Ahmed, Ayesha

Geology Unit 2 Test

GEOGRAPHY UNIT TEST 2

EARTH LAYERS;

CRUST
- 8-64 km thick, cold and fragile, made up of granite and basalt.

MANTLE;
- 1800 km thick, hot and molten, made up of silicon and magnesium.

OUTER CORE;
- 2000 km thick, 3- 4000 degrees celsius, made up of liquid nickel and iron.

INNER CORE;
- 1400 km thick, 5- 6000 degrees celsius, made of solid nickel and iron.

Water = hydrosphere, Land = lithosphere, Air = atmosphere

Plate tectonics;
- Theory of plate tectonics state the earths mechanical layer, the lithosphere, is divided into
large- continent sized plates that are constantly moving.
- There are 20 plates.
- Most of these plates are made up of continental and oceanic crust.
- They are floating on hot rock (magma) and are slowly moving several hundred
kilometers underneath the Earths surface, which flow like slow-moving plastic.
- Tectonic plates are constantly moving, causing earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes,
mountains and the formation of new crust.
- Most volcanoes and earthquakes are located at the plate boundaries.

3 types of plate boundaries;

Convergent boundaries;
- The plates move towards one another, and collide.
- When they collide, one of the plates will go underneath the other, usually the heavier and
the denser crust dives underneath the lighter crust, forming volcanoes as the pressure and
the high heat causes the crust to turn into magma, and as magma presses up towards the
surface, then voila!
- The rock above the boundaries will fold or be lifted to form mountains.
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Geology Unit 2 Test

Divergent boundaries;
- The plates pull apart from one another.
- The space between 2 plates widens and becomes a large rift or crack, or if the space is
underneath the ocean, where the thin crust is thinner, magma oozes up and fills the space
in between, causing sea floor spreading.

Transform boundaries;
- The plates slide past each other.
- Creates a crack or fault in the earth, and as they rub past one another, pressure builds up,
and if they are stuck due to friction preventing motion, the pressure will continue to build
up at the fault until the the pressure is stronger than the friction force, it releases its
pressure, resulting in an earthquake.

SUMMARY OF PLATE BOUNDARIES!

- Volcanoes and mountains are a result of convergent boundaries colliding.

- Earthquakes and tsunamis occur at convergent and transform boundaries.
- Cracks and rifts on the earths surface occurs at divergent boundaries, seafloor spreading
occurs at divergent boundaries on the ocean floor.

THE ring of fire;

- Is an active ring that encircles the pacific oceans.
- Is a major area in the basin of the Pacific ocean where a large number of volcanic eruptions
and earthquakes take place.

Continental Drift;
is a theory created in 1915 by Alfred Wegener that states that 300 million years ago all the land
masses on earth collided to form one big continent called Pangaea. About 200 million years ago,
the supercontinent of Pangaea started to break up, as the pieces drifted away in different
directions to their present positions.

Pangaea; a supercontinent that included all of earths masses. It existed from 300 million years ago
to 200 million years ago, until the pangaea started to break up as the pieces started to drift away in
different directions to their present positions.

4 EVIDENCES;

1. The apparent fit of the continents; the coastlines of the continents appear to fit together
like the pieces of a puzzle.
2. Fossil correlation; identical fossils have been found on their sides of the Atlantic ocean.
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Geology Unit 2 Test

3. Rock and Mountain correlation; identical rocks and mountains structures have been
found on their side of the ocean.
4. Paleoclimate Data; coal has been found in cold regions and glacial evidence has been found
in warm regions.

ROCK TYPES

1. Igneous rocks; igneous rocks are formed when magma and lava cool and solidify.
2 types; extrusive igneous rocks and intrusive igneous rock (plutonic).
Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma enters an underground chamber and cools slowly,
forming rock full of large crystals. Have crystals
Extrusive igneous rocks form when lava cools and solidifies at or above the earths surface, are
called volcanic rock. Have a glassy-like surface and looks shiny. Tiny holes and spaces are
visible due to the gas bubbles trapped in the rock during cooling process.
- Examples; granite, basalt, obsidian, diorite, peridotite, pegmatite, and gabbro.

2. Sedimentary Rocks; sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of
sediments ( fragments of rock that have been broken down as a result of weathering).
Sediments are formed by weathering and erosion. Erosion takes place because of rain, freeze, and
thaw cycle, wind and running water.
- (Over time) layers of mud and sand at the bottom of oceans, lakes accumulate and turned
into rocks; sedimentary rocks. They are fairly soft and crumble easily. Fossils of ancient
living things are preserved in sedimentary rocks. Example; conglomerate, limestone,
sandstone, shale, gypsum, and breccia.

3. Metamorphic Rock; metamorphic rocks are formed under the earths surface from the
metamorphosis (change) that occurs due to intense heat and pressure (squeezing). They are
originally igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been transformed due to the movement of the
earths crust. When the earths crust moves, it causes rocks to squeezed so hard that the heat
causes the rocks to change.

- Rock foliation may occur, it is the result of pressure and recrystallization when rocks
undergo metamorphosis. It is layering and parallel alignment of flattened or directionally
oriented mineral crystals (Foliated texture).
- Some have ribbon like layers, many of them have shiny crystals, formed by minerals.
- Examples; gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite.

Rocks Change In 4 Main Ways

Cooling; liquid magma turns into a solid rock when cooled.

- When magma rises from deep within the earth and explodes out of a volcano, it is called
lava, and it cools quickly.
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Geology Unit 2 Test

Melting; metamorphic rock turns into magma.

- Rocks are pulled underneath the earths crust, by the plate tectonic movements, as the
further down it goes, it gets hotter and hotter. Turning it no a substance called molten rock
(magma). It takes 600- 1300 degrees celsius to melt a rock.

Heat and Pressure;

- Due to plate tectonic movements, rocks are frequently being pulled down under the earths
surface, where temperature increases dramatically the farther they descend. Before the
melting point is reached, the rock can undergo fundamental changes while it is in a solid
state, morphing from one type to another without melting.
- An additional factor that can transform rocks is the pressure caused by tons of other rocks
pressing on it from above.
- Heat and pressure work together to alter the rocks underneath the earths surface. This
kind of change is called metamorphism, and the resulting rock is a metamorphic rock.

Weathering and Erosion;

- Weathering; is the mechanical and chemical hammer that breaks down and sculpts
rocks.
- Erosion; is the wearing down (disintegration) of the earths surface. Erosion transports
the fragments away.
- Weathering and erosion are the processes of breakdown and transport due to the exposure
of the environment.

Compacting and Cementing;

- Forms sedimentary rocks.
- Over time, sediments accumulate in the oceans, lakes, and valleys, building up the layers
and weighing down the material underneath. This weight presses the sediments together,
compacting them. Water passing through the spaces in between the particles helps to
cement them together even more.

EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes; the shaking or trembling caused by the sudden release of energy.

- Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks.
- Continuing of adjustments results in aftershocks.

The sliding motion of Transform Boundaries causes lots of earthquakes, the second largest
earthquake in California was the San Francisco earthquake in 1906.

- The point underneath the earths crust where the faulting begins is called the focus or
the hypocenter.
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Geology Unit 2 Test

- The point directly above the focus on the surface is the epicenter.

Seismographs record the earthquake events. At convergent boundaries, focal depth increases
along a dipping seismic zone called a Benioff Zone.

Impacts of earthquakes;
- Building collapse
- Fire
- Tsunami
- Ground failure

What are seismic waves?

Response of material to the arrival of energy fonts released by rupture.

How are seismic waves used to predict earthquakes?

In the occurrence of a primary wave, what is a precaution you can take before a
secondary wave hits?

2 types;
- Body waves
P waves and S waves.
- Surface waves
R and L waves.
Places where plates slide past each other are called transform boundaries This sliding motion
causes a release in energy leading to earthquakes.

San Andreas was the second greatest earthquake ever recorded which happened in 1906 in
San Francisco, California.

The point within earth where faulting begins is called the focus, or hypocentre.

The point directly above the focus, on the surface of the Earth is the Epicentre.

Seismographs are used to record Earthquakes. Seismograms are the wiggly lines on the
graph. The wiggliness of a line shows how much the ground underneath the seismometer
moved during an earthquake. Scientists place seismometers in different places to help detect
an earthquake. Each place where a seismometer is installed is called a seismic recording
station.

80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt. (Ring of Fire)

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Geology Unit 2 Test

Seismic waves are responses of material to the arrival of energy fronts released by rupture.
There are two types of body waves; P-waves and S-waves..

P-waves ( Primary or compressional): Fastest waves, Travel through solids, liquids and gasses.
S- waves (Secondary or shear): Slower than P-waves, but stronger. Travel through solids
only.

P-waves radiate outwards faster than S-waves. The faster P-waves arrive at the surface
before the slower S -waves. However, the slower S-waves shake the ground more than the
faster P-waves.

A device called a seismometer records the shaking of the earth as a wiggly line
(Seismogram). The more the ground shakes the wigglier the line gets. Seismometers are
placed in a protective box or housing buried underground.

The rule-of-thumb for local earthquakes is that the distance is the time lag in seconds
multiplied by a factor of 8.

A seismometer detects when earthquakes arrive and how far away the earthquakes must
have been. It doesnt tell us exactly where the earthquake's epicentre is.

Three seismic recording stations are needed to locate the epicentre. A circle where the radius
equals the distance to the epicentre is drawn. The intersection of the circles locates the
epicentre.

We need information from three different seismic recording stations. With one station we can
narrow down the location of the epicentre to the points along a circle that are a certain
distance away from the station. With information from two stations, we can narrow the
choices just to two points where the circles for both stations intersect. By drawing the last
circle it will only intersect with one of the two points.

With three seismograms from three different locations, you can use lag times to figure out
distance, and finally the origin of earthquakes.

Volcanoes;

There are 4 major types of volcanoes:

Cinder Cone Volcanoes:

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Geology Unit 2 Test

These are the simplest type of volcano. They occur when particles and blobs of lava are ejected from a
volcanic vent. The lava is blown violently into the air, and the pieces rain down around the vent. Over
time, this builds up a circular or oval-shaped cone, with a bowl-shaped crater at the top. Cinder cone
volcanoes rarely grow larger than about 1,000 feet above their surroundings.

Composite Volcanoes:

Composite volcanoes, or stratovolcanoes make up some of the worlds most memorable mountains:
Mount Rainier, Mount Fuji, and Mount Cotopaxi, for example. These volcanoes have a conduit system
inside them that channels magma from deep within the Earth to the surface. They can have clusters of
vents, with lava breaking through walls, or issuing from fissures on the sides of the mountain. With all
this material coming out, they can grow thousands of meters tall. As weve seen with the famous Mount
Saint Helens, composite volcanoes can explode violently.

Shield Volcanoes:

These are large, broad volcanoes that look like shields from above hence the name. The lava that pours
out of shield volcanoes is thin, so it can travel for great distances down the shallow slopes of the volcano.
These volcanos build up slowly over time, with hundreds of eruptions, creating many layers. Theyre not
likely to explode catastrophically. Perhaps the best known shield volcanoes are the ones that make up the
Hawaiian Islands, especially Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea.

What is the difference between magma and lava?

Molten rock is called magma when it is below the Earths surface while lava is formed
above the Earths surface.

How are volcanoes formed?

Volcanoes are formed when magma from within the Earth's upper mantle works its way to the surface.
At the surface, it erupts to form lava flows and ash deposits. Over time as the volcano continues to erupt,
it will get bigger and bigger.

Tsunamis;

A tsunami is a series of enormous waves that happen after an undersea disturbance, such as an

earthquake, landslide, or volcano eruption.

How are tsunamis formed?

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Geology Unit 2 Test

A tsunami is a series of waves generated in an ocean or other body of water by a disturbance such as an
earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption, or meteorite impact. ... Undersea earthquakes, which typically
occur at boundaries between Earth's tectonic plates, cause the water above to be moved up or down.

Glaciation

What is a glacier? A huge mass of ice slowly flowing over a land mass

Peaked 20,000 years ago

Glaciers took thousands of years to form
Glaciers advance (get larger) and retreat (get smaller)
Glacier ice is thousands of metres thick
Glaciers can move and change the landscape

Pressure underneath glacier + gravity = moving glacier

As long as more snow is added, the ice moves outward. If melting happens faster than accumulation, the
glacier appears to retreat.

2 types of glaciers: Alpine and Continental.

Alpine: Movement is mainly due to gravity, existing western mountains (EX rocky mountains, the
himalayas)

Continental: Move due to own weight, in northern ice caps (EX greenland, antarctica)
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Geology Unit 2 Test

Landforms:

Climate:

LOWERN

Climate change:

4 climates:

Polar climtres

warm/moist

cold/moist

Dry climates

LOWERN

Latitiude, Ocean cureents, wind and air massess, elevation, relief mountains, nerness to water

Climitographs:

A climograph is a graphical representation of basic climatic parameters, that is monthly average

temperature and precipitation, at a certain location.
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Geology Unit 2 Test

Weather factors:

Wind and direction

Temperature

Humidity

Pressure

Precipitation

Clouds

Clouds:

How do clouds form?

When water vapor in the air becomes liquid water or ice crystals.

Types:

STRATUS

Sheets of low, grey clouds that bring light snow, rain, or drizzle.

CUMULUS

White and puffy clouds that usually mean good weather.

CIRRUS

Thin, feather-like clouds that are made of ice crystals high in the atmosphere. Usually means a change in
the weather is coming.

Soil and vegetation:

True soil consists of 4 main

parts:

1. Minerals,

2. Bacteria and Organic Material

3. Air

4. Moisture
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Geology Unit 2 Test

HUMUS: Dark, upper layer of soil made up of partially decayed plant material

Soil profile:

TOPSOIL -this top layer contains humus. It is rich in organic material. Its dark brown/black in

colour

B-SUBSOIL- combines minerals and organic layers

C- PARENT MATERIAL -mineral materials from which soil is made. Usually bedrock or glacial
deposits

2 types of soil formation: Leaching and calcification

Leaching:

Is a continual downward movement of water through the soil

As the water moves down, it dissolves the chemical nutrients and carries them away
This downward movement removes nutrients that plants need
You can identify leached soil by its poor, often thin, topsoil layer
Leached soils can be developed into excellent farmland by adding fertilizers

Calcification:

Occurs in drier climates

As water in the topsoil evaporates, water from below is drawn up to replace it - CAPILLARY
ACTION
As the water reaches the surface, it evaporates leaving behind the minerals that were dissolved in
it
The result is a thick topsoil layer, rich in minerals
Calcium is the main mineral deposited near the surface
In very dry climates the amount of mineral deposits can be poisonous to plants

Types of vegetation

TUNDRA
BOREAL AND TAIGA FOREST
MIXED FOREST
DECIDUOUS FOREST
GRASSLANDS
CORDILLERA VEGETATION
WEST COAST FOREST
 Ahmed, Ayesha
Geology Unit 2 Test