NICOLE C.

MAPILI

THE THIRD ACT OF THE MIND Premises and Conclusions, being

propositions can only be true of false
-REASONING
The argument, the whole of it, is where
REASONING we adduce VALIDITY

Ability to acquire knowledge beyond SYLLOGISMS
experience.
If we know that everything has In formal logic, reasoning is
atoms must be able to reflect light expressed through syllogisms.
If we know that all green men on It is presupposed here that the
mars have atoms reasoning we utilize is that of
Then we know with certainty that all deduction we are in search for
little green men on mars must be necessary truth.
able to reflect light Syllogism literally means connected
Universal truths: 2 + 2 = 4 thought
We can know necessary and Syn (together) + logos (thought/
unchangeable truths that it idea)
necessarily follows.
If A is B and B is C, then A must FOUNDATIONS OF THE SYLLOGISM
necessarily be C.
1. Dictum de omni - the law about all.
ARGUMENTATION Whatever is universally true of a subject
must be true of everything contained in that
The essential structure of every subject.
argument consists of a relationship
between two parts: premises and a. If X must be true of all S, then it
conclusion. must be true of every single S
Conclusion what you are trying to
b. The universal is the foundation of
prove
syllogism.
Premises your reasons, your
evidence, your proof 2. Dictum de nullo the law about
Premise indicators: because, since, none. Whatever is universally false of a
but, on account of, for, inasmuch as, subject must be false of everything
insofar as, for the reason that, etc. contained in that subject.
Conclusion indicator: therefore, thus,
a. If X is not true of any S, of S as
hence, so, ergo, consequently, it follows
such, then X must not be true of any single
that, we may conclude that, etc.
S.
Before we proceed, it is but necessary to
3. Two things identical with one
note again that arguments can only be
another one and the same third thing are
valid or invalid neither true or false nor
identical with each other.
clear or unclear. Since arguments are
composed of propositions (premises and a. All men are mortal; Socrates is a
conclusions), it is necessary that each man; Thus...
proposition have a truth value of its own.
In other words, the truth value of the 4. If there are two things, one of
conclusion or premises do not which is identical with a third thing and
necessarily affect the VALIDITY of the the other of which is not, then those two
argument. things are not identical with each other.
a. No men are angels; and Socrates is
a man; therefore
All evil spirits are birds (False)
5. (3) and (4) assume the LAW OF
And all sparrows are evil spirits (False) IDENTITY
Therefore, all sparrows are birds (True) A things is what it is
We can see from the example the 6. The (3) and (4) supposes likewise the
conclusion logically follows from the LAW OF NON-
premises despite their falsity. IT IS
VALID. In fact, it was shown likewise CONTRADICTION
that one can arrive at TRUE A thing is not what it isnt; X is not non-X.
conclusions despite the presence of
false premises. 7. Lastly, the (3) and (4) assume as
well the LAW OF EXCLUDED
NICOLE C. MAPILI

MIDDLE
a thing is [only] either X or not X. A
Predicate must either be affirmed or denied
Because no politicians are loyal
of a subject no third possibility.
Filipinos,
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLOGISM
And some teachers are highly paid
All men are mortal persons,
And Socrates is a man Some professional people are teachers,
Therefore Socrates is mortal
Hence, some persons who are
competent to rule the
From the example:
For the reason that all highly paid
1. There can only be three
persons arecountry are not politicians,
propositions: two premises and a
professional people,
conclusion.
And all loyal Filipinos are competent to
2. There can only be three terms. Each
rule the country,
terms is only used twice.
3. Subject of the conclusion = MINOR
TERM All heroes are not afraid to die,
Since, some valuable things are not
useful too,
4. Predicate of the conclusion =
MAJOR TERM Some heroes are Filipinos,
5. The term that is not present in the
conclusion = MIDDLE TERM
Hence, some valuable things are not
6. The premise containing the minor machines, consequently,
term = MINOR PREMISE
some Filipinos are not afraid to die,
7. The premise containing the major
term = MAJOR PREMISE
CHECKING SYLLOGISMS FOR THEIR
Premise indicators: because, since, but,
VALIDITY
on account of, for, inasmuch as, insofar as,
for the reason that, etc. (Aristotles Six Rules)
Conclusion indicator: therefore, thus, Rule 1: A syllogism must have three (3) and
hence, so, ergo, consequently, it follows only three (3) terms.
that, we may conclude that, etc.
Violation: Fallacy of Four Terms

Some Filipinos are responsible people,

Rule 2: A syllogism must have three (3) and
And all teachers are responsible people, only three (3) propositions.
Since some Filipinos are teachers, Violation: Unnamed

Inasmuch as all Christians are God- Rule 3: The MIDDLE TERM must be
fearers, DISTRIBUTED (universal) at least once.
And some Christians are Filipinos, Violation: Fallacy of Undistributed
Middle
It follows that some Filipinos are God-
fearers,

Rule 4: No term that is undistributed in the

premise may be distributed in the
And some plants are not trees,
conclusion
Because no roses are trees,
Violation: Fallacy of Illicit Minor or Major
It follows that some plants are roses, Term(Corollary Rules)
NICOLE C. MAPILI

Rule 5: No syllogism can have two (2) Rule 4: False or Hasty

negative premises. Generalization/Assumptions. Example:
Violation: [Fallacy of] Exclusive
Premises
All violence is aggression
Rule 6: If one (1) premise is negative, the
No violence is just
conclusion must be negative; and if the
conclusion is negative, one premise must Therefore, Some aggressions are not just
be negative.
Violation: Unnamed
Example:
Compassion is a virtue
A violation of either of the corollaries
also violates one of the six rules of Justice is not compassion
Aristotle. However, it is but helpful to Therefore, justice is not a virtue
state these corollaries for it is easier to
identify.
CHECKING SYLLOGISMS FOR THEIR Rule 5: Two terms negatively related to one
VALIDITY third term are not necessarily identical or
unidentical with each other
Corollary 1: No syllogism may have two
particular premises.
Corollary 2: If a syllogism has a Example:
particular premise, it must have a
particular conclusion. Odd numbers are not even numbers

RULES EXPLAINED Three is not an even number T

Rule 1: One can only connect two ideas herefore, three is an odd number
with a common bridge only one third term.
Ryle 2: Syllogisms, by definition, should Example:
have three (3) propositions. This is a
MEDIATE (bridged) inference Birds are not fish

If an argument contains only two Humans are not fish

propositions (2), it is an immediate
Therefore, humans are birds
inference: conversion, obversion and
contraposition
Rules 3 and 4 concern with the
distribution of terms
These two rules pertain to the essential
structure of the syllogism In diagramming, if there is a way that one
can diagram the premise without having
Rule 3: The reason the middle term must
the conclusion, the argument is invalid
be distributed at least once is because if it is
not, then the minor term and the major term
may be related to two totally different parts
Rules 5 and 6 concern negative
of the extension of the middle term that
premises
justifies the relationship they bear to each
other in 1. Some dogs are creatures of God;
Since creatures of God are animals; And
the conclusion some animals are dogs;
Example:
All dogs are animals
2. Jogging is good for the body; But
All cats are animals DOGS CATS milk is good for the body; Therefore,
Therefore, all dogs are cats milk is jogging.

*In both instances, the middle term is

particular 3. And fruits are sweet;

Some mangoes are sweet;

NICOLE C. MAPILI

But all mangoes are sweet;

4. No servants of the country are

government officials;

But some government officials are

corrupt persons;

6. Jeremy is a writer of fairy tale

stories; But Jeremy is a student;

Therefore, all students are writers of

fairy tale stories.

7. All machines are useful tools;

But some valuable things are useful

tools; Therefore, some valuable things
are machines.

8. Chocolates are houses

; And houses are white;
But chocolates are brown;

9. Some fruits are sweet;

But some fruits are sour;

In this case, some corrupt persons are

servants of the Therefore, some fruits
are sweet.
country.

10. No chimpanzee are rational animals;

For the reason that all snakes are
animals; But no philosophers are
chimpanzees;

And some animals are lovable

creatures; Therefore, no philosophers
are rational animals.

Some lovable creatures are snakes.