UNIVERSITY OF INFORMATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ST. PAUL THE APOSTLE Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia

Faculty for Communication Networks and Security (CNS)

ACADEMIC YEAR 2011/2012

CCNA Fundamental and Routing

Based on Cisco materials

Student: Ahmed Mehiny Supervisor: Stojan Kitanov, PhDC

 Introduction
CCNA (Cisco certificate Network Associate) is a certificate owns by Cisco. It covers many
interesting topics that we need to know and understand in order to start our career in the network
world, since Cisco acquires approximately 70% of the network devices used around the world.

Some people may think that CCNA is just a ways for Cisco to make more money and while these
certificates doesnt prove that its holders know anything about networks. But I think, the value of
certifications programs is not in the piece of paper you receive when you pass the exams, but
in the knowledge and experience you gain when you study and practice. Unfortunately not
everyone who completes a program gains the same level of knowledge and experience so lets see
what you will gain after studying CCNA??

Probably

1-Youll develop a complete understanding of computer networking and internetworking

2-Youll learn how to configure and troubleshoot Cisco devices

To meet the CCNA certification skills level, you must be able to understand or do the following:

- Install, configure, and operate simple-routed LAN, routed WAN, and switched Virtual LAN
(VLAN) networks.

- Understand and be able to configure IP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, serial interfaces, Frame Relay, IP
RIP, VLANs, Ethernet, and access lists.

- Install and/or configure a network.

- Optimize WAN through Internet-access solutions that reduce bandwidth and WAN costs, using
features such as filtering with access lists, bandwidth on demand (BOD), and dial-on-demand
routing (DDR).

In the next few papers we are going to cover the basics of networks and some of the routing protocols
based on Cisco Materials. Now lets jump into our first topic.

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First Part

Network Fundamentals

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 Network as a Platform

All networks have 4 basic elements in common

Rules: (protocols) to govern the handling of the message

Messages: that travel from one device to another. Messages take many forms.

Medium: that is used to interconnect devices and can transport the messages from one device to
another.

Devices: on the network that exchange messages.

Messages take many forms.

Media on a network can be varied.

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Devices in the network can be Computers switches routers media as we see below.

The Platform for Communications

People communicate in many different ways like Vocal, a look, a hand signal, body language

All of these methods have three things in common.

1-There is source for the message or a sender.

2-There is a destination for the message or a receiver.

3-There is a channel that consists of the media that provides the pathway for the message.

Elements of Communication:

Devices communicate in exactly the same way.

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 Communicating the Messages:
In theory, a network communication could be sent as one
continuous stream
of 1s and 0s.

No other device
would be able to
send or receive
messages on the
same network.

1- Significant delays

2- Inefficient use of the

channel

3- A lost message entirely retransmitted.

A better approach is called Segmentation.

The data stream is divided into smaller, more

manageable segments.

Segmentation has
two benefits:

1- Multiplexing:

Different transmissions can be interleaved on the network.

2- Reliability

Means Separate pieces of each message can travel across different

paths to destination.
Path fails or congested, alternate path can be used.
Part of the message fails to make it to the destination, only the missing
parts need to be retransmitted

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 As we see there are many paths to the destination.

Segmentation Disadvantage:

1- The label is a unique sequence number.

2- Handled by protocols that format and address the message.

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 Components of the Network

End Devices
Any device that allows us to interface with the network. End devices are referred to as
hosts and are either the source or destination of a message.

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 End Devices

A host can be a
client, a server or
both.

The software
installed on the device determines its role.

Servers:

Software that enables them to provide information and services (E-mail, Web
Pages) to other hosts on the network.

Client:

Software installed that enables them to request and display the information
obtained from the server.

Intermediary Devices:

It can be Routers, Switches, Hubs, Wireless Access Points, Communication Servers,

Security Devices or any device that provides connectivity to the network, connectivity to
other networks or links between network segments.

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Media:
The medium provides the channel over which the messages travel from source to destination.

Different network media have different features and benefits.

Not all network media are appropriate for the same purpose.

We must make the appropriate choice to provide the proper

channel.

Distance it can carry

the signal

Environment

Bandwidth

Cost of the media

Installation cost

Cost of connectors and devices

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 LANs, WANs and Internetworks
Local Area Networks:

An individual network usually spans a single geographical area, providing services and
applications to people within a common organizational structure, such as a single
business, campus or region.

Wide Area Networks:

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 Networks that connect LANs in geographically separated locations. Usually
implemented with leased connections through a telecommunications service provider
(TSP) network.

A TSP traditionally transports voice and data on different networks. Now, providers are
offering converged network services.

The Internet: A Network of Networks

It is like collection of many LANs. We have to know here what does the Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) are: They are the companies that connect their customers to the Internet
through their network infrastructure. For example T-Mobile and Oneetc.

The Internet, then, is a collection of ISPs co-operating with each other to form one large
converged internetwork.

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 Protocols:

Protocols are the rules that govern communications.

- The format or structure of the message.

- The method by which networking devices share information about
pathways with other networks.
- How and when error and system messages are passed between devices.
- The setup and termination of data transfer sessions.

Protocol Suite:

A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to perform a communication

function.

Cannot function without a set of standards that network vendors can follow.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE):

- Develops standards in telecommunications, information technology and

power generation.

- Examples: 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11 (WLAN)

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

- Internet standards, RFCs (Request for Comments)

- Example: TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP

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 The OSI Model

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model in 1984.

OSI Model Breaks network communication into smaller, more

manageable parts.

Makes learning it easier to

understand.

Prevents changes in one layer from

affecting other layers.

Standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and support.

Allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate

with each other.

It is a descriptive scheme: Can be used to describe the functionality and interaction of

different protocol suites.

TCP/IP Models

It is the most popular protocol stack commonly known as TCP/IP, because of

its most important protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first networking protocols defined in
this standard. It is occasionally known as the DOD model due to the
foundational influence of the ARPANET in the 1970s (operated by DARPA,
an agency of the United States Department of Defense).

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TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination. It has four abstraction layers, each with its
own protocols from lowest to highest, the layers are:

1. The link layer (commonly Ethernet) contains communication technologies for a local
network.

2. The internet layer (IP) connects local networks, thus establishing internetworking.

3. The transport layer (TCP) handles host-to-host communication.

4. The application layer (for example HTTP) contains all protocols for specific data
communications services on a process-to-process level (for example how a web browser
communicates with a web server).

Comparing the OSI and TCP/IP Models

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 Second Part

Routers and Routing

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What is Routing?

Determine the best Path to the destination.

What is router?
A devise we use to connect different networks together.

Routers Primary Responsibilities:

Determine the best path to send packets.

Forward the packets out the correct interface .

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 Routing table:
Is a data file in RAM that is used to store route information about:-

1-directly connected network: which is a network that is directly attached to one of the router
interface. After you activate the interface then it will add immediately automatic in the routing
table

You will find the letter(C) before the routing line as you see here

2- A remote network is a network that is not directly connected to a router.

Remote networks are added to the routing table using two methods:

Dynamic Routing Protocols:

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 Routes to remote networks that were learned automatically by the
router.

Static Routes:

Routes manually configured.

Either or both methods can be used in the same router.

Before any static or dynamic routing is configured:

The router only knows about its own directly connected networks.

Static and dynamic routes cannot exist in the routing table without first
configuring a routers own directly connected networks.

The router cannot send packets out an interface unless that interface is enabled
with an IP address and subnet mask.

Static Routing:
A static route is defined using the:

Network address and subnet mask of the remote network.

The IP address of the next-hop router

Static routes are denoted with the code S in the routing table.

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 Dynamic Routing:

Dynamic routing means:

Routes are automatically learned from other routers.

Each router automatically discovers its neighbor routers.
Routers exchange routing table information

Here R1 has automatically learned about the 192.168.4.0/24 network from R2 through the
dynamic routing protocol RIP (Routing Information Protocol).

*RIP will be fully discussed in later

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Hop Count as a metric:
The hop count is the number of routers that a packet must traverse between the
source and destination networks.

The fewer number of hops (lowest metric), the better the route.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Bandwidth as a metric:
The bandwidth is the carrying capacity (speed) of the link.

The metric is a calculated value that represents the fastest route to the destination
based on the speed of the links between the source and destination.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

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 Comparing Hop Count and Bandwidth Metrics

Equal Cost Load Balancing:

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Path Determination

The process of how the router determines which path to use when forwarding a packet.

The router searches its routing table for a network address that matches the
packets destination network.

One of three path determinations results from this search.

Directly connected network.

Remote network.

No route determined

Directly Connected Network:

R1 receives a packet destined for PC1.

R1 looks in the routing table and determines that the destination network is out its
FastEthernet port.

The packet is forwarded directly to the device with the packets destination IP
address.

Remote Network:

R1 receives a packet from PC1 whose ultimate destination is PC2.

R1 looks in the routing table and determines that the path to the destination
network is via its WAN port.

The packet is forwarded to another router. Remote networks can only be reached by forwarding
packets to another router

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 No Route Determined:

R1 receives a packet from PC1 whose ultimate destination is PC2.

R1 looks in the routing table and cannot find a path to a directly connected
network or remote network.

If the router does not have a default route, the packet is discarded. The router
sends an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Unreachable message to the
source IP address of the packet.

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 Routing Protocols

The Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Background and Perspective

RIP evolved from the Xerox Network System (NS) in the late 1970s.

Various vendors included their own, slightly different, version of the protocol in their
networking software.

In 1988, it was standardized under RFC 1058.

Why learn RIP?

Still in use today.

Help understand fundamental concepts and comparisons of protocols such as

classful (RIPv1) and classless (RIPv2).

RIP is not a protocol on the way out.

An IPv6 form of RIP called RIPng (next generation) is now available.

The first version of RIP is often called RIPv1 to distinguish it from RIP version 2
(RIPv2).

Both versions share many of the same features.

RIPv1 Characteristics and Message Format:

RIP Characteristics:

RIP is a Distance vector routing protocol uses hop count as its only metric for
path selection. Advertised routes with hop counts greater than 15 are considered
unreachable. RIPv1 uses broadcast every 30 seconds to update the routing table.
While RIPv2 uses Multicast every 30 seconds.

Encapsulated RIPv1 Message:

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 We can see that in the following graphic.

RIP Operation
When we enable Rip in our routers, this is what will happen to build or update the routing table.

1- Each RIP-configured interface broadcasts a request message, asking any RIP

neighbors to send their complete routing table.

2- Each RIP neighbor responds with the information.

3- The requesting router evaluates each route:

If its a new route, it gets added to the routing table.

If its already in the routing table and has a better hop count (lower), the
routing table is updated.

If there are no changes, it is ignored.

4- The requesting router then sends a triggered update out all interfaces that contains
its routing table.

Here Example explaining what really will happen when we decide to use RIP V1.

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 Administrative Distance (AD)
Administrative Distance (AD) is the trustworthiness (or preference) of the route source.
RIP has a default administrative distance of 120. When compared to other interior
gateway protocols, RIP is the least-preferred routing protocol.

How to set up RIPv1 ?

Imagine that we have this network

Notice that this topology uses five Class C networks.

RIPv1 is a classful routing protocol and all networks MUST have the same subnet mask.

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 We will see that the class of the network is used by RIPv1 to determine the subnet mask.

1- Login to the router.

2- Here are the command lines that you need to enable Rip V1.

3- Enter the network that are participating in RIP like 192.168.1.0

4- To remove Rip v1 routing process from a device use this command line
no router rip
5- Here how the configurations will go.

6- Troubleshooting by using the command show as we see now

C in the output indicates directly connected networks.

R in the output indicates RIP routes.
Because this command displays the entire routing table, it is normally the first command
used to check for convergence.
Routes might not immediately appear when you execute the command because networks
take some time to converge.
Lets go back to our example again
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 7-Explaining Show ip route command

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 Passive Interfaces

Some routers can have interfaces that do not connect to another router -look again at our
example-there is no reason to send routing updates out that interface.

So we can use the passive-interface command with RIP to configure an interface to NOT send
those updates.

The command format:

Default Routes
Default Route:

A special static route that is used to route packets with a destination IP address
that does not match any of the other routes in the routing table.

It tells the router.. If you dont know where to forward

the frame, send it here.

Uses a quad-zero definition for the route.

The command ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0

[next-hop-address/exit-interface]

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 Lets see this example

Lets see the different between R2 and R3

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 RIP V2

Why RIP V2?????????????

RIPv1 (a classful routing protocol) is used as an example, so we can see how RIPv2 (a
classless routing protocol) does not have these same limitations.

Classful routing protocols have three major limitations:

1- Does not support discontiguous networks.

2- Does not support VLSM.

3- Does not support CIDR.

Enabling and Verifying RIPv2

By default, when a RIP process is configured on a Cisco router, it is running RIPv1. Even
though the router only sends RIPv1 messages, it can interpret both RIPv1 and RIPv2 messages.
A RIPv1 router will just ignore the RIPv2 fields in the route entry.

Login to the router and follow these steps:

Here we can see the differences between RIP v1 and V2

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 (The routing table shows the full class since Rip V1 is classful )

So we see here the network 172.30.0.0/16 (classful )

(Here with RIP V2 that support classless as we see the network 172.30.1.0/24 not 16)

Enabling and Verifying RIPv2

Verifying: IP protocols command as we see.

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 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a Distance Vector, Classless

routing protocol. Released in 1992 with Cisco IOS Software Release 9.21. Enhancement
of Ciscos Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP).
Both are Cisco proprietary protocols and operate only on Cisco routers.

Ciscos Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) has been discontinued and is no
longer supported by Cisco

EIGRP Message Format

The EIGRP frame is encapsulated just like any other frame on an Ethernet network and like any
other protocol, the content of the fields themselves is important to the proper functioning of
EIGRP.

1- Data Link Frame Header: has

A. Source MAC Address: The MAC address of the sending interface.
B. Destination MAC Address: The multicast address 10-00-05-00-00-0A.

*Unlike a RIP broadcast, EIGRP multicasts its frames using a specific multicast address.
Only those hosts on the network (other routers) listening on that address will accept the
frame.

2- IP Packet Header: has

A. Source IP Address: The IP Address of the sending interface.

B. Destination IP Address: The multicast address 224.0.0.10.

C. Protocol Field: The field for EIGRP is 88.

2- EIGRP Packet Header: has

A- Opcode: Specifies the type of EIGRP packet.

Update, Query, Reply, Hello

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 B- Autonomous System Number: Specifies the EIGRP routing process.
Unlike RIP, routers using EIGRP can have multiple instances of EIGRP running concurrently.

3- The Type/Length/Values (TLV) field: is used to convey different EIGRP information

and/or parameters. Each is distinguished by a specific 4 byte hexadecimal type code. We
have three types
A. Type 0x0001 EIGRP Parameters
B. Type 0x0002 IP Internal Routes
C. Type 0x0003 IP External Routes

Type 0x0001 EIGRP Parameters

Contains information regarding the metric and the hold time for the route to the receiving
neighbour.

As we Know RIP uses hop count to provide the metric used to determine the best path to
a destination but EIGRP uses weighs bandwidth, delay, reliability and load to produce a
composite metric value. These weights are included in the K value fields.

K1 (Bandwidth) and K3 (Delay) default to 1.

Others default to 0.

What about the Hold Time:

It is the amount of time that the EIGRP router receiving this message should wait
in between messages. If this timer expires before another EIGRP message is
received, the receiving router will consider the sending router to be down.

Type 0x0002 IP Internal Routes:

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This message is used to advertise EIGRP routes within an Autonomous System. According to
three elements

1- The metric fields Delay and Bandwidth.

2-Prefix Length.

3-Destination

1-The metric fields Delay and Bandwidth:

Delay is calculated as the sum of delays from source to destination in units of 10 microseconds.

Bandwidth is the lowest configured bandwidth of any interface along the route.

2-Prefix Length:

Essentially the subnet mask like Subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 has a prefix length of 24, 255.255.0.0/16.

3-Destination:

It means the destination network and because the minimum length of this field is 24 bits, the
remainder of the field is padded with 0s and if a network address is longer than 24 bits
(192.168.1.32/27), the field is extended for another 32 bits and the unused bits are padded with
0s.

3-Type 0x0003 IP External Routes

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Routes received from outside the autonomous system (AS).

What is AS?

An autonomous system is a collection of networks under the administrative control of a

single entity that presents a common routing policy to the Internet.

Protocol-Dependant Modules(PDM):

Protocol-Dependant Modules are responsible for the specific routing tasks for each
network layer protocol. Each PDM keeps route and topology information readily
available in RAM so it can react quickly to changes.

It saves this information in three tables.

1- Neighbor Table:

Lists all adjacent or neighbor routers.

2- Topology Table:

Includes route entries for all destinations that the router has learned.

3- Routing Table:

EIGRP chooses the best routes to a destination from the topology table and places
these routes in the routing table.

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 Basic EIGRP Configuration

Although EIGRP refers to the parameter as an autonomous-system number, it actually

functions
as a Process ID.

The autonomous system parameter is a number chosen by the network administrator between 1
and 65,535.

The router eigrp Command:

The Global configuration mode router eigrp command enables EIGRP. All routers in an EIGRP
routing domain must use the same process ID number (autonomous system number) which is 1
in our case here.

The network Command:

The network command in EIGRP has the same function as in other IGP routing protocols any
interface on this router that matches the network address in the network command will be
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enabled to send and receive EIGRP updates. This network (or subnet) will be included in EIGRP
routing updates.

The network Command with a Wildcard Mask:

By default, when the network command and a classful network address such as 172.16.0.0 are
used, all interfaces on the router that belong to that classful network address will be enabled for
EIGRP.

There may be times when the network administrator does not want to include all interfaces
within a network when enabling EIGRP.

To configure EIGRP to advertise specific subnets only, use the wildcard-mask option by thinking
of a wildcard mask as the inverse of a subnet mask. To calculate the inverse of the subnet mask,
subtract the subnet mask from 255.255.255.255 as we see blow.

Network EIGRP Configuration:

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As we see here

Using the bandwidth Command:

On most serial links, the bandwidth metric defaults to 1544 Kbps as we will see later.

We use the interface command bandwidth to modify the bandwidth metric.

Use the interface command no bandwidth to restore the default value.

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 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPF is a classless, link-state routing protocol that uses the concept of areas for scalability. RFC
2328 defines the OSPF metric as an arbitrary value called cost.

Cisco IOS software uses bandwidth to calculate the OSPF cost metric.

OSPF Message Encapsulation (Ethernet)

We can see how the encapsulation process happens in this visual.

As we see we have four steps for encapsulation for example IP Packet header adds the source
and destination IP address and so on. Before two routers can form an OSPF neighbor adjacency,
they must also agree on three values:

Hello interval

Dead interval

Network type

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 1- Hello interval

The OSPF Hello interval indicates how often an OSPF router transmits its Hello packets.

Every 10 seconds on multi-access and point-to-point segments.

Every 30 seconds on non-broadcast multi-access (NBMA) segments (Frame

Relay, X.25, ATM).

2- Dead interval

The OSPF Dead interval is the period, expressed in seconds, that the router will wait to receive a
Hello packet before declaring the neighbor down. Cisco uses a default of four times the Hello
interval.

40 seconds for multi-access and point-to-point links.

120 seconds for NBMA networks.

If the Dead Interval expires before the routers receive a Hello packet, OSPF removes that
neighbor from its link-state database. The router floods the link-state information about the
down neighbor out all OSPF-enabled interfaces. Stay tuned for Network Type.

To reduce the amount of OSPF traffic on multi-access networks, OSPF elects a Designated
Router (DR) and Backup Designated Router (BDR).The DR updates all other OSPF routers
when a change occurs in the multi-access network. The BDR takes over as DR if the current DR
fails.

Authentication

Like other routing protocols, OSPF can be configured for authentication. Authentication ensures
that routers will only accept routing information from other routers that have been configured
with the same password or authentication information .

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 Basic OSPF Configuration

As we see that the addressing scheme is discontiguous. And because OSPF is a classless routing
protocol so we will include the subnet mask as part of our configuration.

The router ospf Command

Like EIGRP, OSPF requires a Process ID Between 1 and 65,535 and chosen by the network
administrator.

Unlike EIGRP, the process ID is only locally significant. Does not have to match on all OSPF
routers.

For consistency, we will enable OSPF on all three routers using the same Process ID of 1.

The network Command:

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The network command used with OSPF has the same function as when used with other IGP
routing protocols:

Any interfaces on a router that match the network address in the network
command will be enabled to send and receive OSPF packets.

This network (or subnet) will be included in OSPF routing updates.

OSPF requires the wildcard mask.

The network address, along with the wildcard mask, is used to specify the
interface or range of interfaces that will be enabled for OSPF using this network
command.

The area area-id refers to the OSPF area.

An OSPF area is a group of routers that share link-state information.

All OSPF routers in the same area must have the same link-state information in
their link-state databases .

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Here all the commands that we need for our example

Verifying OSPF
Two routers may not form an OSPF adjacency if any one of the following conditions is present:

1. The subnet masks do not match, causing the routers to be on separate networks.

2. OSPF Hello or Dead timers do not match.

3. OSPF network types do not match.

4. There is a missing or incorrect OSPF network command.

There are some powerful troubleshooting tools that we can use to check our ospf configurations:

1. Show ip protocols
2. Show ip ospf
3. Show ip ospf interface [interface]

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 Conclusion

Networks are more than just connecting cables. They are a complex and sophisticated
combination of protocols, software and hardware. Based on many market studies we consider
Cisco as one of the top networking company the world but we have to mention that there are
some companies whom provide similar products and services with lower cost than Cisco like
Huawie and Juniper also HP as well. The competition is so high between them but the
performance and quality of service goes to Cisco for sure.

My plan was to cover all CCNA parts (four parts) but I think CCNA is bigger than what I can
cover in one project. I tried as much as I can to not make my project just as any other paper. I
have added some real examples with picture from different recourses almost covering everything
in the project. In the end I was only able to cover two parts of CCNA (Network fundamentals
and Routes &Routing).

I think the other two parts (switching and wan) are more easier after we already know by now the
main concepts in the network world.

I know that some people may think that CCNA's topics are only apply on Cisco devices which is
not true since the concept for all protocols is the same in Cisco, Juniper, Huawie...etc However
the only difference is how to implement these protocols on Cisco, Juniper or Huawie devices.

I hope I succeeded to explain and show these parts of the CCNA and I think it is very important
for those who are studying communication networks & security to start with this interesting
certification program. I really enjoyed studying this course for the first time and I enjoyed more
when I revise it again now to write this few papers and solve the practical exercises.

Ahmed Mehiny

[email protected]

mk.linkedin.com/in/ahmedmehiny/

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 References
Kathy harvy,CCNA lectures (network fundamentals and Routers&Routing), Butte
college,USA,2010.

Stephen McQuerry,Introduction to Cisco Networking Technologies , Cisco Press,USA, Mar 9,

2004.

Mark A Dye and others, Network Fundamentals, Cisco press,USA,2005

Rick Grazlanl,Allan Johnson,Routing Protocols and concepts,cisco press,USA,2005

Mike Meyers, Network +,McGraw-Hill Press,USA ,2009

unknown, CCNA lessons ,YAT press,Egypt,2006

Ciscopedia v3.0 ,Copyright Cisco Systems, USA. 2001, 2002, 2003

http://cisco.netacad.net

http://arabhardware.net

http://www.edu.arabsgate.com

http://docwiki.cisco.com/wiki/Internetworking_Technology_Handbook

http://www.ccnahelp.com/osi-model.php

http://ciscotests.org/ccna.php

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