working capital costs after receiving a replenishment order, the supplier will
demand payment. Of course, eventually, after we supply our own customers,
we in turn will receive payment. However, there will probably be a lag
 between paying our suppliers and receiving payment from our customers.
During this time, we will have to fund the costs of inventory.
5. Storage costs these are the costs associated with physically storing the gods
6. Obsolescence costs when we order large quantities this usually results in
stocked items spending a long time stored in inventory. This increases the risk
that the items might either become obsolete or deteriorate with age.
7. Operating inefficiency costs according to just-in-time philosophies, high
inventory levels prevent us seeing the full extent of problems within the
operation.

The first three costs will decrease as an order size is increased. The next four
generally increase as order size increased.
Inventory profiles see figure 12.5, page 378
An inventory profile is a visual representation of the inventory level over time. Every
time an order is placed, Q items are ordered. The replenishment order arrives in one
batch instantaneously. Demand for the item is then steady and perfectly predictable
at rate of D units per month. When demand has depleted the stock of items entirely,
another order of Q items instantaneously arrives, and so on.
Under these circumstances:

The average inventory = Q/2

The time interval between deliveries = Q/D
The frequency of deliveries = the reciprocal of the time interval D/Q

The economic order quantity (EOW) formula

The most common approach to deciding how much of any particular item to order
when stock needs replenishing is called the economic order quantity (EOQ)
approach. This approach attempts to find the best balance between the advantages
and disadvantages of holding stock.
To find out whether a plan minimizes the total cost of stocking an item, we need
some further information, namely the total cost of holding one unit in stock for a
period of time (Ch) and the total cost of placing an order (C o).
Generally holding costs are taking into account by including:
Working capital costs
Storage costs
Obsolescence risk costs

Order costs are calculated by taking into account

Costs of placing the order
Price discount costs

Holding costs = holding cost/unit x average inventory

= Ch x Q/2

Ordering costs = ordering costs x number of orders per period

= Co x D/Q

ChQ CoD
So, total costs, Ct = 2 + Q

dCt Ch CoD dCt

= - Lowest cost =0
dQ 2 Q2 dQ

Q0 = EOQ = 2 CoD
Ch

EOQ
Time between orders = D
 D
Order frequency = EOQ

Sensitivity of the EOQ

Any relatively small deviation from the EOQ will not increase total costs significantly.
Costs will be near-optimum provided a value of Q which is reasonably close to the
EOQ is chosen. Small errors in estimating either holding costs or order costs will not
result in a significant deviation from the EOQ.

Gradual replacement the economic batch quantity (EBQ) model

In many cases, replenishment occurs over a time period rather than in one lot (read
part in book, page 382).

Maximum stock level = M

Inventory = P
Demand = D
Slope of inventory build-up = P-D

Slope of inventory build up = M : Q/P = MP/Q

Q( PQ)
So, MP/Q = P D M= P

Q(PD)
Average inventory level = M/2 = 2P

Total cost = holding costs + order costs

ChQ (PD) CoD dCt Ch( PD) CoD

Ct = + = - 2
2P Q dQ 2P Q

2 CoD
D
EBQ = Ch(1( )
P
) see worked example, page 385

Responding to the criticisms of EOQ

In order to keep EOQ-type models relatively straightforward, it was necessary to
make assumptions. These concerned such things as the stability of demand, the
existence of a fixed and identifiable ordering cost, that the cost of stockholding can
be expressed with a linear function, shortage costs which were identifiable, and so
on. Furthermore, the shape of the total cost curve has a relatively flat optimum point
which means that small errors will not significantly affect the total cost of a near-
optimum order quantity. However, all these assumptions post severe limitations to
the model.

Cost of stock
Other questions surrounding some of the assumptions made concerning the nature
of stock-related costs. Although many companies make a standard percentage
charge on the purchase price of stock items, this might not be appropriate over a
wide range of stock-holding levels. The marginal costs of increasing stockholding
levels might be merely the cost of the working capital involved. On the other hand, it
might necessitate to construction or lease of a whole new stock-holding facility.
Operations managers using an EOQ-type approach must check that the decisions
implied by the use of the formulae do not exceed the boundaries within which the
cost assumptions apply.

Using EOQ models as prescriptions

The EOQ tries to optimize order decisions. Implicitly the cost involved are taken as
fixed, in the sense that the task of operation managers is to find out what the true
costs are rather than to change them in any way. EOQ is essentially a reactive
approach. Some would argue it fails to ask the right question. Rather than asking the
EOQ question what is the optimum order quantity, operations managers should
really be asking how can I change the operation in some way so as to reduce the
overall level of inventory I need to hold. The EOQ approach may be a reasonable
description of stock holding cost but should not necessarily be taken as a strict
prescription over what decisions to take.

Should the cost of inventory be minimized?

Many organizations make most of their revenue and profits simply by holding and
supplying inventory. Because their main investment is in the inventory it is critical
that they make a good return on this capital, by ensuring that it has the highest
possible stock turn and/or gross profit margin. Alternatively, they may also be
concerned to maximize the use of space by seeking to maximize profit earned per
square meter. The EOQ model does not address these objectives. Similarly, for
products that go out of fashion, the EOQ model can result in excess inventory.

WHEN TO PLACE AN ORDER THE TIMING DECISION

If replenishment orders no not arrive instantaneously, but have a lag between the
order being placed and it arriving in the inventory, we can calculate the timing of a
replacement order (see figure 12.11).
However, this assumes that both the demand and the order lead time are perfectly
predictable. In most cases, of course, this is not so. Both demand and the order lead
time are likely to vary. In these circumstances it is necessary to make the
replenishment order somewhat earlier than would be the case in a purely
deterministic situation. This will result in, on average, some stock still being in the
inventory when the replenishment order arrives. This is buffer (safety) stock. The
earlier the replenishment order is placed, the higher will be the expected level of
safety stock (s). But because of the variability of both lead time (t) and demand rate
(d), there will sometimes be a higher-than-average level of safety stock and
sometimes lower. (see worked example, page 390)
Continuous and periodic review
Continuous review approach = there must be a process to review the stock level of
each item continuously and then place an order when the stock level reaches its re-
order level.
Timing irregular, order size (Q) constant and can be set at OEOQ

Continuous review can be time-consuming, especially when there are many stock
withdrawals compared with the average level of stock, but in an environment where
all inventory records are computerized, this should not be a problem unless the
records are inaccurate.

Periodic review approach = this approach orders at a fixed and regular time interval.
So the stock level of an item could be found, for example, at the end of every month
and a replenishment order placed to bring the stock up to a predetermined level.
This level is calculated to cover demand between the replenishment order being
placed and the following replenishment order arriving (see figure 12.14)
Timing regular, order size Q irregular

(read example book, page 391)

The time interval
The interval between placing orders, t1, is usually calculated on a deterministic
basis, and derived from the EOQ.

Optimum time interval, tf = EOQ/D

Two-bin and three-bin systems

The two-bin system involves storing the re-order point quantity plus the safety
inventory quantity in the second bin and using parts from the first bin. When the
first bin empties, that is the signal to order the next re-order quantity. Sometimes
the safety inventory is stored in a third bin (three-bin system), so it is clear when
demand is exceeding that which was expected.

HOW CAN INVENTORY BE CONTROLLED?

In order to control the complexity of inventory control, operations managers have to
do two things. First, they have to discriminate between different stocked items, so
that they can apply a degree of control to each item which is appropriate to its
importance. Second, they need to invest in an information-processing system which
can cope with their particular set of inventory control circumstances.

Inventory priorities the ABC system

In any inventory which contains more than one stocked item, some items will be
more important to the organization than others. One common way of discriminating
between different stock items is to rank them by the usage value (their usage rate
multiplied by their individual value). Items with a particular high usage value are
deemed to warrant the most careful control, whereas those with low usage values
need not to be controlled quite so rigorously.

Pareto Law 80/20 rule

Typically, 80 per cent of an operations sales are accounted for by only 20 per cent
of the stocked item types.

ABC inventory allows inventory managers to concentrate their efforts on controlling

the more significant items of stock:
Class A items are those 20 percent or so of high-usage-value items, which
account for around 80 per cent of the total usage value
Class B items are those of medium usage value, usually the next 30 per cent
of items, which often account for around 10 per cent of the total usage value
Class C items are those low-usage value items which, although comprising
around 50 per cent of the total types of items stocked, probably only account
for around 10 per cent of the total usage value of the operation
(see worked example, page 393-394)

Although annual usage and value are the two criteria most commonly used to
determine a stock classification system, other criteria might also contribute towards
the (higher) classification of an item:
Consequence of stockout. High priority might be given to those items which
would seriously delay or disrupt other operations, or the customers, if they
were not in stock.
 Uncertainty of supply. Some items, although of low value, might warrant more
attention if their supply is erratic or uncertain.
High obsolescence or deterioration risk. Items which could lose their value
might need attention
EXAMPLE: a part might be classed as A/B/A, meaning it is an A category item by
value, a class B item by consequence of stock-out and a class A item by
obsolescence risk.

Measuring Inventory
Monetary value can be used to measure the absolute level of inventory at any point
in time. This would involve taking the number of each item in stock, multiplying it by
its value and summing the value of all the individual items stored. This is a useful
measure of the investment that an operation has in its inventory but gives no
indication of how large that investment is relative to the total throughput of the
operation. To do this, we must compare the total number of items in stock against
their rate of usage. There are two ways of doing this:
1. Calculate the amount of time the inventory would last, subject to normal
demand, if it were not replenished (weeks cover of the stock)

Stock cover = stock / demand

2. Calculate how often the stock is used up in a period, usually one year
(turnover of stock)

Stock turn = demand / stock

(see worked example, page 396)

Inventory Information Systems

Updating stock records
Every time a transaction takes place, the position, status and possibly value of the
stock will have changed. This information must be recorded so that operations
managers can determine their current inventory status at any time.

Generating orders
The decisions how much to order and when, can both be made by a computerized
stock control system. The first decision, setting the value of how much to order (Q),
is likely to be taken only at relatively infrequent intervals. Almost all computer
systems automatically calculated order quantities based on the calculation
mentioned earlier but also more sophisticated algorithms are used. The system will
hold all the information which goes into the ordering algorithm but might
periodically check to see if demand or order lead times, or any of the other
parameters, have changed significantly and recalculate Q accordingly. The decision
on when to order, is far more routine which computer systems make according to
whatever decision rules operations managers have chosen to adopt: continuous or
periodic. Furthermore, the systems can automatically generate whatever
documentation is required, or even transmit the re-ordering information
electronically.

Generating inventory reports

Inventory control systems can generate regular reports of stock value for the
different items stored, which can help management monitor its inventory control
performance. Similarly, customer service performance can be regularly monitored

Forecasting
Inventory replenishment decisions should ideally be made with a clear
understanding of forecast future demand. The inventory control system can
compare actual demand against forecast and adjust the forecast in the light of
actual levels of demand.

Common problems with inventory systems

The above description of inventory systems are based on the assumptions:
a. operations have a reasonably accurate idea of costs
b. operations have accurate information that does indicate the actual level of stock
and sales

Data inaccuracy posed one of the most significant problems for inventory managers.
This is because computer-based inventory management systems are based on the
simple idea that stock records are (or should be) automatically updated every time
that items are recorded as having been received into inventory or taken out of the
inventory so:

Opening stock level + receipts in dispatches out = new stock level

Any errors in recording these transactions and/or in handling the physical inventory
can lead to discrepancies between the recorded and actual inventory, and these
errors are perpetuated until physical stock checks are made.

The underlying causes of errors include:

Keying errors; entering wrong product code
Quantity errors; miscount of items put into or taken from stock
Damaged or deteriorated inventory not recorded or not correctly deleted
Wrong items being taken out of stock, but records being not corrected
Delays between the transactions being made and records being updated
Items stolen from inventory