Chapter 10: Elasticity and

Oscillations

•Elastic Deformations
•Hooke’s Law
•Stress and Strain
•Shear Deformations
•Volume Deformations
•Simple Harmonic Motion
•The Pendulum
•Damped Oscillations, Forced Oscillations, and Resonance

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 §10.1 Elastic Deformation of Solids

A deformation is the change in size or shape of an object.

An elastic object is one that returns to its original size and

shape after contact forces have been removed. If the forces
acting on the object are too large, the object can be
permanently distorted.

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 §10.2 Hooke’s Law

F F

Apply a force to both ends of a long wire. These forces will

stretch the wire from length L to L+∆L.

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Define:

∆L The fractional
strain = change in length
L

F Force per unit cross-

stress = sectional area
A

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Hooke’s Law (F∝x) can be written in terms of stress and
strain (stress ∝ strain).

F ∆L
=Y
A L

YA
The spring constant k is now k =
L

Y is called Young’s modulus and is a measure of an

object’s stiffness. Hooke’s Law holds for an object
to a point called the proportional limit.

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Example (text problem 10.1): A steel beam is placed
vertically in the basement of a building to keep the floor
above from sagging. The load on the beam is 5.8×104 N and
the length of the beam is 2.5 m, and the cross-sectional area
of the beam is 7.5×10-3 m2. Find the vertical compression of
the beam.
F ∆L
Force of =Y
ceiling on
A L
beam  F  L 
∆ L =   
 A Y 

Force of
floor on
For steel Y=200×109 Pa.
beam

 F   L   5.8 × 10 N  
4
2.5 m 
∆ L =     =  −3

2    = 1. 0 × 10 −4
m
 A   Y   7.5 × 10 m   200 × 10 N/m 
9 2
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Example (text problem 10.6): A 0.50 m long guitar string, of
cross- sectional area 1.0×10-6 m2, has a Young’s modulus of
2.0×109 Pa. By how much must you stretch a guitar string to
obtain a tension of 20.0 N?

F ∆L
=Y
A L
 F  L   20.0 N   0.5 m 
∆ L =    =  −6 2  2 
 A   Y   1.0 × 10 m   2.0 × 10 N/m 
9

= 5.0 × 10 − 3 m = 5.0 mm

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 §10.3 Beyond Hooke’s Law

If the stress on an object exceeds the elastic limit, then the

object will not return to its original length.

An object will fracture if the stress exceeds the breaking

point. The ratio of maximum load to the original cross-
sectional area is called tensile strength.

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The ultimate strength of a material is the maximum stress
that it can withstand before breaking.

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Example (text problem 10.10): An acrobat of mass 55 kg is
going to hang by her teeth from a steel wire and she does
not want the wire to stretch beyond its elastic limit. The
elastic limit for the wire is 2.5×108 Pa. What is the minimum
diameter the wire should have to support her?
F
Want stress = < elastic limit
A
F mg
A> =
elastic limit elastic limit
2
 D mg
π  >
 2 elastic limit
4mg
D> = 1.7 × 10 − 3 m = 1.7 mm
π ∗ elastic limit 10
§10.4 Shear and Volume
Deformations

A shear deformation
occurs when two forces
are applied on opposite
surfaces of an object.

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 Shear Force F
Shear Stress = =
Surface Area A
Define:
displacement of surfaces ∆ x
Shear Strain = =
separation of surfaces L

Hooke’s law (stress∝strain) for shear deformations is

F ∆x where S is the
= S
A L shear modulus

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Example (text problem 10.25): The upper surface of a cube of
gelatin, 5.0 cm on a side, is displaced by 0.64 cm by a
tangential force. If the shear modulus of the gelatin is 940
Pa, what is the magnitude of the tangential force?

F
F ∆x
= S
A L
F

From Hooke’s Law:

∆x
F = SA
L
( )(
= 940 N/m 0.0025 m 
2 2
)
 0.64 cm 
 = 0.30 N
 5.0 cm 
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An object completely submerged in a fluid will be squeezed
on all sides.

F
volume stress = pressure =
A

∆V
The result is a volume strain; volume strain =
V

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For a volume deformation, Hooke’s Law is (stress∝strain):

∆V
∆P= −B
V
where B is called the bulk modulus. The bulk modulus is a
measure of how easy a material is to compress.

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Example (text problem 10.24): An anchor, made of cast iron
of bulk modulus 60.0×109 Pa and a volume of 0.230 m3, is
lowered over the side of a ship to the bottom of the harbor
where the pressure is greater than sea level pressure by
1.75×106 Pa. Find the change in the volume of the anchor.

∆V
∆P= −B
V

∆V = −
V∆ P
= −
( )(
0.23 m 3 1.75 × 106 Pa )
B 60.0 × 109 Pa
= − 6.7 × 10 − 6 m 3

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Deformations summary table

Tensile or
compressive Shear Volume

Stress Force per unit Shear force divided by Pressure

cross-sectional the area of the surface
area on which it acts

Strain Fractional Ratio of the relative Fractional

change in length displacement to the change in
separation of the two volume
parallel surfaces
Constant of Young’s modulus Shear modulus (S) Bulk Modulus
proportionality (Y) (B)

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 §10.5 Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

occurs when the restoring force
(the force directed toward a stable
equilibrium point) is proportional to
the displacement from equilibrium.

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The motion of a mass on a spring is an example of SHM.

Equilibrium
position y

x
x

The restoring force is F=-kx.

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Assuming the table is frictionless:

∑ F x = − kx = ma x
k
a x ( t ) = − x( t )
m

1 1
E ( t ) = K ( t ) + U ( t ) = mv( t ) + kx( t )
2 2
Also,
2 2

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At the equilibrium point x=0 so a=0 too.
When the stretch is a maximum, a will be a maximum too.

The velocity at the end points will be zero, and it is a

maximum at the equilibrium point.
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 §10.6-7 Representing Simple
Harmonic Motion

When a mass-spring system is oriented vertically, it will

exhibit SHM with the same period and frequency as a
horizontally placed system.

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SHM
graphically

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A simple harmonic oscillator can be described mathematically
by:
x( t ) = A cos ω t
∆x
v( t ) = = − Aω sin ω t
∆t
∆v
a( t ) = = − Aω 2 cos ω t where A is the amplitude
∆t
of the motion, the
Or by: maximum displacement
from equilibrium, Aω=vmax,
x( t ) = A sin ω t and Aω2 =amax.
∆x
v( t ) = = Aω cos ω t
∆t
∆v
a( t ) = = − Aω 2 sin ω t
∆t
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 2π
The period of oscillation is T = .
ω

where ω is the angular frequency of the k

oscillations, k is the spring constant and ω =
m
m is the mass of the block.

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Example (text problem 10.28): The period of oscillation of an
object in an ideal mass-spring system is 0.50 sec and the
amplitude is 5.0 cm. What is the speed at the equilibrium
point?

At equilibrium x=0:

1 2 1 2 1 2
E = K + U = mv + kx = mv
2 2 2

Since E=constant, at equilibrium (x = 0) the

KE must be a maximum. Here v = vmax = Aω.

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Example continued:

The amplitude A is given, but ω is not.

2π 2π
ω = = = 12.6 rads/sec
T 0.50 s

and v = Aω = ( 5.0 cm )(12.6 rads/sec ) = 62.8 cm/sec

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Example (text problem 10.41): The diaphragm of a speaker
has a mass of 50.0 g and responds to a signal of 2.0 kHz by
moving back and forth with an amplitude of 1.8×10-4 m at that
frequency.

(a) What is the maximum force acting on the diaphragm?

∑ (
F = Fmax = mamax = m Aω 2
) = mA( 2π f ) 2
= 4π 2 mAf 2

The value is Fmax=1400 N.

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Example continued:

(b) What is the mechanical energy of the diaphragm?

Since mechanical energy is conserved, E = KEmax = Umax.

1 2
U max = kA The value of k is unknown so use KEmax.
2
1 2
KEmax = mvmax 1 2 1 1
= mvmax = m( Aω ) = mA2 ( 2π f )
2 2
2 KEmax
2 2 2

The value is KEmax= 0.13 J.

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Example (text problem 10.47): The displacement of an object
in SHM is given by:
y ( t ) = ( 8.00 cm ) sin[ (1.57 rads/sec) t ]

What is the frequency of the oscillations?

Comparing to y(t)= A sinωt gives A = 8.00 cm and

ω = 1.57 rads/sec. The frequency is:

ω 1.57 rads/sec
f = = = 0.250 Hz
2π 2π

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Example continued:

Other quantities can also be determined:

2π 2π
The period of the motion is T= = = 4.00 sec
ω 1.57 rads/sec

xmax = A = 8.00 cm
vmax = Aω = ( 8.00 cm )(1.57 rads/sec) = 12.6 cm/sec
= ( 8.00 cm )(1.57 rads/sec ) = 19.7 cm/sec 2
2
amax = Aω 2

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 §10.8 The Pendulum

A simple pendulum is constructed by attaching a mass to

a thin rod or a light string. We will also assume that the
amplitude of the oscillations is small.

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A simple pendulum:

θ An FBD for the

pendulum bob:
L y

m
θ
Assume θ<<1 radian
x
w

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 ∑ Fx = − mg sin θ = mat
Apply Newton’s 2nd
v2
Law to the pendulum
bob.
∑ Fy = T − mg cos θ = m
r

If we assume that θ<<1 rad, then sin θ≈ θ and cos θ≈1 then
the angular frequency of oscillations is found to be:

g
ω =
L

L
The period of oscillations is T = 2π
g
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Example (text problem 10.60): A clock has a pendulum that
performs one full swing every 1.0 sec. The object at the end
of the string weighs 10.0 N. What is the length of the
pendulum?

L
T = 2π
g

Solving for L: L = =
( )
gT 2 9.8 m/s 2 (1.0 s )
2
= 0.25 m
4π 2
4π 2

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Example (text problem 10.84): The gravitational potential
energy of a pendulum is U=mgy. Taking y=0 at the lowest
point of the swing, show that y=L(1-cosθ).

θ
Lcosθ
L L

y = L(1 − cos θ )
y=0
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A physical pendulum is any rigid object that is free to
oscillate about some fixed axis. The period of oscillation of
a physical pendulum is not necessarily the same as that of
a simple pendulum.

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 §10.9 Damped Oscillations

When dissipative forces such as friction are not negligible,

the amplitude of oscillations will decrease with time. The
oscillations are damped.

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Graphical representations of damped oscillations:

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 §10.10 Forced Oscillations and
Resonance

A force can be applied periodically to a damped oscillator (a

forced oscillation).

When the force is applied at the natural frequency of the

system, the amplitude of the oscillations will be a maximum.
This condition is called resonance.

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 Summary

•Stress and Strain

•Hooke’s Law
•Simple Harmonic Motion
•SHM Examples: Mass-Spring System, Simple Pendulum
and Physical Pendulum
•Energy Conservation Applied to SHM

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