UNIT IV :

4.1 Marine Fishery Resources

Exclusive economic zone- Potentialities and Exploitations
Modern Devices of exploitation
Major Fisheries of Indian coasts

4.2 Mariculture
Coastal culture practices and consequences
Culture of edible oysters, Lobsters and Prawns

4.3 Processing and preservation

Fish spoilage and methods of preservations
Fish byproducts
Shrimp processing technology

4.4 Conservation of Fishery resources

Sustainability of Fisheries Development
Open water stocking and ranching programmes

4.1 EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ)

Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nm (22.22 km)

contiguous zone: 24 nm (44.44 km)
Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm (370 KM)
continental shelf: 200 nm((370 KM)) or to the edge of the continental margin

Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) - the UNCLOS (Part V) defines the EEZ as a zone beyond and
adjacent to the territorial sea in which a coastal state has: sovereign rights for the purpose of
exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-
living, of the waters superjacent to the seabed and of the seabed and its subsoil, and with regard
to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as the
production of energy from the water, currents, and winds; jurisdiction with regard to the
establishment and use of artificial islands, installations, and structures; marine scientific
research; the protection and preservation of the marine environment; the outer limit of the
exclusive economic zone shall not exceed 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the
breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
India, a traditionally maritime country with rich maritime heritage, has an Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ) of about 2.37 million km2 wherein India enjoy the exclusive legal right to
utilize all living and non-living resources. The project mainly focuses on mapping the entire EEZ
of India using the state-of-the art technologies of Multibeam apart from systematic sediment
sampling and its analysis. The entire EEZ have been divided into two areas viz. deep water areas
(> 500 m water depth) and shallow water areas (< 500 m water depth).

This is a continuing programme of the Ministry spill over from the 10th plan and will be
continued during the 12th Five Year Plan. By implementing the programme, a clear picture of
our exclusive economic zone will emerge. The comprehensive detailed bathymetric map of the
EEZ will be helpful to mariners, navigators, planners, fisheries and mineral resource, researchers
and many more. This benefit would be enormous as the information on EEZ is essential for all
round development of the coastal regions.

Systematic mapping of the Indian EEZ utilising state-of-the-art muitibeam bathymetric

instruments was initiated during the XI Plan period, and to date,nearly 30% of the deepwater
regions of the EEZ beyond 500 M water depth has been mapped. Some of the significant
observations include the presence of channelleve systems between Ninety east Ridge to its
west and Andaman Trench in east. Two Sea mounts off Lakshadweep, and pockmarks on the
seabed offGoa. In addition to bathymetric observations, sampling of the seabed-subseabed at
select locations has also been carried out and the analytical studies are in progress. Considering
the large area of the Indian EEZ in excess of 2 million km2 and the need to extend the studies to
the continental shelf areas beyond 200 M in view of Indias submission for an extended
continental shelf to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf
(CLCS), it is proposed to continue the bathymetric mapping and systematic sampling on a
mission mode using a dedicated chartered oceanographic vessel during the XII Plan.

a) Objectives:

1. Preparation of a comprehensive sea bed topographic map for the entire EEZ of the
country using the state-of-the-art technologies of multi beam swath bathymetry..
2. To carryout systematic sediment sampling and analyze to assess potential of seabed
resources within the EEZ
3. To improve our understanding of the sea bed morphology and enhance our knowledge of
the existing scientific issues such as paleoclimatic regime of Indian peninsula.
4. Creation of a state-of-the-art marine geo scientific database facilitating its archival and
retrieval for dissemination to the scientific community against approved projects of the
MoES.
5. Conservation and exploitation of fish resources

MODERN DEVICES OF EXPLOITATION

FISH CRAFT ( FISHING VESSELS)
Fishing crafts are most essential for catching the fish in large scale in water bodies. A large
variety of crafts (boats) have been designed for marine and inland fishing in India. The types of
fishing crafts of India falls under two general categories. These are non-mechanized and
mechanized fishing crafts.
1. Non Mechanised and Mechanised craft
Non-mechanised boats
 The categories of fishing craft types comes under non-machanized are catamaran, dugout-
canoes, plank built canoes, masula boat, built up boats.

1. Catamaran: The simplest type of fishing craft may be taken as the one formed by
a few curved logs of wood joined together forming a kind of floating raft, such as
the ones used along the east coast of India. Four types of catamarans are prevalent in
Indian waters, namelythe Orissa type, Andhra type, Coromandal type and
Kanyakumari type.

2. Dug-out canoes: A simple type of fishing craft for fishing within short distances
from the coast is a small-sized canoe made by scooping logs of wood in the form of
boat. The Odams, Thonies, Vanchies etc. of the southeast and south-west
coasts of India come under this category. In calm weather, oars may be enough for
propulsion; but if winds and currents prevail, sails may be used.
3. Plank-built canoes: This is an enlarged variety of dug-out canoe made of planks
on the sides, largely used in Kerala.
4. Masula boats: It is made of non-rigid planks sewn together with coir ropes and
are common along Andhra coast.

5. Dhinghi: This is a carvel type of boat designed and constructed for a variety
ofpurposes including fishing.

6. Outrigger canoes: Some times plank-built canoes may be provided with a single
outrigger as in the rampani boats used for capturing mackerel in Karnataka.

7. Built-up boats: In most of the boats made at present, the carvel type of boats is
built up of planks. The best type of built-up boats is seen in centres along the
northeast coast of India.

Mechanized boats

With the advent of mechanization of the fishing crafts, small and medium sized boats, 10 to
15 m long, are constructed with engines operated by oil for venturing to distant coastal areas in
search of fishing grounds. The machanised crafts are line boats, trap boats, dolnetter, gillnetter,
trawlers.

(i) Hand line boat: Hand line boats can be operated both in the shallow and deeper
waters. The traditional hand liners use no winch. In India the gear usually consists of a few
meters of monofilament of 0.5 mm to 1 mm diameter to the end of which is attached a hood and
a sinker, usually a small stone. They are used to catchallkinds ofdemersalfish frommotorized
aswellas small-mechanised vessels.
 (ii) Pole and line fishing vessel: Pole and line fishing vessels are fitted with a
narrow platform protruding all round the vessel at deck level, outside the bulwarks. The
platform extends forward from the stern to the fore-end like a bowsprit. The crew stands on
the platform with their backs to the riel when fishing with the poles. The most popular craft for
pole and line fishing in India is mas odiof Minicoy. It is a wooden craft 12.5m long and 3m
wide at the stern, made from venteak, coconut or aini wood. The back end is provided with a
broad raised fishing platform. The propulsion of the craft is by sail or by oars. Nearly 20 to 25
men work on each craft.
(iii) Trolling vessel: Trolling line boats tow lines extending on either side to catch
pelagic species having high individual value and good quality, such as tuna and baracuda.
Anumber of lures hanging from outrigger poles through lines are towed from a slowly moving
vessel. The fish hooked after snapping at the lure are brought on board as the line is hauled in.
The lures after detaching the fish are put again into the water. The vessel lengths vary between
25- 50and have normally a forward wheelhouse arrangement allowing a clear working deck
aft.

(iv) Dol netter: The dol netters are used for operating the dol nets, which are
basically fixed bag nets. The dol netter varies form8-14 mm length, 1.5 m to 3.6 m in breadth
and 0.8 m to 1.8 m in height. The carrying capacity of each of such boats varies from 2-14
tonnes. Each of these boats is fitted with 2-4 cylinder diesel engines.

(v)Gill netter: Vessels of almost any size can undertake gill netting. The number of nets
used for fishing is adjusted to suit the size of the operating vessel. The vessels vary in length
between 25 and 55. The deck must be so laid out that the gear can be conveniently stowed,
with a clear passage from bow to stern so that the gear can be passed after hauling. An
arrangement with wheelhouse and engine room forward or behind may be used depending on
the operating method adopted. In a typical arrangement with the engine and wheelhouse in
thebackward configuration, sufficient deck spacemust be available behind the house for storing
and handling the net. Aforward arrangement can also be used for side hauling, in which case
the wheelhouse is sometimes so located to provide a clear working passage.

(xiii) Stern trawlers: Fishing over the stern can be a very efficient way of trawling. Stern
trawling is the most wide-spread method of fishing in India. The vessels range in size from 32
to 55 in length and may be fitted with 60 to 120 horsepower engine and above. Vessels above
45 in length may also be constructed in steel. The most common deck layout is such that the
wheelhouse is just forward of amidships with working deck behind. The winch powered by

the engine is located behind the wheelhouse with the warps leading to the gallows located at the
middle or sides of the stern, from which the otter boards hang.
2. Craft and Gear Materials Fishing Gear Materials
The various materials for the preparation of fishing gear comes from three sources. Theyare
(a) Natural fibres (from vegetable source) (b) Inorganic fibres (from mineral sources) and (c)
Synthetic fibres (from chemical sources)
 (a) Natural Fibres : The fibres obtained from the natural resources and include vegetable
fibres and Animal fibres. Out of these vegetable fibres alone are used for making the fishing
gear. They are from vegetable materials which include Fruit, Seed, Leaf and Stalk.

Inorganic Fibres : They are from Mineral sources like Iron, Zinc, Aluminium, Lead,
Copper, etc for making hooks, floats and wires.

Synthetic fibres

The synthetic fibres are made available from cellulose, protein, and chemical substances
(synthetic polymers) having the composition of Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen etc. A polymer is
produced by a process known as Polymerisation.

Synthetic polymers : The synthetic polymers, polyester polyamide and mixed polymers.

Polyamide : It is a combination produced when dibasic acid combined with deamine. Eg.
Nylon, Kurlon.

Polymerisation where no elimination of water molecules during the formation of compound

gives compounds known as poly vinyl product.

Fl o a t s

Some types of fishing nets, like seine and trammel need to be kept hanging vertically in the
water by means of floats at the top. Various light corkwood-type woods have been used
around the world as fishing floats. Floats come in different sizes and shapes. These days they
are often brightly coloured so they are easy to see.

1. Small floats were usually made of cork, but fishermen in places where cork was not
available used other materials, like birch bark in Finland and Russia, as well as the
pneumatophores of Sonneratia caseolaris in Southeast Asia.[28] These materials have now
largely been replaced by plastic foam.

2. Subsistence fishermen in some areas of Southeast Asia make corks for fishing nets by
shaping the pneumatophores of Sonneratia caseolaris into small floats.

3. Entelea: The wood was used by Mori for the floats of fishing nets
4. Native Hawaiians made fishing net floats from low density wiliwili wood.
5. Glass floats were large glass balls for long oceanic nets, now substituted by hard plastic.
They are used not only to keep fishing nets afloat, but also for dropline and longline
fishing. Often larger floats have marker flags for easier spotting.

6. Glass floats are popular collectors items. They were once used by fishermen in many
 parts of the world to keep fishing nets, as well as longlines or droplines afloat.
B. Sinkers : Sinkers are used to keep a net in vertical position or to make the bottom of net
rest on or ride to the sea bed. While selecting the materials for sinkers the specific negative
buoyancy of the materials for sinkers the specific negative byoyancy of the material is to be
considered and not the specific gravity. The materials used are lead, chain, stones, cement
concrete sinkers, etc. The lead is the best material for making sinkers.

C. Anchors : Anchors are necessary to hold the boats and as well as nets. Common anchor
has the shank, the arms and the stock set at right angles to one another. Patent Anchor has a
stock, but the arms are movable and can divert on both sides of the shank. Graphels anchor has
four or more arms .

3 Types of Gear

Fishing gears can be divided into five main categories. The first three are most commonly
used in India:

Nets (including trawl nets and dredges) Hook and line

Traps

Grappling devices and

Stupefying devices.

Of these gear types, trawls, nets and hook and line are the most commonly used.

Nets

Nets come in many sizes and shapes; some are used passively (fixed, allowing fish to swim
into them), while others are used actively (mobile, dragged through the water). Common types of
nets include trawl nets, dredges, beach seines, purse seines, gillnets, trammel nets, lift nets and
cast nets.

Trawls are towed nets that usually consist of a frame with a net bag attached that is pulled
from a boat to collect fish and other marine life. Most trawls are dragged along ocean bottoms,
but may also be used in mid-water to capture certain species. Bottom trawls can do considerable
damage to the ocean floor and fragile marine life. All trawls, but particularly bottom trawls, tend
to capture large amounts of non target species.
 Dredges are shovel-like iron frames with fine nets attached. They are used to collect
animals living at, or attached to the bottom of the sea. Dredges are commonly used in the
scallop fishery.

Hook and Line This gear is probably what is most typically associated with fishing. Hook
and lines come in many different forms that include handlines, poles, longlines and trolling lines.
The hooks are often baited. Longlining or the setting of long lines of baited gear is one of the most
widely used forms of hook fishing. There aretwo types oflonglining: pelagic/surface longlining
and demersal/ bottom longlining. Pelagic longlines are set to catch swordfish, tunas and other
surface swimming fishes. This type of fishing often kills species which are endangered and/or of
no commercial interest such as sharks, turtles and seabirds.

Traps Traps are enclosed spaces used to capture fish or invertebrates. Traps are usually
used passively and may be baited to encourage the desirable species to enter. Common
examples of traps include pots, stow or bag nets and fixed traps.
Grappling Devices These are gears that are usually hand-held and used to target individualfish
or mammals. Grappling devices include harpoons, spears, and arrows. Grappling gears have little
bycatch and are used rarely in commercial fisheries.

Stupefying Devices Stupefying devices stun fish using explosives or chemicals (e.g., dynamite
or cyanide). There are
no commercial fisheries
in Canada using these
capture techniques. The
Food andAgriculture
Organizations Code of
Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries
(Paragraph 8.4.2)
specifically calls for the
prohibition of
dynamiting, poisoning
and other comparable
destructive fishing
practices.

S
t
a
k
e

N
e
t
 .9 Trawl Net

The preservation effect obtained by the various methods depends on the degree of the
cohesion between the preserving agent and the fibres. Tar and carbolineum, even if deposited in a
thick layer on the surface of the netting yarn, do not cling tightly round the individualfibres but leave
gaps. They are therefore considerably less effective than the two methods described above, by
which the surface of each fibre is completelycovered with the bactericide preserving agent, which
also penetrates into fibre-cuticles and cell-walls. Furthermore these agents are also not easily
removed by the water and therefore provide vegetable fibre nets particularly cotton with a
comparatively high degree of resistance to decay.

MODERN FISHING VESSEL TYPES

Fishing vessels are typically designed with a specific purpose. That purpose is to locate,
catch, and preserve fish while out at sea. The planned operations of a vessel determine the overall
size of the vessel, the arrangement of the deck, carrying capacity, as well as the machinery and
types of equipment that will be supported by the vessel. Due to the inherent differences in fishing
communities around the world, there is a wide range of types and styles of fishing vessels. Vessel
sizes can range from the 2 m (6 ft) dug out canoes used in subsistence and artisanal fisheries, to
factory ships that exceed 130 m (427 ft) in length. Commercial fishing vessels can also be
characterized by a variety of criteria: types of fish (See Biology & Ecology) they catch, fishing
gear and methods used (See Fishing Gear), capacity and processing capabilities, and the
geographical origin of the vessel. In 2002, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) estimated the world fishing fleet had approximately four million vessels, with an average
vessel size ranging from 10-15 m (33-49 ft). Based on a quarterly catch statistics report, published
by the Pacific Fisheries Information Network (PacFIN), approximately 1,950 vessels landed their
catches in California ports.

Due to the technological innovations that began in the 1950s, many fishing vessels are now
classified as multi-purpose vessels, because of the ability to switch out gear types depending on the
targeted species. However, single use vessels still exist in the world fishing fleet today. The United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has identified eight general vessel
classifications by fishing method, which we have provided detailed information on. Most, if not all,
modern commercial vessels are also equipped with advanced technological equipment for
navigation and fish finding.

Line Vessels

Line vessels are boats that fish using hook-and-line gear (See Fishing Gear). There are four
primary classifications of line vessels: jigger vessels, longliners, pole and line vessels, and trollers.

Jigger Vessels

There are two main types of jigger vessels, large specialized Squid jigger vessels that work
primarily in the southern hemisphere, and smaller vessels operating in northern waters. Jigger
vessels operate by deploying a number of lines, with multi-pronged lures (often called jigs) or
baited hooks, from the sides of the boat. The lines are attached to jigger winches (typically on the
larger Squid jigger vessels) or jigger machines (on the smaller vessels targeting Cod). The jigger
winches/machines cause the lures to move in a jerky, vertical motion in the water column, which
simulates the realistic movement of the targeted species prey. Squid jiggers are equipped with
high-powered lights that are used to attract Squid to the surface and the lines.

Vessel size varies from small vessels that only fish for a target species, to larger vessels (60 m, 197
ft) that fish and process the catch on board.

Longliners

Illustration of a small longliner (left) and a large longliner (right). (Credit: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations)
Longliners deploy one or more fishing lines, each with a series of baited hooks hanging on smaller
branched lines. Longlining can be done from any sized vessel; however, vessel size, capacity, and
mechanical features determine how long the lines can be and how many hooks can be used per line.
Large longliners might use lines up to 40 miles in length, which are stored on large mechanized
drums when not in use, while small longliners might only deploy lines that are less than 1 mile in
length.

Longliners can be further classified by where they target their catch in the water column (bottom or
midwater) or their processing capabilities (wet-fish, freezer, factory).

Bottom longliners use a line (sometimes called a setline) that lies along the seafloor with

anchors and surface buoys attached at the two ends. These longliners often target

demersal species like Sablefish, Rockfish and Halibut.

Midwater longliners are typically medium sized vessels that operate worldwide targeting large
pelagic species. These longliners set the lines hanging in the water column with multiple surface
buoys throughout the line.

Wetfish longliners are small sized vessels that store fish in boxes covered by ice or have

a hold that is filled with ice.

Freezer longliners are medium to large sized vessels that are equipped with refrigerating plants and
freezing equipment.

Factory longliners, the largest longliners, generally over 45 m (148 ft) in length, are equipped with
processing plants capable of gutting and filleting the catch as well as storing the products.

Pole & Line Vessels

Illustration of a Japanese type (left) and an American type (right) of pole and line vessels. (Credit:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)
Pole and line vessels are vessels that range in size from 10-45 m (33 -148 ft) in length. Fishermen
use traditional rod and reel setups to catch the target species. Tuna and other pelagic species are
commonly targeted on commercial pole and line vessels. There are two general types of pole and
line vessels: an American type and a Japanese type. On the American type vessels, the fishermen
fish from platforms located around the stern (back) of the boat while the boat continues to move
forward. On the Japanese type vessels, the fishermen fish from the railings around the bow (front)
of the boat while the boat drifts with the ocean current. Typically, the boats are equipped with tanks
to hold live bait and water spray systems that can be used to attract fish. Larger vessels may have a
refrigerated hold, which allows them to remain at sea longer,
while smaller vessels generally store their catch on ice and only remain at sea for a couple of
days at a time.

Trollers

Illustration of a troller with multiple lines deployed from the outriggers (poles to the side) and
stern. (Credit: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)

Trollers are vessels designed to catch fast-swimming fish, such as Albacore Tuna (See California
Fisheries) and Chinook Salmon (See California Fisheries), by dragging baited hooks or lures
through the water. Troll vessels may travel at speeds from 2.3-7 knots (2.6-8.1 mph) or more,
depending on the targeted species.

Troll vessels can range in size from small open boats and canoes, to large vessels with
refrigeration that are 30 m (99 ft) in length. Many vessels are equipped with outriggers or
trolling booms, which allow for the deployment and separation of multiple lines. Trollers are
usually equipped with powered reels or winches to haul in the lines. Engines typically power
trolling vessels, but sails are used also, especially in small artisanal fisheries. Depending on
handling and processing capabilities aboard, trolling vessels remain at sea fishing from a single
day to a month or longer

Fishing

Introduction

Traditional fishing arts have been developed over the years to adapt to local conditions
(such as the type of coast and nearshore area), the species of fish desired, and the size
targeted. The most successful fishing methods of a given region are those that have stood the
test of time.

This chapter will describe some ofthe traditionalfishing methodsused around the world and
consider their advantages and disadvantages. Each method shows a continuum ofdevelopment
with evolution resulting from modernizing factors. Traditional fishing arts in various stages of
modernization could be transferred and applied in new regions with the technical level
appropriate for the local conditions. The adaptation of new technologies could help small-scale
fisheries increase their catch. They could compete more effectivelywith industrial fisheries or
exploit a previously unexploited resource. Energy-efficient technologies are recommended
where possible.

The introduction of any new fishing technology always demands good national
management and regulation. Vessels must also be matched with new methods or gear. As gear
becomes more complex, it may require upgrading of vessels in size, power, and design. The site
specificity of fishing arts should always be considered.
1 Electric Fishing

Electrical fishing is a general term covering a number of very different methods, which
allhave in common the use of an electric current flowing through the water to impress the on fish
within the space affected a common pattern of reaction, leading to their capture. The methods
have the advantage over other means of collecting fish that they do not require preliminary
preparation of the site, with consequent delay and the disturbance of the fish to be investigated,
and that the requirements in terms of manpower and physical exertion are small. They have the
disadvantages of variabilityof effect when compared with the use of nets or traps, and the risk of
physical danger to both fish and operators, though these disadvantages are reduced to
inconsiderable levels by experienced management. Competently carried out, the method does not
result in mortality or damage to the fish to any greater extent than does netting, and indeed there
ought to be no casualties at all. Safety of the personnel has the pragmatic sanction of freedom
from injury hitherto in spite of the use of some very unsafe equipment by inexperienced hands.
Modern practice is to use much more lethal equipment, but properly constructed and far safer to
handle. Various forms of electric fishing gear have been described by Hartley (1975) and Weiss
(1976). The extent of the fishing diameter varies with the available, the water conductivity - which
may change abruptly in a stream where a drain enters - the temperature, and the efficiency of the
type of electric current as a stimulator. An inefficient type, such as smooth direct current, shows
great variations of effectiveness for slight variations in physical factors; alternating current is
less sensitive, and a properly selected pulsed current has an almost uniform action.

The practical implication of these variables in the use of electrical fishing to obtain
population data may be simplysummed up in the recommendation never to extrapolate. There is
no way in which a fish population can be estimated from a single fishing, however thoroughly this
is carried out; it is not possible to know the efficiency of an electrical fishing in advance, but only
in retrospect. The fact that a given machine has fished at 70 percent efficiency in a particular site
does not mean that it will not fish at 15 percent efficiency in the same site a week later, or in
another the same afternoon. Not even an electric fish-screen, working in constant conditions
among salmon smolts of uniform size, maintains a fixed efficiency; the behaviour and
motivation of the fish vary with numbers and changing physiology to produce abrupt alterations
in the results.

2 Line Fishing

The simplest form of fishing requires only a line and a baited hook. The line is cast into the water
where the fish supposedly are, the fish take the bait and are hauled in. Lines may be cast
byingenious methods. In Oceania, the line is wound around a stone and thrown from the shore
into the water.
 Hook and line fishing is inexpensive and easy.Almost any boat or shoreline can be used and
the catch is live and of high quality. Awide variety of sizes and types of hooks and lures can be
used, allowing very selective fishing. Tuna fishing with poles and lines continues to be widely
practiced and productive.

In spite of these advantages, line fishing is labor intensive. A very limited number of fish can
becaptured per line and usually some type of bait is required.

Line-fishing methods can be made more efficient if multiple hooks on a line are used. Often
these are attached in pairs to form balanced lines. A single, branched rod, used in Lake
Tanganyika fisheries, also allows one person to fish an increased number of lines and hooks.
However, the number of lines that one person can hold is limited.

Set lines

The use of set lines can increase the number of lines deployed without requiring the
constant presence of the fisherman. Such lines must be checked regularlybecause
predatorswilldevour anyfishcaught ifthe linesare not promptly recovered. Fishing rods can be set
untended in shallow waters or on the beach. In the ocean, set lines may be suspended from the
surface.

Longlines

Longlines are unwatched lines with multiple hooks. They can be used at the surface,
suspended in the water column, or fixed on or near the bottom (figure 9.2). Japanese and Italian
fishermen use sailing rafts to tow longlines away from their boats. Longlines may be set from the
beach by means of sailing rafts or kites if winds are favorable. Surface longlines are used to
capture tuna, shark, and billfish. Subsurface and bottom-set longlines are used to catch cod,
grouper, snapper, drum, bream, halibut, haddock, hake, and flatfish.

n alternative to bottom-set longlines is a vertical fish stick (figure 9.3). This device is hung from
a surface float just off the bottom. It has rigid branches to allow multiple hooks without
snagging. Fishermen can use local materials to fabricate this gear. Hook-and-line fishing
methods offer a number of advantages. They involve low capital and energy investments and
labor-intensive operations. Species and size can be selected by the position of the hook in the
water column, the hook size, and by the bait type and size. Small-scale fisheries using only open
boats can easily adopt hook-and-line methods.

At the same time, the hooks generally require bait (which may be expensive) and baiting is
time consuming. It may be difficult to store longlines and their catch on a small vessel.
Moreover, a high degree of skill is involved in deploying and retrieving longlines, unless
expensive mechanized equipment is used.

Modernization in longline fisheries generally involves the mechanization of hauling. If

available, hydraulic or electrical drives offer better control, lower maintenance, and variable
power.

3 Trawling Bottom Trawling

Trawls may be towed behind one or two boats or, in shallow waters, even dragged by a
fisherman (figure 9.4). Trawl nets generally have a cone-shaped body with a wide opening
between two wings. In bottom trawling, the net is towed on the bottom in order to capture
shrimp and demersal fish.
Trawl nets can be pulled by one or two boats or, in shallow water, dragged by a fisherman.

PairTrawling

Pair trawling uses two small boats to tow the trawl, one on each side (fig. 9.5). Having two
boats keeps the trawl net open. This method also permits boats with small (5 hp) engines to
trawl and allows small-scale fishermen to compete with larger trawlers. Boats without enough
power to trawl singly can often trawl in pairs. Using two boats allows a wider area to be covered
and makes it easier to keep the net open.

With the same total horsepower, more fish can be caught with pair trawling than if a single
boat tows the net. Whereas the noise from a single engine directly in front of the trawl net can
frighten fish from the path of the net, the noise from two engines on either side of the opening will
scare some fish towards the center, directly into the net.

Pair trawling has limitations. Two boats must cooperate and work as a team. The fishing
area is limited to smooth bottoms. Even in ideal areas, the net can be damaged or lost on a wreck
or a rock.

The value of the catch must be at least equal to the sum of the value of the two vessels
catches if they fished alone.

The boats have engines stronger than 8 hp. they are strong enough to tow sweeplines.These
lines are made of heavy rope and are towed on the bottom in front of the wings of the trawl net.
They serve to scare fish from a wider area into the net.
Single Boat Trawling

A single vessel with an adequate power source may also tow a trawl, but otter boards or a
beam are required to open the net horizontally.

Beam trawls are the simplest trawls and are used primarilyto capture flatfish and shrimp .
The horizontal opening for these nets is provided by a beam made of wood or metal that can
measure up to 10 m in length.

Beam trawling is accomplished from a single boat. An 8-to 1 0-m pole (beam) is used to
keep the net open horizontally to capture flatfish or shrimp.

Smaller beams, about 2 m in length, are used with rowboats in Portuguese rivers. Although
small beam trawls might be used by artisanal fishermen, they obviously lack the fishing spread
of larger trawls, which require power and mechanization.

Otter trawling is a more complex fishing system. These trawling nets have their horizontal
opening maintained by the shearing action of the heavy otter boards. Demersal or pelagic
species can be captured by this fishing method in shallow waters.

In otter trawling, two flat (otter) boards are used at either end of the net to hold it open.

Otter trawling gives fishermen broad access to marine resources. But the high costs, large
energy requirements, and the specialized skills required to maintain the equipment and use it
effectively make it feasible for small-scale fisheries only under very favorable conditions. The
minimum power for an otter trawling boat is 3 0-40 hp with a relatively high gear ratio (low
propeller rpm) and a large propeller diameter to provide maximum towing power.

4. Purs e Sein es

Purse seines are characterized by a line at the bottom of the net that is used to close off this
escape route.

The purse seine can be set with one or two boats and must be fished quickly. Those that
are operated with two boats are called ring nets. Light may also be used to attract the target
species.

Purse seines are highly mobile and can capture whole large schools of pelagic species that
gill nets and beach seines could not. Hauling can be done manually, and the catch is live.
 Nevertheless, purse seines are costly and require highly skilled operators. Purse seining
with two boats (ring netting) enables small, artisanalfishing craft to take advantage of this
method Purse seining with two boats (ring netting) allows smaller boats to use this technique.

5 Gill Nets

Agill net is an upright wall of fiber netting. Afish, of a size for which the net is designed,
swimming into the net, can only pass part way through a single mesh. As the fish struggles to
free itself, the net twine slips in back of the gill. The fish is thus gilled and can go neither
forward nor backward. Various mesh sizes are employed, depending on the species and size of
the fish to be caught.

This Caribbean trap net is set to capture fish swimming parallelto the shore. One wing of
netting extends from the shore to the corral and the second is placed in a semicircle to deflect
escaping fish.

6 Use of Electronics in Fishing Electronic Equipment

Much marine electronic equipment was initially developed for military use in
communications, navigation, and underwater reconnaissance during World War II. Postwar
growth in the electronics industry resulted in lower costs for this type of equipment and
ocean-going fishermen began to use it. As costs decreased even more, the market has
broadened to include smaller-scale commercial and sport fishermen. Although probably still
beyond the reach of most individual fishermen in developing countries, some of this equipment
may be cost effective for shared use in villages or cooperatives. Perhaps the most useful for
nearshore fishermen would be aids to fish location. The simplest of these is an electronic
thermometer. Seawater temperature can markedly affect fish-feeding habits, and in thermally
stratified water, species may concentrate at depths based on temperature. In addition to the
value of knowing absolute temperature and its relationship to fish feeding and depth, changes
in temperature are also important. Seawater temperature can remain constant over a wide area;
a change of a degree or even less can indicate an upwelling or current boundary where fish
may cluster. Stem thermometers that rely on liquid or metal expansion and contraction for
temperature readings are not responsive enough for this application. Simple digital readout
electronic thermometers can display instantaneous temperature changes of tenths of a degree.
These are available for less than Rs. 5000.

Another valuable device is an electronic depth recorder. These can indicate water depth,
bottom formations, and fish locations. Boats need travel no farther than is necessary to detect
fish. Nets and lines can be set and hauled with greater efficiency. Rocky bottoms potentially
damaging to trawls can be detected. The results of a properly used depth recorder can be
dramatic and should have a direct and visible economic benefit. To use this equipment, a
fisherman must install a transducer on the hull. A method of installing this unit on temporary
brackets has been developed to allow its ready transfer from vessel to vessel. Costs for these
echo sounders range from Rs. 8000 to 40000.

Although excellent Loran and satellite electronic navigation aids are available, their costs are
prohibitive. Where appropriate radio stations operate, inexpensive radio direction finders can be
used to plot positions and plan courses.

MAJOR FISHERIES OF INDIAN COASTS

The major fisheries in Indian coasts can be categorized into three types depending upon
the source of water. They are

1. Fresh water aquaculture

2. Brackish water aquaculture
3. Mariculture

1. Fresh water Aquaculture

The fresh water aquaculture deals with due the culture of the organism in fresh water
resources namely rivers, streams, canals, reservoirs. Anicuts tanks and ponds etc,. The
aspects of breeding of the parent stock growing the seed, preparing the water source for
culture, stocking, water management, post stocking management methods and harvesting are
included. The type of organism cultured includes fishes, prawns, mussels, frogs, aquatic
plants etc.

(a) Aquaculture in flowing fresh water

The flowing water are also called as lotic water. The rivers, streams, canal
and distributors are the flowing water resources. The development of river
fishery by auto stocking will always be taking place in rivers, streams, pools in the
rivers and tanks connected to rivers by streams. The aquaculture is not possible in
flowing water as the there are no control over them. The stocking of fish seed or
fertilizing the water goes a waste. Moreover the river will have already some fish
(both predatory and non predatory). The stocking of seed in water source having
fishes will not be profitable. In addition the fish seed stocked will not stay at the
 place of stocking. The running water are rich is dissolved oxygen. However there is
limited scope for taking up fish culture in canals with less flow of water by taking up
culture of fish in cages.

(b) Aquaculture in Stagnant water

The stagnant water are also called as lentic water. This includes Lakes, reservoir, anicuts,
tank, and ponds constructed exclusively for culture of the organism.

The swamps are also stagnant water with less dissolved oxygen content. The lakes are
naturally formed water bodies due to the low lying areas.

The reservoirs are manmade water bodies constructed across a river of stream. They are
mostly perineal. The excess water is discharged through the spillways.

The tanks are perineal (water retained throughout the year) long seasonal (water retained
for 8 to 11 months) and seasonal (water retained for less than 8 months). In the short
seasonal tanks the fish growing is not profitable. The ponds are water bodies constructed
exclusively with definite shape and size to take up culture of the organism.

In the earlier period, the man had constructed water impound in streams and rivers are
called them as tanks and distributaries to the paddy fields. Thus the water is stored for
certain period. Aquaculture is a secondary objective in irrigation resources.

2. BRACKISH WATER AQUACULTURE

The brackish water is areas of confluences of fresh water and sea water and the pH
ranges from 5 to 27 ppt. The brackish water aquaculture is also known as Coastal
aquaculture. The brackish water fish such as mullet and other fishes were cultured off the
Italian coast by Romans long ago. Later culture of mullets, lates, milk fish and shrimp were
tried in the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
 Estuaries back water creeks and lagoons are the main non stagnant brackish water.
In these water fishes and the seed of milk fish (Chanos) mullet (Mugli Cepahlus) , Elops,
Megalops polynemus, Lates , Etroplus, tilapia shrimp are available. The word shrimp is
used for the prawns available in the marine and brackish water sources while the term prawn
is used for them in fresh water sources.

These following water are useful for collection of fish seed or prawns larvae for
growing in Brackish water fish ponds. Directly the fish culture in this water is not being
possible, but under favourable conditions the culture in cages or pens maybe tried. Now the
collection of prawn larvae and selling is going on this water.

3. MARICULTURE

The water in oceans is vast, deep and uncontrolled stocking of fish seed will not
profitable. Manuring of water cannot be done. Feeding of the required fish is impossible. Hence
fish culture in oceans is not possible . However the culture of other aquatic organism i.e bivalve
culture, Pearl culture in cages.

Based on Stocking Organism

The following aquaculture practiceis followed.

1. Monoculture

Rearing of a single species of fish is called Monoculture, it is called

monospecies culture.

E.g. Culture of Catla in a pond.

2. Monosex culture

Rearing of only sex of species is called Monosex culture E.g. Tilapia.

 3. Polyculture

Rearing of different species in a water body is called polyculture. It is

also called composite culture, E.g. culturing of Catla, Rohm, Marital in a
water body.

4. Integrated fish culture

Culturing fishes along with paddy, poultry, piggery and dairy is called
integrated fish culture. E.g. Indian major carps.

(a) Paddy cum fish culture

Rearing of fish in paddy fields is called paddy cum fish culture. E.g.
Catla, Rohu.

(b) Poultry cum fish culture

Rearing of fishes along with poultry is called poultry cum fish culture.
E.g. India major carps.

(c) Dairy cum fish culture

Rearing of fishes along with dairy farm is called dairy cum fish culture.
E.g, Indian major carps.

(d) Pig cum fish culture

Rearing of fishes along with pig farm is called pi cum fish culture. E.
Indian major carps.

1.4.1 Fresh water

Fresh water aquaculture in India is synonymous to carp culture in the

country has been supported by strong traditional knowledge base and
technological back up a various aspects of management. Adoption of scientific
farming practice over the year has led to over five - fold increase in mean
national pond productivity i.e. from 600-800 kg/ha/ year in 1970 to over 2500
kg/ha/ year at present 2012. Ever growing demand for fish coupled with
increased entrepreneurship and greater investment have been other factor
responsible for such growth. Achievements of higher production level of 10-12
tones ha/year by the farmer from different regions are even common stories
today.

The three Indian major carps viz., Catla (Catha Catla) rou, (Label
Rosita) and the mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) have the principle species which
contributes lions share, with the three exotic carps viz., silver carp
(Hypophthalmicthys molitirx) grass carp ( Ctenopharngodon idella) and common
carp (Cyprinus carpio) forming the second important group of species. The
availability of host of carp culture technologies depending on the type and
level of inputs further makes the farming practice more farmer friendly and
adaptive. Although introduction of these exotic carps into the carp polyculture
system during early sixties added new dimension owing to their high growth
rates and compatibility with our Indian major carps. The consumer preference
in most part in most part of the country has been major problem for their large
scale adoption.

Polyculture of three Indian major carps or combination of three

major carps and three exotic carps, although has been advocated as standard
practice, the farming however is practices with several modification depending
on the resource availability and market demand in different regions. Several
other non-conventionalculture system viz., sewage -fed fish culture integrated
farming system and cage and pen culture have provided greater option for the
farmer to utilize their resource for higher economic return. Diversification the
fresh water aquaculture system off late have also introduced high valued catfish
species like magur (Clarias batrachus) and fresh water prawns (Macrobrachium
rosenbrgii and M. Malcolmosnii) of course with moderate success. Introduction
of legalized large exotic catfish. Pangasius sutchi into the system in recent
years, however has proved to be an important aspect for increasing freshwater
pond productivity. With production of 10-20 tones/ ha / year, the farming
practice has able to contributes as much as 0.2 million tones per year only form
Krishna- Godavari Delta of Andhra Pradesh. Considering consumer
preference and potential demand for several regionally important species for
different regions
there has been greater R and D efforts on species diversification in recent
years. Concentrated efforts has been made or are being made for development
of technologies pertaining to mass scaled seen production of several potential
medium carps viz., Labeo calbasu, L. Fimbriatus, L.gonius, L bata, Cirrhinus
cirrhosa, C.teba, Puntius sarana and P. Jerdoni , catfish species like Pangassius
, Mystus seenghala, M, aor, Horabagrus brachysoma and Ompok pabda, and
other important live fishes like Anabas testudinues, channa striatus and
C.maruluis, and protocol for their farming .

With the increasing trade of ornamental fishes in recent year in the

country, there has been increased interest on establishment of ornamental fish
breeding and production units all across the country, especially a read adjacent
to the metropolitan cities like Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai due to ready
urban market and availability of international airport for both import and export
business. Recent year has further witnessed establishment for several breeding
units in states like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal. While the
domestic production trade of ornamental fishes largely confined to breeding
to like guppies, mollies, platys, and swordtails, and a few egg-layers like
goldfish angel fish and guaramis, recent year has observed increase efforts on
breeding of indigenous species like Puntius denisonii, P. conchonius,
P.fillamentosus and several others.

1.4.2 Coastal Aquaculture

India has been 8,129km long coastal line the scientific and chimerical
aquaculture of the country at present in largely restricted to shrimp farming with
the development of shrimp farming in the country took place only during early
90s with several industrial units joining the sector, it could witness an
overwhelming growth into multi-billion doller industry with in short period of
one decade. The production level of shrimp recorded increase from 28,000
tones in 1988-1989 to 157,170 tones in 2001-2002 form just 13% of the
potential water area available i.e. 157,400hg. The technology of semi-intensive
culture could result production level of 4-6 t/ha in crop of 4-5 months. The
growth of the sector however was stalled subsequently by several
factors including the prohibition of farming in the CRZ, white spot disease
outbreak and the slump in export marker. In spite of disease problem that
has been plaguing the sector since 1994-1995 the industry however has
learn to live with certain modifications in pond management like moderate
stocking densities good farm management and health management.

In spite of increasing thrust on species diversification and availability

of host of potential indigenous shrimp species in the country viz., P.penicillatus,
P. merguienisis and P. semisulcatus, culture to some extent could be extended
 only to P.indicus. Of course recently the exotic Penaeus vannamei has also been
approved for commercial farming to limited extent. Culture of crab species like
Scylla serrata and S.tranquebarica has also been taken up by few entrepreneurs,
While several finfish species viz., Mugli cephalus, Liza parsia, L, macrolepsis,
L.tade, Chanos chanos, Lares clacarifer, Etroplus surantensis and Epinephelus
tauvina have been identified as potential species for farming in coastal water, the
farming has been restricted only to the seabass Lates calcifier due to availability
of technology of seed production and farming. Successfully breeding of grouper,
Epinephelus tauvina another fast growing carnivorous fish, that has been achieved
recently expected to help for diversifying the culture practice.

The efforts on technology development for culture over last three

decades have led to development of technologies for farming of mussels, oysters and
sea weeds with some possibilities of crab and lobster fattening, besides providing
option for supplementing the marine capture fisheries, the technologies also created
avenues for gainful employment for the fisher women in the coastal area. With
the green mussel, perna virdis and brown mussel, P. indica as the two important
mussel species, the culture technologies adopting rack method, long line and raft
culture methods depending on the water depth and nature of the site, the culture
mussel production of the country has increased from about 20 tons in 1996 to around
10,000 tons in 2008. Further farming of edible oyster, Crassostrea madrasenis has
shown great and more than 2,000 villagers directly involved in oyster farming, The
production has increased from 5 tones in 1996 to 1,4000 tones in 2008.

Successful demonstration of sea cage farming coast of the country with

seabass (Lates clacarifer) and Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) expected to take a
leap in coming days with involvement of entrepreneurs in the farming. However
ownership or leasing right with protection against navigation traditional fishing and
encroachment are other pre-requisites for development of the farming, which must be
addressed by the governmental interventions.

4.2. MARICULTURE

Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine

organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in
tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. An example of the latter is the farming
of marine fish, including finfish and shellfish like prawns, or oysters and seaweed in saltwater
ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewellery
(e.g. cultured pearls), and cosmetics.

Shellfish

Similar to algae cultivation, shellfish can be farmed in multiple ways: on ropes, in bags or cages,
or directly on (or within) the intertidal substrate. Shellfish mariculture does not require feed or
fertilizer inputs, nor insecticides or antibiotics, making shellfish aquaculture (or 'mariculture') a
self-supporting system.[1] Shellfish can also be used in multi-species cultivation techniques,
where shellfish can utilize waste generated by higher trophic level organisms.

Artificial reefs

After trials in 2012,[2] a commercial "sea ranch" was set up in Flinders Bay, Western Australia to
raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5000 (As of April 2016)
separate concrete units called abitats (abalone habitats). The 900 kilograms (2,000 lb) abitats can
host 400 abalone each. The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery.

The abalone feed on seaweed that has grown naturally on the abitats; with the ecosystem
enrichment of the bay also resulting in growing numbers of dhufish, pink snapper, wrasse,
Samson fish among other species.

Brad Adams, from the company, has emphasised the similarity to wild abalone and the
difference from shore based aquaculture. "We're not aquaculture, we're ranching, because once
they're in the water they look after themselves.

Open ocean

Raising marine organisms under controlled conditions in exposed, high-energy ocean

environments beyond significant coastal influence, is a relatively new approach to mariculture.
Open ocean aquaculture (OOA) uses cages, nets, or long-line arrays that are moored, towed or
float freely. Research and commercial open ocean aquaculture facilities are in operation or under
development in Panama, Australia, Chile, China, France, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, and
Norway. As of 2004, two commercial open ocean facilities were operating in U.S. waters, raising
Threadfin near Hawaii and cobia near Puerto Rico. An operation targeting bigeye tuna recently
received final approval. All U.S. commercial facilities are currently sited in waters under state or
territorial jurisdiction. The largest deep water open ocean farm in the world is raising cobia
12 km off the northern coast of Panama in highly exposed sites.[5][6]

Enhanced stocking

Enchanced Stocking (also known as sea ranching) is a Japanese principle based on operant
conditioning and the migratory nature of certain species. The fishermen raise hatchlings in a
closely knitted net in a harbor, sounding an underwater horn before each feeding. When the fish
are old enough they are freed from the net to mature in the open sea. During spawning season,
about 80% of these fish return to their birthplace. The fishermen sound the horn and then net
those fish that respond.

Seawater ponds

In seawater pond mariculture, fish are raised in ponds which receive water from the sea. This has
the benefit that the nutrition (e.g. microorganisms) present in the seawater can be used. This is a
great advantage over traditional fish farms (e.g. sweet water farms) for which the farmers buy
feed (which is expensive). Other advantages are that water purification plants may be planted in
the ponds to eliminate the buildup of nitrogen, from fecal and other contamination. Also, the
ponds can be left unprotected from natural predators, providing another kind of filtering.

Environmental effects

Mariculture has rapidly expanded over the last two decades due to new technology,
improvements in formulated feeds, greater biological understanding of farmed species, increased
water quality within closed farm systems, greater demand for seafood products, site expansion
and government interest.[11][12][13] As a consequence, mariculture has been subject to some
controversy regarding its social and environmental impacts. Commonly identified environmental
impacts from marine farms are:

1. Wastes from cage cultures;

2. Farm escapees and invasives;
3. Genetic pollution and disease and parasite transfer;
4. Habitat modification.

As with most farming practices, the degree of environmental impact depends on the size of the
farm, the cultured species, stock density, type of feed, hydrography of the site, and husbandry
methods.[16] The adjacent diagram connects these causes and effects.

Wastes from cage cultures

Mariculture of finfish can require a significant amount of fishmeal or other high protein food
sources.[15] Originally, a lot of fishmeal went to waste due to inefficient feeding regimes and
poor digestibility of formulated feeds which resulted in poor feed conversion ratios.[17]

In cage culture, several different methods are used for feeding farmed fish from simple hand
feeding to sophisticated computer-controlled systems with automated food dispensers coupled
with in situ uptake sensors that detect consumption rates. In coastal fish farms, overfeeding
primarily leads to increased disposition of detritus on the seafloor (potentially smothering
seafloor dwelling invertebrates and altering the physical environment), while in hatcheries and
land-based farms, excess food goes to waste and can potentially impact the surrounding
catchment and local coastal environment.[15] This impact is usually highly local, and depends
significantly on the settling velocity of waste feed and the current velocity (which varies both
spatially and temporally) and depth.[15][18]

Farm escapees and invasives

The impact of escapees from aquaculture operations depends on whether or not there are wild
conspecifics or close relatives in the receiving environment, and whether or not the escapee is
reproductively capable. Several different mitigation/prevention strategies are currently
employed, from the development of infertile triploids to land-based farms which are completely
isolated from any marine environment. Escapees can adversely impact local ecosystems through
hybridization and loss of genetic diversity in native stocks, increase negative interactions within
an ecosystem (such as predation and competition), disease transmission and habitat changes
(from trophic cascades and ecosystem shifts to varying sediment regimes and thus turbidity).

The accidental introduction of invasive species is also of concern. Aquaculture is one of the main
vectors for invasives following accidental releases of farmed stocks into the wild.. One example
is the Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baerii) which accidentally escaped from a fish farm into the
Gironde Estuary (Southwest France) following a severe storm in December 1999 (5,000
individual fish escaped into the estuary which had never hosted this species before).[24]
Molluscan farming is another example whereby species can be introduced to new environments
by hitchhiking on farmed molluscs. Also, farmed molluscs themselves can become dominate
predators and/or competitors, as well as potentially spread pathogens and parasites.[23]

Genetic pollution and disease and parasite transfer

One of the primary concerns with mariculture is the potential for disease and parasite transfer.
Farmed stocks are often selectively bred to increase disease and parasite resistance, as well as
improving growth rates and quality of products.[15] As a consequence, the genetic diversity
within reared stocks decreases with every generation meaning they can potentially reduce the
genetic diversity within wild populations if they escape into those wild populations.[17] Such
genetic pollution from escaped aquaculture stock can reduce the wild populations ability to
adjust to the changing natural environment. Also, maricultured species can harbour diseases and
parasites (e.g., lice) which can be introduced to wild populations upon their escape. An example
of this is the parasitic sea lice on wild and farmed Atlantic salmon in Canada. Also, non-
indigenous species which are farmed may have resistance to, or carry, particular diseases (which
they picked up in their native habitats) which could be spread through wild populations if they
escape into those wild populations. Such new diseases would be devastating for those wild
populations because they would have no immunity to them.

Habitat modification

With the exception of benthic habitats directly beneath marine farms, most mariculture causes
minimal destruction to habitats. However, the destruction of mangrove forests from the farming
of shrimps is of concern.[15][18] Globally, shrimp farming activity is a small contributor to the
destruction of mangrove forests; however, locally it can be devastating. Mangrove forests
provide rich matrices which support a great deal of biodiversity predominately juvenile fish
and crustaceans. Furthermore, they act as buffering systems whereby they reduce coastal erosion,
and improve water quality for in situ animals by processing material and filtering sediments.

Others

In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds from food and waste may lead to blooms of
phytoplankton, whose subsequent degradation can drastically reduce oxygen levels. If the algae
are toxic, fish are killed and shellfish contaminated.

Sustainability
Mariculture development must be sustained by basic and applied research and development in
major fields such as nutrition, genetics, system management, product handling, and
socioeconomics. One approach is closed systems that have no direct interaction with the local
environment. However, investment and operational cost are currently significantly higher than
open cages, limiting them to their current role as hatcheries

Benefits

Sustainable mariculture promises economic and environmental benefits. Economies of scale

imply that ranching can produce fish at lower cost than industrial fishing, leading to better
human diets and the gradual elimination of unsustainable fisheries. Maricultured fish are also
perceived to be of higher quality than fish raised in ponds or tanks, and offer more diverse choice
of species. Consistent supply and quality control has enabled integration in food market
channels.

COASTAL AQUACULTURE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

INTRODUCTION

A number of media reports have given vivid accounts of the potential environmental
impacts of shrimp farming in costal Andhra Pradesh (Shiva,1994a, Reddy and Mohanthy 2003).
These include mangrove destruction, destruction of fish stock, pollution and other forms of land
and water degradation (Shiva 1994b). The social impacts on local communities which live in the
tropical coastal regions where shrimp aquaculture is a growing source of income have, however,
received only scant attention. Shrimp aquaculture affects livelihoods by disrupting traditional
systems of production, distribution and social relations (Raghavan 1995).

Intensive shrimp farms imply high stocking densities making them very prone to the
propagation of pollution and disease. Hypernutrification and eutrophisation of the ponds
contribute to their foul smell and pollution as do added chemicals to get rid of predators,
parasites and infections. This pollution affects local ecosystems and consequently the health and
well-being of local people. After a production cycle of about four or five months, shrimp ponds
under intensive use are cleaned and disinfected and the polluted sludge is removed and often
disposed of unsafely. This treatment, however, is not usually suffice to maintain the ponds
productivity for more than five to ten years . Entrepreneurs then move to other areas because of
pollution and disease. This mode of production has been called rape and run (Csavas, 1994b).
The altered milieu of these abandoned ponds inhibits the spontaneous regeneration of vegetation
and their use for agriculture, forestry, other aquaculture or related fishing activities. These
abandoned areas do not find a place in worldwide estimates of areas used for shrimp farming.
Areas in shrimp ponds for 1993 were estimated to include 962,600 hectares, of which 847,000
hectares were in Asia. Shrimp ponds were estimated to have increased worldwide to 1,147,300
with 1,017,000 hectares in Asia (Rosenberry, 1993 and 1994a). Globally, areas affected by the
industries based on a study conducted in 1992 on 4,500 hectares of intensive farms in the
Philippines producing between 3 and 6 metric tons per hectare per crop, with two crops per year.
Hypernutrification results from an excess load of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and ammonia)
in the water. Eutrophisation is the consequent increase in organic matter and decrease in
dissolved oxygen. The latter often leads to phytoplankton blooms. Furthermore, environmental
problems related to pollution tend to be addressed when they affect commercial aquaculture
production. For example, aquaculture is highly dependent on water quality, so that this issue has
received considerable attention by large shrimp producing enterprises. But, the impacts on
aquatic biodiversity and natural resource loss and conversion affecting other land and water uses
and users are frequently ignored both by the industry and public agencies. Aquaculturists and
supporting national and international agencies are primarily concerned with mitigating those
impacts that constrain further expansion of the shrimp industry. Tropical coastal regions are
among the most densely populated areas in the world. The durable productivity of these often
fragile environments, as well as the continued access by inhabitants to their resources, is
essential for maintaining inhabitants livelihoods (Hinrichsen, 1994). In comparison to most
other non-traditional export crops, shrimp aquaculture is developing at an exceptionally rapid
pace. In the communities where commercial shrimp aquaculture has been implanted, nearly
everyone is affected in one way or another. Environmental and social effects often extend far
beyond the villages invaded by shrimp farms. Moreover, the new activities frequently not only
deprive many local people of their traditional access to the land, water and other resources
necessary for sustaining their livelihoods, before alternatives become available, but they may
also severely degrade the surrounding environment. Conflicts over the control of natural
resources inevitably arise when market forces and public policies make new uses of these
resources more commercially profitable than were traditional ones. Such conflicts are especially
acute where customary uses by the groups exploiting them were primarily for self-provisioning
and to supply local markets, while the new ones are to meet the demands of higher income
consumers elsewhere. Even those groups who retain their traditional access to natural resources
may find them less productive than previously. The levels and qualities of their livelihoods are
likely to deteriorate in the long run. Social and environmental problems associated with land
alienation, technological change and the commercialization of natural resources and labour are
well known.

Environmental and Social impact of Aquaculturet: Conflicts and Externalities

Aquaculture relies on the natural environment for land, water, feed and seed, as do
agriculture. The expansion of shrimp aquaculture inevitably generates competition with other
users of these same resources, including peasant farmers, artisans, fishermen, local elite, local
traders, conservationists, urban consumers and some state agencies. Many of these conflicts
resulted in Nellore district from direct competition in the use of land, trees, water and labour
among the users of mangroves and other coastal resources.

These users of coastal habitats include local farmers, livestock- holders, woodcutters,
firewood gatherers and fisher folk, and many others. A major portion of the conflicts arising
from the expansion of shrimp farming are the result of environmental and social degradation that
is not included in the costs of shrimp production. Where the industry assumes no responsibility
for damages to other groups arising from its activities, economists call them externalities. For
example, abandoned ponds are virtually unusable for other purposes for indefinite periods. To
rehabilitate the abandoned ponds means enormous Mangrove destruction, flooding of crops,
salinization or pollution of land and water associated with the expansion of shrimp farming all
affect the local people depending on these resources. The key question is who is bearing the
costs and who is enjoying the benefits?. The social and environmental costs of the expanding
shrimp industry are closely inter-related. These relationships are discussed under two headings:

Natural Resource and Ecosystem Degradation

The shrimp industry is polluting and degrading water, forests and soils. Public health,
biodiversity, and the sustainable productivity of ecosystems are endangered.

Water Pollution
 Shrimp Aquaculturists consider their crop failures to be mainly due to organic and
inorganic pollution coming from other sources. Agriculture frequently pollutes shrimp ponds
with heavy metals, pesticides and other toxic products. In areas densely covered with intensive
shrimp farms, however, the industry is responsible for considerable self-pollution and
particularly for bacteriological and viral contamination. Each hectare of pond produces tons of
undigested feed and faecal wastes for every crop cycle. These ponds discharge ammonia, nitrites
and nitrates. The latter is fatal to fish when it binds with the haemoglobin of their blood
(Ibrahim, 1995). Nitrates induce the growth of phytoplankton, protozoa, fungus, bacteria and
viruses, such as the Vibrio group growing in shrimp faeces which is in large part responsible for
the 1988 collapse of production in Nellore distinct of Andhra Pradesh. The over use of fertilizers
and of veterinary and sanitary products such as antibiotics add to the water pollution problem. It
also contributes to the decreasing resistance to disease of the shrimp stock. Where intensive
shrimp farms are densely spaced, waste laden water tends to slosh from one pond to another
before it is finally discharged into the sea. Shrimp producers are extremely concerned about
assured supplies of clean water, as it is vital for their immediate economic returns. The large
amounts of sedimentation in intensive shrimp ponds are posing serious disposal problems. From
100 to 500 tons of sediment per hectare per year are apparently accumulating. Ponds are cleaned
after each crop cycle and the sediments are often discarded in waterways, leading into the sea, or
they are sometimes used to build dikes. Their putrifiction inside and outside the ponds causes
foul odours, hypernutrification and eutrophisation , siltation and turbidity of water courses and
estuaries, with detrimental implications for other water users as well as for the local fauna and
flora. Salinization of fresh-water sources and of soils is a common problem associated with
shrimp farming. Pumping fresh-water from ground water aquifers into the ponds often lowers
the water table which in turn causes sea-water to flow inland into fresh-water sources in Gudur
division of Nellore district.

The pollution of agricultural land is also caused by salinization from sea-water that has
been pumped and is often flushed out within terrestrial environments. The implications of
salinization and falling ground water tables on surrounding populations and overall biomass
productivity, as well as biological diversity are among the worrisome impacts of shrimp
aquaculture. In many areas with intensive shrimp farms, an average of 33 cubic meters of fresh-
water per day is pumped in for each metric ton of shrimp produced. The areas average ground
water level decreased from 3 meters below the surface in 1999 to 13 meters below the surface in
2001. Where high densities of shrimp farms were installed in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu,
sinking water tables have been reported to cause sinking land levels: coastal land in an area of
Nellore district sank by some three meters. Shrimp farms use both sea- and fresh-water to
replenish their ponds. This heavy demand on water brings shrimp enterprises into competition
with other users of these water resources. In areas where commercial shrimp ponds have been
constructed there is frequently insufficient fresh-water left to meet customary needs for
irrigation, drinking, washing, or other household and livestock related uses, and water supplies
may be contaminated. Ground water salinization has been reported in several places. This often
means that people - most of the time women - have to bring water from distant wells. In a village
called Kurru in Nellore district, after the expansion of shrimp farms up to 10,000 hectares,
women were forced to trek two to three kilometers to fetch a pot of drinking water that
previously was available nearby. This confirms, a case study conducted by Vandana Shiva
reports that there was no drinking water available for the 600 fisher folk of the village of Kurru
due to aquaculture farms salinizing ground water. She adds that after protest from the local
women, drinking water was supplied in tankers (Mukul, 1994).

Depletion of Ground Water

Maintenance of optimum water quality, salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen is critical

because of intensive stocking and pollution caused by excessive feeds, faeces, and other organic
wastes. Regular pumping of sea water for 30 to 35 ppt salinity range has to be mixed with
pumped ground water to keep the 15-20 ppt range required for intensive ponds. At 30% water
change, a 7 ha farm with 1m deep ponds needs 9,000 cubic meters (1,300 cubic meters ha) of
35 ppt sea water and 112, 000 cubic meters (16,000 cubic meters/ha) of fresh water to maintain
pond salinity of 15 ppt over one cropping period. Water use in shrimp culture affects the
environment through extraction of ground water. Bulk water use of 10,000 40,000 cubic
meters per metric ton of shrimp produced or 16,000 cubic meters/ha per crop may reduce supply
of potable industrial and agricultural water. The large scale pumping of sea and ground water
into the fish farms is the most serious environmental impact of shrimp farming. The massive
extraction of fresh water from underground aquifers for salinity control in the ponds poses a
serious threat to the salinity control of the coastal systems. Emptied aquifers are subject to salt
water intrusion. Seepage from the tanks also increases salinization of ground water.

The richest ground water source in the entire country, the coastal region, has therefore
been struck by water famine; each shrimp exported from the country thus amounts to an export
of large scale aquifers.

Salination of Ground Water

One ha. of industrial shrimp farm requires 120,000 cubic meters of sea water annually.
This creates serious problems of ground water salination, resulting in drinking water famine. A
study carried out by the Central Institute of Brackish water Aquaculture (CIBA) in 1995, in
Nellore district, found the salinity figures to range from 410 to 4900 PPM. The paddy-fields,
which are meant for the peoples basic needs, are converted into aqua ponds. Then the
mangroves are destroyed, though they are the breeding ground for many species of fish. By
bringing in saline water, the drinking water meant for local people gets polluted. The entire
stretch of 200,000 hectares of coastal land had been converted into shrimp farms and this results
in displacing coastal people and fishing communities. And all this intensive aquaculture of
shrimps is controlled by big companies, big investors and very rich people and funded by the
World Bank. It is a philosophy of rape and run: you make the money fast, and then you run
away. In 1996, the Supreme Court ordered all the aquaculture farms in the country to be
abolished. But instead of abolishing them, the government and political parties sided with the
World Bank and multinational companies, and ordered a review of the judgment. Shrimp
aquaculture is a rather inefficient way to produce food since shrimp from intensive farms are fed
about three times their harvested weight. Of the total amount of food provided, only about 17
percent is converted into consumable flesh. Intensive aquaculture and ecological destruction and
Intensive shrimp farms with stocking rates of a 100,000 to 300,000 prawns or shrimp per hectare
have to be maintained through artificial feeds. This needs intensive water, for pumping of water
for this much energy is to be used.

Salination of Land
 The seepage from the aqua farms creates salination and water logging of neighboring
agricultural farms is now totally destroyed through the impact of shrimp farms. The Cauvery
delta is another fertile area in which agricultural land is being converted into shrimp farms.

Depletion of Marine Fisheries

Marine fisheries are destroyed in three ways by industrial shrimp farms;

1. Wild fry is the major source of seed in shrimp farms. For every single fry of
commercially desirable Penaeus monodon (Tiger prawn) caught, several other marine
species are wasted as fry by catch".

2. Fish caught at sea is a major source of shrimp feed. Each ton of industrial shrimp
requires ten times its weight in marine fish for conversion to feed.

3. The pollution from shrimp farms also kills fish life and destroys marine resources. Local
stocks of native fish and crustaceans are being depleted in many places because of the
removal of mangroves which served as nursery beds, and also as a result of
indiscriminate over fishing of wild shrimp fry (over 90 per cent of randomly caught fry
are often wasted.

Natural fisheries are also frequently damaged by pollution caused by overloads of

nutrients, sediments and chemicals from shrimp farms. In a coastal village, Ramachandrapuram,
fishermen reported that the value of their average catch of shrimp used to be Rs 50,000 per
catamaran per month, but after one year of operation of nearby aqua farms their catch was ten
times smaller (Mukul,1994). In the Chokoria part of the Sundarbans of Bangladesh, fishermen
have reported an 80 per cent drop in fish capture since the destruction of the mangroves and
building of dikes for shrimp farming (Sultana, 1994). Frequently, fisher folk protest because their
traditional access to the coast has been restricted or because stocks of wild crustaceans and fish
have disappeared (Bailey and Skladany, 1991; FAO, 1995). Opposition by local people to
shrimp farm expansion, however, is usually triggered by immediate threats to their livelihood
and seldom reflects lost opportunities to use financial and natural resources for other non-
customary purposes. The growing populations of coastal areas in Nellore district are in constant
need of additional space for housing and facilities. Low-income residents of coastal villages
depend mostly on communal and state lands to meet their requirements for additional space. In
Sri Lanka it was reported that over 80 per cent of all shrimp farms were located on state owned
lands and that this caused many conflicts with villagers attempting to expand into the same areas
( NACA 1994a).

Agricultural Diversification

The peasants have abandoned the traditional food crops like rice, ragi etc due to
uneconomical market conditions and started resorting to high value cash crops like aquaculture.
The unfolding globalization of aquaculture however has thrown new challenges and
opportunities to the agrarian sector in Nellore district. The fishing communities of
Ramachandrapuram used to grow enough ragi for themselves. The Doruvu, the small
ponds for irrigating ragi are all saline and there is no ragi production any more. There is no
food from the sea, nor from land shrimp production. Shrimp farms flush their effluents and
wastes directly into the sea and neighboring mangrove and agricultural lands. The waste water
from the ponds carries pollution in the form of excess lime, organic wastes, pesticides, chemicals
and disease causing microorganisms. The release of such byproducts affects estuarine and
marine organisms. The waste stifles the growth of aquatic organisms and causes water quality to
deteriorate. Intensive coastal fish farming has also been linked to red tides, an explosive
growth of toxic algae that can kill fish and fatally poison people who eat contaminated sea food.
Intensive shrimp farming is thus a non-sustainable form of shifting cultivation, with companies
moving from one country to another in a matter of a few years as production becomes non-
sustainable in each location. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
(UNRSD) has called it a rape and run industry. Since coastal ecosystems where shrimp
farming is being introduced are regions which support the lives and livelihoods of millions of
fisher folk and farmers, the environmental destruction caused by shrimp farming immediately
transforms into social impact. Not only are fishermen displaced, local communities no longer
can consume fish. Since intensive farms are export oriented, they do not supply local markets.
The cost of fish locally has risen worldwide as a result of commercial fisheries.

Health Hazards
 Health hazards to local populations living near or working in shrimp farms have been
observed in several places. For instance, in Tamil Nadir (Quaid-e-Milleth district near
Pondicherry) an approximately 1,500 acre shrimp farm has been reported to have caused eight
deaths from previously unknown diseases within a period of two months following the
installation of the aquaculture farm (Naganathan et al.,1995:607). There are numerous hazards
to public health along the shrimp production chain, from the farmers through the various
processors often to the distant consumers. The workers employed on shrimp farms handle
several potentially dangerous chemicals, and may be exposed to unsanitary working conditions.

The literature makes several references to the lack of regulation and registration of drugs
in aquaculture. The shrimp industry sees its own interest in having standards on permitted
levels of residue in cultured seafood similar to those in poultry and livestock. Some
Aquaculturists also advocate a system of penalties to discourage the use of harmful chemicals
(NACA, 1994b): Out break of typhoid disease and diahhria is common in costal villages such as
Pattapupalem, Kurru, and Thupilipalem where aqua pollution is severe( Pullin and Roger 1993).
Health risks for aquaculture consumers are linked to chemical and biological contaminants.
Concerns have been expressed about exposure to mercury, cadmium, organo-chlorinated
pesticides, dioxins and antibiotics (Barg, 1992). For crustaceans such as shrimp which need
clean water to grow, risks of biological contamination are more likely to occur during the
processing stage. Infestations with salmonella, or human pathogens such as Vibrio para -
hameolyticus, are greatest during peeling, gut removal and cleaning the shrimp before they are
frozen (Pullin, 1993). Pollution and other types of natural resource degradation induced by
shrimp farming were mentioned earlier in this report. The literature reviewed provided
considerable information and analysis of strictly environmental problems directly affecting the
industry. More complex questions concerning, for instance, biodiversity losses were, however,
seldom taken into account by the industry. The related social implications received even less
attention.

Legislation

In India, several states are attempting to formulate new legislation to guide and control
aquaculture development and in particular shrimp farming. Indian shrimp farms have been
developed mostly on privately owned lands, and have received relatively little formal and
financial support from the national government (ICICI & SCICI Ltd., 1994). Land rights,
however, are primarily regulated by the governments of individual states. Several Indian state
governments are actively promoting both foreign and domestic investments in shrimp farms.
Some states allow leased land to be mortgaged, while others do not. Differences in state policies
are one of the principal reasons why aquaculture spreads more rapidly in Andhra Pradesh and
Tamilnadu than in many other coastal states. Where conflicts arise with local groups previously
using shrimp farm resources, government agencies tend to support the commercial
Aquaculturists. In Malaysia, India and Bangladesh, however, courts at the national level have
sometimes backed local peoples organizations in legal appeals claiming their rights had been
violated by shrimp aquaculture development. Local people usually receive no compensation for
lost resources and livelihood.

Regulatory Legislation

A recent comparative study of legislation regulating shrimp farming concluded that most
countries relied on preventive measures to avoid harm and reduce or eliminate risk of harm
caused by aquaculture. They include (i) setting of standards, (ii) restrictions and prohibitions,
(iii) licensing, and (iv) environmental impact assessment. Little attention is given to the various
economic incentives and disincentives which are likely to affect conduct towards the
environment and could induce changes in behaviour or produce revenues to finance aquaculture
environment policy programmes (van Houtte, 1994, NACA, 1994b). This same comparative
review indicated that few countries had legal provisions for compensation to Aquaculturists
damage by pollution from other sources. Practically none envisioned compensation to third
parties negatively affected by externalities arising from shrimp farming.

National legislation designed to regulate shrimp aquaculture received the most attention.
Nearly every country producing farmed shrimp seems to begin the process of designing
regulations to protect aquaculture from pollution from other sources such as industry, agriculture
and urban sewage. Many also have general legislation concerning environmental protection and
natural resource to control the pollution and other damage generated by shrimp aquaculture.
India, for instance, at the federal level, has several laws of this type such as: the Water
(Pollution, Control and Prevention) Act of 1974 (as amended), the Environmental (Protection)
Act of 1986 and the related Coastal Zone Regulation of 1991, the Forest Conservation Act of
1980 (as amended), as well as the normal revenue law which prohibits obstruction of rivers,
natural water flow channels by any authority or person (Das, 1995a, Das, 1995b ). An analysis
of the institutional constraints to the application of these laws in general for India can be found in
Khator, 1991. Legal codes have generally been on technical standards concerning discharges of
pollutants (Barg, 1992; van Houtte, 1994). Villagers in Ananthavaram of Nellore district of
Andhra Pradesh protested against installed 35 shrimp farms which prevented their traditional
access to the sea. They obtained a ruling from the Supreme Court and got the access to sea(
Khor, 1995). Several countries have legal stipulations that commercial shrimp aquaculturists
above a minimum size obtain government licenses, and that ponds be located within certain
distances from high or low tidal levels. NACA, 1994a and 1994b). There seems to be little
analysis of how well laws regulating shrimp farming are implemented or how appropriate they
are for different social and ecological contexts within each country. One finds frequent mention
of conflicting jurisdictions by different state agencies, of contradictory objectives, of inadequate
implementation mechanisms and of lack of adequate monitoring. In India, state governments
have wide powers over the exploitation of natural resources leading to many unresolved legal
conflicts between federal and state authorities. In most coastal areas where commercial shrimp
farming has recently been expanding, the rights to land and water are not clear. Traditional rules
specifying the rights of diverse social groups in the use of these resources were often well
established by custom and sanctioned by political authorities. Frequently, land and water
resources that were customarily managed as common property by local user groups were legally
decreed to be public property owned by the state. The state in turn sold or leased them to private
entrepreneurs or investors. The shrimp pond owner, lessee or concession holder was then able to
exclude customary users who seldom had legal rights to compensation for their loss. Moreover,
the shrimp producers were seldom held responsible in practice for damages they caused to others
through pollution, salination, mangrove destruction and the like. There are frequent references in
the literature to the need for comprehensive land- and water-use planning of a countrys coastal
and wetland areas (NACA, 1994a; NACA, 1994b). Zoning is often mentioned as a suitable
instrument for implementing such plans. Zoning could be supported by economic incentives and
penalties such as taxes designed to reward those who comply and penalize those who do not.
This discourse implies national plans, presumably designed by well meaning technocrats in
collaboration with national political leaders. There seems to be little recognition that experience
elsewhere and with other issues suggests that zoning and land use planning have been most
effective where they have been designed and carried out with the broad organized participation
of the local groups most affected. Of course, there also would have to be a supportive national
policy and an institutional framework that recognizes the rights of customary national resource
users, and of unborn generations, to sustainable livelihoods and a productive clean environment.
The issue of centralization versus decentralization of coastal area planning and controls is
debatable. Numerous problems, such as quality standards, the legal system, tax, environmental
and labour codes and the like require national and international norms. The rule of thumb should
be to provide as much scope as possible for local level popular participation. According to a
working definition of UNRISD, participation is: the organized efforts to increase control over
resources and regulative institutions in given social situations, on the part of groups and
movements of those hitherto excluded from such control (Pearce and Matthias, 1979).

EDIBLE OYSTERS

INTRODUCTION

Large quantities of the addible oyster, crassostrea madrasensis( fig 8.6) growing
widely in most of the tidal creeks and estuarine regions along the east coast of India. The
shell time industry however quarry agglutinated dead shell form rugged beds and those
found as sub fossil deposit in river beds. Releasing the edibility of the oyster meat, Hornell
initiated oyster culture experiments early as in 1910 at Pulicat lake . As a part of global
strategy for developing oyster farming following the great strides made in the venture by
developed nations, the central marine fisheries research institute of focused its attention on
developing system for the culture of edible bivalues, identifying edible oyster farming and
mussel farming a priority area for research and development. Evaluation of the resource
potential , identification of suitable water spread and areas for culture evolving techniques
to collect required seed for farming, introducing an appropriate method for farming and
establishing a model farm formed the broad objectives of the project initiated in 1972 on
edible oyster culture.

SPAT COLLECTION
 Of the several types of spat collector like bamboo reapers concrete blocks nylon
meshed net species,. bamboo mats, strings of coconut shells, areof green mussel and oysters
shell valves and countries tiles in different locations around the bed , the most satisfactory
result were obtained from twice lime coated semicylindircal country tiles laid completely
submerged on wooden platforms. Determining accurately the spawning period of oysters and
laying tiles just at right time of release of oyster spawn increase the percentage of success.
April - May spawning period proved to be the ideal time for large cable collection work.

Post spat collection period Spat removal

Spat settled on collector were allowed to give on them up to a size of 30mm - 35 mm

after which removal of individual spat is easily done without injuring the fleshy interior. Pre-
use slightly exerted dislodges the spat without damage. After the removal of spat the tiles can
be stored and recycled for use in the next season. Depending on handling they are good for
at least four seasons.

Initial Transplantations

Initially the scrapped oysterlings are put into meshed (12mmmesh size)( cages of 6mm
iron rod time for a period of two months. Each cage (measuring 40x40x1 0cm) can easily hold
200 oysterlings. Later they can be transferred to large rectangular cages of 212mm meshed
nylon netting (size 90x60x1 5cm).

Erecting racks for growing oysters

Each rack is so constructed as to occupy an area of 26. 5 sq.m with a length of 13.2 m
and breadth of 2m. A mid water wooden platform of inter connected teakwod stubs of 2m
length is put up supported by two parallel rows of 6 teakwoods poles each planted vertically
down at a distance of 2m. pole to pole.All wooden material are treated with tar prior to being
used in the track erection. The platform in each rack can carry a total of 20 rectangular cages
of 150-200 oysters and is so positioned that only during the lowest tide the cages get
partially exposed. In Tuticon during the initial stages of experiments 30 such racks were set
up side by side in Karapad creek. Situations in the farm area and erosion of creek bunds
posed problems. Growth of oysters was fast and harvest able to size of 90mm length was
attained in 12 months.
 PEARL CULTURE

INTRODUCTION

The true pearl oyster in the Indian water arePinctada fucata, p. chemnitizi p.margaritifera ,
p.anomoides and p.atropurpurea of these p.fucater is the commonest and most important
occurring on large scale beds at specified locations in the Indian seas.

Pearl is also called Moti. It is white highly shinning globular in shape and made by the
clam, a mollusc called Oyster within it shell. Pearls are prized as gems form ancient times.
Pearls are among the most beautiful and valuable of our jewes. Kokichi Mikimoto of Toba
(Japan) is known to be the father of Pearl industry. He discovered a method to induce foreign
particles between the mantle and the shell of the pearl oyster and thus stimulated pearl
formation.

Pearl Formation

A pearl is a result of any injury to molluscs. It is secreted by the mantle as a means of

protection against some foreign body. When ever foreign body such as particle of sand or
small parasite (a trematode or cestode larva)_ a small animalcule of alga or even bit shell
gets between the mantle epithelium which is thus irritated. Irritation stimulates the mantle
epithelium to secrete nacre thin concentric layers of mother of pearl all around the foreign
body. The amount of deposition is indirect proportion to the degree of irritation. At the end of
the several years, a pearl is formed.

Pearl molluscs

INTRODUCTION

Pearl sat often found in clams and edible oyster but these are not nacreous and therefore they
are little value. Most precious pearls are found in pearls oysters of the genus pinctada.
Important species for pearls are p.vulgaris p.chemnitzi p.margaritifera p.anomoides and
 368 Fisheries

p.atropurpurea found in Indian water P.vulgaris which is closely allied to freshwater mussel in
common species distributed in Gulf of Kutch guld of Mannar and the palk Bay and Baroda.

Artificial pearl

Japanese have developed a technique of producing pearls artificially by inserting

foreign bodies, such as glass beads into the mantle of oyster., The oyster are retained in wire
cages or creates until pearls are produced, which can be later removed and sol d in markets.
This was Mikimotos discovery which had made him a wealthy person. It takes about 3 to 4
years to produce apparel considerable size but a large one takes 7 years. Cultured pearls are
genuine pearls but are less valuable than uncultured pearls whichcan be identified by experts.
Imitation pearls are beads coated with an iridescent substance called pearls essence that is
obtained from scales of fishes. The best quality of pearl is known as Ligha pearl obtained
from marine oysters

PEARL FISHERY

Fishing season for pearl oyster depend on the locality. During the period extending from
November to middle of May, the palk bay water is turbid while gulf of mannar is calm and its
water is clear. Conditions from June to October rare cogenial for pal bay fishing since gulf of
manner becomes rough and turbid at this time. Skin diving is done by expert driver drawn
from the districts of Ramanthapuram, Tirunelveliand Kanyamkumari.

LOBSTER FISHERY

INTRODUCTION

With worldwide increase in demand for lobster for its export potentialities among
the crustacean seafood products, lobster fishing in the country has assumed commercial
importance. Increased demand for Indian lobster from overseas markets has given an
impetus to exploits our lobster resource in an organized manner in the inshore as well as off
shore waters. The exploratory survey result coupled with the major thrust given to the
development of deep sea fishing industry in the country has established the existence of
vast resource of deep sea lobster, and had less to the emergence of separate fishery for deep
sea lobster.
 369 Fisheries

Two important lobsters are available in sea water, which has god demand in
international market. These are whip or shiny lobster. Puerulus sewelli and spear lobster,
Linuparus somniosus.

The occurrence of the deep sea spiny or whip lobster P. swelli off kerela coast and in the
Gulf of Mannar was reported as early as the turn in the century,. It is rediscovery in 1959 by
John and Kurian and the subsequent exploratory survey and experimental fishing carried out
for over a period of about two decades from1960. The explorations ofthe resource bythe
Indian entrepreneurs has started only in the late 1980s.

In early 1990s a new variety of deep sea lobster, L.somniosus was found to occur
along with whip lobster along the coast of Andaman Islands with in a depth of 304 to 340 m
during the commercial operations. It is commercial fishery where catches are reported to be
over 1 0kg/hr.

Distribution

P. swelli si recorded from Somalia, Gulf or Aden, Pakistan , west coast of Indian Gulf
Mannar , south coast of India and the Andaman sea, The bathymetric distribution of the
species extends over depth form 73-1309m. with greater abundance at 1 80-300m.
L,somniosus is reported in Tanzania, Mozambique, eastern coast of south Africa and
Andaman sea. It is available within a depth 3.1 -340m. Thus species is found between 216-
375 m on rough bottom of sand and mud in Tanzania, Zanzibar etc.

Biology of spiny lobster

P. sewelli is heterosexual and sexually dimorphic. As in other palinuried lobster it

oviposited the eggs on the pleopods. The berried lobster are encountered in the catch
throughout the year, with two peak period the major one during January-April and other in
October. It has produced breeding season with peak during JanuaryApril. The lobster attains
maturity with a size of 120-129mm. The number of eggs varied form 10,170 to 36,400 in
136-196mm total length. P. sewelli is a carnivorous feeder. It consumed mostly deep sea
prawn fishes and molluscans., The size range of the spring lobster is 3 6-207mm in total length.
Between the sexes, no applicable difference in the size os noticed. The males have greater
carapace length as compared to the females. P. sewelli appear to perform a migratory
movements associated with breeding activity.
 370 Fisheries

CULTURE OF SPINY LOBSTER

Lobster are an expensive foot item . They have good export demand,. Therefore it is
needed to increases lobster production by culture,. The cultural aspects are useful for increase in
lobster production by utilizing inter-tidal zone for the culture. The pits are dug in intertidal zones
and the sizes of pits varies from 1.75x 1.75 x 1.75m to 21 x 7 x 7 x 1m. The pits of 10 x 7 x 1m
are suitable for handling and are required for lobster culture so that bigger and smaller lobster
can be reared separately and it will be easy for harvesting the crop. Young lobster are collected
from seas and rear them in culture pits up to a marketable size. The young ones below
100gr weight are collected or purchased at the rate of Rs 14/kg in 1991 while selling rate was
Rs 100 to 150/ kg when the weight exceeds 1 00gr. Stocking rate of young lobster in pits is not
yet conclusively determined. Stocking rate should be decided at a level where lobster grow
quickly fetching optimal returns.

The growth gets stunted if excess stocking is done in the pit. Good growth of lobster
is observed by stocking 3000 juveniles in the pit measuring 21 x 7 x 1m. However stocking of
1000 juveniles in 10 x 7 x p it may give vene higher growth. Trash fish is given as food for
rearing lobster at the rate of 10% of body weight. Feed with specific ratio of groundnut oil
cake, rice bran and fish meal may be useful. 3 to 4 crops can be taken up year. Aculture
centre at Karpar in TamilNadu , about 4000kg o lobster was produced in 3 crops in a year
Crab is a decadpode crustacean. A number of species of crab have bee considered for
aquaculture due to their price in the market. Despite the great interest in the aquaculture of
these organism, so far they have generally resisted becoming major countries, the culture
techniques for adult crab in large scale are lacking.

CULTIVABLE CRABS

The important culturable crabs are mud crab , Scylla oceanic, the green crab and scylla
tranquibarica, portunus pelagicus and p.sanguniolentus are common edible crabs are found
more on the east coat of India. The blue crab, collnectes sapidus is commonly found in North
America. The other crabs are also important but have not yet made any impact on the
aquaculture. (Dungenes crab) C.irroratus (rock crab), C.borealis(Jonah crab), Menippe
marcenaria (Store crab) and Mithrax spinosissmus (spider crab). Out of the above species
mud crab or serrated crab, scylla serrata is most economical and commonly cultured in
many parts of the world.

MUD CRAB FISHERY

 371 Fisheries

INTRODUCTION

Mud crab are common found in the sub tidal and intertidal regions of estuarine and
mangrove area and creeks of the east and west coast of India. s. serrata prefer to live in low
saline waters, whereas S.oceanica lives in high saline water mud and green crab does not
burrow deep in the mud. The migrate during night time to the mangroves along the high
tides in search of foods. The ventral side of S.serrata is red to brick red in colour, the palm of
the chelate leg is also red. The carapace is metallic brown in colour, S,oceanica is white to
greyish white on the ventral side and dorsal side is olive green, the walking legs and the
swimmers bear a self design which is not present in S.serrata 130mm i carapace width,
weight about 700-1000gr and S.oceanica grows to size of 250mm in carapace with the
weights more than 2kg.

Fig 6.3 Scylla serrata

Female crab of S.serrata have got good demand in the international market after
reaching a size of 250gr. The male crab of s.oceanica grow faster and are in good demand
fetching more than 250/- per kg. Male s.serrata grow to 700-800gr. The export size of the
crab is 500 gr and above in the male and 250 gr and above in the females. They breed almost
throughout the year Scylla scrrata grows faster to reach a marketable size of 250-400gr in 7-8
months. The total protein content of the muscle of crab is higher than that of a prawn. Male
crab with larger chelate legs and female with ripe ovaries fetch premium price in the markets.
 372 Fisheries

INTRODUCTION TO MOLLUSCAN FISHERIES

Molluscs play a significant role in the economy of fisherman and other people living in
coastal areas. Molluscan resources of commercial species are more plentiful on the west coast
than on the east coast of India. Molluscan fisheries are constituted only by three taxonomic
classes. viz, Lamelli branchia (Bivalvia) gastropod and cephalopod.Among shellfish utilized for
food, mussels, oysters, clams and cephalopods are the important of the edible oyster the most
important are :

The brackish water oyster crassostrrea madrasensis which is abounds in all the
estuaries and backwater of east and west coast, the rock of oyster C.cucullata which is marine
one. Sea mussels belonging to the family mytilidae usually thick carpet growth over
submerged rocks. Clams such as they bay clam meretrix , back water clam M.casta etc are of
considerable food value. Gastropods are utilized for food to a limited extent. Important
species are trachus niloticus , umbonium vestiarium (bottom shell) turbo marmoratus (turban
shell) Turbinella pyrum(scared chank) etc. The meat is usually extracted out of the shell after
boiling the gastropods in fresh condition sliced and dried for future use.

Edible cephalopod fall under 3 groups viz

(i) Cuttle fish ,

(ii)sepia species

(iii)Squids, Sepioteuthis species, loligo species etc.

Octopuses, octopus species etc. Cephalopod fishery has remarkable export market, cuttlefish
and squid are used as food and as bait in hook and line fishing.

MUSSELS CULTURE

INTRODUCTION
 373 Fisheries

Sea mussels belonging to the family Mytiladae. Usually from thick carpet like growth
and submerged rock. Brown mussels, mytilus sp which is considered as delicacy by the coastal
people has it distribution restricted from south to quilon to Kanyakumari on the west coast
and upto Triunelveli district on the east coat. The green mussels mytilus viridis has wide
distribution along both the coast of India and thrive also in back water an bays in some parts
of Orrissa and Tamil Nadu. Green mussel is abundant off Cochin, malabar and north of
kerela but is rare in Bombay ,. Ratnagiri and Karwar. Fishing on the west coast is done after
the south west monsoon

RACK PRE TRAY CULTURE METHOD

INTRODUCTION

It is an ideal method particularly for shallow creeks. By this method mussels and
osytes are grown on submerged racks or tray but kept above sea bed( fig 8.5) periodic
cleaning rack is as must in this method culture as the racks are often subjected to
accumulation of silt .This disadvantages of this method is that the wooden poles and racks
are frequently attacked by borers and foulers.

Seeding Technique

The spats of 20-35mm size are suitable for the purpose of seeding. During seeding
the young mussels a wrapped around coir or nylon rope are secured by cotton netting or
bandage cloth. It is always more economical to use nylon ropes as the seed attach and grow
well on the latter. Usually 0.75 to 2.00 of seed per metre length rope are used for optimum
seeding. Seeded mussels suspended from the raft attach soon to the rope and hence the outer
cloth used for keeping them in position disintegrate.

Growth rate of mussels

It was observed by several workers that in the open sea growth rate of mussels is
faster than of by. For example in the bay, the mussels have been found to reach a
marketable size of 55-60mm in 8 months registering a growth rate of 2.9 to 3.5mm per
month. On the other hand in the open sea the respective values were 60 -64mm in 5 months
and 5.5mm per month due to more than flushing of water. Similarly the production of
 374 Fisheries

mussels per metre length rope in the open sea has also been estimated to be 15kg in 5
months against 10-12kg 7 months in the bay.

Production

A total of about 3,300 tonnes (weight in the shell) of mussels are harvested annually
fromallleading musselsfarming countries. In India production estimated in different culture
centres varies from 150 to 480 tonnes /ha/yr. The annual landings of mussels in Indian have
been estimated to be 3079 tonnes (Alagarswami et.al.1980).

Construction of raft and economics

Square raft of 5x 5 are constructed using 36 bamboos which are tied into a frame
work with the help of nylon rope of 4mm thickness., Each raft is made to float using 4-
6empty oil barrels of 200 1 capacity each. The raft then is anchored using 12 mm nylon rope
at four corners and using granite stones with iron clamps as anchors. Atotal of about 50
culture ropes can be suspended an annual production of 3 to 4 tonnes can be accomplished .
In terms of rope

production this would be about 1 0kg/metre. It is estimated that a single fisherman family an earn
per season (i.e. 4-8 months) Rs.203070 as revenue if they maintain two rafts properly upto
harvest stage. Similarly a group fisherman or cooperative can involve in maintaining a 50
raft system in a medium scale operation thereby guaranteeing not only heavy returns but
also employment opportunities.

4.3.FISH PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION

1. INTRODUCTION
The term fish processing refers to the process associated with fish products between the
time fish are caught or harvested, and the time the final product is delivered to the customer.
Although the term refers specifically to fish, in practice it is extended to cover any aquatic
organisms harvested for commercial purposes, whether caught in wild fisheries or harvested
from aquaculture or fish farming.
 375 Fisheries

Fish is a highly perishable food which needs proper handling and preservation if it to
have a long shelf life and retain a desirable quality and nutritional value. The central concern of
fish processing is to prevent fish from deteriorating. The most obvious method for preserving the
quality of fish is to keep them alive units they are ready for cooking and eating. For thousands of
years. China achieved this through the culture of carp.

Other methods used to preserve fish and fish products include.

1. The control of temperature using ice, refrigeration or freezing

2. The control of water activity by drying, salting, smoking or freeze-drying
3. The physical control of microbial loads through microwave heating or ionizing
irradiation
4. The chemical control of microbial loads by adding acids
5. Oxygen deprivation, such as vacuum packing.

2. FISH AND PRAWN SPOILAGE METHODS

Fish is a perishable food- after a few hours of death

at around 8 hours, it become useless, foul smelling and
unsuitable for eating. It is called fish spoilage. Thus fish
spoilage is the deterioration offish making it foul smelling
and inedible. Preservation is the storage of the fish and fish products without decay and fit for
human consumption.

2.1 Spoilage is caused by the following actions.

1. Chemical action
2. Autolysis or enzymatic action.
3. Microbial action.
2.1 Freshness of fish.

Freshness is usually judged in the trade entirely by appearance, odour and texture of the
raw fish. Since assessment depends upon the senses, these to look for the freshness of fish are:

1. The general appearance of the fish including that of the eyes, gills, sur-face slime and
scales and the firmness or softness of the flesh.
2. The odour of the gills and belly cavity;
3. The appearance, particularly the presence and of discolouration along the underside, of
the backbone.
4. The presence or absence of rigor mortis or death stiffening.
5. The appearance of the belly walls.

2.2. Causes of spoilage of fish

In the cooler regions of the world the fish preservation is not required for a few days after
their capture. This is because, the temperature is low enough to discourage the bacterial growth
as so the spoilage of fish is minimized. In tropical regions such as India, the hot climate favours
rapid growth of bacteria and so the spoilage of fish flesh becomes inevitable. Landed fish may
ordinarily remain fresh for not more than 8 hours and begin to decompose rapidly after that. The
decomposition or spoilage offish flesh occur mainly due to various chemical, microbial and the
enzymatic action.

2.3. Chemical Action

The chemical action involves oxidation of fat, contained within the fatty tissues of the
fish. It is more pronounced in fat fishes (e.g. oil sardine, mackerels, catla, trout, grass carp etc.)
which as a result become decolourised. The oil starts getting oxidized as soon as it comes in
contact with the atmospheric air, which is known as rancidity. The colour in contact with the and
its viscosity changes and the fish becomes strong tasted. Methods employed to prevent rancidity
include application of antioxidants like polyphenols or other viscous fluid and minimizing
exposure of fish to atmospheric air.

2.4. Microbial action

 Microbial action involves bacterial decomposition of the fish flesh. The bacteria are
found in the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract and on the general body surface of the fish.
They may also be contributed from the surrounding insanitary a most suitable place for their
growth and multiplication. Proteins, constituting 70-90% are degraded by proteolytic organism
such as pseudomonas, proteus, Chromo bacterium, Halo bacterium, and Micrococcus, etc. the
Carbohydrates, present in small amount in the fish flesh are spoiled by carbohydrate fermenting
organism like streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Micrococcus, etc. fasts constituting 3-5% of the flesh
are digested by relatively few gram negative bacteria. Degradation process occurs through the
processes as follows.

Proteolytic micro-organisms

Proteins Amino acids + Amines + >

Ammonia + Hydrogen sulphide Fermentive micro-organisms

Carbohydrates

Lipolytic micro-organisms

Fats Fatty acids + Glycerol.

>

2.5 Enzymatic action

Enzymatic action is due to action of various enzymes found in the body tissues/ cells of
fishes. They spoil the tissue by the process of autolysis and make the fish susceptible to bacterial
attack. Proteinase for example can digest muscle proteins of the fish, catalase, the gill spoilage
and ATP ase brings about a complete disappearance of TP, from muscle tissue in 6 to 8 hours.
Autolysis which on further decomposition like various amines and fatty acids, and foul smelling
products like indole, skatole, etc.

3. PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION OF FISH

3.1 Processing of fish and prawns

 Fish processing can be subdivided into fish handling, which is the preliminary processing
of raw fish, and the manufacture of fish products.Another natural subdivision is into primary
processing involved in the filleting and freezing of fresh fish for onward distribution to fresh fish
retail and catering outlets, and the secondary processing that products, or products chilled, frozen
and canned products for the retail and catering trades.

Fish processing is also concerned with proper waste management and with adding values to fish
products. There is an increasing demand for ready to eat fish products, or products that dont
need much preparation.When fish are captured or harvested for commercial purpose, they need
some preprocessing so they can be delivered to the fish caught by a fishing vessel need handling
so they can be stored safely until the boat lands the fish on shore.

Typical handling processes are.

1. Transferring the catch from the fishing gear (such as a trawl, net or fishing line) to the
fishing vessel
2. Holding the catch before further handling
3. Sorting and grading
4. Bleeding, gutting and washing
5. Chilling
6. Storing the chilled fish
7. Unloading, or landing the fish when the fishing vessel returns to port.
8. The number and order in which these operations are undertaken varies with the fish
species and the type of fishing gear used to catch it as well as how large the fishing vessel
is and how long it is at sea, and the natural of the market it is supplying. Catch processing
operation can be manual or automated. The equipment and procedures in modern
industrial fisheries are designed to reduce the rough handling of fish, heavymanual lifting
and unsuitable working positions which might result in injuries.
3.2 Handling live fish.

An alternative, and obvious way of keeping fish fresh is to keep them alive until they are
delivered to the buyer or ready to be eaten. This is a common practice worldwide. Typically, the
fish are placed in a container with clean water, and dead, damaged or sick fish are removed. The
water temperature is then lowered and the fish are starved to reduce their metabolic rate. This
decreases fouling of water with metabolic products (ammonia, nitrite and carbon dioxide) that
become toxic and make it difficult for the fish to extract oxygen. Fish can be kept alive in
floating cages, wells and fish ponds. In aquaculture, holding basins are used where the water is
continuously filtered and its temperature and oxygen level are controlled. In China, floating
cages are constructed in rivers out of palm woven baskets, while in South America simple fish
yard are built in the backwaters of rivers. Live fish can be transported by methods which range
from simple artisanal method where fish are placed in plastic bags with an oxygenated
atmosphere, to sophisticated system which use trucks that filter and recycle the water, and add
oxygen and regulate temperature.

3.3 Waste Management:

Waste produced during fish processing operation can be solid or liquid.

Solid waste : Include skin, viscera, fish heads and carcasses (fish bones.)Solid waste can be
recycled in fish meal plants or it can be treated as municipal waste.

Liquid waste : Include blood water and brine from drained temporarily, and should be discharges
from washing and cleaning. This waste may need holding temporarily, and should be disposed of
without damage to the environment. How liquid waste should be disposed from fish processing
operations depends on the content, and oil and grease content. It also depends on an assessment
of parameters such acidity levels, temperature, odour, and biochemical oxygen demand and
chemical oxygen demand. The magnitude of waste management issues depends on how much
waste volume there is, the natural of the pollutants it carries, the rate at which it is discharged
and the capacity of the receiving environment to assimilate the pollutants.

Water way : The receiving water body should be able to degrade the organic and inorganic waste
components in a way that does not damage the aquatic ecosystem.
3.4 Treatments can be Primary and Secondary.

Primary treatments : Use physical methods such asflotation, screening, and sedimentation to
remove oil and grease and other suspended solids.

Secondary treatments : Use biological and physico-chemical means. Biological treatments used
microorganisms to metabolise the organic polluting matter into energy and biomass. these
microorganisms can be aerobic or anaerobic. The most used aerobic processes are activated
sludge system, aerated lagoon, trickling filters or bacterial beds and the rotating biological
contractors. In anaerobic processes, the anaerobic microorganisms digest the organic matter in
tanks to produce gases (mainly methane and Co2) and biomass.

Anaerobic digesters of 30 to 35oC. in the physico-chemical treatments, also called

coagulation-flocculation, a chemical substance in added to the effluent is to reduce the surface
changes responsible for particle repulsions in a colloidal suspension, thus reducing the forces that
keep its particles apart. This reduction in change causes flocculation (agglomeration ) and
particles of larger sizes are settled and clarified effluent is obtained. The sludge produced by
primary and secondary treatments is further processed in digesting tanks through anaerobic
processes or sprayed over land as a fertilizer. In the later case, care must be exercised to ensure
that the sludge is freed of its pathogens.

3.5. Quality and Safety

The international organization of or standardization, ISO, is the worldwide federation of

national standards bodies. ISO defines quality as the totality of feature and characteristics of a
product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. (ISO 8402). The
quality of fish and reduced if appropriate practices are followed when handling, manufacturing,
refrigerating and transporting fish and fish products. Ensuring standards of qualityand safety are
high also minimizes the post-harvest losses.

The fishing industry must ensure that their fish handling, processing and transportation
facilities meet requisite standards. Adequate training of both industry and control authority staff
must be provided by support institutions, for channels for feedback from consumer established.
Ensuring high standards for quality and safety is good economics, minimizing losses that result
from spoilage, damage to trade and from illness among consumers.
 Fish processing highly involves very strict controls and measurements in order to ensure
that all processing stage have been carried types of food safety system. One of the certifications
that are commonly known is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP).

3.6. Preservation of fish and Prawn

Preservation techniques are needed to prevent fish spoilage and lengthen shelf life. They
are designed to inhabit the activity of spoilage bacteria and the metabolic changes that result in
the loss of fish quality. Spoilage bacteria are the specific bacteria that produce the unpleasant
odours and flavours associated with spoiled fish. Fish normally host many bacteria that are not
spoilage.

Bacteria, and most of the bacteria present on spoiled fish played no role in the spoilage.
To flourish, bacteria need the right temperature, sufficient water and oxygen, and surrounding
that are not too acidic. Preservation techniques work by interrupting one or more of these needs.
Preservation techniques can be classified as follows.

Fish preservation is a very important aspect of the fisheries. Normally the fish farms or
other fish capturing sites are located far off from the market places and there is chance of fish
decomposition and the uncertainties of their sale in market. When the fishes are caught in
numbers, greater than the amount of consumption, their preservation because a necessity for their
future use. Preservation and processing, therefore becomes a very important part of commercial
fisheries. It is done in such a manner that the fish remain fresh for a long time, with a minimum
loss of flavour, taste, odour, nutritive values and the digestibility oftheir flesh.

3.7 Methods of preservation

Preservation can be done, both for short and long duration 1. Preservation for short
duration Chilling : This is obtained by covering the fish with layers of ice. However, ice alone is
not effective for long preservation, because melting water bring about a short of leaching of
valuable flesh contents which are responsible for the lavour. But ice effective for short terms
preservation such as is needed to transport landed fish to nearby markets or to canning factories,
etc. here autolytic enzymatic activities are checked by lowering the temperature valuable flesh
contents which are responsible for the flav on. But ice is effective for short terms.

Preservation for long time When the preservation is required for a long period of time, the fish
are passed through the cleaning, gutting and conservation and storage.
Cleaning

During cleaning, the caught fish washed thoroughly in cold, clean water to remove
bacteria, slime, blood, faces and mud, etc from the body surface of this fish. It is being done
under proper sanitary conditions.

Gutting

After cleaning, the fish are cut along their mid ventral side, and their visceral organs are
removed. By removing viscera, the bacteria in the gastro intestinal tract and enzymes of visceral
organs are removed along with it to prevent bacterial decomposition and enzymatic autolysis
respectively.

Preservation of fish in cold storage is practised on a small scale in India. Cold storage
preservation of fish is practised at the places where storage facilities are available. The fish are
preserved overnight in cold storage and marketed the next day. With the increase in availability
of ice Fish is transported in ice by different modes of transport like rail, trucks, motor launches,
ect. The west coast has a large number of freezing plants at place like Bombay, Mangalore,
Cochin, Trivandrum where freezing of prawns, lobsters and frog legs are undertaken. At Bombay
fishes like pomfrets, jew fishes , etc, are frozen and stored for several months.

Oil sardine, mackerel and seer are the three commercial important food fish used in the
application of refrigerated sea water for preservation. These fishes were stored in artificial sea
waters prepared by dissolving common salt to give a sodium chloride content 3.5% at a
temperature of - 1.1 to 00C.In general the fish stored in refrigerated sea water had firmer texture
and better appearance than ice-stored one. The oil sardines stored upon 2days did not show any
difference compared to ice samples. Further storing resulted inferior quality of the fish. Similarly
mackerel and seer could be stored for 4 to 6 days respectively. In general different methods of
freezing are adapted through sharp freezer.Air blast freezer, contact plate freezer, vertical plate
freezer, immersion freezing, liquid Freon freezing, liquid nitrogen freezing, fluidizing bed
freezer, cryogenic freezing, sub freezing etc. All the methods of freezing shall help in absorption
of heat and in preserving the initial qualities of fish.Among the various methods of freezing the
best freezer is mostly in use in India. The air blast freezer is in the form of a tunnel and heat
transfer is effected rapidly bythe circulation of air. The temperature used ranges from 0 to 300C
and air velocity varies from 30 to 1050 meters/mt.

FREEZE DRYING
 This is modified deep freezing, completely eliminating all chances of denaturation. The
deep frozen fish at -200C is then dried by direct sublimation of ice to water vapour with melting
into liquid water. This is achieved by exposing the frozen fish to 1400C in a vaccum chamber.
The fish is then packed or canned in dried condition. Any loss of flesh contents by way of
leaching during melting of ice is thus avoided. The product is quite fresh looking in appearance,
flavour, colour and quality.

FILLETING AND FREEZING OF FISH.

The processing industry also adopted freezing of fish in the form of fillets at times when
prawns are not available. Fillets are nothing but the strips of flesh cut parallel to the backbone of
the fish. Fishes like milk fish, cat fish, perches, mullets, carps, eels, etc., are suitable for filleting
and freezing. Filleting can be done by hand which is economical or by using a filleting machine.
Fillets may be or without skin and it fetches a much higher price in the luxury market.

Fillets are dripped in brine to enhance their appearance and to reduce the amount of drip
and it also gives a salty flavour. The freezing of fillets can be an individual quick freezing of
block freezing. After dropping in brine, the fillets wrapped in polythene sheet and frozen in
contact plate freezer at -350 C to 400C.in bloc freezing the fillets in known weight 500gr., 1kg.,
2kg. and packed in polythene bags lined with wax and sufficient quantity of glazed water is
poured to cover the fillets. The fillets are put in a freezer at -35 to 400C and stored at - 230C.

3.DRYING

Drying involves dehydration i.e. the removal of moisture contents of fish, so that the
bacterial decomposition or enzymatic autolysis does not occur. When moisture contents reduce
up to 10%, the fishers are not spoiled provided they are stored in dry conditions. Fish is achieved
either naturally or by artificial means.

Natural drying

In natural drying the fish after being caught are washed and dried in the sunshine. They
are suspended or laid out flat on the open ground. The process. However, has a number of
disadvantages. It is slow and results in much loss, through putrefaction. It can be carried out only
in dry, well aerated climate receiving sunshine which is not too hot. It thus depends upon the
environmental factors and availability of space. Lastly only the thin flesh allowing bacterial
decomposition to continue in deeper parts of their body. An additional disadvantage is that dries
fish requires a long soaking period to restore water and that the sun dried fish are not usually
relished.

Artificial drying

In artificial drying the killed fish are cleaned, gutted and have their heads removed. They
are then cut lengthwise to remove large parts of their spinal column, followed by washing and
drying them mechanically.

9 SALTING

Salting is a process where the common salt. Sodium chloride is used as a preservative
which penetrates the tissues. Thus bacterial growth and inactivates the enzymes. Salting
commences as soon as the fish surface of the fish comes with common salt and the product shall
have the required salinity with taste and odour. Some of the factors involved in salting of fish
which play an important role are purity of salt, quantify of salt used, method of salting and
weather conditions and temperature, etc.
During the process the small fish are directly salted without being cleaned. In the medium and
large sized fish the head and viscera are removed and longitudinal cuts are made with the help of
knives in the fleshy area of the body. Then the fish is washed and filled with salt for uniform
penetration through flesh. Large fish lie sharks are cut into convenient sized pieces. Generally,
sardines, mackerels, seer fish, cat fish. Sharks and prawns are used for salting.

The salt used should be pure common salt so as to keep the quality of the fresh fish. Traces of
calcium and magnesium caused whitening and stiffening of the flesh and gives bitter or acid
flavour to the product. In addition it does not allow the easy penetration of common salt. Dry
salting, wet salting and mixed salting are the three methods employed in salting of fish.

Dry salting

In this process the fish is first rubbed in salt and packed in layers in the tubs and
cemented tanks. The salt is applied in between the layers of fish in the proportion of 1:3 to 1:8
salt to fish. The proportion of salt to fish varies with the fish since the oily fish require more salt.
At the end of 1 0-24hours the fish age moved from the tubs and washed in salt brine and dried in
the sun for 2or3 days. Large fish lose about on third and small fish about one half of their dressed
weights.

Wet salting

The cleaned fish are put in the previously prepared salt solution. It is stirred daily till it is
properly picked. In some fish like seer, black pomfret, India salmon etc. the gut is removed and
filled with salt in 1:3 proportion. First the salt is filled in the gut region of the fish and stacked,
on the following day, further addition of salt is done since the salt settles down at the bottom.
Finally the process is repeated to ensure the proper filling up of salt and left undisturbed for 7-10
days allowing the liquor to flow off. This method is mostly followed in eastern parts of our
country. In western parts the gut is removed and the salt is applied in one lot and they are
arranged in bamboos baskets. The fish preserved in wet salting process are to be consumed
before the rain sets in and the fishes are marketed without drying.

Mixed salting

In this process, simultaneous use ofsalt and brine is followed. The salting process is
continued till the concentration of salt in the fish tissue. The salting process may affect the shape,
structure and the mechanical features of music tissue.
3.10 SMOKING

In this method, landed fish is cleaned and brined. It is then exposed too cold or hot smoke
treatment. In cold smoking, first a temperature of 38oC 1-3 raised from a smokeless fire. After
this heating, cold smoke at a temperature below 280C is allowed to circulate to past the fish. In
case of hot smoking, fish a strong fire produces a temperature
around 1300C. This is followed by smoking at a temperature of
400 C. The smoke has to be wet and dense. Good controls are
necessary over density, temperature, humidity, speed of
circulation, pattern of circulation and time of contact with fish
of the smoke.

The phenol content of the smoke acts as an antiseptic

and it is also imparts a characteristic colour and flavour. Some
condensation of tars and resins also adds to the taste. Strict hygienic conditions are maintained
throughout this operation. For the best results, fish are hanged on special structures in special
installations called smoke houses. Some are produced by burning wood in the smoke house itself
or are conducted to it through pipes from fire produced at a distance. For making fire and some
only hard wood (Conifer wood, Saw dust etc.) are used. Smoke house has a chimney at the top
for exit of smoke. It also has a number of galleries for hanging fish. The some house is made of
fire proof material and it is very well insulated to retain heat.

4. PIT CURING

It is another process employed in south and south east of our country. In this process the
fish treated with salt are buried in pits lined with leaves. After 2-3 days they are removed and
marketed directly.

3.11 CANNINING

Canning is a method of preservation in which spoilage can be averted by killing micro-

organisms through heat. It is generally well known that food carries micro-organisms which
cause spoilage if left unchecked. These micro-organisms are to be eliminated and the entry of
other are restricted. The canning process involves pre-treatment of fish, preparation of can,
filling and closure of the can, technique ofheating thefilled cans to killmicro-organisms without
damage to fish, finally cooling, cleaning, and storage of the product.
The raw material should be processed properly since it contains most dangerous Closetridium
botulinium which should be destroyed. This is found in protein rich food such as fish which has
ph6-7 and is nonacidic. There are some other heat resistant bacteria like Clostridium sporogenes
which can be eliminated at a temperature of 5-6 times more than Clostridium botulinlum. It
needs a temperature of 1200C for 4 minutes or at 1150C for 10 minutes to kill them in large
numbers

3.12 DEMERITS OF FISH PRESERVATION

Although the preservation and processing constitute a very important aspect of the fish industry,
it has certain drawback, as well, particularly with respect to retaining quality of fish flesh, these
are discussed briefly.

1. Chilling brings about denaturation of flesh. This is because of ice crystals formed during
chilling and causing mechanical damage to the muscles. Cell walls burst, structure gets
deformed and the flesh loses much of flavour and taste. The flesh also because
dehydrated and losses texture.
2. If proper hygienic measures are not taken during the processes like washing, guttation
and evisceration, etc. more harm would be done to the preserved material, owing to
increase in the bacterial population.
3. Incomplete or poor preservation leads to decaboxylation of histidine of fish flesh into
histamine. The latter some other related substances, collectively called saurine, are
common causes of food poisoning.
4. Drying reduce weight, nutritive value and the digestibility of the flesh.
5. Excess salting allows growth of salt tolerant bacteria, causing pink eye spoilage of fish
flesh.
6. Salting combined with smoking results in loss of protein, about 1 to 5 % due to salting
and 8 to 30% due to smoking.
7. Smoking also accelerates rancidity of fat and so reduces digestibility of fat products.
8. Canning leads to much loss of vitamin B1,panthotenic acid, vitamin-C and
pteroxylglutamic acid

SUMMARY

When the fishes are caught in numbers, greater than the amount of consumption
their preservation becomes a necessity for their future use. Preservation and processing
therefore become a very important part of commercial fisheries. It is done in such a
manner that the fishes remain fresh for a long time, with a minimum loss of flavour, taste,
odour, nutritive value and the digestibility of their flesh. The decomposition or spoilage
of fish occurs mainly due to various chemical, microbial and the enzymatic action.
 Employing any one of the methods like freezing, drying. Salting, smoking and careening
achieve the preservation of fish.

BY PRODUCTS OF FISH AND PRAWN

INTRODUCTION

Fisheries are consumed as food in fresh condition. Some of them are also utilized after
the preservation. During preservation and processing, some material of fish and prawn are
discarded as waste. Similarly some trash and distasteful fishes are unsuitable for human
consumption. There waste material of fish and above fishes become an
important source to produce fish by-products by which in turn are used
to product different useful fish by-products are described in detail.

1. FISH MEAL

The waste obtained after the fish processing for oil extraction is called
as fish meal. It is prepared either by wet or dry processing, depending on the raw material. The
good quality fish meal is used for animal feeding and other is used as manure. The chemical
composition of fish meal has 5 0-70% proteins, 5-10% fats, 10-20% minerals and 6-12%
moisture. The fish meal is considered as very rich source of proteins. Calcium 5%, phosphorous
4%, a variable amount of iodine and vitamins B1, B12, A, D, K are also found in fish meal, which
promotes the growth of animals. It constitutes a valuable source of feed for farm animals. In dry
method the fish meal is exposed to high temperature like in flame dryers or in steam drums under
partial vacuum. In wet method large sized fishes are chopped and boiled to extract oil. These are
then covered with canvas and screw-pressed to from the cakes. Dried cakes are pressed in
hydraulic pressure to recover oil and are redried in steam, before being sterilized and packed for
marketing. The fish meal is stored in gunny or cori bags as they are insect and vermin proof. The
tin containers under an atmosphere of nitrogen
are also employed.

The fish meal of inferior quality is used

as manure in tea, coffee and tobacco plantations.
The spoiled fish can also used as manure. The
fish manure contain N-5-7, P2O5-4-6 and Ca O-
4-6%. Fish waste is buried in pits for 35 60
days, then dried, fermented and used as manure
which is known as pit manure.
 2. FISH OILS

The oils from the fish are obtained by extracting from the entire body of the fish or only from
the liver. The oil obtained from the entire body are known as body oils and are grouped into
drying and semi drying oil. The drying oil comprises oils of sardine, salmon, herring, mackerel,
anchovy, and white fish, while the oils of sprat and carp constitute semidrying oils are due to low
iodine content. The body oil is edible and used for industrial purposes. Liver oil extracted from
the live, is of medicinal importance and contains vitamin A. the flesh with rich oil content
possess liver with flesh with low oil content.

Freshly extracted oils are differently colored from colour less to golden yellow, greenish
yellow or even red. The oil extracted from the stale fish is darker in colour and concentration of
the oil also varies from fresh to stale along with iodine content. The fish oils differ very much in
their composition and against the comparable oil of other terrestrial animal and vegetable fats.
The fish oils are much more complex and the fatty acids are composed of chain lengths varying
from c- 14 to c-22 and in some instances even C-24 higher chain
lengths are not uncommon. These fish oil have also varying degrees
of unsaturation ranging from mono upon penta (5) and have 6
ethylenic acids. Oils of marine fish varieties have a higher
concentration of C-20 and C-22 and lower concentration of only 15-
20% C-18 acids. The fatty acid composition higher proportion
unsaturated C-20 and especially C-22 acids.

The fish oils comprise a mixture of triglycerides which are

comparatively more complex. Simple triglyceride is a compound containing three different fatty
acids although occasionally two radicals of the same fatty acids are found over a single glyceride
molecule. The live oils are rich in its constituent. The unsaponifiable matter is comprised of a
variety alcohols and other hydrocarbons. All fish oils contain cholesterol.

3. LIVER OIL
SHARK LIVER OIL
Fish live oil consists of vitaminA mainly and Din some species. These vitamins maybe
formed due to metabolic activities which might have been made their way into the liver in 0.1 to
2.4% in cod than in other liver oils i.e., 80% in few sharks.

The livers of fishes are grouped into three classes depending upon the commercial utility
viz High oil content with low vitamin A potency in cods with 60-75% of oil and 500 to 20,000
IU/g. vitamin A potency. Low oil content with high vitamin A potency in large tuna with 25-
75% of oil and 3,00,000 IU/g. vitamin A potency.

VitaminA mainly gets stored in the liver. But in large fishes this vitamin gets
accumulated in viscera also in addition to liver. The age, sex, availability of food, season, etc.,
ply an important role in the activity of vitamin A and can be obtained from the large sized fish
within a given species. No such correlation of size and concentration of
vitamin A can be made among the fish of different species. The dark
colored liver in sharks yields higher concentration of vitamin A than the
light colored ones VitaminA which is associated with the protein of the
live and partly with the oil exists as fatty acid esters (96
100%).vitaminA comprises vitamin A2 which is 40% active as A1.
Vitamin A1 is of greater importance in view of its availability in
commercial scale.

Three cis- isomers viz. neovitamin A, iso-a and iso-bhave

been isolated from the olive oils but are less potent than vitaminA1.
Some fish liver oils are rich in vitamin D. tuna liver oil and cod liver oil
contain 2,50,000; 500 unit per farm of oil respectively. Vitamin D content is available in greater
quantity where the oil is less in the liver. The vitamin D is presents in the form of D3, available
partly any oxidation of vitaminA. hydrocarbons, cholesterol, pigments, fatty glycerol alcohol and
other from various constituents of the oil besides glycerides.

4. FISH BODY OIL

The whole fish is processed to obtain the fish meal and the body oil. Commercially
important oils include sardine, herring and salmon oils. The fish with rich oil content and low oil
content are processed through wet and dry processes respectively.

In the wet process the fish is crushed to a pulp and cooked with steam continuously in vertical
cylindrical cooker. The cooked material is pressed and oil along with a mixture of fish soluble
known as stick water is drawn into settling tanks and later passed through centrifugal to separate
the oil. The material after the extraction of oil is dried, powdered and marketed as fish meal.

In dry process, fishes with low oil content are processed as the oil recovery is low. The fillet
waste and shark carcasses are disintegrated in a grinder and cooked under regular stirring in a
cylinder heated by steam. The oil is then pressed out.

Raw oils have a disagreeable odour and taste. Through hydrogenation this can be
eliminated or minimized. Free acids are neutralised by caustic soda and the oil is deodorized by
superheated steam at reduced pressure and finally dehydrated by heating at 105oC. Seasonal
fluctuations in the oil content of different species have been observed. This variation may be
related directly with availability of food. Presence or absence of the din flagellates and the
copepods in the plankton has contributed to the variation in fat content.

The oil consisting of fatty acids and the glycerides after deodorization and hydrogenation
are used for edible purpose. Oils with low iodine content are used in the preparation of laundry
soap, cheaper grade toilet soap, etc. sulphonation, polymerization, saponification are the
processes followed in getting excellent quality soap. Fish oils are used in the leather industry in
making leather flexible. Oil with high iodine content is used in
application of paint, varnish, etc. Heat treated fish oils and
destearinate fish oils mixed with driers are used in blends with
linseed or tung oil since it gives flexibility and heart resistant
films. The other important uses of fish oil are manufacture of
candles, lubricants, cutting oils, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals,
rubber substitutes, water proofing compositions, printing links
and core oils. Oil containing vitamins are used in animals and
poultry feeds. Fish oil acts as fungicides when applied to citrus trees.
Fatty acids of the oils are suitable for concentrating low grade iron ores.

5. Fish Manure

The dried and putrefied fishes are used for the preparation of
fish manure. Fish manure are prepare as mentioned in fish meal. Prawn are also prepare in
similar way from the left out things like head tail, appendages and body shell. It contains 5-6%
of nitrogen, 3 4% of phosphates and traces of lime. Fish guano is
prepared from the fish material left after the extraction of oil. It contains
8 10 % of nitrogen and considered a rich nutrient for the plans.

6. FISH FLOUR

Fish meal is prepared by solvent extraction process on commercial

scale. This can be blended with wheat or maize flour and is used as
enriching component in bread, biscuits, cakes, sweets and soups. It forms an ideal protein
supplement to human diets. Groupers and seer fishes are used commonly for preparation of fish
flours.

7. FISH FLAKES/WAFER

Thread fin breams and cat fishes are used in the preparation of flakes or wafers. Fish flesh is
boiled, then mixed with maida, salt, etc. to prepare flakes or wafers.

8 . FISH STICKS

Body shell and digestive tract are removed from prawn body and boiled for 15 minutes in
7% salt solution. Fishes are cleaned and cut into 10 cm length and 1 cm width pieces. These are
dipped in egg, maida, salt mixture, and then added to bread power to
prepare sticks.

9 .FISH SALADS
The fishes are cleaned and pieces are boiled with steam. The boiled fish or prawns are mixed
with tomatoes, salt, garlic, maida, pepper and oil to prepare fish salad. This can be used in fresh
condition or can be stored.

10. FISH SAUSAGE

Fish flesh is ground and mixed with sugar, fats, masala and preservatives. Small bags are
prepared with above mixture and boiled to prepare fish sausage.

11 FISH CAKES

Tuna and mackerels are used commonly to prepare fish cakes. Fishes are cleaned and
steam boiled, the separated in layers. Potatoes are boiled with salt, pepper and citric acid.
Layered fish are mixed with the above mixture and packed in vacuum to prepare fish cakes.

12. FISH SILAGE

The fish is mixed with formic acid, sulphuric acid and molasses resulting in the formation
of semi stuff. This silage is preferred over fish meal since the vitamins are doing not produce fish
odour.

13. Isinglass

Isinglass is the carefully washed and dried fish sounds or air bladders, made into special
dorms by mechanical means. Russian isinglass from sturgeon is the best. Air bladders are split
open and carefully washed with cold or warm water to remove blood, membrane and other
extraneous matter. If dried previously, they are soaked in water for several days, with frequent
changes of water to soften them and permit removal of membranes. They are then dried in large
trays. The later processing done in cold weather, as higher temperature melts and decomposes
the isinglass. Weather, as higher temperature melts and decomposes the isinglass. They are
soaked in water, chopped into small places, and passed trough rollers (hollow cylinders, with
running cold water) a scraper removes isinglass in strips 1/8" to 1/4 thick and 6 to 8" wide,
and of desired length. They are then pressed through ribbon rollers, from which the sheets
emerge 1/64" thick. The ribbons are quickly dried, to prevent putrefaction and rolled on wooden
spools into coils, weighing less than a pound each.

Isinglass does not dissolve in water, but merely swells slowly and absorbs some water, but not as
much as gelatin. Isinglass is collagen. When heated with water,
but not as much as gelatin. Isinglass is collagen. When heated
with water, it hydrolyses to from gelatin which dissolves upon
cooling, it becomes a tough gel (resembling animals gelatin
gels) a clear, colorless glue of great adhesiveness. Isinglass is
insoluble water and has a fishy odour. But isinglass has little insoluble salt and ash.

For cleaning of wine and beer, the isinglass is first made to become swollen in water, and then in
wine, till it is transparent. It is thoroughly beaten with more wine, after which a little tartaric acid
is added. The isinglass is then strained through lines and stirred into the bulk of wine. The
solution is not heated and so the isinglass does not dissolve although disintegrated into fine
suspension. Its fibrous nature is not destroyed but entangles in its meshes the colloidal bodies
that produce undesirable turbidity; A small does is enough to clarify the wine.

14. FISH GLUE

The fish glue industry is one of the minor by - product Industry in USA, England,
Norway and Japan. The great obstacle confronting this industry is obtaining a regular supply of
suitable glue stock in sufficient qualities.

The conversion of animal skin and bones into gelatin has been the subject of many
researches. The hydrolysis of fish sounds, or air bladders not merely resemble the manufacture of
glue for when the tissue is heated with water. It dissolves. And upon evaporating and cooling the
resultant solution forms a gel which is a gelatin of high purity. Fish skin and bones contain much
collagen and other similar proteins. Upon careful hydrolysis with steam, or boiling water, the
collagen and other related proteins yield gelatin. Fish glue is soluble in cold water, while hide
glues merely swell in cold water and do not dissolve unit the water is heated.

Waste products of cod, haddock, etc., form the raw materials for the manufacture of fish
glue. They are ordinarily graded as head, waste and skin stock. The skin of cold fish is thicker,
and yield large amounts of a better grade of fish glue, than haddock. Skin yields 70 gallons of
glue per ton; head 25 gallons, and wastes 25 gallons. The stock must be free from salt or be fresh
use. It is agitated in running water free of chlorides, and pitched into cookers. A preservative is
added to prevent the decomposition of the glue liquors, during strong. A small amount of acetic
acid or other moderately strong acid, is also added to act as catalyst, to hasten hydrolysis. The
stock is covered with water, steam turned into the outer jacket, and cooking continued for 6 to
10hours. The glue liquor is drained off, pumped into tanks and then into evaporator is the most
efficient though evens heated with steam coils are also used and treating continued till proper
viscosity is attained.

Best grade is used (i) for photo-engraving and half tone plates (ii) as flexible glue for
court plaster, stamps, labels and book binding (iii) ready to use adhesive in shoe repairs, etc., (iv)
as belt cement for leather cements, with hide glue (v) sizing operation and (vi) chipping of glass
and for translucent glass and furniture works.

15 Fish Proteins
 The proteins of the fish have high digestibility, biological and growth promoting value.
Hence, it plays an important role in human nutrition. The available amino acids are more evenly
balanced than the other proteins of animals origin. Amino acids like lysine and methionine are
rich in fish protein. In general fish, protein is somewhat superior to egg albumen, bean protein
and casein and perhaps equal; to chicken proteins. 15 25 % of protein is obtained from the

Fish muscle which forms the chief source. About 95% of available protein can be obtained by
using sodium chloride solution. The proteins present in the cells i.e. intracellular consist of
myosin 66-75%, myogen 6%, myoalbumin 7%, globulin 8%, etc., along with collagen and
elastin contributing to stroma proteins together with crude protein of 3 % of total proteins, and
other proteins including nucleoproteins and haemoglobins.

The fish proteins are extracted with dilute caustic soda solution from fish fillets or waste
after removing the fat. The extracted material id dried after neutralization. This power is white in
colour without any fish odour and taste containing 80 -90 % of solubalized protein. This is used
as a substitute for white of the egg in baking, confectionary, ice cream and pharmaceutical
products. This is also used in paint, varnish, textile, paper, cosmetics, molding powder and foam
type extinguishers. Hydrolyzed fish protein can be extracted from the flesh of Indian sharks and
rays. The 85% of protein content, a cream colored product, is obtained
in yield of 10 % of the raw material. It is easily soluble in water and as
greater whipping power than that of egg albumen and good keeping
quality.

16 SHARK FINS

The fins of the large sharks except caudal fin are cut near the
root, washed in seawater, mixed with wood ashes and lime and dried
in the sun or smoked, this products which is crisp and brittle are used
in soups and regarded as delicacy in china and Philippines.

17 FISH ROE

Fish roe is a good source of vitamins B,C,D and E in addition to various amino acids
present. Viz thymine, citruline, creation, taurine, tyrosine, xanthine and hypoxanthine.. fish roe
fat possesses high lecithin, (50%) and cholesterol (14%). Roe protein is colouress and tasteless
with digestibility coefficient and biological value at 81 and 88 % respectively. It is used in
various food products and for the manufacture of glue and synthetic fibre.

18. FISH LEATHER

After tanning and removing denticles the skin of sharks and rays provide a strong and
highly durable lether. In Japan, the skin of puffer fish is used for preparing latrious. The viscera
are removed from the body and the skin is dried. The candle is burnt inside the jacket, the skin
useful as a transparent shade. Dried and treated skins are used for making belts, shoes, bags,
suitcases and other ornamental wears.

19. SHAGREEN

It is the skin of the sharks and rays. These are armed with sharp pointed placoid scales. It is used
in polishing wood and other materials, for covering jewellery and sword covers.

Table utilization of fish products & by products

Products/by-product Source Uses

1. Fish liver oil+ Fat of liver and Pharmaceutical
vitaminA
Body Pharmaceutical
2.
3. Fish
Fish body
flour, oil
sausage, Protein of Human consumption
ham
Muscle
4. Fish meal Animal feed

5. Fish silage And other tis- Animal feed

6. Fish soluble Sue Animal feed

7. Fish manure Agricultural

8. Fish guano Collage of Agricultural

9. Fish Guano Industrial
body tissues
10. Isin glue Collagen of air Industrial
bladder
11. Fish leather Skin Industrial
12. Animal charcoal Industrial (purification of
Scales liquids).
13. Guanine
Industrial (artificial pearls).
14. Shagreen
15. Dried fins Fins Human consumption
Industrial (abrasive).
16. Fish roe Eggs Human consumption
17. Cholesterol Pharmaceutical

18. Squalene Sterols Industrial (mordant in dyeing)

19. Lecithin Industrial (Antibloom agent in

chocolate industry)
 Enzymes &
20. Enzymes & hormones Pharmaceutical
hormones

20. Helmets

The skin of whales is used for the manufacture of helmets.

21. FISH SOAPS

The fins of various-sharks are dried and exported to other countries where they are for the
preparation of soaps.

22 FISH INSULIN

The pancreases of large fishes are removed to obtain raw material for manufacturing insulin.

23. ARTIFICIAL PEARLS

The material obtained by scalping the silvery coating of the scales of certain fishes, is
used for polishing the hollow glass beads. There beads are then filled with wax and marked as
artificial pearls, used in jewellery.

24. AMBER GRIS

This is a solid, buoyant waxy or fatty inflammable substance, grey, dull or speckled in
colour and musky in odour, which occurs as a concretion, in the intestine or stomach of the
sperm whale. Usually sick members vomit it. It is generally founds floating in sea or in the shore,
in hot latitudes, usually during the cold and wet moths. Pieces of considerable size have been
found on the west coast of Sir Lanka. Ambergris is different from amber,
vegetable products of the sea. Formally it was thought to be fungous growth,
etc. It is usually found in all parts of the intestines, and is mostly a concretion
of undigested squids and cattle fish; with the nuclear mass being horny beaks
of cephalopods. Next to pearls, ambergris is the highest priced product of
fisheries.

It acts as a preventive to child bearing if taken by females and uses

it in medicines. When picked up wet, it is soft and emits a rank repugnant odour. It is wrapped in
cloth and dried. Exposure to air makes it harder, lighter, opaque, wax like, and inflammable. It is
used in flavor dishes. But at present its only use is in the perfume industry.
 BY PRODUCTS OF PRAWNS

Prawn crackers: Flavored prawn crackers mainly used as fast food snacks. Its raw
material are specially chose natural cereals (maize+ rice). It is non fried cereal of dietary fiber,
which can stimulate intestines paristalsis and facilitate metabolism and digestion.

Shrimp Cake:

Shrimp cake, made with chunky shrimps from the finest, freshest quality health shrimps that are
raised in eco-friendly farms practicing green shrimp technology, This product contains 0g Trans
Fat and has no preservatives.

4.4 SUSTAINABILITY OF FISHERY DEVELOPMENT

Definition:

A conventional idea of a sustainable fishery is that it is one that is harvested at a

sustainable rate, where the fish population does not decline over time because of fishing
practices.

Long term constant yield is the idea that undisturbed nature establishes a steady state that
changes little over time. Properly done, fishing at up to maximum sustainable yield
allows nature to adjust to a new steady state, without compromising future harvests.
However, this view is naive, because constancy is not an attribute of marine ecosystems,
which dooms this approach. Stock abundance fluctuates naturally, changing the potential
yield over short and long term periods.[1]
Preserving intergenerational equity acknowledges natural fluctuations and regards as
unsustainable only practices which damage the genetic structure destroy habitat, or
deplete stock levels to the point where rebuilding requires more than a single generation.
Providing rebuilding takes only one generation, overfishing may be economically foolish,
but it is not unsustainable. This definition is widely accepted.[1]

Maintaining a biological, social and economic system considers the health of the human
ecosystem as well as the marine ecosystem. A fishery which rotates among multiple species can
deplete individual stocks and still be sustainable so long as the ecosystem retains its intrinsic
integrity. Such a definition might consider as sustainable fishing practices that lead to the
reduction and possible extinction of some species.

Sustainability in fisheries combines theoretical disciplines, such as the population

dynamics of fisheries, with practical strategies, such as avoiding overfishing through techniques
such as individual fishing quotas, curtailing destructive and illegal fishing
practices by lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protected areas,
restoring collapsed fisheries, incorporating all externalities involved in harvesting
marine ecosystems into fishery economics, educating stakeholders and the wider
public, and developing independent certification programs.

Some primary concerns around sustainability are that heavy fishing pressures, such as
overexploitation and growth or recruitment overfishing, will result in the loss of significant
potential yield; that stock structure will erode to the point where it loses diversity and resilience
to environmental fluctuations; that ecosystems and their economic infrastructures will cycle
between collapse and recovery; with each cycle less productive than its predecessor; and that
changes will occur in the trophic balance .

Obstacles

1. Overfishing

Overfishing can be sustainable. According to Hilborn, overfishing can be "a

misallocation of societies' resources", but it does not necessarily threaten conservation or
sustainability"

Overfishing is traditionally defined as harvesting so many fish that the yield is less than it
would be if fishing were reduced.

On the other hand, overfishing can precede severe stock depletion and fishery collapse.
Hilborn points out that continuing to exert fishing pressure while production decreases, stock
collapses and the fishery fails, is largely "the product of institutional failure."

Today over 70% of fish species are either fully exploited, overexploited, depleted, or
recovering from depletion. If overfishing does not decrease, it is predicted that stocks of all
species currently commercially fished for will collapse by 2048.

2. Habitat modification

Nearly all the worlds continental shelves, and large areas of continental slopes,
underwater ridges, and seamounts, have had heavy bottom trawls and dredges repeatedly
dragged over their surfaces. For fifty years, governments and organizations, such as the Asian
Development Bank, have encouraged the fishing industry to develop trawler fleets. Repeated
bottom trawling and dredging literally flattens diversity in the benthic habitat, radically changing
the associated communities.

3. Changing the ecosystem balance

Since 1950, 90 percent of 25 species of big predator fish have gone.

4. Climate change

Rising ocean temperatures] and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic
ecosystems. Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and
freshwater species. This reduces sustainable catch levels across many habitats, puts pressure on
resources needed for aquaculture, on the communities that depend on fisheries, and on the
oceans' ability to capture and store carbon (biological pump). Sea level rise puts coastal fishing
communities at risk, while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland (freshwater)
fisheries and aquaculture.

5. Ocean pollution

A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been
impacted by human development and that 41 percent has been fouled with human polluted
runoff, overfishing, and other abuses.[25] Pollution is not easy to fix, because pollution sources
are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

6. Diseases and toxins

Large predator fish contain significant amounts of mercury, a neurotoxin which can
affect fetal development, memory, mental focus, and produce tremors.

7. Irrigation

Lakes are dependent on the inflow of water from its drainage basin. In some areas,
aggressive irrigation has caused this inflow to decrease significantly, causing water depletion and
a shrinking of the lake. The most notable example is the Aral Sea, formerly among the four
largest lakes in the world, now only a tenth of its former surface area.

Remediation

1. Fisheries management

Fisheries management draws on fisheries science to enable sustainable exploitation. Modern

fisheries management is often defined as mandatory rules based on concrete objectives and a mix
of management techniques, enforced by a monitoring control and surveillance system.[29][30][31]

Ideas and rules: Economist Paul Romer believes sustainable growth is possible providing
the right ideas (technology) are combined with the right rules, rather than simply
hectoring fishers. There has been no lack of innovative ideas about how to harvest fish.
He characterizes failures as primarily failures to apply appropriate rules.[32][33]

Fishing subsidies: Government subsidies influence many of the world fisheries.

Operating cost subsidies allow European and Asian fishing fleets to fish in distant waters,
such as West Africa. Many experts reject fishing subsidies and advocate restructuring
incentives globally to help struggling fisheries recover.

Economics: Another focus of conservationists is on curtailing detrimental human

activities by improving fisheries' market structure with techniques such as salable fishing
quotas, like those set up by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization, or laws such
as those listed below.
 Payment for Ecosystem Services: Environmental Economist, Essam Y Mohammed,
argues that by creating direct economic incentives, whereby people are able to receive
payment for the services their property provides, will help to establish sustainable
fisheries around the world as well as inspire conservation where it otherwise would not.
Sustainable fisheries certification: A promising direction is the independent certification
programs for sustainable fisheries conducted by organizations such as the Marine
Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea. These programs work at raising consumer
awareness and insight into the nature of their seafood purchases.
Ecosystem based fisheries: See next section

2. Ecosystem based fisheries

According to marine ecologist Chris Frid, the fishing industry points to marine pollution
and global warming as the causes of recent, unprecedented declines in fish populations. Frid
counters that overfishing has also altered the way the ecosystem works. "Everybody would like
to see the rebuilding of fish stocks and this can only be achieved if we understand all of the
influences, human and natural, on fish dynamics. He adds: fish communities can be altered in a
number of ways, for example they can decrease if particular-sized individuals of a species are
targeted, as this affects predator and prey dynamics. Fishing, however, is not the sole cause of
changes to marine lifepollution is another example....No one factor operates in isolation and
components of the ecosystem respond differently to each individual factor."[39]

The traditional approach to fisheries science and management has been to focus on a
single species. This can be contrasted with the ecosystem-based approach. Ecosystem-based
fishery concepts have been implemented in some regions.[40] In a 2007 effort to "stimulate much
needed discussion" and "clarify the essential components" of ecosystem-based fisheries science,
a group of scientists offered the following ten commandments for ecosystem-based fisheries
scientists

1. Keep a perspective that is holistic, risk-adverse and adaptive.

2. Maintain an old growth structure in fish populations, since big, old and fat female
fish have been shown to be the best spawners, but are also susceptible to
overfishing.
3. Characterize and maintain the natural spatial structure of fish stocks, so that
management boundaries match natural boundaries in the sea.
4. Monitor and maintain seafloor habitats to make sure fish have food and shelter.
5. Maintain resilient ecosystems that are able to withstand occasional shocks.
6. Identify and maintain critical food-web connections, including predators and forage
species.
7. Adapt to ecosystem changes through time, both short-term and on longer cycles of
decades or centuries, including global climate change.
8. Account for evolutionary changes caused by fishing, which tends to remove large,
older fish.
9. Include the actions of humans and their social and economic systems in all
 ecological equations.

3. Marine protected areas

Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines,
such as population biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up protected
areas, as with Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) or Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas. Each
nation defines MPAs independently, but they commonly involve increased protection for the
area from fishing and other threats.[42]

Extending national control to what became known as the exclusive economic zone
(EEZ). This move has had many implications for fisheries conservation, since it means that most
of the most productive maritime ecosystems are now under national jurisdictions, opening
possibilities for protecting these ecosystems by passing appropriate laws.

4. Fish farming

There exists concerns that farmed fish cannot produce necessary yields efficiently. For
example, farmed salmon eat three pounds of wild fish to produce one pound of salmon.

5. Laws and treaties

International laws and treaties related to marine conservation include the 1966
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas. United States
laws related to marine conservation include the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act, as well as
the 1972 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act which established the National
Marine Sanctuaries program. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act.

6. Awareness campaigns

Various organizations promote sustainable fishing strategies, educate the public and
stakeholders, and lobby for conservation law and policy. The list includes the Marine
Conservation Biology Institute and Blue Frontier Campaign in the U.S.

Some organizations certify fishing industry players for sustainable or good practices, such as the
Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea.

Other organizations offer advice to members of the public who eat with an eye to sustainability.
According to the marine conservation biologist Callum Roberts, four criteria apply when
choosing seafood:[57]

1. Is the species in trouble in the wild where the animals were caught?
2. Does fishing for the species damage ocean habitats?
3. Is there a large amount of bycatch taken with the target species?
 4. Does the fishery have a problem with discardsgenerally, undersized animals caught
and thrown away because their market value is low?

Data issues

Data quality

One of the major impediments to the rational control of marine resources is inadequate
data. According to fisheries scientist Milo Adkison (2007), the primary limitation in fisheries
management decisions is poor data. Fisheries management decisions are often based on
population models, but the models need quality data to be accurate. Scientists and fishery
managers would be better served with simpler models and improved data.[64]

Unreported fishing

Estimates of illegal catch losses range between $10 billion and $23 billion annually, representing
between 11 and 26 million tonnes.

Shifting baselines

Shifting baselines is a term which describes the way significant changes to a system are
measured against previous baselines, which themselves may represent significant changes from
the original state of the system. The term was first used by the fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly in
his paper "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries".[66] Pauly developed the
term in reference to fisheries management where fisheries scientists sometimes fail to identify
the correct "baseline" population size (e.g. how abundant a fish species population was before
human exploitation) and thus work with a shifted baseline. He describes the way that radically
depleted fisheries were evaluated by experts who used the state of the fishery at the start of their
careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its untouched state. Areas that swarmed with a
particular species hundreds of years ago, may have experienced long term decline, but it is the
level of decades previously that is considered the appropriate reference point for current
populations. In this way large declines in ecosystems or species over long periods of time were,
and are, masked. There is a loss of perception of change that occurs when each generation
redefines what is "natural".[67]

Looting the seas

Looting the seas is the name given by the International Consortium of Investigative
Journalists to a series of journalistic investigations into areas directly affecting the sustainability
of fisheries. So far they have investigated three areas involving fraud, negligence and overfishing

1. The black market in blue fin tuna

2. Subsidies propping up the Spanish fishing industry
3. Overfishing of the southern jack mackerel
 STOCKING OF OPEN WATERS (ARTIFICIAL RECRUITMENT
AND TRANSPLANTATION)

1. Definition
Artificial recruitment to existing fish stocks and transplantation of species to newer areas
in open waters (lakes, reservoirs, rivers, irrigation canals, seas and oceans), and stocking
of newly-formed reservoirs.
2. Objectives
(a) To increase the stocks of selected species;
(b) To resuscitate the stocks of overfished or environmentally altered water bodies;
(c) To fill ecological niches;
(d) To utilize more fully certain biological resources, and
(e) To compensate the effects of barriers on the migratory routes to spawning grounds.
3. Methods
3.1 Artificial propagation of seed and their release into open waters
3.2 Stocking of adults into open waters and spawning streams.
3.3 Construction of fishways and artificial spawning channels.
4. General considerations
4.1 Concept of "ocean ranching" - making use of homing behaviour of anadromous fishes
(salmon, sturgeon, shad, striped bass, etc.).
4.2 Assessment of the status of fisheries based on natural stocks.
4.3 Assessment of carrying capacity of the receiving waters.
4.4 Selection of suitable species based on the need to utilize available food or the
objectives of culture (onmivorous, plankton-feeding, herbivorous or predator species).
4.5 Rates of stocking; size at stocking; frequency of stocking based on the extent of
establishment of the introduced species - once only, occasionally or continuously.
4.6 Factors determining the success of transplantation and artificial recruitment.
4.7 Possible effects of transplantation on the indigenous fauna and general ecology of the
receiving waters - rapid increase of introduced species and possible elimination of
indigenous species, destructive effects of transplanted fish, introduction of new pests, etc.
5. Seed production
Techniques of hatchery production.
6. Stock evaluation
Methods of stock evaluation to assess the success of artificial recruitment.
7. Management measures
7.1 Lakes and reservoirs
Clearance of shallow waters; predator control; installation and proper maintenance of
inlets, drainage outlets and spillways; fertilizing and supplementary feeding; introduction
of fish food organisms, etc.
7.2 All open waters
Protection against pollution from pesticides and domestic or industrial effluents;
maintenance of a balanced population through manipulation of stocking and harvesting;
supplementary transplantation with continued artificial recruitment where necessary;
methods of harvest, particularly in reservoirs with highly uneven bottoms (special gill
nets, seines, cast nets, long lines, traps, light fishing, electrical fishing, etc.).
8. Benefits from artificial recruitment and transplantation
 (a) Non-dependence on natural spawning areas;
(b) Increased harvest;
(c) Increased survival rate;
(d) Greater utilization of natural food;
(e) Establishment of productive fisheries in new areas, and
(f) Resuscitation of depleted stocks, etc.
9. Species currently used and indigenous species that could be profitably used in inland and
marine waters - fishes, crustaceans and molluscs

10. Economics of artificial recruitments and transplantation

SEA RANCHING FISHERIES - AN EFFECTIVE SYSTEM FOR AUGMENTATION

AND CONSERVATION OF EXPLOITED RESOURCES

Sea ranching or artificial recruitment of aquatic organisms into their natural habitat
for stock improvement or enhancing the production or for conservation of resources, though
practised intensely only in recent years, is an age old practice. It is said to have been
originated in USA as early as 1870. Ranching of red and Pacific salmons was being
carried out since 1964 in the Far East, and at the present level of ranching, it was estimated that
an additional production of 10,000 - 20,000 tonnes/year was realized . In Japan, besides abalone
and "kuruma" shrimp (Penaeus japonicus), the ranching of which started in 1975, about 45
species are ranched to supplement the natural stock.

The system of artificial recruitment has certain advantages . The exploitation of natural
population though energy saving, is dependent on biomass availability and its abundance. The
cultured population could produce the biomass for commercial requirements, but entails much
energy, feed, labour and capital investment. Artificially recruitted population, on the other hand,
permits to raise the population in the natural environment without spending much energy, feed
or labour.

The sea ranching technique involves

(1) Brood stock development.

(2) Breeding,.

(3) Larval rearing on large scale.

(4) Nursery rearing.

(5) Release of seed at suitable sites and

(6)Monitoring of the released and natural stocks to assess the impact.

Ranching is advantageously carried out in bays, lagoons, shallow water bodies and in the
protected ecosystems.

With the development of technologies of controlled breeding, seed production and

nursery rearing, the programmes of sea ranching of marine prawn, pearl oyster, and clams was
started in India in the mid-eighties . The results achieved by these programmes were reviewed in
1993 (Mar. Fish. lnfor, Serv. T & E Ser. No. 124, 1993).

Marine prawns :

Sea ranching of the green tiger prawn, PenJeus semisulcatus, which fonn the mainstay
of the prawn fishery along the southeast coast of India and optimally exploited at present, was
carried out during 1985-92 from Mandapam Camp. Hatchery produced postlarvae XV - XX of
the species at an average of 7 lakhs per annum were released into the Palk Bay during this
period . Although it has not been possible to assess the impact of the released stock on the
fishery, the experiments conducted to study the survival, growth and recruitment pattern of the
ranched stock have shown that the postlarvae released into the Pillaimadam lagoon at Mandapam
moved out into the sea after 24 hours and the juveniles ('60-110 rnm total length) tagged and
released into Palk Bay off Mandapam, were recruited to the commercial fishery within 5 to 53
days, indicating the prospects of ranching to supplement the natural stock if carried out on a
large scale.

Pearl oyster :

Following the success achieved in the large scale production of pearl oyster seed in
1981, experimental ranching of the species was started in 1985. During 1985-90,
a total of 10,25,000 spat of Pinctada fucata were released at 12 m depth at Van Thivu Arupagam
Paar, Kuricham Paar and Fernando Paar off Tuticorin. The size of the spat ranged from 0.9 to
11.3 nun. Besides spat, several billion pearl oyster larvae were also released near these Paars .
Although the effect of ranching on the survival, and in tum, enhancement of population in these
Paars could not be conclusively proved, increased number of oysters recorded per diving hour in
1990 at these Paars and relatively dense populations of oysters observed indicated that ranching
had helped to replenish the population.

Clams

Clams are ideally suitable for ranching in view of their almost sedentary nature of life
in the shallow coastal waters and filter feeding behaviour in the low food chain. With
the development of technologies of hatchery production of seed of Meretrix casta, Anadara
granosa and Paphia ma/J:Jarica, the ranching of clams was taken up in 1993. In consideration of
greater demand of meat of P. malabarica in the export trade, this was selected as a
candidate species for ranching. The backwaters at Delavapuram in Ashtamudi lake, Kerala
and Munambam near Cochin were the sites of release of seed. P. malabarica seed
produced in the shellfish hatchery of the Research Centre of CMFRI at Tuticorin were
transported and a total of 64,000 seed (12.4 rom) were ranched in February 1993 in 25 m2
area at 1 m depth.

The site was fenced with 3.0 rom mesh nelton screen. At Munambam 8,500 seed were released
in 10 m2 area at 0.5 m depth. The percentage retrieval and production of clam were 7.05% and
62.1 kg/25 m2 I 5 months and 17.64% and 14.25 kg/10 m2l4% months at Delavapuram and
Munambam respectively.

The assessment of impact of ranching for stock improvement requires production and
release of enormous quantity of seed. This necessitates adequate infrastructural facilities such as
hatcheries and associated inputs, nursery and transportation facilities, identification of suitable
release sites and facilities for continuous monitoring of the released stock. These require not only
proper funding but also the agency(ies) that would undertake these developmental programmes
in the larger interest of the fishery and the country.