CGE 674

FORMATION EVALUATION

NUR SHUHADAH JAPPERI

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UiTM, SHAH ALAM
Nur Shuhadah Japperi profile
Office: BK3-A3-09
Email: [email protected]
Education Background:
BSc in Geology (UKM)
MSc in Petroleum Geology (UM)
Working Experience:
G&P Geotechnic Sdn. Bhd. (Geologist)
UITM (Lecturer)
Rules & Regulation
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REPLACEMENT for TEST/QUIZ will not be
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ABSENT
Without solid justification/ prove
 Rules & Regulation

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or PROJECT
1 Introduction
Outline

Logging History

Openhole Logging Acquisition

Principles of Openhole Logging Tools

GR, SP, Neutron, Density, Acoustic,
Resistivity, Induction

Other Sources of Subsurface Data

Learning Outcomes

After completing this chapter, you should be

able to:
- Describe the basic principle of formation
evaluation and well logging
- Explain the logging tools and their operating
principles.
- Discuss the basic log response of respective
logging tool.
Recall

Overview of a Reservoir System

Evaluation from
Log Data

1) Permeable and Non-Permeable Zones

2) GOC and OWC at Permeable Zone

Overview of HC accumulation

Arrangement of source rocks, a reservoir rocks, a seal, and a trap in a

way that has allowed the HC accumulation.
Overview of a Reservoir System

Cap rock

Reservoir
Rock
Anticlinal Trap
Overview of a Reservoir System
1. An exploration well is drilled
2. Run logging tools to
evaluate formation

Cap rock

Reservoir
Rock
Anticlinal Trap
ROLE OF PETROPHYSICIST

13
 WHO ARE PETROPHYSICIST?
Rock property and fluid type identifier.
Petrophysical data are derived mostly from indirect measurements.
Example:
Hydrocarbon intervals are related to high formation resistivity measured by logging tools.

Oil is differentiated from gas based from neutron response and neutron respond is related

to hydrogen counts in the formation

Productive rocks are differentiated from non-productive rocks based from a number of

different log data like gamma ray, density and neutron.

Thus, due to indirect measurements, petrophysics requires

interpretation of the data available to arrive at defining the reservoir
properties and the types of fluid in the borehole drilled.
Pore scale Slab core scale Cuttings Bedding scale Interpreted Log

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 ROLE OF PETROPHYSICIST

Net to Gross
Porosity
Fluid Saturation

Edited Sonic Log Lithology

Edited Density Log Rock Types
Fluid Contents Fluid Type/Contacts

Elastic Moduli
Saturation vs Height
Cement Evaluation
Permeability
Cased Hole Logs Casing Evaluation
Flow Units
Well Composite Perforating Intervals
Fluid Type/Contacts

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Overview

WHAT ARE FORMATION

EVALUATION AND WELL
LOGGING???
Overview

Formation Evaluation

Process/method to determine or identify if a

potential oil or gas field is commercially
viable by using all available data (e.g. well
log data, core data, mud log, RFT data etc.)
for interpretation of reservoir formation
Overview

Well Logging

A method or in situ measurement or

recordings (vs depth) to determine the
physical, chemical and petrophysical
properties of the reservoir rocks and fluids.
LOGGING HISTORY
 Logging History
Electrical Logging

Year Description

1927 First electrical log was recorded in a well in the small oil field of Pechelbronn, in Alsace, a
province of north-eastern france.
Single graph of electrical resistivity of rock formations was recorded by station method.
sonde was stopped at periodic intervals in borehole, measurements made, and calculated
resistivity was hand-plotted on a graph this procedures was carried out from station to
station until entire log was recorded.
Resistivity log was used to detect HC present in the formation.

1929 Electrical resistivity logging was introduced on a commercial basis in Venuzuela, US, Russia
and Dutch East Indies.
Usefulness: for well to well correlation and identification of potential HC-bearing strata.
1931 Include SP measurement with Resistivity curve on electrical log.
Schlumberger brothers (Marcel & Conrad) perfected a method of continuous recording
1936 Photographic-film recorder was introduced
Electrical log consisted of SP curve, short normal, long normal & long lateral resistivity
curves, was predominant in logging activity from 1936 to late 1950s (curves were recorded
simultaneously after about 1946).
 Logging History
Dipmeter Log

Year Description

1930s The development of dipmeter began with the anisotropy dipmeter tool.

1943 Three-arm dipmeter device, with an associated photoclinometer was introduced permitted
both direction and angle of formation dip to be determined (SP sensor at each arm).

1946 SP sensors were replaced by short resistivity devices made dip measurements possible
in wells where SP had little correlatable detail.
Mid- First continuously recording electrical dipmeter sonde (used 3 microresistivity arrays and
1950s contained a fluxgate compass) was introduced.

Today A 4-arm dipmeter tool records 10 microresistivity curves simultaneously, and a triaxial
accelerometer and magnetometers provide highly accurate info on tool and deviation
azimuth.
Processing data done exclusively with electronic computers.
 Logging History
GR and Neutron Tools (first use of radioactive properties in well logging)

Year Description

1941 Neutron log was first described by Pontecovo.

In combination with GR log, neutron log enhanced lithological interpretations and well-to-well
stratigraphic correlations.

1949 Attention to neutron log as a porosity indicator.

1962 SNP sidewall neutron porosity tool was introduced.

1936 CNL* compensated neutron tool was introduced.

Dual Porosity neutron tool combines those 2 neutron measurements into a single tool.
 Logging History
Early Porosity Determination & Microresistivity Measurement

Year Description

1950s Microlog tool was introduced used a miniature linear array of 3 electrodes imbedded in the
face of an insulating pad, which is applied to the borehole wall.
Microlog recording is also useful to delineate permeable beds, and other microresistivity
devices help establish resistivity profile from the invaded zone near the borehole to the non-
invaded virgin formation.

1951 Laterolog tool was introduced (the first focused deep-investigating resistivity device)
focused resistivity logs are well adapted for investigating of thin beds drilled with low-
resistivity muds (eg. Salt muds & highly resistive formations)
1953 Microlaterolog tool was developed for salt muds.
The MicroProximity log and MicroSFL* log have followed.

Today DLL* dual lateral log tool (deep laterolog and shallow laterolog measurements) is the
standard.
Usually run with a MicroSFL device as well
 Logging History
Induction Log (replace original electrical log in freshwater muds)

Year Description

1949 Induction log was developed, as an outgrowth of wartime work with mine detectors, for use in
oil-based mud.
However, its superiority over electrical log in freshwater muds was soon recognized.

1956 Combine a five-coil induction device with SP curve and a 16-in normal to make induction
electrical tool.

1959 Five-coil device was replaced by one with a six-coil array with deeper investigation.

1963 DIL* dual induction log was introduced, now is the standard deep induction, medium
induction, and shallow resistivity-measurements.
The shallow resistivity-measuring device is now a focused resistivity device a Laterolog 8
on the 1963 tool and an SFL device on current tools
A new dual induction log, the Phasor* induction, provides improved thin-bed response,
deeper depth of investigation, and greater dynamic resistivity range.
 Logging History
Sonic Log

Year Description

Since Logging cables have been used to lower geophones into wells to measure long-interval
1930 acoustic travel times from sound sources at the surface.

Late Sonic log was accepted as a reliable porosity logs its measurement responds primarily to
1950s porosity and is essentially independent of saturation.
Sonic log, coupled with focused resistivity logs (laterolog and induction) made possible
modern formation evaluation from well logs.
Sonic log measure porosity; focused resistivity logs measure true resistivity of non-
invaded virgin formation.
Subsequent improvements in sonic logging BHC borehole compensated sonic, LLS*
long-space sonic, and the Array-sonic* tools.
 Logging History
Density Log

Year Description

Early Logging of formation bulk density (measurement of formation porosity), was commercially
1960s introduced.

1964 An FDC* compensated formation density log (compensated for the mudcake), was
quickly followed.

1981 Litho-Density* log provided an improved bulk density measurement and a lithology-sensitive
photoelectric absorption cross section measurement.
 Logging History
Recovery of Physical Rock Samples & Formation Fluid Samples with Wireline Tools

Year Description

1937 Sidewall coring, using a hollow, cylindrical bullet shot into formation and retrieved by pulling
it out, has existed since 1937.

1957 A formation tester was introduced recovered a sample of formation fluids and pore presure
was measured during the sampling process.
FIT formation interval tester and RFT* repeat formation tester have followed (RFT tool
can make unlimited number of pressure measurements and recover two fluid samples per
trip.

1978 Dielectric measurements have been developed to handle formation with freshwater
& formation, or varies in salinity, or in which salinity is unknown.
1985 EPT* electromagnetic propagation log was introduced in 1978
DPT* deep propagation log was followed in 1985.
INTRODUCTION TO WELL LOGGING

29
 THE WELL LOGS

Data records of formation rock properties

Continuously recorded versus well depth

Measured by logging tools lowered into the well

Conveyed by electric cable (called Wireline Logging)

Recorded during drilling (called Logging While Drilling).

Recorded by means of resistivity, nuclear, acoustic or magnetic

measuring devices

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 TYPE OF WELL LOGS

Two main types of well logs

Open hole logs

Well logs run inside a well while the formation is

still exposed or open

Cased hole logs

Well logs run inside a casing or tubing, mainly for

production/injection profiling and reservoir monitoring purposes

Casing and cement evaluation logs, corrosion monitoring logs

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 CONVEYANCE METHODS

Wireline conveyed logging

Drill pipe conveyed logging (TLC/PCL)

Logging While Drilling (LWD)

Coiled tubing conveyed logging

Slick line (piano wire) conveyed logging

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WIRELINE LOGGING

Well logging tools are lowered

into the well by means of an
electric cable attached to
the head of the tool string.

Power and tool commands are

sent downwards and data is
transmitted upwards, by means
of a telemetry tool.

IDW (Integrated Depth Wheel)

measures the length of cable
lowered into the well, thus
providing depth measurement

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PIPE CONVEYED LOGGING

Normal wireline logging tools are

attached to the drill pipe by means
of a side-entry sub and lowered
into the well.

Pipe Conveyed Logging System is

used in wells where the logging
tools cannot be lowered into the
well using a logging cable, due to
hole conditions.

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LOGGING WHILE DRILLING

35
 Shale
baseline
ol
High GR readings at
impermeable zone
containing shale

Deflection of SP
curve from shale Low GR readings at
baseline shows permeable zone
permeable zone containing reservoir
rocks (e.g. sandstone)
Overview

HOW ABOUT LOGGING WHILE

DRILLING (LWD)???
Overview
Logging While Drilling
Advanced logging operation allowing acquisition of log data
via tools placed in the actual drilling assembly, which
transmit the data to the surface on a real-time basis or store
the data in a downhole memory from which it may be
downloaded when the assembly is brought back to the
surface.
Their use may be justified when:
real time information is required for operational reason, e.g.
steering a well
safeguarding information if there is a risk of losing the hole
the trajectory where wireline acquisition is difficult
Overview
EVALUATION SEQUENCE

Rock

Hydrocarbons Gas Evaluate

Reservoir
Water Oil Evaluate
Non Reservoir

Locate the Detect Differentiate

Reservoir Hydrocarbons Between gas/oil
 What subsurface information is important?

Hydrocarbon thickness
What is value of hydrocarbon in place? Porosity
(Potential value) Saturation
Area
Hydrocarbon type

How easily can the hydrocarbon flow

Permeability
out the well?
Pressure

How easy is it to drill to the reservoir? Lithology

(Cost of drilling, completing) Depth, pressure, temperature
 Formation evaluation is critical to
understanding the reservoir

What is value of hydrocarbon in place?

(Potential value)

How easily can the hydrocarbon flow

out the well?

How easy is it to drill to the reservoir?

(Cost of drilling, completing)
 WHY DO WE RUN LOGS

To derive input parameters for calculating

hydrocarbon volumes as follows:

HCIIP = GRV x N/G x F x Sh x 1/FVF

GRV = Gross Rock Volume

N/G = Net to Gross Ratio
F = Formation Porosity
Sh = Hydrocarbon Saturation
FVF = Formation Volume Factor (Bo or 1/Bg)

42
Hydrocarbon volume calculation
Definition of Net to Gross Ratio
 THE ESSENTIALS WELL LOGS

Gamma Ray logs: to differentiate reservoir rock from non-

reservoir rock

Porosity logs: to determine net reservoir rock with potential

to store hydrocarbons

Resistivity logs: to calculate water saturation, which in turn

provides hydrocarbon saturation

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 Wireline Logging
Wireline Logging
Introduction
Well logs or wireline logs are continuous recordings of well depth versus
different petrophysical characteristics of the rocks through which the well is
drilled. There are many types of well logs, depending upon the characteristics
of the rock being measured.
Logging Objectives
The main purpose of well logging is:
- to provide data for evaluating petroleum reservoirs.
- to aid in testing, completion and repairing of the well.

To calculate the oil reserve in an oil pool we need to know the following.
Thickness of the oil bearing formation.
Porosity of the formation.
Oil saturation.
Lateral extent of the pool.

Logs should always be calibrated with core data to improve

interpretations.
 Wireline Logging

In situ measurement (vs. depth) of

Rock properties
Fluid properties
When
Openhole (before casing) Casing
While drilling (LWD / MWD).
After drilling (wireline).
Cased hole (C/O, sigma)
Interpretation for: Open hole
Geological properties.
Petrophysical properties.
Production properties.
Types of Well Logging

Well logging is classified into three broad

categories:

Open Hole Logging

Cased Hole Logging
Production Logging
Open Hole Logging

Logging surveys taken before the hole is cased are called open
hole logs. The logs included in this group are:

Electrical surveys (induction, laterolog and microlog logs).

Sonic logs.
Caliper Logs.
Dipmeter Logs.
SP logs
Radioactive surveys (density, neutron and gamma ray logs).
Electrical Logs
Electrical logs (Induction, laterolog, and microlog)
measure the electrical properties of the formation
alongwith the formation fluids.

Sonic/ Acoustic Logs

Sonic logs measure the elastic or (sound) wave
properties of the formation.

Caliper Logs

Caliper logs measure the size or geometry of the hole.

Dipmeter Logs

Dipmeter logs measure dip of the formations.

SP Logs
SP logs measure potential different between a shale-sand or
shale-carbonate due to difference salinity of formation water
and mud filtrate.

Radioactive Logs

Gamma ray & neutron logs measure radioactive and neutron

absorption properties. Density logs measure electron density of
the formation which is related to formation density.
OPEN HOLE LOGGING MEASUREMENTS

LOGGING TOOL

52
Cased HoleLogging
Cased Hole Logging
Logging surveys taken after the casing is lowered are usually
categorized as cased hole logs. The surveys included in this group are:

Gamma Ray
Neutron
Temperature
Pulsed Neutron
Cement Bond Log
C/O and sigma Log

Some of these surveys like the gamma ray, neutron and temperature
logs can be run in both open and cased hole wells.
CASED HOLE LOGGING MEASUREMENTS
Production Logging

Well logging surveys taken to improve production or repair the well are

termed as production logs. Surveys included in this category are:

Flowmeter

Pressure

Temperature

Fluid Density
Value and Limitations of Well Log Data

Strengths
Provides remotely sensed values of reservoir properties and fluids.
Among the most abundant reservoir data.
Presentation results fairly well standardized.
Allows evaluation of lateral (map) and vertical (cross section)
changes in reservoir properties and fluids.

Limitations
Indirect measurements.
Vertical resolution.
Depth of investigation.
A Logging Truck
 WIRELINE
LOGGING
EQUIPMENT
Computerized Logging Units

Computer-based units offer the following features:

Computer control of the data allows logs to be recorded
either logging up or down with all curves on depth.

Calibration are performed under programme control and can

be performed more quickly, consistently and accurately.

Logs can be played back from the data tapes on many

different formats.

Basic wellsite, processing/analysis of data is available.

DETAILS OF WIRELINE LOGGING RIGUP
Log Presentation
Log Presentation

Heading.
Curves related to some physical property of rock/casing
surrounding the wellbore.
 LOG PRESENTATION - THE HEADING

Well location
Depth references
Date of log
Well depth
Casing shoe depth
Bit size
Mud data
Type
Properties
Resistivities
Max. Temperature

63
LOG PRESENTATION
LOG PRESENTATION - LINEAR GRID
Depth
Track 1 track Track 2 Track 3

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LOG PRESENTATION - COMMON DEPTH SCALES

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TYPICAL LOGGING TOOL

Shorter tool length means

less rat hole required

Less tool components

means shorter rig up and
rig down time
 TYPICAL LOGGING TOOL

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 TOOL CONFIGURATION

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 WIRELINE UNIT

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 SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
(SP)

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 SP TOOL

SP is a recording of the
difference between the
electrical potential of a
movable electrode in the
borehole and the electrical
potential of a fixed surface
electrode

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 SP TOOL

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Source: DG Bowen, 2005

 Principle of Spontaneous Potential SP Log

Source: Halliburton
 Liquid junction effects

Liquid junction potential

Source: Halliburton
 SP due to membrane potential

Resultant SP from liquid junction and membrane potentials

Source: Halliburton
 SP TOOL

Application of SP tool:
1. Permeable zone identification
2. Fluid type identification
3. Connate water salinity determination
Across shales, SP curve defines a more or less straight line to
represent shale baseline.
Across permeable formation , SP curev show defelection from shale
baseline. If the deflection is positive, Rmf<Rw and if the defelection is
negative, Rw<Rmf.
In poor permeability formations, depleted reservoir or the use of very
heavy drilling mud may result in Rw derived from SP to be too low.

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 Reversed SP
positive
deflection

Normal SP
negative
deflection

Normal and reversed SP deflections

Source: Halliburton
 Positive SP deflections indicating Rmf < Rw
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 Shale base line

Negative SP
Deflections

Negative SP deflections indicating Rmf > Rw

 GAMMA RAY

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 GAMMA RAY TOOL
GR tool measures the natural radioactivity of the formation.

GR logs normally reflects the shale content as clean formations

usually have very low level of radioactivity except from contaminant
(volcanic ash, granite wash)

Total GR measured by the log can be separated into its respective

portions of potassium, thorium and uranium using spectral analysis
technique.

GR reading is also affected by the hole condition such as hole

diamater, mudweight, tool size and tool position.

Common minerals exhibiting high GR are feldspars, micas and clays.

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 GAMMA RAY LOG

Applications of GR Log

1. Discrimination between reservoir and non-reservoir rocks

2. Computation of clay content in reservoir rocks

3. Well to well correlation in a field

4. Identification of reservoir characteristics

5. Determination of depositional environment

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 GAMMA RAY TOOL

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Source: Schlumberger
 GAMMA RAY TOOL
GR Log measures
natural Gamma
Rays and is used to
differentiate
between reservoir
and non-reservoir
rock

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 GAMMA RAY TOOL

Russell, 1941
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 POROSITY TOOL

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 POROSITY CONCEPT

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 APPLICATION OF POROSITY LOG
1. Computation of formation porosity using various porosity logs

2. Three main types of porosity logs

Bulk Density Log
Neutron Porosity Log
Sonic Porosity Log

3. Determination of Net Porous Reservoir Thickness

4. Identification of hydrocarbon type based on the combination of various

porosity logs

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 LITHO DENSITY

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 LITHO DENSITY

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 LITHO DENSITY
Litho Density tool records the bulk density of formation and used as
primary porosity log.
Bulk density is measured by emitting medium energy gamma rays
into the formation and measuring the number and energy of the
gamma ray returning back to the tool.
As the gamma rays enter the formation, some are absorbed, some
pass through and others are slowed down due to collision with
electrons in the atom of the bulk formation and scattered.
The last type of collision is known as Compton Scattering and is the
basic signal mode of the density tools.

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 LITHO DENSITY
The photoelectric effect is described by absorbtion of the incident
photon of gamma energy and the emission of a photoelectron.
The Litho Density log also records Photoelectric factor (PEF) of the
formation.
Each mineral will have its own PEF value
Litho density log can be used together with the neutron porosity log
to identify hydrocarbon bearing formation.

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 LITHO DENSITY

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 NEUTRON POROSITY

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 NEUTRON POROSITY

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 NEUTRON POROSITY
Neutron porosity log detects the thermal neutrons which return after
colliding with hydrogen atoms in the formation

Neutron are electrically charged particles, each having a mass identical

to the mass of hydrogen atom

High energy neutron are emitted from radioactive source in the neutron
tool.

Neutron will collide with nuclei of the formation minerals and losses its
energy.

The greatest energy loss occur when the neutron strikes a nucleus of
equal mass such as hydrogen nucleus.
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 NEUTRON POROSITY

The neutron porosity log measures the Hydrogen Index (HI) of the
formation

Formation porosity is computed from the ratio of Near to Far

detector counts

The neutron porosity log is used together with the bulk density log to
identify the formation fluid

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 NEUTRON POROSITY
Four types of collision experienced by neutron in the formation

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 NEUTRON POROSITY

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 NEUTRON POROSITY
Scale : 1 : 500 Puteri-1
DB : IPData (13) DEPTH (2020.06M - 2120.04M) 05/25/2006 11:58

DEPTH GR (GAPI) HLLD (OHMM) RHOZ (G/C3)

M 50. 200. 0.2 2000. 1.85 2.85
SP (MV) HLLS (OHMM) NPHI (V/V)
-370. -270. 0.2 2000. 0.45 -0.15
HCAL (IN) RXOZ (OHMM) HDRA (G/C3)
6. 16. 0.2 2000. -0.75 0.25

2050

2100
 SONIC (ACOUSTIC)

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 SONIC TOOL

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 SONIC TOOL

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 SONIC TOOL
The sonic tool measures the time taken by sound wave to travel
across one foot of formation.

The sonic transit time is affected by the rock matrix, porosity and the
type of fluid in the pore spaces.

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 SONIC TOOL

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 SONIC TOOL

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 SONIC TOOL

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 SONIC TOOL
The Dipole Sonic Tool combines monopole and dipole sonic
acquisition capabilities.

This tool is capable to measure compressional sonic wave and shear

sonic wave. It provides both compressional sonic transit time DTc and
shear sonic transit time DTs of the formation.

Schlumberger tool: DSI (Dipole Shear Sonic Imager)

Baker Atlas: XMAC (Cross-Multipole Array Acoustilog)

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 RESISTIVITY

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 RESISTIVITY TOOL
Current is sent from A to B electrodes and
voltage is measured between M and N
electrodes.
Measure point is at half the spacing
between A and
M electrodes

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 RESISTIVITY TOOL

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 RESISTIVITY TOOL

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 RESISTIVITY TOOL

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 RESISTIVITY TOOL
Resistivity logs are used to differentiate hydrocarbon bearing zones
from the water bearing intervals.

Hydrocarbon bearing zones usually have high resistivites accompanied

by high or medium porosities.

Water bearing intervals usually have low resistivities accompanied by

high or medium porosities.

Tight or non-permeable zones have high resistivities accompanied by

low porosities.

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 APPLICATION OF RESISTIVITY LOG
1. Identification of hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs

2. Determination of Net Pay thicknesses

3. Calculation of hydrocarbon saturation

4. Identification of productive reservoirs

5. Estimation of formation permeability

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 OTHER SUBSURFACE DATA

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 SOURCES OF SUBSURFACE DATA

Data needed: Data source:

Hydrocarbon thickness
Porosity
Saturation Cuttings, Mud log
Area Coring
Hydrocarbon type Logging
LWD Logging while drilling
Permeability WL Wireline (usually open hole)
Pressure

Lithology
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 MUD LOG
Immediate interpretation of what the drill bit has penetrated and
whether there are any hydrocarbons present (a show).

Making maps of the subsurface geology.

Mud logs are very useful in fluid identification.

Gas and oil shows are used to corroborate fluid identification from
well logs.

Mud logs are also very useful in rock typing and matrix identification

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 MUD LOG

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 CONVENTIONAL CORING
Taking a core requires that the regular drill bit be removed from
the hole. It is replaced with a "core bit", which is capable of
grinding out and retrieving the heavy cylinder of rock.

The core bit is usually coated with small, sharp diamonds that
can grind through the hardest rock. A core bit cuts very slowly.

A core is a solid cylinder of rock about 4-5 inches in diameter,

and a single core will usually be about 30 feet long.

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 CONVENTIONAL CORING

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Whole Core Slab Core
 CONVENTIONAL CORING

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 SIDEWALL CORING
This method is cheaper than the conventional coring.

Cores can be taken in hours, instead of days.

In sidewall coring, a slim wireline coring tool is run into the hole.
The tool may be of two general types; either "rotary sidewall" or
"percussion".

Typically, cores about 1" in diameter and 1" to 2" long can be
retrieved with this method.

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Percussion sidewall coring tool

Rotary sidewall coring tool

 FLUID IDENTIFICATION
Identification of formation fluids is carried out by using two or more
porosity logs in combination.

Usually the bulk density and neutron porosity logs are used in
combination to detect gas bearing intervals.

Gas bearing intervals exhibit butterfly shape separation between

neutron and density logs.

Generally, oil and water give similar responses on the neutron and
density logs.

Oil can be differentiated from water by means of high resistivity

readings, in combination with porosity logs.
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 FLUID IDENTIFICATION

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 WIRELINE FORMATION TESTER
MDT (Modular Dynamics Tester) tool from
Schlumberger

This wireline formation testing tool can take

an unlimited number of pressure
measurements

Depending on the tool configuration several

formation fluid samples can be taken during
one trip in the well

This tool is used for identification of

formation fluids (from pressure gradient) and
fluid contacts, fluid properties (for PVT
analysis)
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 LOGGING/WELLBORE
ENVIRONMENT

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Once a drillbit has penetrated through a formation, the local environment
has been altered from the conditions that existed before drilling. The
longer the hole remains open, the more change to the environment
occurs.

The actual drilling process involves removing material that is part of the
mechanical fabric of the system. The hole could not remain open unless
it was supported by a column of fluid which is about as dense, or denser,
than the equivalent pore fluid column.

However, in maintaining an open hole, where However, in maintaining an

open hole, where permeability exists some of the fluid invades the
formation.

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Drilling muds are designed to form a low permeability membrane
against the hole side. This is called the filtercake.

In order to form this, there must be a spurt (SUDDEN) fluid loss

to the formation. This is followed by a much slower continuous
filtering of fluid (filtrate) over the period of time the hole remains
open.

The type of filtrate and filtercake is dependent on the type of

drilling fluid utilised.

137
There are basically four types of drilling fluid that we can consider. In each
of these the filtrate is different:
Freshwater
muds
Saltwater
muds
Oil based muds
KCl or CaCl Polymer based muds

Freshwater systems are usually used when the formation water is brackish
fresh (SALTY LESS THAN SEA) and are not very common these days,
except in onshore drilling. The filtrate is fresh water.

138
Saltwater
systems are used in salty formation waters and the mud filtrate may
be saltier or less salty than the formation water. Because of poor
hole problems these became less popular in the 1970s. However,
because of their more environmentally friendly properties
they have made a comeback since the 1990s.

KCl or CaCl Polymer based systems are really hypersaline salt water
systems. However,
there are some additional properties of the filter cake to take into
account. Well maintained systems have virtually zero permeability
filtercakes, resulting in less invasion. Both CaCl and KCl also act as
clay stabilising agents, inhibiting swelling.

139
Oilbased
systems carry their water, which may be as much as 40% of the system,
as an emulsion phase. In addition, they are often hypersaline systems
containing as much as
350,000 ppm CaCl in solution. The filtrate should be oil only. The hyper
salinity is used to dehydrate
the near wellbore by osmotic force. In order to maintain the water in an
emulsion they contain appreciable quantitiesof surfactants. These can
alter saturations and wettability in the near wellbore. Because of their
negative environmental impact,
alternatives are now being sought. These include biodegradable base oils
and the polymer systems outlined above. Note that some waterbased
drilling fluids also contain emulsified oil as a clay stabiliser. This can be
lost to the formation.

140
Mud Filtrate Invasion

Uninvaded
Zone
(Rt)
Invaded
Zone
(Rxo)
Wellbore
Mud
(Rm)
Uninvaded Mud Cake
Zone (Rmc)
(Rt)
 Drilling fluid invasion is a process that occurs in a well being drilled
with higher wellbore pressure (normally caused by excessive mud
weights) than formation pressure.

The liquid component of the drilling fluid (known as the mud filtrate)
also called as spurt, continues to "invade" the porous and permeable
formation until the solids present in the mud, commonly bentonite,
clog enough pores to form a mud cake capable of preventing further
invasion

14/03/2017 142
MUD FILTRATE INVASION
 COMMON TERMINOLOGY

Borehole
Rm : Borehole mud resistivity
Rmc : Mudcake resistivity
Invaded zone
Rmf : Mud filtrate resistivity
Rxo : Invaded zone (flushed zone) resistivity
Sxo : Invaded zone (flushed zone) water saturation
Uninvaded zone
Rw : Interstitial water resistivity
Rt : Uninvaded zone resistivity
Sw : Uninvaded zone water saturation
Fresh mud, salt water zone

Salty mud, Hydrocarbon zone

 Resistivity profiles due to mud filtrate invasion:
Figure 1: Water bearing formation drilled with water-base mud

Figure 2: Oil bearing formation drilled with water-base mud

Figure 3: Water bearing formation drilled with oil-base mud

Figure 4: Oil bearing formation drilled with oil-base mud

14/03/2017 146
 Radial Fluid and Resistivity
Distribution
Rx0 Rt Rx0 Rt
Resistivity

Resistivity
Rxo
Rxo Rt
Rt

Water Based Muds

Qualitative Distribution of Resistivity (Rmf > Rw)

NOMENCLATURE FOR ZONES IN
AND AROUND THE BOREHOLE
End of Lecture