a basic handbook

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page

2 SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK

 Soil Compaction

Soil compaction is dened as the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil.
In construction, this is a signicant part of the building process.

If performed improperly, SOIL DENSITY

settlement of the soil
could occur and result in
unnecessary maintenance
costs or structure failure.

Almost all types of

building sites and
construction projects Loose Soil (poor load support)
utilize mechanical Figure 1 Compacted Soil (improved load support)

compaction techniques.

What is soil? These different types of effort are found in the two
principle types of compaction force: static and vibratory.
Soil is formed in place or deposited by various forces
of naturesuch as glaciers, wind, lakes and rivers Static force is simply the deadweight of the machine,
residually or organically. Following are important applying downward force on the soil surface, com-
elements in soil compaction: pressing the soil particles. The only way to change the
effective compaction force is by adding or subtracting
Soil type
the weight of the machine. Static compaction is con-
Soil moisture content ned to upper soil layers and is limited to any appre-
Compaction effort required ciable depth. Kneading and pressure are two examples
of static compaction.
Why compact?
Vibratory force uses a mechanism, usually engine-
There are ve principle reasons to compact soil:
driven, to create a downward force in addition to the
Increases load-bearing capacity machines static weight. The vibrating mechanism is
Prevents soil settlement and frost damage usually a rotating eccentric weight or piston/spring
Provides stability combination (in rammers). The compactors deliver
a rapid sequence of blows (impacts) to the surface,
Reduces water seepage, swelling and contraction
thereby affecting the top layers as well as deeper
Reduces settling of soil layers. Vibration moves through the material, setting
Types of compaction particles in motion and moving them closer together
for the highest density possible. Based on the
There are four types of compaction effort on soil or materials being compacted, a certain amount of force
asphalt: must be used to overcome the cohesive nature of par-
Vibration ticular particles.
Impact
Kneading
Pressure

SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 3

 RESULTS OF POOR COMPACTION

Figure 2
These illustrations show the results of improper compaction and how proper compaction can ensure a longer structural life,
eliminating future foundation problems.

Soil Types and Conditions

Every soil type behaves differently with respect to A soils makeup determines the best compaction
maximum density and optimum moisture. Therefore, method to use.
each soil type has its own unique requirements and
There are three basic soil groups:
controls both in the eld and for testing purposes. Soil
types are commonly classied by grain size, deter- Cohesive
mined by passing the soil through a series of sieves to Granular
screen or separate the different grain sizes. Organic (this soil is not suitable for compaction
[See Figure 3] and will not be discussed here)
Soil classication is categorized into 15 groups, a sys-
tem set up by AASHTO (American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Ofcials). Soils found in
nature are almost always a combination of soil types. A
well-graded soil consists of a wide range of particle sizes
with the smaller particles lling voids between larger
particles. The result is a dense structure that lends
itself well to compaction.

4 SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK

SIEVE TEST
Cohesive soils
Cohesive soils have the smallest particles. Clay has a
particle size range of .00004" to .002". Silt ranges from
.0002" to .003". Clay is used in embankment lls and
retaining pond beds.
Characteristics
Cohesive soils are dense and tightly bound together
by molecular attraction. They are plastic when wet
and can be molded, but become very hard when dry.
Proper water content, evenly distributed, is critical for
proper compaction. Cohesive soils usually require a
force such as impact or pressure. Silt has a noticeably
lower cohesion than clay. However, silt is still heavily
reliant on water content. [See Figure 4]

Granular soils
Granular soils range in particle size from .003" to
.08" (sand) and .08" to 1.0" (ne to medium gravel).
Granular soils are known for their water-draining
properties.
Characteristics
Sand and gravel obtain maximum density in either
a fully dry or saturated state. Testing curves are
relatively at so density can be obtained regardless of
water content.
The tables on the following pages give a basic
indication of soils used in particular construction
applications. [See Figures 5, 6 & 7]

Figure 3

Figure 4
GUIDE TO SOIL TYPES
What to look for Appearance/feel Water movement When moist... When dry...

Granular soils, ne Coarse grains can When water and soil Very little or no Little or no cohe-
sands and silts. be seen. Feels gritty are shaken in palm of plasticity. sive strength when
when rubbed between hand, they mix. When dry. Soil sample will
ngers. shaking is stopped, crumble easily.
they separate.

Cohesive soils, mixes Grains cannot be seen When water and soil Plastic and sticky. Has high strength
and clays. by naked eye. Feels are shaken in palm of Can be rolled. when dry. Crumbles
smooth and greasy hand, they will not mix. with difculty. Slow
when rubbed between saturation in water.
ngers.

SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 5

 RELATIVE DESIRABILITY OF SOILS AS COMPACTED FILL
(NAVFAC DM-7.2, MAY 1982)
Relative Desirability for Various Uses
(1=best; 14=least desirable)

* if gravelly
Rolled Earth Fill Dams Canal Sections Foundations Roadways
** erosion critical Fills

Erosion Resis-
Homogeneous
*** volume change critical

Not Important
Embankment

Not Possible
Earth Lining

Frost Heave

Frost Heave
Compacted
-- not appropriate for this type of use

Important

Surfacing
Seepage

Seepage
Group

Possible
tance
Shell
Core
Symbol Soil Type
GW Well-graded gravels, gravel/
sand mixtures, little or no nes -- -- 1 1 -- -- 1 1 1 3

GP Poorly-graded gravels, gravel/sand

GRAVELS

mixtures, little or no nes -- -- 2 2 -- -- 3 3 3 --

GM Silty gravels, poorly-graded

gravel/sand/silt mixtures 2 4 -- 4 4 1 4 4 9 5

GC Clay-like gravels, poorly graded

gravel/sand/clay mixtures 1 1 -- 3 1 2 6 5 5 1

SW Well-graded sands, gravelly

-- -- 3* 6 -- -- 2 2 2 4
sands, little or no nes

SP Poorly-graded sands, gravelly

-- -- 4* 7* -- -- 5 6 4 --
SANDS

sands, little or no nes

SM Silty sands, poorly-graded sand/

4 5 -- 8* 5** 3 7 6 10 6
silt mixtures

SC Clay-like sands, poorly-graded

3 2 -- 5 2 4 8 7 6 2
sand/clay mixtures

ML Inorganic silts and very ne

sands, rock our, silty or clay-like 6 6 -- -- 6** 6 9 10 11 --
ne sands with slight plasticity
LEAN

CL Inorganic clays of low to medium

plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy 5 3 -- 9 3 5 10 9 7 7
clays, silty clays, lean clays
CLAYS & SILTS

OL Organic silts and organic silt-clays

8 8 -- -- 7** 7 11 11 12 --
of low plasticity

MN Organic silts, micaceous or

diatomaceous ne sandy or silty 9 9 -- -- -- 8 12 12 13 --
soils, elastic silts
FAT

CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity,

7 7 -- 10 8*** 9 13 13 8 --
fat clays

OH Organic clays of medium high

10 10 -- -- -- 10 14 14 14 --
plasticity

Figure 5

6 SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK

 MATERIALS
Vibrating Scraper
Static Sheepsfoot Plate Compactor Rubber-tired Roller
Vibrating Sheepsfoot Grid Roller Vibrating Roller Loader
Rammer Scraper Vibrating Sheepsfoot Grid Roller

Lift
IMPACT PRESSURE VIBRATION KNEADING
Thickness with kneading with pressure

GRAVEL 12+ Poor No Good Very Good

SAND 10+/- Poor No Excellent Good

SILT 6+/- Good Good Poor Excellent

CLAY 6+/- Excellent Very Good No Good

Figure 6

Effect of moisture
The response of soil to moisture is very important, move past each other to achieve density. Too much
as the soil must carry the load year-round. Rain, for moisture leaves water-lled voids and subsequently
example, may transform soil into a plastic state or even weakens the load-bearing ability. The highest density
into a liquid. In this state, soil has very little or no load- for most soils is at a certain water content for a
bearing ability. given compaction effort. The drier the soil, the more
resistant it is to compaction. In a water-saturated state
Moisture vs soil density the voids between particles are partially lled with
Moisture content of the soil is vital to proper water, creating an apparent cohesion that binds them
compaction. Moisture acts as a lubricant within soil, together. This cohesion increases as the particle size
sliding the particles together. Too little moisture decreases (as in clay-type soils). [See Figure 8]
means inadequate compactionthe particles cannot

FILL MATERIALS

Foundation Pavement Compaction

Permeability Support Subgrade Expansive Difculty

GRAVEL Very High Excellent Excellent No Very Easy

SAND Medium Good Good No Easy

SILT Medium Low Poor Poor Some Some

CLAY None+ Moderate Poor Difcult Very Difcult

ORGANIC Low Very Poor Not Acceptable Some Very Difcult

Figure 7

SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 7

Soil density tests
MOISTURE VS SOIL DENSITY
To determine if proper soil
compaction is achieved for any
specic construction application,
several methods were developed.
The most prominent by far is soil
density.
Why test
Soil testing accomplishes the
following:
Measures density of soil for
comparing the degree of
compaction vs specs
Measures the effect of
moisture on soil density vs
specs
Provides a moisture density
curve identifying optimum
moisture Figure 8

Types of tests
Tests to determine optimum moisture content are
done in the laboratory. The most common is the
Proctor Test, or Modied Proctor Test. A particular
soil needs to have an ideal (or optimum) amount
HAND TEST of moisture to achieve maximum density. This is
important not only for durability, but will save money
A quick method of determining moisture density is known because less compaction effort is needed to achieve
as the Hand Test. the desired results.
Pick up a handful of soil. Squeeze it in your hand. Open Proctor Test (ASTM D1557-91)
your hand.
The Proctor, or Modied Proctor Test, determines the
maximum density of a soil needed for a specic job
site. The test rst determines the maximum density
achievable for the materials and uses this gure as a
reference. Secondly, it tests the effects of moisture on
soil density. The soil reference value is expressed as a
percentage of density. These values are determined
before any compaction takes place to develop the
If the soil is powdery and will not retain the shape made by compaction specications. Modied Proctor values are
your hand, it is too dry. If it shatters when dropped, it is too higher because they take into account higher densities
dry.
needed for certain types of construction projects. Test
If the soil is moldable and breaks into only a couple of methods are similar for both tests. [See Figure 10]
pieces when dropped, it has the right amount of moisture
for proper compaction. Field tests
If the soil is plastic in your hand, leaves small traces of It is important to know and control the soil density
moisture on your ngers and stays in one piece when during compaction. Following are common eld tests
dropped, it has too much moisture for compaction. to determine on the spot if compaction densities are
being reached.
Figure 9

8 SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK

PROCTOR TEST

Figure 10

FIELD DENSITY TESTING METHODS

Sand Cone Balloon Densometer Shelby Tube Nuclear Gauge

Advantages Large sample Large sample Fast Fast

Accurate Direct reading obtained Deep sample Easy to redo
Open graded material Under pipe haunches More tests
(statistical reliability)

Many steps Slow Small sample No sample

Large area required Balloon breakage No gravel Radiation
Disadvantages Slow Awkward Sample not always Moisture suspect
Halt equipment retained Encourages amateurs
Tempting to accept ukes

Void under plate Surface not level Overdrive Miscalibrated

Sand bulking Soil pumping Rocks in path Rocks in path
Errors Sand compacted Void under plate Plastic soil Surface prep required
Soil pumping Backscatter

Cost Low Moderate Low High

Figure 11

SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 9

 SAND CONE TEST Sand Cone Test (ASTM D1556-90)
A small hole (6 x 6 deep) is dug in the compacted
material to be tested. The soil is removed and
weighed, then dried and weighed again to determine
its moisture content. A soils moisture is gured
as a percentage. The specic volume of the hole is
determined by lling it with calibrated dry sand
from a jar and cone device. The dry weight of the soil
removed is divided by the volume of sand needed to
ll the hole. This gives us the density of the compacted
soil in lbs per cubic foot. This density is compared to
the maximum Proctor density obtained earlier, which
gives us the relative density of the soil that was just
compacted. [See Figure 12]
Nuclear Density (ASTM D2922-91)
Nuclear Density meters are a quick and fairly accurate
way of determining density and moisture content. The
meter uses a radioactive isotope source (Cesium 137)
at the soil surface (backscatter) or from a probe placed
into the soil (direct transmission). The isotope source
gives off photons (usually Gamma rays) which radiate
back to the meters detectors on the bottom of the
unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil
and the readings reect overall density. Water content
(ASTM D3017) can also be read, all within a few
minutes. A relative Proctor Density is obtained after
comparing maximum density with the compaction
results from the test. [See Figure 13]

Figure 12

NUCLEAR TEST

Figure 13

Soil Modulus (soil stiffness)

This eld-test method is a very recent development This is a very fast, safe method of testing soil stiffness.
that replaces soil density testing. Soil stiffness is the Soil stiffness is the desired engineering property, not
ratio of force-to-displacement. Testing is done by a just dry density and water content. This method is
machine that sends vibrations into the soil and then currently being researched and tested by the Federal
measures the deection of the soil from the vibrations. Highway Administration.

10 SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK

 Reversible plates and smooth drum vibratory rollers
Compaction Equipment are appropriate for production work. Granular soil
particles respond to different frequencies (vibra-
Applications tions) depending on particle size. The smaller the
particle, the higher the frequency necessary to
The desired level of compaction is best achieved by move it. As you compact soils with larger particles,
matching the soil type with its proper compaction move up to larger equipment to obtain lower fre-
method. Other factors must be considered as well, quencies and higher compaction forces.
such as compaction specs and job site conditions. [See Figure 15]
Cohesive soilsclay is cohesive; its particles stick
together.* Therefore, a machine with a high impact
force is required to ram the soil and force the air GRANULAR SOILS
out, arranging the particles. A rammer is the best
choice, or a pad-foot vibratory roller if higher produc-
tion is needed. [See Figure 14]
*The particles must be sheared to compact. MVC-88
Vibratory Plate
Granular soilssince granular soils are not cohe-
sive and the particles require a shaking or vibra-
tory action to move them, vibratory plates (forward
travel) are the best choice.

COHESIVE SOILS

MT-65H
Rammer

MVH-306
Reversible Plate

P33/24 HHMR
AR-13H
Roller
Ride-on Vibratory Roller

P33 HHMR-BD
Roller
Figure 15
Figure 14

SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 11

Normally, soils are mixtures of clay and granular
materials, making the selection of compaction
LIFT HEIGHT
equipment more difcult. It is a good idea to choose
the machine appropriate for the larger percentage of
the mixture. Equipment testing may be required to
match the best machine to the job.
Asphalt is considered granular due to its base of mixed
aggregate sizes (crushed stone, gravel, sand and
nes) mixed with bitumen binder (asphalt cement).
Consequently, asphalt must be compacted with
pressure (static) or vibration.

Compaction machine characteristics

Two factors are important in determining the type of
force a compaction machine produces: frequency and
amplitude.
Frequency is the speed at which an eccentric shaft
rotates or the machine jumps. Each compaction
Proper Lift Improper Lift
machine is designed to operate at an optimum
frequency to supply the maximum force. Frequency is Figure 16
usually given in terms of vibrations per minute (vpm).
Amplitude (or nominal amplitude) is the maximum
movement of a vibrating body from its axis in one
direction. Double amplitude is the maximum distance Soil can also be over-compacted if the compactor
a vibrating body moves in both directions from its makes too many passes (a pass is the machine going
axis. The apparent amplitude varies for each machine across a lift in one direction). Over-compaction is like
under different job site conditions. The apparent constantly hitting concrete with a sledgehammer.
amplitude increases as the material becomes more Cracks will eventually appear, reducing density. This
dense and compacted. is a waste of man-hours and adds unnecessary wear to
the machine.
Lift height and machine performance
Compaction specications
Lift height (depth of the soil layer) is an important
factor that affects machine performance and A word about meeting job site specications.
compaction cost. Vibratory and rammer-type Generally, compaction performance parameters are
equipment compact soil in the same direction: from given on a construction project in one of two ways:
top to bottom and bottom to top. As the machine hits Method Specicationdetailed instructions
the soil, the impact travels to the hard surface below specify machine type, lift depths, number of
and then returns upward. This sets all particles in passes, machine speed and moisture content.
motion and compaction takes place. A recipe is given as part of the job specs to
As the soil becomes compacted, the impact has a accomplish the compaction needed. This method is
shorter distance to travel. More force returns to the outdated, as machine technology has far outpaced
machine, making it lift off the ground higher in its common method specication requirements.
stroke cycle. If the lift is too deep, the machine will End-Result Specicationengineers indicate
take longer to compact the soil and a layer within the nal compaction requirements, thus giving the
lift will not be compacted. contractor much more exibility in determining
[See Figure 16] the best, most economical method of meeting
the required specs. Fortunately, this is the trend,
allowing the contractor to take advantage of the
latest technology available.

12 SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK

Equipment types EQUIPMENT TYPES
Rammers
Rammers deliver a high impact force (high ampli- MT-76D
tude) making them an excellent choice for cohesive Diesel-Powered Rammer
and semi-cohesive soils. Frequency range is 500 to
750 blows per minute. Rammers get compaction force
from a small gasoline or diesel engine powering a
large piston set with two sets of springs. The rammer
is inclined at a forward angle to allow forward travel
as the machine jumps. Rammers cover three types of
compaction: impact, vibration and kneading.
[See Figure 17]
Vibratory plates
Vibratory plates are low amplitude and high frequen-
cy, designed to compact granular soils and asphalt.
Gasoline or diesel engines drive one or two eccentric MVC-88
weights at a high speed to develop compaction force. Vibratory Plate
The resulting vibrations cause forward motion. The en-
gine and handle are vibration-isolated from the vibrat-
ing plate. The heavier the plate, the more compaction
force it generates. Frequency range is usually 2500 vpm
to 6000 vpm. Plates used for asphalt have a water tank
and sprinkler system to prevent asphalt from sticking
to the bottom of the baseplate. Vibration is the one
principal compaction effect. [See Figure 17]
Reversible vibratory plates
In addition to some of the standard vibratory plate MVH-402DS
Reversible Plate
features, reversible plates have two eccentric weights
that allow smooth transition for forward or reverse
travel, plus increased compaction force as the result of
dual weights. Due to their weight and force, reversible Figure 17
plates are ideal for semi-cohesive soils.
A reversible is possibly the best compaction buy dol-
lar for dollar. Unlike standard plates, the reversibles
forward travel may be stopped and the machine will
maintain its force for spot compaction.
[See Figure 17]
Figure 18
EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS

Granular Soils Sand and Clay Cohesive Clay Asphalt

Rammers Not recommended Testing recommended Best application Not recommended

Vibratory Plates Best application Testing recommended Not recommended Best application

Reversible Plates Testing recommended Best application Best application Not recommended

Vibratory Rollers Not recommended Best application Testing recommended Best application

Rammax Rollers Testing recommended Best application Best application Not recommended

SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 13

 ROLLER TYPES

MRH-800GS
Vibratory Roller
V30-3E
Vibratory Roller

P33/24 HHMR
Roller

AR-13H
Ride-on Vibratory Roller

P48
Ride-on Roller

Figure 19

Rollers
Rollers are available in several categories: walk-behind and ride-on, which are available as smooth drum,
padded drum and rubber-tired models; and are further divided into static and vibratory sub-categories.
[See Figure 18]

Walk-behind
Smooth
A popular design for many years, smooth-drum Frequency is around 4000 vpm and amplitudes range
machines are ideal for both soil and asphalt. Dual steel from .018 to .020. Vibration is provided by eccentric
drums are mounted on a rigid frame and powered shafts placed in the drums or mounted on the frame.
by gasoline or diesel engines. Steering is done by
manually turning the machine handle.

14 SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK

Padded Suitable for soil, sub-base and asphalt compaction,
Padded rollers are also known as trench rollers due to tandem rollers use the dynamic force of eccentric
their effective use in trenches and excavations. These vibrator assemblies for high production work. Single-
machines feature hydraulic or hydrostatic steering drum machines feature a single vibrating drum with
and operation. Powered by diesel engines, trench pneumatic drive wheels. The drum is available as
rollers are built to withstand the rigors of conned smooth for sub-base or rock ll, or padded for soil
compaction. Trench rollers are either skid-steer or compaction. Additionally, a ride-on version of the pad
equipped with articulated steering. Operation can be foot trench roller is available for very high productivity
by manual or remote control. Large eccentric units in conned areas, with either manual or remote
provide high impact force and high amplitude (for control operation.
rollers) that are appropriate for cohesive soils. The Rubber-tire
drum pads provide a kneading action on soil. Use
these machines for high productivity. These rollers are equipped with 7 to 11 pneumatic
tires with the front and rear tires overlapping. A static
Ride-on roller by nature, compaction force is altered by the
Congured as static steel-wheel rollers, ride-ons are addition or removal of weight added as ballast in
used primarily for asphalt surface sealing and nishing the form of water or sand. Weight ranges vary from
work in the larger (8 to 15 ton) range. Small ride-on 10 to 35 tons. The compaction effort is pressure and
units are used for patch jobs with thin lifts. kneading, primarily with asphalt nish rolling. Tire
The trend is toward vibratory rollers. Tandem pressures on some machines can be decreased while
vibratory rollers are usually found with drum widths rolling to adjust ground contact pressure for different
of 30 up to 110, with the most common being 48. job conditions.

Safety and General Guidelines

As with all construction equipment, there are many No minors should be allowed to operate construction
safety practices that should be followed while using equipment. No operator should run construction
compaction equipment. While this handbook is not equipment when under the inuence of medication,
designed to cover all aspects of job site safety, we illegal drugs or alcohol. Serious injury or death could
wish to mention some of the more obvious items in occur as a result of improper use or neglect of safety
regard to compaction equipment. Ideally, equipment practices and attitudes. This applies to both the new
operators should familiarize themselves with all of worker as well as the seasoned professional.
their companys safety regulations, as well as any
OSHA, state agency or local agency regulations Shoring
pertaining to job safety. Basic personal protection, Trench work brings a new set of safety practices and
consisting of durable work gloves, eye protection, regulations for the compaction equipment operator.
ear protection, approved hard hat and work clothes, This section does not intend to cover the regulations
should be standard issue on any job and available for pertaining to trench safety (OSHA Part 1926, Subpart
immediate use. P). The operator should have knowledge of what is
In the case of walk-behind compaction equipment, required before compacting in a trench or conned
additional toe protection devices should be available, area. Be certain a competent person (as dened
depending on applicable regulations. All personnel by OSHA in Part 1926.650 revised July 1, 1998) has
operating powered compaction equipment should inspected the trench and follows the OSHA guidelines
read all operating and safety instructions for each for inspection during the duration of the job. Besides
piece of equipment. Additionally, training should be the obvious danger of a trench cave-in, the worker
provided so that the operator is aware of all aspects of must also be protected from falling objects. Unshored
operation. (or shored) trenches can be compacted with the use of
remote control compaction equipment. This allows the
operator to stay outside the trench while operating the
equipment.
Safety rst!

SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 15

 Glossary

AASHO American Association of State Highway Clay material composed and derived from the
Ofcials. decomposition of rock which consists of microscopic
particles.
Adhesion a property of soil which causes the par-
ticles to stick together. Clean free of foreign material; in reference to sand
or gravel, lack of a binder.
Aggregate stone or gravel that was crushed and
screened to various sizes for use in concrete, asphalt Cohesion a property of soil which holds theparticles
or road surfaces. together by sticking. Also, the soils ability to resist
shear is determined by its degree of cohesiveness.
Amplitude the total vertical distance the vibrating
drum or plate is displaced from a resting or neutral Cohesive Material a soil having properties of cohe-
position from the eccentric moment. sion.
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials. Compacted Yards measurement of soil or rock after
it is placed and compacted in a ll.
Backll materials used in relling a cut or other
excavation, or the act of such relling. Compressibility a property of soil which permits
deformation when subjected to a load.
Ballast heavy material, such as water, sand or
metal which has no function in a machine except to Core a cylindrical piece of an underground forma-
increase its weight. tion, cut and raised by a rotary drill with a hollow
bit. The impervious center of an earthll dam.
Bank a mass of soil rising above an average level.
Generally, any soil which is to be dug from its natu- Crown the elevation of a road surface at its edges,
ral position. to encourage drainage.
Bank Gravel a natural mixture of cobbles, gravel, Datum any level surface taken as a plane of refer-
sand and nes. ence from which to measure elevations.
Bank Yards soil or rock measured in its original Density the ratio of the weight of a substance to its
position before digging. volume.
Base the course or layer of materials in a roadway Embankment a ll with a top higher than the ad-
section on which the actual pavement is placed. It joining natural surface.
may be of different types of materials ranging from
Elasticity a characteristic of soil which allows
selected soils to crushed stone or gravel.
deformation during a subjected load, but returns
Berm an articial ridge of earth, generally side- almost to its original conguration after removal of
slopes of a roadbed. the force.
Binder nes which ll voids or hold gravel together Fines clay or silt particles in soil.
when dry.
Finish Grade the nal grade required by specica-
Borrow Pit an excavation from which ll material is tions.
taken.
Foot in tamping rollers, one of a number of
BPR U.S. Bureau of Public Roads. projections from a cylindrical drum.
BUREC U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Frequency referring to rotational speed of the ec-
centric shaftusually rated in Vibrations Per Min-
Capillary a phenomenon of soil which allows water
utewhich is equal to the RPM of the shaft.
to be absorbed either upward or laterally.
Frost Line the greatest depth to which ground is
Centrifugal Force the force generated from the
expected to freeze in a given location.
unbalanced condition of eccentric shaft rotation at a
given speed.

16 SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK

Grade usually the surface elevation of the ground at Proctor, Modied a moisture density test of more
points where it meets a structure. Also, surface slope. rigid specication than Proctor. The basic difference
is the use of heavier weight dropped from a greater
Grain Size Curve a soil graph analysis showing the distance in laboratory tests.
percentage size variations by weight.
Quicksand ne sand or silt that is prevented from
Granular Material a sandy type of soil with settling rmly together by upward movement of
particles that are coarser than cohesive material and underground water.
do not stick to each other.
Sand a cohesiveless aggregate of round and angular
Gravel a cohesionless aggregate of rock fragments fragments of rock with a particle size between 2.0
with varying dimensions of 3.0 to .08 inches. and .05mm.
Gumbo material in the plastic state identied by a Shearing Resistance a soils ability to resist sliding
soapy or waxy appearance. against neighboring soil grains when force is
Humus organic material formed by the decomposi- applied. Internal friction and cohesion determine
tion of vegetation. shear resistance.

Impervious resistant to movement of water. Shrinkage soil volume which is reduced when sub-
jected to moisture; usually occurs in ne grain soils.
In Situ natural undisturbed soil in place.
Silt soil material composed of particles between .005
Lift a layer of ll as spread or compacted. and .05mm in diameter.
Liquid Limit the water content at which soil passes Soil the loose surface material of the earths crust.
from a plastic to a liquid state.
Stabilize to make soil rm and prevent it from mov-
Loam a soft, easily worked soil containing sand, silt, ing.
clay and decayed vegetation.
Sub-base the layer of material placed to furnish
Optimum Moisture Content that percent of moisture strength to the base of a road.
at which the greatest density of a soil can be
obtained through compaction. Subgrade the surface produced by grading native
earth, or cheap imported materials which serve as a
Pass a working trip or passage of an excavating, base for more expensive paving.
grading or compaction machine from point A to
point B. (One direction only.)
Permeability a characteristic of soil which allows
water to ow through it because of gravity.
Plastic the ability of a soil to be rolled into a ne
thread at a certain moisture content.
Plastic Limit the lowest moisture content at which
a soil can be rolled into a 1/8 diameter thread with-
out breaking.
Proctor a method developed by R.R. Proctor for
determining the density/moisture relationship in
soils. It is almost universally used to determine the
maximum density of any soil so that specications
may be properly prepared for eld construction
requirements.
Acknowledgements: Budinger & Associates, Geotechnical &
Material Engineers, for their assistance with some material.

SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 17

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SOIL COMPACTION HANDBOOK 19

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COPYRIGHT 2004, MULTIQUIP INC.

Rev. 3 (08-04)