In: Dairy Manure Management: Treatment, Handling, and Community Relations.

NRAES-176, p.63-72. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service,

Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 2005.

Anaerobic Digestion: Biology and Benefits

Ann C. Wilkie, Ph.D.

Soil and Water Science Department

P.O. Box 110960
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611-0960
Tel: 352-392-8699
Fax: 352-392-7008
E-mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION
Anaerobic digestion is an engineered methanogenic decomposition of organic matter
under oxygen-free conditions and involves a mixed consortium of different species of
anaerobic microoganisms that transform organic matter into biogas. The process is
successfully used for the treatment of municipal sludge, animal manure, industrial sludge,
and industrial and municipal wastewaters. Applications of anaerobic digestion for waste
treatment produce significant benefits beyond simple waste removal. These benefits
include both energy production and energy conservation. In addition to waste removal,
other environmental benefits result from anaerobic digestion including odor reduction,
pathogen control, minimizing sludge production, conservation of nutrients, and reduction
in greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike fossil fuels, use of renewable resources represents a
closed carbon cycle and therefore does not contribute to increases in atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide. Replacement of fossil fuels also reduces atmospheric
pollutants responsible for acid rain. Thus, anaerobic digestion is both a waste treatment

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technology, which enhances environmental quality, and a sustainable energy-producing
technology.

MICROBIOLOGY
Anaerobic digestion is a process by which a complex mixture of symbiotic
microorganisms transforms organic materials under oxygen-free conditions into biogas,
nutrients, and additional cell matter, leaving salts and refractory organic matter. Raw
biogas typically consists of methane (60%) and carbon dioxide (40%), water vapor and
trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide. As much as 90% of the biodegradable organic
fraction of a waste can be stabilized in anaerobic treatment by conversion to methane gas.

From the process engineering point of view, anaerobic digestion is relatively simple.
Since the process uses a mixed culture of ubiquitous organisms, no sterilization steps
are required and product separation is unnecessary as the biogas separates itself from the
aqueous phase. Indeed, since the methane produced is relatively insoluble, it does not
accumulate to inhibitory concentrations in the fermentation mixture. However, the
biochemical processes involved in anaerobic digestion are very complex.

An early scheme for the anaerobic digestion process divides the process into two
phases, an acidification or acid phase and a methanogenic or methane phase, as
depicted in Figure 1. This simple scheme shows the principal components of complex
organic matter, which are amenable to conversion, as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.

Complex Intermediate
Organic Matter Volatile Acids Methane
carbohydrates acetate +
proteins Acidification propionate Methanogenesis CO2
lipids higher acids

Figure 1. Simplified scheme for anaerobic digestion of organic matter

The multiphase nature of the process was subsequently revealed by the discovery of
hydrogen-producing acetogenic bacteria and by a better appreciation of the limited
substrate capabilities of methanogens (Fig. 2). Thus, anaerobic digestion consists of a
series of reactions which are catalyzed by a mixed group of bacteria and through which
organic matter is converted in a stepwise fashion to methane and carbon dioxide.
Polymers are hydrolyzed to oligomers or monomers, which are then metabolized by

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fermentative bacteria with the production of hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
volatile organic acids such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate. The volatile organic
acids other than acetate are converted to methanogenic precursors (H2, CO2, and acetate)
by the syntrophic acetogens. Finally, the methanogenic bacteria produce methane (CH4)
from acetate or from H2 and CO2. Stable digester operation requires that these bacterial
groups be in dynamic equilibrium, as some of the intermediate metabolites (hydrogen,
propionate, ammonia, sulfide) can be inhibitory and the pH of the system must remain
near neutral. Maintenance of low hydrogen partial pressure, which is primarily
dependent upon the activity of the hydrogen-utilizing methanogens, regulates the
degradation of propionate and butyrate. The acetate-utilizing methanogens regulate the
pH by conversion of acetic acid to methane and CO2.

Complex Organic Carbon

Hydrolysis
Complex Organic Carbon
Monomers & Oligomers
Hydrolysis
Acidogenesis
Monomers & Oligomers
Organic AcidsAcidogenesis

Organic AcidsAcetogenesis
Acetate H2 / CO
Acetogenesis
2

Methanogenesis
Acetate H2 / CO 2

CH4 Methanogenesis

CH4
Figure 2. Multiphase nature of anaerobic digestion

Almost all known methanogens convert H2/CO2 to methane, whilst aceticlastic

methanogenesis has been documented for only two methanogenic genera
Methanosarcina and Methanosaeta. For aceticlastic methanogens, low levels of acetate
(< 50 mg/l) favor the growth of more filamentous organisms (e.g. Methanosaeta) that
must rely on a larger surface-to-volume ratio in order to improve substrate diffusion rates.
High levels of acetate favor the predominance of clusters of aceticlastic methanogens
(e.g. Methanosarcina) with lower surface-to-volume ratios that serve to protect them
from the inhibitory nature of high organic acid concentrations. Differences in maximum
growth rate and substrate utilization affinities can be exploited to select for predominant

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methanogens. Organisms such as Methanosarcina should be favored for selection if high
conversion rates of high-strength wastes are the primary goal, while Methanosaeta should
be favored if low effluent BOD is more important. In addition, these attributes can be
exploited together by staging an anaerobic process with the first stage favoring high
conversion rates and the next stage favoring effluent quality.

Anaerobic digestion occurs naturally in anaerobic environments such as sediments,

soils, and animal intestinal tracts. Biological methanogenesis has been reported at
temperatures ranging from 2 C (in marine sediments) to over 100 oC (in geothermal
o

areas). Most anaerobic digestion applications have been performed under either ambient
(15-25 oC), mesophilic (30-40 oC), or thermophilic (50-60 oC) temperatures. Digesters
with lower temperatures are more stable and require less process energy, but require
larger volumes. Typically, most digesters are operated at mesophilic temperatures.

BENEFITS

Energy
The production of biogas from waste materials for use as a fuel energy source
qualifies anaerobic digestion as a sustainable technology for renewable energy
generation. However, energy production through anaerobic digestion alone may not
always prove economically viable in a climate of low energy costs. Yet, applications of
anaerobic digestion may produce significant energy savings and the benefits of energy
conservation may also have significant economic value. The overall economic balance
should include cost comparisons with alternative aerobic treatment systems.

Energy Production

The application of anaerobic digestion to the recovery of energy from wastes may
produce significant amounts of renewable biogas fuel. In practice, depending on the
proposed use, the biogas may be scrubbed to remove water vapor and hydrogen sulfide.
For every 1 kg of COD of a waste that is converted by anaerobic digestion, 0.35 m3 of
CH4 (dry gas at 0 oC and 1 atm) is produced. This means that around 12 x 106 BTU can
result from conversion of every 1000 kg of COD contained in waste materials that is
biodegradable. For solid wastes, concentrated manures, and high-strength wastewaters,
this level of biogas production is significantly more than the energy requirements of the
process.

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Energy Conservation

Energy conservation can be achieved by the application of anaerobic digestion instead

of conventional aerobic processes. In order to supply oxygen for aerobic treatment,
energy is consumed to compress air for aeration of wastewater or to turn and mix solid
waste for aerobic composting. In aerobic wastewater treatment, 500-2000 kW-hr of
electricity is consumed in order to supply oxygen demand for every 1000 kg COD. The
application of anaerobic digestion for wastewater treatment can conserve this same
amount of energy for every 1000 kg of COD in the wastewater that the process reduces.
The energy savings from avoiding aeration for COD reduction can exceed the energy
contained in the biogas produced. These energy savings can reduce electric utility
demand and allow this power to be applied elsewhere in productive industrial or
residential sectors.

It is possible for the application of anaerobic digestion to effect additional energy

conservation as a consequence of the inherent nutrient conservation aspect of the process.
Where treated effluents from anaerobic digestion can be applied to productive agricultural
lands, the plants benefit from the presence of important plant nutrients including nitrogen
and phosphorous, which are retained in the treated effluent. Since sludge production in
anaerobic digestion is minimal, virtually all of the nitrogen and phosphorous contained in
the original waste is present in the treated effluent. The production of nitrogen fertilizer
from atmospheric N2 requires energy input to fix this nitrogen into ammonia and
nitrate. Up to 100 ft3 of CH4 can be consumed for every lb of N in the fertilizer produced.
Likewise, the mining and processing of phosphate minerals into phosphate fertilizers
consumes energy. The use of anaerobic digestion for waste treatment along with the
application of treated wastes to agricultural lands at appropriate rates for nutrient uptake,
therefore, conserves energy through displacing energy-consuming synthetic fertilizer
production.

Environmental Quality
The application of anaerobic digestion should be considered for the environmental
benefits of the process, in addition to its potential for energy production from waste.
There are many potential environmental benefits that can be realized from the application
of anaerobic digestion. First, anaerobic digestion reduces the organic content of the
waste, which results in a decrease in the COD strength of the wastewater as well as a
volume reduction for solid waste materials. This reduction of waste organic content

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occurs without producing large quantities of by-product sludge requiring further
treatment, while preserving the fertilizer value of the wastewater. Organic waste of all
sorts can become a nuisance when it becomes a source for odor. Anaerobic digestion
removes and contains the biodegradable components of waste, which produce odorous
compounds. The application of anaerobic digestion can also reduce the pathogen
populations in the waste, which can enhance public health in the location of final waste
disposition. Finally, the application of anaerobic digestion can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, which are a cause for potential global warming.

Waste Treatment

As a consequence of the production of methane in biogas, organic matter in waste is

reduced and waste is stabilized. While aerobic waste treatment also reduces the organic
content of waste, the aerobic process is limited by the supply, the solubility, and the
utilization rate of oxygen, which is required for aerobic organic matter reduction. This
oxygen limitation also limits the microbial density that can be applied in aerobic
treatment. Anaerobic digestion does not require oxygen and is not limited by these
factors. This means that, on a treatment volume basis, the organic loading rate which can
be applied to anaerobic treatment systems can be 5 to 10 times higher than for aerobic
processes treating the same waste. Higher process loading rates translate into lower
physical space requirements for the treatment facility. The application of anaerobic
digestion, therefore, can result in less land area required for treatment, which in turn
increases the land available for other uses.

The application of anaerobic digestion also has the environmental benefit of very low
excess sludge production. Sludge produced from waste treatment requires further
processing and disposal. In aerobic treatment, up to 50% of the organic matter removed
from the waste may be converted to microbial sludge which results in a process that
effectively only transforms waste from one form (soluble matter) into another (sludge).
In contrast, less than 10% of the organic matter removed from an organic waste is
transformed into microbial cells using anaerobic digestion. This low sludge yield also
reduces the nutrient requirements for biological treatment. In addition, while the slow
growth rates of anaerobic organisms limit sludge production, the sludge can remain stable
and biologically active for long periods. Periodic operation of anaerobic digestion
processes for wastes that are produced on a seasonal basis (e.g. canning and food
processing) benefits from the stability of anaerobic microbial sludge.

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Odor Reduction

Anaerobic digestion treatment was developed originally because of its ability to

control and eliminate the malodors associated with domestic sludges. Generally, the final
products of microbial degradation of carbonaceous material in an anaerobic ecosystem
are methane and carbon dioxide, which are both odorless. However, when wastes are
stored, the rate of methane production is not fast enough to prevent the accumulation of
volatile organic compounds (phenols, indoles and volatile fatty acids). In other words,
the acid-forming and methanogenic steps in the microbial degradation of stored organic
matter are unbalanced. This imbalance between the processes of acid fermentation and
methane production is the key to understanding the accumulation of volatile malodorous
products. Under balanced conditions, the VOCs are converted to methane and carbon
dioxide.

In many storage systems for organic wastes, therefore, an unbalanced fermentation is

created and objectionable odors result from the accumulation of volatile malodorous
intermediates. However, in an anaerobic digestion system designed and operated for
methane production, the two phases of acid fermentation and methane production are
kept in balance and odorants are degraded.

While the intermediate compounds of anaerobic metabolism are a potential source for
odor, proper operation of an anaerobic treatment facility reduces these compounds and
contains all the gases emitted from the process. The final waste has a lower odor
threshold and, on proper combustion, the biogas emissions produce no odor. Although
the biogas may be odorous due to traces of hydrogen sulfide, the gas is usually enclosed
until it is burned or treated for hydrogen sulfide removal prior to use. High treatment
efficiency has been shown to correlate with biological stabilization and permanent odor
reduction, whereas failure to remove all fermentable substrates may lead to odor
regeneration upon storage of treated waste.

Table 1 compares the impacts of storage and treatment by anaerobic digestion on the
threshold odor number (TON) of flushed dairy manure. After 3 days of storage, the odor
level of this waste increases by 77% while, after anaerobic treatment, the odor level
decreases by 97%.

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 Table 1. Change in threshold odor number (TON) for flushed dairy manure
after 3-day storage and after anaerobic treatment

Threshold
Sample Odor % Change
Number in TON
(TON)*
Flushed dairy manure 247 0
Flushed dairy manure after 3-day storage 437 +77%
Flushed dairy manure after anaerobic digestion 7 -97%
*TON represents the number of dilutions required for a human odor panel to no longer detect odor.

Pathogen Reduction

In addition to the potential of organic wastes to pollute drinking water supplies and
surface water resources, both nuisance odors and pathogens can result from organic
wastes, especially municipal sludge and animal waste. The ecological conditions within
an anaerobic digester effectively lower levels of pathogens. Starvation and competition
with other microorganisms lead to pathogen decimation. Also, the presence of organic
acids in anaerobic treatment can serve to inhibit the growth of pathogens and, when
thermophilic anaerobic digestion is employed, the high temperatures contribute to greatly
reduce pathogen levels. In practice, the level of reduction of pathogens is dependent on
both the exposure time and the temperature of the digester. As with odor reduction, high
treatment efficiency has been shown to correlate with significant pathogen reduction.
Where recycling of wastewater is employed in intensive animal production facilities, the
impact of anaerobic digestion-associated pathogen reduction on animal health is positive.
Also, by its very nature, the process is totally enclosed and does not produce bacterial
aerosols.

Nutrient Recovery

Since anaerobic digestion removes mainly carbon, nutrients contained in the organic
matter are conserved and mineralized to more soluble and biologically available forms.
This provides a more predictable, quick-release organic fertilizer that can be applied to
cropland at appropriate rates for maximum plant nutrient uptake with minimal loss to the
environment. However, with a higher percentage of the nitrogen content now in the form
of soluble ammonium salts, the rate of ammonia emissions during subsequent storage
may be higher. This can be overcome by application of an impermeable cover to the

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storage facility. Where insufficient cropland is available, other nutrient recovery
technologies can be employed to reduce the nutrient content of the digested wastewater.

Greenhouse Gas Reduction

The application of anaerobic digestion has the environmental benefit of reducing the
potential for global warming. Both CH4 and CO2 are significant greenhouse gases and
their presence in the upper atmosphere decreases irradiative heat losses from the earths
surface, effectively trapping heat, which may result in a warming of the planet and cause
severe climatic changes. Anaerobic digestion can reduce the potential for global warming
in two ways.

First, if anaerobic digestion is employed to produce a renewable fuel which is then

used to replace the consumption of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas,
production of the CO2 emitted from burning the fossil fuels is avoided. The CO2 emitted
from burning the biogas comes from the carbon in the organic waste, which ultimately
came from the atmosphere, and is part of a closed carbon cycle and, therefore, does not
contribute to increasing atmospheric CO2 levels.

The second way in which anaerobic digestion can reduce potential global warming is
by reducing CH4 emissions. Untreated organic waste will undergo uncontrolled
anaerobic digestion and methane from these wastes can increase atmospheric methane
concentrations. By applying anaerobic digestion to these wastes and capturing and
utilizing the biogas, emission of methane to the atmosphere and the greenhouse effects of
this methane are avoided.

CONCLUSION
Anaerobic digestion under controlled conditions offers a holistic waste treatment
solution that not only stabilizes the wastewater, but also is a net energy producer, controls
odors, reduces pathogens, minimizes environmental impact from waste emissions, and
maximizes resource recovery. The technology is tolerant to a variety of feedstocks and
co-digestion of different organic wastes is also possible. The size of anaerobic digesters
can be scaled to match the application and centralized anaerobic digestion plants, treating
a combination of organic wastes, can be utilized to achieve economies of scale.

Many of the benefits of anaerobic digestion translate directly to practical and

economic benefits that contribute to long-term sustainability. In addition to potential

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energy cost savings from biogas utilization, anaerobic digestion contributes generally to
improved waste management. Anaerobic digestion not only removes malodors but also
stabilizes the waste, allowing indefinite storage without putrefaction. Anaerobic digestion
of organic municipal waste lowers the requirements for landfill capacity and reduces
associated emissions. At the farm level, anaerobic digestion stabilizes manures
(permanent odor reduction), allowing them to be stored more easily and for longer
periods. Handling costs are also reduced because the digested effluent is easier to pump
than raw animal manures. When correctly applied, the by-products of anaerobic
digestion (liquid fertilizer and compost) reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and soil
conditioners that are produced using less sustainable methods, providing cost savings as
well as environmental benefits. After anaerobic digestion, the nutrient content of the
wastewater is more predictable, allowing it to be more precisely applied within a fertilizer
management program and reducing wastage. Anaerobic digestion systems, therefore,
provide significant benefits to aid in meeting the increasing environmental regulations
and public pressures on farmers and others regarding organic waste handling and
disposal.

REFERENCES

Anaerobic Digestion of Farm and Food Processing Residues: Good Practice Guidelines.
British Biogen, Thornton Heath, Surrey, UK.
http://www.britishbiogen.co.uk/gpg/adgpg/adgpg.pdf

Speece, R.E. (1996). Anaerobic Biotechnology for Industrial Wastewaters. Archae Press,
Nashville, Tennessee.

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