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Module 13
Aircraft aerodynamics, structures and
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systems
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Table of contents

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13.01 Theory of flight
13.02 Structure

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13.03 Autoflight
13.04 Communication and navigation

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13.05 Electrical power
13.06 Equipment and furnishings
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13.07 Flight controls
13.08 Instrument systems
13.09 Lights
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13.10 On board maintenance systems

13.11 Air conditioning and cabin pressurization
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Table of contents

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13.12 Fire protection
13.13 Fuel system

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13.14 Hydraulic power
13.15 Ice and rain protectiion

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13.16 Landing gear
13.17 Oxygen AC
13.18 Pneumativ and vacuum
13.19 Water and waste
13.20 Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA)
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13.21 Cabin systems

13.22 Information system
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Chapter 13,1
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THEORY OF FLIGHT
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Aircraft movements and flight controls

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Ailerons

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The primary control surfaces on the longitudinal axis are the

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ailerons. They are moved by the lateral displacement of the control
stick. Ailerons act in opposite directions while one aileron goes up,

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the other aileron goes down.
If the pilot turns the control bar to the right, the right aileron moves
up, while the left aileron moves down. In this way the ailerons
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change the camber of the wings, creating a variation of the
produced lift
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Ailerons

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AC
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Stabilizer / elevator

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Stabilizer: stabilize the airplane attitude

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Elevator: balance the airplane nose up/down habit

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Vertical tailplane

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Fin: fixed surface, provides directional stability to the airplane

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around the yaw axis
Rudder: mobile surface, provides the yaw movement (ie. If the pilot

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push the left pedal the aircraft perform a yaw to the right)
Yaw is the primary effect of rudder deflection.

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When a rotation is imposed, one wing speeds up while the other
slows down. The change in speed causes a change also in the lift on
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the two wings generating a roll movement (secondary effect) called
yaw roll coupling.
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High lift devices:slot, slat and flaps

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High lift devices are movable mechanism connected to the wings of

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many aircraft. The high lift devices are mainly used during the take-
off and the landing, to decrease the aircraft stalling speed.

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The flaps modify the air circulation around the airfoil, while the slats
create the slot.
The slot has the function to reinforce the boundary layer on the
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wing upper camber.
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Drag inducing devices: spoilers, lift dampers, speed brakes

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The spoilers are adjustable surfaces, hinged on the upper part of the
wing, that have the task to interrupt the flow producing the lift.

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On many aircraft, spoilers have three functions, but they always
decrease lift and increase drag

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The main type of spoilers is the ground spoiler. The ground spoilers
dump the lift when the aircraft is on ground during the landing
phase
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Mach number and critical Mach number

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The flight speed is often expressed as Mach number.

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The Mach number (M) is defined as the ratio of the speed of a body
(V) to the speed of sound (c) in that air mass

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It is important to underline that the Mach number is a
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dimensionless parameter.
The speed of sound is influenced only by the temperature and so by
the flight altitude
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Swept-wing

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On swept-wing aircraft, the wing section will be characterized by a

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smaller ratio between thickness and chord

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Variable geometry wings

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Variable geometry wings, have the possibility to change their

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swept, during the mission, according to their flight speed.

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In this way, the aircraft can maintain stretched wings at low speeds,
with a small swept angle, then to move them towards the fuselage,
increasing the swept angle, at transonic and supersonic flight
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regimes
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Superstall

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It is important to underline that the aircraft isnt leaded to the

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superstall attitude by incorrect actions on flight controls, but it
reaches this condition by itself, further to aero-dynamics

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phenomena that happens.
The tendency of a swept wing to present the superstall can be
reduced by particular devices, such as the vortex generators, that
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are installed on the wing area.
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The helicopter: Theory of flight

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A conventional helicopter is equipped with two rotors having different

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specific purposes.
The first rotor at vertical axis is the main one and has a big diameter,

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this rotor provides the sustentation and permits the translated flight.
The tail rotor at horizontal axis is the second one and has a smaller
diameter, this rotor allows to equilibrate the reaction torque of the
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main rotor and to directionally control the helicopter.
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The helicopter: Theory of flight

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The rotors are made of a shaft, a hub and some blades connected to it.

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The hub is the central part and is generally composed of some ball
bearings to permit the rotation of the element assembled on it. The

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hub is installed on the shaft.

The shaft is the element that transmits the rotational motion. It can
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freely spin or be actuated by an engine.
One or more blades are attached on the hub: they are the lift surfaces
of the helicopter
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The helicopter: Theory of flight

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The helicopter: Theory of flight

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Rotors can be generally divided into 3 principal categories, according to
the number of hinges

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in the hub:
Rigid rotors have only one hinge, which permits the rotation of the

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blade around its longitudinal axis. This hinge is called pitch hinge.
When it turns the blade around this pitch hinge, the angle of attack
of airfoil along the same blade varies, increasing or decreasing in
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relation with the imposed rotation.
Semi-rigid rotors have two hinges: the pitch hinge and the flapping
hinge. The flapping hinge permits the blade rotation in the vertical
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plane.
In articulated rotors 3 types of hinges are present: the pitch hinge,
the flapping hinge and the lead-lag hinge (or drag hinge). The drag
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hinge permits the blade movement in the plane of rotor rotation.

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The helicopter: autorotation

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Autorotation is the descent of the helicopter with the power off. Air

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flowing upwards through the main rotor blades causes them to
rotate in their normal direction.

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Pilot will control helicopter's rather fast rate of descent and use
blade's stored up kinetic energy to, just before touch-down, apply
collective and flare out to a gentle touchdown
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The helicopter: vortex ring state

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The vortex ring state (VRS), also known as settling with power, is a
hazardous condition for a helicopter in flight.

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This occurs when the helicopter is descending with a rate of descent
equal to the value of the speed induced by the rotor

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To come out by the vortex ring state, it is necessary to move the
helicopter in straight flight, and to reduce the collective pitch
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Chapter 13,2

STRUCTURE GENERAL CONCEPTS

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Foundamentals of structural systems

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The design concepts, used to project and to construct aircraft

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structures and components, can be classified in three categories:
1. The fail safe concept

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2. The safe life concept
3. The damage tolerance concept
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Fail safe concept
The fail safe criterion sets that the structure shall be able to have a
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certain residual strength, even if the failure of a component

happens.
If an element is damaged other structural members must support
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the load of the failed component

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Landing gears of airplanes and helicopters

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The landing gear of an airplane is made of a series of components,

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the element that absorbs the energy during the tuch down is the
shock absorber.

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The landing gear of airplanes and helicopters has the scope to
support the weight of the structure, when the aircraft isnt in flight,
but it is on ground.
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The choice about the typology of landing gear, which must be
installed on airplanes and helicopters, is function of the type and of
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the main employ of the machine.

Regarding the landing gears with wheels, the most basic

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configuration is the tricycle landing gear:

fore try-cycle (the most common) and rear try-cycle
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Landing gears of airplanes and helicopters

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The landing gear of an airplane is made of a series of components:

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The shock absorber
The brake

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The wheel
The tire
The torque link (is a typical element of landing gear with wheels)
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Some possible devices of extraction and retraction
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Landing gears of airplanes and helicopters

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Fundamentals of structural systems: regulations

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Airworthiness

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The airworthiness certifies the ability of an aircraft to fly. Airworthiness
refers to the status of an aircraft, which is congruent with the approved

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standards, modified according to specifications approved by the
authority or which is in accordance with the mandatory maintenance
and has no inadequate parts installed. All these conditions are
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mandatory.
The certificate of airworthiness attests that, in a specific moment, the
aircraft has been checked and declared able to fly by an assigned
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subject. An aircraft with an expired certificate must not fly.

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Zonal and station identification systems

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In the frame location system the main manufacturers reference

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system includes 3 principal coordinates:
1. Station line: reference point near the aircraft nose

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2. Buttock line or butt line: reference point on the longitudinal axis
3. Water line: reference line near the lower part of the fuselage
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Electrical bonding

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The bonding is the electrical connection of two or more conducting

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objects.
The main aim of the bonding is that to eliminate the potential

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differences among different points of the structure, making it at the
same potential
Moreover, all electrical systems, present on board of an aircraft,
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must be adequately ground connected, with the aims:
1. To protect aircraft and personnel from hazards of lighting discharge
2. To protect personnel from shock hazards
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3. To prevent the development of potential radio interferences

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Chapter 13,3

AUTOFLIGHT
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Flight Director and FCC

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A fundamental component of the autopilot system is the Flight

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Director (FD), which is generally connected to the Flight Control
Computer (FCC).

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The FCC has the function to examine the aircraft position and the
aircraft orientation.
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AHRS and CDU

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The Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) is made of a series

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of 3-axis sensors that provide information about the heading, the
attitude and the yaw of the aircraft, measuring the attitude, the

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angular and linear movements
A modern AHRS is a strap-down system that exploits solid state
gyros and accelerometers. A strap down system is a system in which
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the sensors are in agreement with the aircraft axes without the
presence of hinges
Other input data to the autopilot system can be inserted in a
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manual way directly by the pilot, through the Control Display Unit
(CDU).
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PCU

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The primary flight controls are operated through Power Control

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Unit (PCU), utilizing the hydraulic power to activate the electro-
hydraulic actuators. It is possible to design these units so that they

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respond to signals of the AFCS.

The PCU includes an external input link and an internal control valve
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(called servo-valve) which directs hydraulic pressure to drive the
actuator. The mechanical input is sent to the PCU from the pilot
control through rods and cables, and, in modern installation,
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through the Fly-By-Wire (FBW) system electrical signals. The input

link positions the control valve which directs pressure to the main
piston to give the powered output.
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AFCS classification

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A system is called fail-passive (or fail-soft), when it is able to

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withstand a malfunctioning, without endangering passenger safety
and without producing excessive deviations from the flight path.

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A system is called fail-active (or fail-operational), if its
malfunctioning doesnt reduce the total functionality of the system.
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In a fail-active system a failure can occur, but it leaves the entire
system still working, without degrading its performances.
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Roll channel, pitch channel and yaw channel

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Roll channel

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The roll channel, connected to ailerons of the aircraft, controls the
movement around the longitudinal axis

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Pitch channel

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The pitch channel, connected to elevator of the aircraft, controls
the movement around the lateral axis, analyzing the commands
that are generated by the FCC (Flight Control Computer) and that
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determines when and how the elevator will be moved

Yaw channel
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The yaw channel, connected to rudder of the aircraft, controls the

movement around the vertical axis.
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The yaw channel, connected to the rudder, receives two signals that
determine when and how much the rudder will be moved. Autopilot
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Auto throttle systems

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The auto throttle system is an electronic circuit that controls the

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engine thrust within engine design parameters
The auto throttle system is independent to the autopilot system,

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but it is typically coupled with it
Basically, the auto throttle system mainly controls the RPM (Rate
Per Minute), the fuel consumption of the engine, and the EPR
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(Engine Pressure Ratio).
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Thrust mode speed mode

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In the THRUST mode, the engine is maintained at a fixed power

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setting according to the different flight phases. For example, during
the take-off, the auto throttle maintains a constant take-off power

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until take-off phase is finished

In the SPEED mode the throttle is positioned in order to reach a set

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speed. This mode controls aircraft speed within safe operating
margins. For example, if the pilot selects a speed which is slower
than stalling speed, or a speed faster than maximum speed, the
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auto throttle will maintain a speed closest to the set speed that is
within the safe range of speeds
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Automatic landing systems

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The modern autopilot systems are also able to manage fully the

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landing procedure, in completely automatic way. To do this, they
utilize the signals of the Instrument Landing System (ILS).

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In the case in which the system isnt able to couple the ILS signal,
the pilot will see the warning Autoland fault.
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If the auto-land system notices some data inconsistencies, an
indicator will signal to pilot the writing Approach only, informing
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him about the impossibility to do the auto-land.

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Helicopter autopilot

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The autopilot systems for the helicopters are different from those

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of the airplanes, because the commands, that permit the flight
conduct, are different

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According to the number of commands, which the system is able to
control and to manage, it can have:
Tri-channel systems, with 3 control channels (channel of lateral cyclic,
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channel of longitudinal cyclic and channel of the rudder bar)
Quadri-channel systems, with 4 control channels (channel of lateral
cyclic, channel of longitudinal cyclic, channel of the rudder bar and
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collective pitch channel).

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SAS

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The Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs) can operate in coupling

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with the Flight Director system.

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The SASs increase the stability and the maneuverability of the
helicopter in presence of wind and turbolence and maintain
constant the helicopter attitude.
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The stabilization is obtained through some electro-mechanical
actuators, positioned in series of the cyclic pitch and the control of
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the tail rotor

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Chapter 13,4

COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION

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Comunication and navigation frequencies

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Antennas

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The main characteristics of an antenna are:

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1. The directivity
2. The gain

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3. The polarization
4. The opening and the polarization diagram
5. The efficiency
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6. The characteristic impedance
7. The length of the antenna.
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Antennas

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The directivity of an aerial is the capacity of an antenna to irradiate

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or to pick up signals in a specific direction. The directivity of an
aerial, in a particular direction, is defined as the ratio between the

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intensity of the radiation, sent in this direction, and the total power,
irradiated in all directions
The gain of an antenna provides information about the capacity of
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transmission and receipt of the analyzed antenna, comparing it
with an omni-directional aerial. The gain is expressed in dB (is a
logarithmic scale)
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The efficiency of an antenna is defined as the ratio between the

irradiated power and the input power accepted by the feeding cable
of the antenna
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Radome

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The radome is a structure used to protect the antennas from the

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atmospheric phenomena, such as the wind, the rain, the ice, etc.

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AC
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Fundamentals of transmission lines

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The transmission line is a circuit that permits the energy transfer

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between the generator and the antenna.

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There are many different types of transmission lines:
Bifilar
Coaxial
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Modulation

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The most common types of modulation, used in the aeronautical field, are:

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AM (Amplitude Modulation)
FM (Frequency Modulation)

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Pulse modulation

The AM modulates the amplitude of the carrier wave, in a proportional

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way to the amplitude of the modulating signal. The frequency of the
carrier wave is the same of that of the modulated signal.
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The FM modulates the frequency of the carrier wave, in a proportional way

to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
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The main types of pulse modulation are PAM, PWM and PCM.
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Modulation

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AC
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HF communication system

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In the aeronautical field, the HF communications between 3 to 30

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MHz are used for long range communications, such as the oceanic
communications

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This radio can operate in 3 different modes, selectable through a
specific knob: AM, USB, e LSB
AC
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NDB and ADF

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The ADF receiver receives and processes the signal from the

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selected radio station (NDB)
The ADF measures the angle between the longitudinal axis of the

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aircraft and the line that connects the aircraft and the NDB station.
This angle is called relative bearing
The transmission of waves is subjected to the variation of the
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height of the ionosphere
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DME

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The DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) is a navigational radio-

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aid that provides the aircraft slant distance from a ground station.
DME operate from 960 Mhz to 1215 Mhz.

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The DME is based on the direct wave propagation. The maximum
real range of the DME is about 200-300 NM. The accuracy of the
DME decreases with increase of range
AC
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DME

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The display indicates the distance between the aircraft and the

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station, measured by the system, the time necessary to cover this
distance, and the detected speed of the aircraft.

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The cockpit instrument shows the distance, travelled by the
emitted signal, and so it is the slant distance between the aircraft
and the station
AC
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ILS

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The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is the primary precision

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approach facility for the civil aviation
ILS system comprises three different elements

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1. A localizer: provides lateral steering signals for front course
approaches to the runway
2. A glide slope: provides vertical steering signals for landing in one
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direction on the runway
3. Two or three radio markers beacons with a vertical transmission,
called outer, inner and middle markers: provide spot checks of
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position at predetermined distances from the threshold of the

runway.
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ILS Glide slope

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The glide slope receiver is essentially a UHF receiver in the frequency
band 328.6 to 335.4 MHz with 150 kHz spacing between channels.

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ES
The signal of the glide slope is composed by two signals:
One signal modulated at 90 Hz
One signal modulated at 150 Hz.
AC
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ILS Localizer

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The localizer and the glide slope signals can be divided into two
ideal lobes, one modulated at 150 Hz and the other modulated at 90

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Hz. The course signal is obtained when two signals are received with
equal intensity. The 150 Hz modulated signal prevails on one side of
the runway centerline (blue area), while the 90 Hz modulated signal

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prevails on the other side (yellow area).
AC
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ILS cockpit indicator

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The operational frequency
of the system is selected

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through the same selector
that is used for the VOR.

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When it tunes the localizer
frequency, the system
AC automatically sets the
corresponding glide slope
frequency.
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ILS: critical and sensitive areas

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The ILS critical area is an area of defined dimensions, identified

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around the localizer and the glide slope antennas, where vehicles,
including aircraft, are excluded during the operation of the system.

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This area protects the functioning of the ILS from unacceptable
disturbances caused by the presence of vehicle and aircraft.

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Instead, the ILS sensitive area extends beyond the critical one. In
this sector the movements or the parking of aircraft are controlled,
in order to prevent that they interfere with the system operation.
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Marker beacons

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The purpose of the markers is to provide distance information,

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while the aircraft is doing the approach procedure.
All markers emits a signal at the operative frequency of 75 Mhz. The

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signals of the each marker differ each other due to the different
modulation
AC
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Hyperbolic system

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The hyperbolic systems of radio-navigation are all navigational
systems that use the geometric proprieties of the hyperbole in

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order to calculate the aircraft position
In order to guarantee a correct calculation of the aircraft position,

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the main characteristic of all hyperbolic navigational system is the
synchronization of the different ground station.
AC
The main hyperbolic navigation systems are:
1. The Loran
2. The Omega
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3. The Decca.
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Loran

S
IS
Loran C

W
The functioning of the LORAN system is based on a series of chains
of ground stations that emit a signal which is then processed by the

ES
airborne equipment of aircraft

The LORAN uses 27 chains of stations. Each chain is made of a main

AC
station, called master, and of a variable number of secondary
stations, called slave. The minimum number of the slave for each
chain is two, while the maximum number is four.
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Decca

S
IS
The Decca was a hyperbolic radio-navigational system, initially used

W
in the Northern Europe during the Second World War. This system
transmitted continuous radio waves at low frequencies (LF).

ES
In order to determine the aircraft position, the Decca used a
comparison of the received signals phases, similarly to the OMEGA
AC
system
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Doppler effect

S
IS
The Doppler effects is an apparent variation of the frequency of the
radio waves, due to the relative motion of the source of the waves

W
in relation to an observer
Apparent increase in frequency: when the transmitter moves

ES
towards the receiver
Apparent decrease in frequency: when the transmitter moves away
from the receiver
AC
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FMS

S
IS
The main task of the FMS is that to assist the pilot in the flight
management, doing, in an automatic and optimal way, many activities,

W
which otherwise he must do manually:

ES
To integrate and to manage the information provided by all used
navigational systems in all flight phases
AC
To calculate in real time the aircraft performances, in terms of ground
speed, fuel consumption, endurance. So it permits to reduce the
operative costs of the flight mission
TR

To manage in an interactive way the flight plan, according to the

information provided by the airborne systems and ATC
To manage the autopilot system, in coupling with the data of the
O

flight plan, in order to follow the calculated and planned route in a fully
automatic way
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GPS

S
IS
The GPS (Global Positioning System) is a global navigational
satellite system, which provides the aircraft position in every point

W
of the Earth
The dialogue between the satellites and the ground stations

ES
happens on 2 UHF frequencies:
1. The 2227.5 MHz, used to send the signals from ground towards
satellites AC
2. The 1783.74 MHz, used to receive in the stations the signals
transmitted by the satellites
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LAAS

S
IS
The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is an augmentation

W
system of the GPS, based on real-time differential correction of the
GPS signal

ES
The information provided by the LAAS system is used during the
approach and landing phases, because the precision reached by the
LAAS systems is about 1 m.
AC
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GNSS

S
IS
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a project in via of

W
realization that should join the operation of all the navigation
satellite systems, such as the American system (GPS), the Russian

ES
GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System), and the European
system (Galileo), in order to permit the true global navigation.

AC
This big system should permit the navigation in any point of the
Earth, and in any flight phase, through a unique system
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PSR

S
IS
The Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) is the first instrument for the

W
exercise of the Air Traffic Control (ATC).
The PSR operates receiving the signal reflected by the aircraft.

ES
The PSR has the advantage to detect and to determine the position
of every not cooperative target that reflects the radio signals.
The PSR isnt able to identify any aircraft.
AC
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SSR

S
IS
The Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is the main instrument for

W
the exercise of the Air Traffic Control (ATC).
Unlike the PSR, the SSR requests the active collaboration of the

ES
aircraft, which must receive the signal and respond with another
one.
The SSR interrogations are sent in the form of a group of 3 pulses,
AC
called P1, P2 and P3. The spacing between the P1 and P2 is constant
and it measures 2 microseconds.
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SSR and transponder

S
IS
The transponder emits 3 pulses: P1; P2; P3

W
The spacing between P1 and P2 is 2 micro seconds.
The spacing between P1 and P3 pulses, transmitted by the radar

ES
antenna, is set at a value of response of the transponder:
1. The mode A with a spacing of 8 microseconds
2. The mode C with a spacing of 21 microseconds
AC
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TCAS

S
IS
The TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) is a system that
operates in connection with a normal transponder, informing the

W
flight crew about the presence of other aircraft in the surrounding
airspace only if it is equipped with a transponder, and regarding
time and distance of possible collision

ES
The TCAS transceiver of an aircraft periodically interrogates the
transponder of the other aircraft, in order to identify the presence
of the airplane and to recognize the characteristics. This aircraft, in
AC
situation of possible collision, is called intruder.
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TCAS

S
IS
In case of possible collision, the TCAS emits two different signals:

W
1. The TA alarm, generated by all TCAS generations, provides to pilots

ES
the direction of arrival and the relative distance of the intruder. This
type of alarm will be generated on cockpit displays, in the case in
which the estimated collision point is between 20 e 48 seconds, in
AC
accordance to the speed and altitude of the aircraft.
2. The RA alarm is generated when the intruder is at about 15-35
seconds form the hypothetical collision point, according to the
TR

altitude of the aircraft

3. TCAS II: it can provide the Resolution Advisory (RA) for the
horizontal and vertical plane
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Weather radar

S
A weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, to

IS
calculate its motion, to estimate its type (rain, snow, hail, etc)
Check the aircraft position in relation to the ground

W
The weather radar of the aircraft sends some directional pulses in
the band of microwaves. The frequency commonly used is the 9375

ES
MHz.
It is important to remember that the Clear Air Turbulence (CAT),
that is very dangerous for the flight safety, cannot be detected by
AC
the weather radar, because it isnt associated with any
meteorological phenomena.
It mainly identifies the cumulonimbus
TR

Another function of this instrument is ground mapping

The pencil-shaped beam is used for weather scope
O

It doesnt measure the height of the elements of the underneath

ground
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Weather radar

S
IS
The weather radar antenna can move up or down from its neutral

W
position of about 10
The precipitations are represented with colors, for example high

ES
intensity are RED color, heavy in MAGENTA and black if the
intensity of precipitation is less than 0.7 mm/h
AC
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Radio altimeter

S
IS
The radio altimeter measures the vertical distance between the

W
aircraft and the ground, with the scope to provide to the pilot an
information about the underneath terrain. The radio altimeter is

ES
used in the approach phase
The radio altimeter compares the frequency of the received signal
with the frequency of the transmitted signal, because this
AC
difference is proportional to the time and the distance travelled by
the emitted signal with the frequency between 4200 and 4400 Mhz.
TR
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ELT

S
IS
The ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter) is an emergency self-
contained and self-powered radio transmitter, designed to transmit

W
a signal on the international emergency frequency in conjunction
with the satellites,

ES
It is installed near the tail of the aircraft
The ELT automatically activates when an aircraft impact happens or
by a remote switch in the cockpit.
AC
TR
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IS
W
ES
AC
Chapter 13,5

ELECTRICAL POWER
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Battery

S
IS
A battery (better a battery pack) is a device, which is made of a
group of electrochemical cells, utilized to transform the stocked

W
chemical energy into electrical one. These are connected in series,
so that the voltage of the single elements is added. The batteries

ES
provide Direct Current (DC).
The most significant parameters are:
The capacity, expressed in Ampere-hour [Ah], indicates the quantity
AC
of stored electrical energy that the battery can deliver from its state
of complete charge to its discharged state
The produced energy, expressed in Watt-hour [Wh], indicates the
TR

product between the capacity of a cell and its voltage

The energy density, expressed in Watt-hour per Kilogram [Wh/kg],
indicates how much energy is produced by a single cell of battery
O

for each its kilogram.

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Nickel-Cadmium batteries

S
IS
The Nickel-Cadmium batteries consist of a steel case containing

W
some cells connected in series
The positive electrode is made of nickel hydroxide and the negative

ES
one is made of cadmium hydroxide.
The electrolyte is a water solution of potassium hydroxide.
Each cell of these batteries is able to provide an electromotive force
AC
of about 1.2 V.
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Silver-Zinc batteries

S
IS
The silver-zinc batteries are very expensive and for this reason they

W
are used on aircraft only in the emergency conditions
The two electrodes (one electrode made of silver dust and one

ES
made of zinc) are drowned in the electrolyte, which is a water
solution of potassium hydroxide.
Each cell of these batteries is able to provide an electromotive force
AC
of about 1.7 V
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Starter-generator

S
IS
The dynamo has the main advantage of being reversible: it can also

W
be used in opposite way. In fact, the dynamo is able to produce
mechanical work starting form electrical energy

ES
AC
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AC generator

S
IS
On civil aircrafts of big and medium dimensions the primary system

W
is designed in AC. The AC, generated on aircraft, has usually a
voltage of 115-200 V and a frequency of 400Hz. They are connected

ES
in parallel.
The variable magnetic field is generated by a permanent magnet
that rotates. In this way its magnetic field cuts the stationary wires,
AC
so producing an alternating voltage output
Generator Control Unit (GCU) is a component of the A/C generators.
The GCU regulates the output of the generator.
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RAT

S
IS
The RAT (Ram Air Turbine) is a small turbine that in case of the loss

W
of both primary and auxiliary power sources will power the vital
systems

ES
The RAT generates power from the airstream (or ram air) due to the
speed of the aircraft.
The capacity of the electrical generator is usually 7.5 kVA (6W).
AC
TR
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EPU

S
IS
The EPU (Emergency Power Unit) is a turbine activated by a

W
chemical reaction of hydrazine.
This turbine is usually installed on military aircraft and it can

ES
operate for short period

AC
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Bus-bars

S
The generated electrical energy is distributed to users through bus-

IS
bars. A bus-bar is a copper bar that connects the power generation
system to the users

W
In the electrical system various independent bus-bars exits. Each of
them powers a specific number of users according to their importance

ES
in the flight safety.
For example the essential bus-bars are connected to the primary
equipment, and the flight entertainments is connected to the primary
AC
and secondary
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Transformer Rectifier Units

S
IS
A TRU (Transformer Rectifier Unit) is made of a transformer with

W
windings that have the task to lower the voltage usually from 115
A/C to 28 V D/C, and some conductors, usually some diodes, which

ES
straighten the sinusoidal voltage in constant voltage.
This device is used to charge the batteries
AC
The main characteristics of the TRUs are:
1. High overload capability
2. High efficiency, typically 90%
TR

The most common rectifier is composed by 4 diodes

O
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External and ground power

IS
The aircraft are generally equipped with 2 sockets, at which the
ground units must be connected:

W
1. An Alternating Current socket with 6 pins (for example the other

ES
big pin, called A, guarantees the bonding)
2. A Direct Current socket with 3 pins (for example the big central pin
is that of the voltage
AC
These sockets are positioned on the fuselage of the aircraft, near
the nose landing gear
TR

GPU: a mobile airport equipment that provides the electrical power/

IDG: a device that integrates in a single unit a CSD (Constant Speed
O

Drive) and an AC (Alternating Current) generator

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AC DC Sockets

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR

Big pin Small pin

O
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IS
W
ES
AC
Chapter 13,6

EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS

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Cabin entertainment equipment

S
IS
In-Flight Entertainment (IFE) or Passenger Entertainment System
(PES) refers to the on-board entertainment available to passengers

W
during a flight.
On long-range aircraft the IFE is provided by personal televisions

ES
installed on each passenger seat
The IFE systems are usually isolated from the aircraft main electrical
system AC
The screens of the cabin have a size from 5 to 42 inches
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Cabin entertainment equipment

S
IS
The information displayed by the moving-map system is directly

W
derived from the flight computer of the aircraft system

ES
AC
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Iridium network

S
IS
In recent years, IFE has been expanded to include in-flight

W
connectivity services, such as Internet browsing, text messaging,
emailing and phone usage (where permitted).

ES
All these functions are made via the Iridium satellite
communication system. It is a personal communication network
AC
based on satellites. The Iridium network allows to send and receive
voice and data messages in anywhere in the world.
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Electronic emergency equipment

S
IS
There are also electronic devices employed for the aircraft localization

W
and the recovery of any parts or scraps. The main electronic emergency
equipment are:

ES
The Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)
Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB).
AC
TR
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ELT

S
IS
The ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter) is an emergency self-
contained and self-powered radio transmitter, designed to transmit a

W
signal on international emergency frequencies (121.5
MHz). The ELT transmits continuously for three days, within a coverage

ES
range of about 150 NM.
For an aircraft with more than 19 passengers there must be at least one
automatic ELT AC
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ULB

S
IS
The ULB (Underwater Locator Beacon) consists of an electronic
module, a transducer and a battery contained in a cylindrical aluminum

W
case that is resistant to high pressure and violent impacts.
The ULB is usually installed on each black box of the aircraft, in order to

ES
facilitate the recovery.
Sometimes, this locator is directly installed on the fuselage of the
aircraft, while in helicopters it is generally placed at the back.
AC
TR
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IS
W
ES
AC
Chapter 13,7

FLIGHT CONTROLS
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Trim control

S
IS
Trim tabs are small surfaces, connected to the trailing edge of

W
aircraft larger control surfaces.
They have the function to stabilize the aircraft at a particular

ES
desired attitude, without the need for the pilot to constantly apply a
control force
Using the trim tab, the reduction of the pilot manual force can
AC
reach the 100%
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Slats

S
IS
Slats are aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings of

W
fixed-wing aircraft which, when deployed, allow the wing to
operate at a higher angle of attack

ES
The Krueger flap does not operate in this way because it only
increases the wing area and the wing curvature. Krueger flap is the
most simple slat
AC
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Yaw damper

S
IS
A yaw damper is a device used on many

W
aircraft to reduce the rolling and yawing
oscillations (Dutch roll phenomenon),

ES
which can be induced in some
maneuvers
Yaw damper increases the passengers
AC
comfort, ensures the aircraft stability
and reduces the work load of the pilot.
for an aircraft that has the yaw damper
TR

included in its auto-stabilisation system

is required a three axis autopilot system
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Rudder limiter systems

S
IS
The rudder limiter system limits the displacement of the rudder at
high speeds, in order to prevent rudder overloads.

W
The device is controlled by the RUDDER LIMIT switch. The rudder
limiter mechanism consists of an electric actuator, which blocks

ES
rudders displacement according to indicated airspeed of the
aircraft.

AC
The system monitors airspeed, which is obtained by the flight
computers, and restricts rudders displacement according to
different parameters.
TR

For example:
o Full rudder travel (to 30) is permitted at speeds below 150 knots
o Intermediate travel (to 15) is permitted at speeds between 150 to
O

200 knots
o Minimum travel (to 5.7) is permitted at speeds above 200 knots.
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Gust locks

S
IS
A gust lock on an aircraft is a mechanism that locks control surfaces

W
in place, preventing random movement and possible damage of the
surface from wind, while the aircraft is parked.

ES
Gust locks may be internal or external
AC
TR
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Fly-by-wire

S
IS
The FBW system replaces the mechanical actuation of the

W
command, given by the pilot, with an electronic interface. The FBW
system interposes some calculators between the pilot and the final

ES
control of the actuators or of the aircraft surfaces
The FBW systems are classified according to the percentage of use
of the electrical components in the system
AC
TR
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IS
W
ES
AC
Chapter 13,8

INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
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Instrument systems - classification

S
IS
The main pilotage instruments can be divided into 3 categories:

W
Static instruments (altimeter, airspeed indicator and vertical speed
indicator)

ES
Gyroscopic instruments (artificial horizon, turn and back indicator,
directional gyro)
Magnetic instruments (magnetic compass and gyrocompass).
AC
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Static instruments

S
IS
The static instrument are called static instruments because their main
device is a metallic aneroid capsule with very thin walls.

W
The capsule measure the difference in pressure.
The static instruments receive pressure from:

ES
1. A static source (positioned in a point where it isn't affected by the
aircraft motion)
2. A dynamic pressure (positioned in a point where it is affected by the
AC
aircraft motion)
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Altimeter

S
IS
The altimeter is an aneroid barometer, whose measurements of the

W
atmospheric pressure are converted in altitude parameters
The altimeter is made up of a watertight box, connected with the

ES
outside through the static source. Inside this box there is the
capsule that is hermetically sealed
AC
TR
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Altimeter

S
IS
The barometric surfaces of reference, utilized in aviation, are:

W
The airport surface (QFE)
The sea surface (QNH)

ES
The isobaric standard surface (QNE)
For example if, in the setting window, the pressure value of the isobaric
standard surface (1013millibar) is introduced, the altitude indications
AC
are called flight levels. This setting of the altimeter is called QNE. This
setting is used during cruise.
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Air speed indicator

S
IS
The air speed indicator is the instrument that measures the aircraft
speed in relation to the air mass around it. It is made up of a

W
watertight box, connected with the outside through the static
source.

ES
Inside the box there is the capsule, which is connected to the
outside through the dynamic source
The expansion of the capsule is bigger as the dynamic pressure, and
AC
thus the aircraft speed, is greater. During the flight the dynamic
pressure is greater than the static one
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Air speed indicator

S
IS
The different colorings identify and delimit fields of the operational
speed of the aircraft. The utilized standard colors are:

W
White
Green

ES
Yellow
Red.
The most significant errors of the air speed indicator are:
AC
The error of position
The error of compressibility
The error of density
TR

The error of compressibility becomes important when the speed is so

high to compress air molecules inside the static source. The CAS
O

corrected by this error is called EAS (Equivalent Air Speed).

The TAS is the EAS (Equivalent Air Speed) corrected by the error of
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Gyroscopic principle

S
IS
The gyroscope is a rigid body that is put in rotation at high speed.

W
The gyroscope is made of a rotating disk (the rotor), which, due to
physical laws of conservation, tends to maintain its rotation axis (or

ES
spin axis) oriented in a fixed direction

AC
TR
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Turn and slip indicator

S
IS
The turn and slip indicator is made up of a gyroscope with 2of
freedom. It is limited to rotate around its vertical axis (Z). The

W
rotational axis of the gyroscope (X) is horizontal and it is parallel to
aircraft transversal axis

ES
A gravity slip and skid indicator is a very simple instrument that uses
both the centripetal and centrifugal forces.
The turn and bank indicator has also a gravity slip and skid indicator
AC
TR
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Directional gyro

S
IS
The directional gyro, or heading indicator is made up of a gyroscope
with 3 of freedom and with a horizontal spin axis.

W
It is important to remember that the directional gyro moves
gradually away from the indications of the compass, due to the

ES
apparent precession, the Earths rotation and the construction
imperfections.
These gaps can reach a maximum of 15 per hour, and so they
AC
must be manually corrected by the pilot every 15-20 flight minutes.
The maximum drift rate directional gyro is typical 1 degree per
minute, with an accuracy of 2.

TR

The rose is instinctive

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Errors

S
Errors are lines exit from the South magnetic Pole and enter in the

IS
North Pole
The variation error is caused by the fact that the magnetic compass

W
provides indication in relation to the North magnetic pole, which
doesnt coincide with the North geographic pole. The variation is
greater at Poles

ES
Also the magnetic inclination error especially happens when the
magnetic compass is near to the magnetic poles.

AC
The deviation error is caused by the airborne presence of ferrous parts
and electromagnetic equipment that can divert the flow lines of the
Earths magnetic field. This error can be compensated thought some
compensator magnets. These residual errors, which can be not
TR

compensated by the magnets, are typically written on a small table,

placed near the compass, as a value to add or to subtract from the
indication read on the instrument. Its important to remember that the
O

values of residual deviation must not exceed 3.

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FDR and CVR

S
IS
W
ES
AC
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FDR

S
IS
In accordance with JAR-OPS 1, a commercial transport airplane

W
must carry a FDR, which uses a digital method of recording and
storing flight data.

ES
The parameters, which must be recorded, vary according to the
maximum certificated take-off mass and to the age of the aircraft.
AC
All parameters of all aircraft system must be recorded with a
common reference time scale. The data must be obtained from the
various airplane sources, which will have accurate correlation with
TR

the information displayed to the flight crew.

FDR is contained in a shockproof box that is able to sustain
extremely high impact forces and high temperatures.
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CVR

S
IS
In accordance with EU-OPS 1, a commercial transport aircraft must

W
carry a CVR that must be able to record 4 channels of audio data:
All radio voice communications transmitted from or received by the

ES
flight crew members
The audio environment of the cockpit, including the cockpit
conversation AC
Voice communications, done through the airplane interphone system
between the cockpit and the cabin
All voice signals or other audio signals related to the identification of
TR

navigation or approach aids

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Capacitance probe

S
IS
The fuel level is measured using the change in electrical capacitance

W
of a capacitor
The capacitance of the capacitor depends on the dielectric value

ES
existing between the two armatures of the capacitor. An increase in
fuel level would increase in capacitance.
AC
TR
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Ultra-sound system

S
IS
Another type of fuel quantity indicator used in the more modern

W
applications measures the fuel level in the tank by utilizing the
emission and reception of sound pulsed-signal by an ultra-sound

ES
sensor installed in the bottom of the tank

AC
TR
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Bulb thermometer

S
IS
Another device that uses the change in electrical resistance as a

W
function of temperature is the bulb thermometer. It is generally
used to measure the operating temperature of fluids inside engines.

ES
In these devices the probe consists of a container that encloses an
electrical filament, which is placed inside the fluid whose
temperature must be taken
AC
The selection of the material of the filament (nickel or platinum)
depends on the maximum operating temperature envisaged for the
thermometer. Nickel is generally used for temperatures up to 300
TR

C, while platinum is suitable for maximum temperatures of 600 C.

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S
IS
W
ES
AC
Module 13,9

LIGHTS
TR
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Lights

S
IS
Aircraft lighting may be divided into different groups:

W
o External lights: exterior lights provide illumination of the ground

ES
during landing and taxi operations and make the aircraft visible in
flight.
AC
o Internal lights: min power 3W
Passenger compartment lights
Cargo and service compartment lights
TR

o Emergency lights: emergency lights provide interior and exterior

O

illumination of exits and exit paths during emergency evacuation

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Navigation lights

S
IS
Navigation lights are an essential system and control is obtained

W
through a relay activated switch in the flight deck. Normal power
supply for such lights is 28 V AC from a protected bus such as the

ES
essential or standby bus
Navigation lights include a single lamp:
1. Red light on left wing 110
AC
2. Green light on right wing 110
3. White light on thetail 140
TR
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Strobe lights

S
IS
The larger aircraft can be also equipped with some additional strobe

W
lights, located on the trailing edge of the wings and on the tail.
The strobe lights are activated both during the day and the night, in

ES
order to encourage the identification of the aircraft both in flight
and on ground, especially in the case in which it occupies the
runway AC
TR
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Anti-collision lights

S
The anti-collision lights system (also called anti-collision beacon

IS
lights) mainly consists of one or more red lights, according to the
aircraft dimensions. They are flashing rotating lights, which are

W
usually mounted on the top of the fuselage or of the tail.
The minimum light intensity is 100 candles (the output is 400

ES
candles)
Anti-collision lights are activated when the engines are started up
during night flights and daylight hours
AC
TR
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Landing lights

S
IS
Landing lights are white and they are installed on the aircraft in

W
order to illuminate the runway during landings and takes-offs
The landing lights are generally of the PAR 200-300 W type.

ES
Some systems use retractable landing lamps.
The fixed part is switched on when the aircraft is authorized to
entry in the runway, and it is switched off at 10000 ft
AC
TR
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Runway turnoff lights

S
IS
Runway turnoff lights are white lamps, positioned to illuminate

W
laterally the taxi-ways and the runways for an angle of 50.
These lights are used during the take-off run, during the landing

ES
and during the taxi phase
During the departure, the runway turnoff lights are switched on at
the beginning of the taxi, and they remain activated until 10000 ft.
AC
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Logo lights

S
IS
Generally, the airliners are also equipped with some logo lights that

W
illuminate the company's logo
The logo lights remain activated during the night, during the

ES
ground operations and during the flight below 10000 ft.

AC
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Taxi light

S
The taxi lights are designed to provide the illumination on the

IS
ground during the taxing phase or when the aircraft is towed on the
airport surface

W
The taxi lights dont provide the same degree of illumination of the
landing lights

ES
On aircraft with a tri-cycle landing gear, the taxi lights are often
mounted on the non-steerable part of the nose landing gear
Moreover some aircraft can be equipped with additional taxi lights
AC
located on the lower surface of the aircraft nose
TR
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Internal light Passenger lights

S
IS
In the passenger cabin a large
variety of lights can be installed.

W
The most of the passenger cabin
lights are:

ES
Controlled by the flight crew
AC and flight assistants
Made of fluorescent tubes,
connected to some
transformers to control the
voltage
TR

COCKPIT: some incandescent

floodlights with a large
luminous beam that are
O

installed on the cockpit ceiling

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IS
W
ES
AC
Module 13,10

ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS

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Central Maintenance System

S
IS
The line maintenance of the electronic system is based on the use

W
of the Central Maintenance System (CMS)

ES
The purpose of the CMC is to give a central maintenance aid to
intervene on aircraft systems and subsystems through controls
located in the cockpit
AC
CMC computers are installed in the compartment of the electrical
devices
TR
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CMS

S
IS
The aircraft CMS provides:

W
An access to maintenance message of all aircraft systems

ES
An access to status information about ground tests
A loading means of navigational files, data bases and system software

AC
A downloading means of maintenance data
A means of printing data
A means of connecting to the aircraft system computers
TR
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CMS

S
IS
The CMS advantages are:

W
Reduction of duration of operations
Reduction of the maintenance crew training time

ES
Simplification of technical documentation
Standardization of the equipment
AC
The CMS includes:
Built-In-Test Equipment (BITE) for each aircraft system
TR

Central Maintenance Computers (CMC) in Boeing Industry

or Centralized Fault Display System (CFDS) in Airbus Industry
MCDU
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BITE test

S
IS
The BITE has the functions:
To monitor and measure the inputs

W
To measure and check the output

ES
The BITE monitors the operational parameter and detects the
possible failures that can happen, to facilitate the aircraft
maintenance in flight and on ground
AC
If a failure is detected, the BITE automatically generates the signals
and insulate the damaged element
TR

The BITE can be divided into three categories:

Start-up or power

O

Interruptive
Continuous
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Central Maintenance Computer

S
IS
The CMC computers that are installed on aircraft are usually 2 and

W
they are positioned in the compartment of the electrical devices.
In normal functioning:

ES
The left CMC sends/receives the signals to the aircraft systems

In case there is a failure:

AC
The left CMC detects a failure
The right CMC controls the functioning of the system
TR
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CMC menu

S
IS
According to the type of the system installed on board, it can execute
different procedures to display the reports

W
ES
On ground, first page:
Last leg report
Last leg ECAM report
AC
Previous legs reports
Avionics status
System reports/test
TR

In flight:
O

Current leg report

Current leg ECAM report
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Updating of software

S
IS
It is important to control:

W
The trustworthiness of the software, in order to check that there is no

ES
virus
The compatibility of the software with the aircraft systems
The correct installation, through some specific tests.
AC
TR
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Aircraft printer

S
IS
The printer is usually located on the cockpit central console or on

W
one cockpit side
The information are sent to the printer from the CMC, in ARINC 429

ES
binary coded decimal form
Inside the printer the data are converted in the language of the
device AC
The printer head is heated and it moves over a thermally sensitive
paper
The post flight report is automatically printed
TR
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Aircraft printer

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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S
IS
W
ES
AC
Module 13,11

AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN

TR

PRESSURIZATION
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Introduction

S
IS
W
Main use of compressed air: pressurization and conditioning
system, anti-ice protection, engine start up system.

ES
Methods to provide compressed air:
AC
Engine bleeding
Generation through the APU (Auxiliary Power Unit)
TR

Generation through some ground support equipment

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Air conditioning system

S
On aircraft, the air conditioning system has the function to maintain

IS
comfort environmental conditions (temperature, humidity and air
composition) during all flight phases.

W
The air conditioning system must be designed to extract and

ES
introduce heat in the cabin.

AC
Comfort conditions must guaranteed also in critical environment.
TR
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Air conditioning system

S
IS
W
The pneumatic system takes hot air from the compressor.

ES
Mixing hot air, taken from the engine, with cold air passed through
a refrigerating cycle, it is possible to obtain the air at correct
temperature and humidity for the maintenance of the desired
AC
environmental cabin conditions.
TR
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Air conditioning system

S
IS
In order to guarantee the maximum comfort of passengers the air

W
temperature, present in the cabin, must be comprised between
18 C (65 F) and 24 C (75 F)

ES
The relative air humidity must be about 20-30 %

AC
In normal conditions, the air conditioning system must guarantee in
the cabin an air flow of about 1 lb per minute for each person. This
value cannot be less than the half in case of failure of the system
TR
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Small not-pressurized aircraft

S
IS
There is not a real conditioning system, they are equipped with a

W
ram air system. The air comes directly from outside the aircraft:
same pressure and temperature of the air in which the flight occurs.

ES
The air that comes from outside is filtered and heated before
entering the aircraft cabin through a series of ducts.

AC
Main problem: how to heat the air.
The air can be heated using an engine exhaust heat exchanger or a
combustion heater
TR
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Exhaust heat exchanger system

S
IS
Ram air coming from a forward facing air duct passes through a

W
heat exchanger in which hot exhaust gasses of engine pass.
After the air is heated, it enters a chamber in which cold air coming

ES
from another aircraft intake flows into. Some valves control the hot
and cold air flows in order to reach the desired temperature.
At this point the air mixture enters the cabin.
AC
TR
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Exhaust heat exchanger system

S
IS
Advantages: cheap and very efficient.

W
Disadvantages: very dangerous in case of an internal leak. This
damage can cause carbon monoxide poisoning. In addition this

ES
system doesnt operate if the aircraft is stationary and there are no
fans installed.
AC
TR
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Combustion heater system

S
IS
They use the aircraft fuel to heat the air. The air is provided by a fan,
while the fuel is directly taken by the aircraft fuel system.

W
The air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug; the exhaust gases
travel through the exhaust outlet.

ES
AC
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Large pressurized aircraft

S
IS
Air for the air conditioning system is bled from the engine.

W
Hot air is directly taken from the compressor and it must be cooled
to reach a suitable temperature.

ES
Hot air, taken from the engine, is mixed with cold air coming from a
refrigerating cycle to obtain the desired temperature and humidity
AC
TR
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Large pressurized aircraft

S
IS
The air conditioning systems also uses a percentage of recycled air

W
from the cabin.
Recycled air is filtered and mixed with pure air.

ES
Advantages:
AC
The system must elaborate a smaller external air flow
It is possible to maintain the relative humidity around acceptable
TR

values, reducing the need to add humidity to the dry air that comes
from the refrigerating cycle.
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Air cycle and vapor cycle machines

S
IS
Air cooling is achieved using some packs that can include two cycles:
Air cycle

W
Vapor cycle.

ES
The number of cooling packs depends on the size of the aircraft.
When it is necessary to install more than one pack, these packs work
independently to provide air for each compartment they work for.
AC
TR
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Air cycle and vapor cycle machines

S
IS
Pack = turbine that drives a compressor on a rotor shaft.
The turbine and the compressor wheels are similar: they consist of a

W
cast wheel and some blades made of aluminum alloy.
The turbine wheel rotates within a nozzle ring, while the compressor

ES
wheel rotates within a diffuser ring

AC
TR
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Air cycle machines reverse joule cycle

S
IS
Most common refrigerating cycles on aircraft are air cycles.

W
Air cycles are thermodynamic cycles in which the air undergoes
some transformations in order to reach the desired temperature

ES
and pressure conditions.

The theoretical refrigeration cycle is a reverse Joule cycle.

AC
1. The external air, flows into the compressor, in which it is subjected
to a compression.
2. Then in the second phase an isobaric cooling happens
TR

3. while in the next phase an expansion occurs through the turbine,

until the pressure present in cabin is reached
4. The air is expelled from the fuselage by control valves
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Reverse joule cycle

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Bootstrap cycle

S
IS
Bootstrap cycle = improved standard refrigeration cycle.

W
The fluid is subjected to two compressions and passes through two
heat exchangers before entering the turbine.

ES
Heat exchangers reduce the air temperature before entering the
second compressor and the turbine
Fan: connected to turbine and compressor, cools them when
AC
aircraft is ground. In flight cooling is provided by the airflow.
Water separator: installed after the turbine and before the air flows
into the cabin. It provides a whirling movement to the air, to
TR

facilitate the formation of microscopic water drops. Then drops are

drained to avoid condensation in cabin
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Bootstrap cycle

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Vapor cycle machines

S
IS
In refrigerating vapor cycles the air cooling is achieved with a

W
refrigerant fluid. This fluid is able to absorb heat during the evaporation
process.

ES
Major components of a typical vapor cycle machine:
Liquid receiver AC
Thermostatic expansion valve
Evaporator
Turbo-compressor
TR

Condenser.
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Vapor cycle machines

S
IS
Refrigerant stored in the liquid receiver.

W
From this reservoir the fluid passes in the thermostatic expansion
valve and reaches the evaporator.

ES
In the evaporator the hot air coming from engines boils the
refrigerant and then enters the cabin at a much lower temperature
The vaporized refrigerant fluid flows into the compressor (coupled
AC
with the turbine) and reaches a high temperature and pressure.
Then the hot gas enters the condenser and is cooled by the ram air
coming from outside.
TR

The refrigerant condenses and it is pumped back to the liquid

receiver to start a new cycle.
O
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Vapor cycle machines

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Pressure controller and outflow valve

IS
The pressure controller is connected to the outflow valve: it sends
some signals to the valve in order to regulate its aperture

W
When the aircraft is on ground, the valves are maintained in the
complete open position, in order to ensure the air exchange even if
the air conditioning system is activated. After the take-off the

ES
valves moves towards the closed position, which is never reached in
order to guarantee the air exchange during the flight.
Only in the case of failure the outflow valve closes, preserving the
AC
cabin pressure, for a time interval sufficient to lead the aircraft at an
altitude where the pressurization isnt necessary.
TR
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Safety valve

S
IS
The safety valve operates when the difference between the cabin
pressure and the external pressure is bigger than a specific value

W
utilized for the fuselage design.
Generally the safety valves are activated when the cabin pressure

ES
exceeds the limit value of about 0.25 psi.

AC
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Additional instruments

S
IS
In the cockpit, some instruments, which permit pilot to controls the

W
aircraft pressurization, are installed:
o The cabin altimeter

ES
o The cabin variometer (expressed ft/min)
o The cabin differential pressure indicator
The cabin altimeter indicates the cabin altitude. It remembers that
AC
the cabin altitude is defined as the atmospheric height at which the
value of the pressure inside the fuselage corresponds.
The cabin variometer controls the pressure rate inside the cabin,
TR

referring to the altitude variation per minutes [ft/min]

The cabin differential pressure indicator indicates the pressure
difference between the inside and the outside of the aircraft [psi]
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S
IS
W
ES
AC
Module 13,12

FIRE PROTECTION
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Fire and smoke detection and warning systems

S
IS
Detectors are based on temperature and smoke measures. They
provide an alarm when a temperature higher than a fixed value is

W
detected, or when an important smoke concentration is present.

ES
The detection systems:
Indicate when a fire starts or stops
Provides audio and video warnings
AC
The detection systems are different according to the aircraft are in
which they must be installed
TR

The most common types of detection systems are:

O

Thermal detectors
Smoke detectors
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Characteristics

S
IS
The characteristics of the detection systems are:

W
To create a warning signal after 60 seconds of an abnormal

ES
parameter
To provide a warning signals after that more than one sensor
records anomalies
AC
To provide a warning message before to be damaged by the fire
To provide a warning message by radio transmission
TR
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Thermal detector

S
IS
The thermal detectors can be divided into:

W
Unit detectors
Continuous detectors

ES
The unit detectors are based on some bimetallic strips that opens a
contact when the temperature is higher than a set parameter
AC
The continuous detectors are made of a conductor placed in a
TR

semi-conductor material
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Smoke detector

S
IS
The smoke detectors are located in:

W
Baggage holds
Freight bays

ES
Toilets
Equipment bays
AC
The most common types of the photoelectric smoke detectors are:
Light scatter types
TR

Light absorption types

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Light scatter types

S
IS
The light scatter types are based on the principle for which when a

W
light hits a photo-electric cell, it produces a an electric current

ES
When the air is clean, the light rays does not reach the photoelectric
cell

AC
When in the air the smoke is present light rays start reflecting on
the smoke particles and hit the photoelectric cell producind
electricity
TR
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Light scatter types

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Light absorption types

S
IS
The light absorption types have a photoelectric cell that receives all

W
the light when the air is clear

ES
When smoke is present, the light that reaches the photoelectric cell
reduces
AC
TR
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Fire on aircraft

S
IS
The fire fighting in the cabin is executed by hand with mobile

W
portable extinguishers

ES
The fire fighting in the remote aircraft areas (engines, avionic bays
and cargo compartments) is executed by fixed extinguishers

AC
The fire fighting is very difficult in case of nacelles
TR
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Extinguishing systems

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Extinguishing systems

S
IS
The extinguishing systems are:

W
Fixed
Portable

ES
Mixed

AC
The fixed systems are permanently installed

The portable systems includes hand fire extinguishers

TR

The mixed systems includes fixed pipelines and portable

extinguishers
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S
IS
W
ES
AC
13,13

FUEL SYSTEM
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Integral tanks

S
IS
One of the most used procedures to load fuel is that to utilize wing

W
tanks
The wing tanks are integral tanks that are constructed in the wing

ES
structure, completely sealing the section utilized for this scope
Wing tanks have also some disadvantages:
The available volume is scarce on supersonic aircraft
AC
On military jets these tanks represent a wide area exposed to bullets
They can suffer of leaks
TR
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Cross-feed and transfer

S
IS
The transfer of fuel is very different, according to the number and

W
the type of engines, to the relative position between tanks and
engines

ES
On multi-engine aircraft, it must be possible to feed any engine
with the fuel of any tanks
AC
TR
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Indication and warnings

S
IS
Inside the tanks some sensors are installed. These devices detected the

W
level of the present fuel.

ES
They can be of different types:
Mechanical sensors
Ultrasonic sensors
AC
Capacitive sensors
TR
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Capacitive sensors

S
IS
The capacity of a capacitor depends, a part of its geometrical

W
characteristics, from the dielectric. In this case, the dielectric is
made by the fuel and air, which fill the room between the armatures

ES
AC
TR
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Ultrasonic sensors

S
IS
These devices measure the level of the present fuel, according to an

W
emitted signal, which is reflected by the liquid surface
The distance between the sensor (that is the bottom of the tank)

ES
and the fuel level is calculated dividing the propagation velocity of
the acoustic signal by the time interval between the transmission
and the reception of the signal
AC
TR
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Ground refueling

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IS
The ground refueling of an aircraft must be done under pressure of

W
about 0.35 MPa, by airport systems or by ground tankers.
When some tankers are used, it is necessary to electrically link the

ES
aircraft with the tanker, in order to avoid the formation of electrical
arches
AC
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ES
AC
13,14

HYDRAULIC POWER
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Hydraulic system layout

S
IS
A hydraulic system is primarily made of:

W
Pumps, that generate the pressure and the flow rate requested by
the system in a delivery line and low pressure in a return line

ES
Pipes, connections and some valves, that have the task to distribute
the hydraulic energy to different devices
Different users, which are connected to actuators that transform
AC
the hydraulic energy into mechanical power. Linear actuators are
called jack, while rotational actuators are the hydraulic engines; all
systems that require activation are connected to these devices
TR

A series of accessories with specific functions, such as filters,

accumulators and heat exchangers
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Hydraulic system layout

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IS
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ES
AC
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Hydraulic fluids

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IS
In the aeronautical sector, fluids used must meet the following

W
requirements :

ES
Have a good lubricant power
Avoid corrosion
Viscosity must be limited to avoid power losses and overheating,
AC
and it must be almost stable in a wide range of temperatures
Good wear resistance, through the addition of additives
Good resistance to formation of contaminated particles that shall
TR

damage the components

Low risk of fire
O

Low toxicity
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Hydraulic fluids

S
IS
The fluid types, which are utilized in hydraulic systems, are of two

W
categories:

ES
Mineral oil
Synthesis oil.
AC
Mineral oil is often used on little aircraft and in the shock-absorber of
the landing gear. Instead, the synthesis oil is the most used type in large
aircraft systems.
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Mineral oil

S
IS
Mineral oil is generated by the distillation of high quality petrol.

W
These oil types have some characteristics that vary according to the
temperature and they have fire risks. They also have good lubricant

ES
proprieties. Mineral oils have limited corrosive characteristics in
relation to other oil types. This type of fluid is often used on little
aircraft and in the shock-absorber of the landing gear
AC
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Syntetic oil

S
IS
The synthetic oil is the most used type in large aircraft systems. This

W
product is characterized by :

ES
Low degree of oxidation
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
Low freezing temperature
AC
High fire resistance
TR

The most utilized type is identified with the name of Skydrol

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Hydraulic pumps

S
IS
The hydraulic energy is available by converting the mechanical power

W
that is mainly taken from the following sources:

ES
Aircraft engines
Electrical engines
Pneumatic engines
AC
The devices that transform mechanical energy into hydraulic power
TR

are called hydraulic pumps

Their function is to take the oil from designed reservoirs, and then
make it available with a higher pressure to the system and to users
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Piston pumps

S
IS
Hydraulic pumps used in aeronautical hydraulic circuits are
volumetric pumps

W
These are also called displacement pumps, because they displace a
fluid volume and force it into the system

ES
A typical example is the piston pump

AC
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Gear pumps

S
IS
Another example of volumetric pump is the gear pump

W
This device is made of a chamber in which two contra-rotating
cogged wheels move

ES
The fluid is sucked in areas that develop between sectors of the
single wheel and walls of the box
When the wheels arrive in the delivery area, the teeth engage
AC
themselves and the oil is forced to exit the sectors and then it is
pushed in the pipeline
The gear pumps are simple and resistant systems, but they are
TR

rather cumbersome. In addition they provide less pressure than that

provided by a piston pump
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Gear pumps

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IS
W
ES
AC
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Constant flow rate

S
IS
A constant flow rate is desirable for hydraulic systems

W
In the case of the constant pressure system, a valve is installed after
the pump.

ES
This valve controls the pressure and guarantees a constant value.
This valve is a device with a cursor that is normally open.
According to the value of the pressure of the system, the opening of
AC
the orifice can be varied
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Variable flow rate

S
IS
This method is more efficient than the previous one, because the

W
pressure of the system is maintained constant, while the requested
flow rate can be easily changed

ES
It is an expensive technique

AC
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Actuators

S
IS
Actuators are devices that transform hydraulic energy into mechanical

W
power. There are two main types of actuators:
Linear

ES
Rotational.

Linear actuators are normally called jacks, while rotational actuators

are called motors
AC
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IS
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ES
AC
13,15

ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

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Ice protection

S
IS
The necessity to prevent or to remove ice formations is the main goal

W
of the ice protection system, and its intervention can be happened
according two modalities:

ES
The prevention of the ice formation (Anti-icing systems)
The ice removal, when the ice is just formed (De-icing systems).
AC
The aircraft windshield is a wiper system, a rain repellant system and a
heating system
TR

The Ice identification rod vibrate at a frequency of 40 KHz

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De-icing system

S
IS
According to the operational principle these systems are divided into:

W
Electrical methods
Pneumatic methods

ES
Chemical methods.
The de-icing pneumatic system has the disadvantage that to cause a
disturb in the wing aerodynamic, also when elastic elements are flat.
AC
If the system uses fluid the temperature of the fluid must be greater
TR

than the ambient temperature.

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Anti-icing system

S
IS
The systems, which have the scope to prevent the ice formation,

W
are called anti-icing systems.

ES
According to its operational principle, they can be divided into:
1. Hot air methods
2. Electrical methods (probes and sensors)
AC
3. Chemical methods
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Rain repellent

S
IS
The external fluid spray system comprises a de icing fluid tank

W
connected by a pipe line to an electrically operated pump, the
delivery side of which is coupled to a spray device arranged in front

ES
of the windscreen. This system is used in case of heavy precipitation
in order to improve the pilot visibility.
AC
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IS
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ES
AC
13,16

LANDING GEAR
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Shock absorbing

S
IS
The shock absorber represents the main component of the landing

W
gear and it has the task to absorb energy during its deformation,
giving back only a part of it while dissipating the rest in form of heat

ES
In the aeronautical sector, the most common type is the oleo-
pneumatic shock absorber
AC
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Brakes

S
IS
The brakes must absorb the kinetic energy, transforming it in heat,

W
and so they are subject to a remarkable heating.
The brakes are composed by a series of discs coupled to the rim and

ES
the pistons that act to them.

AC
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Landing gear systems

S
IS
On aircraft other two systems are installed. These systems, which are
very important, are:

W
Antiskid system

ES
Autobraking system

AC
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Tires

S
IS
The core body of the tire is a multi-layer of nylon fibers, which are

W
positioned along different directions and drown in the rubber.

ES
AC
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Steering

S
IS
Light aircraft are commonly provided with the nose-wheel steering

W
capability, provided by a simple system of mechanical linkage
hooked to the rudder pedals.

ES
Instead, large aircraft utilize a power source for the nose-wheel
steering. This system is necessary because large aircraft have larger
mass and heavier weight.
AC
During taxiing, steering hand-wheels (one for the pilot and one for
the co-pilot) are used to control the direction of the aircraft. The
steering hand-wheel provides 75 of nose wheel deflection both in
TR

left or right direction. Signals from each hand-wheel are summed

up
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Shimmy

S
IS
An important phenomenon that is connected to the employment of

W
the landing gear is the shimmy. Shimmy is a summarizing term for
the torsion flutter phenomenon of aircraft landing gears.

ES
A way to oppose the phenomenon consists in installing the shimmy
damper on the landing gear. The shimmy damper is a little piston
able to provide the necessary damping to cancel or reduce
AC
vibrations
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Air-ground sensing

S
IS
Most aircraft and helicopters utilize some type of Weight On Wheel

W
(WOW) Sensor or Switch that activates when the aircraft is on the
ground

ES
A faulty or incorrectly adjusted WOW system may cause vital
systems to not function or function intermittently
AC
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IS
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ES
AC
Chapter 13,17

OXYGEN
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Oxygen system

S
IS
On civil aircraft the oxygen is supplied only in emergency conditions,

W
when:

ES
The pressurization system fails
There is the presence of fumes or gasses
One or more passengers have medical difficulties
AC
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Oxygen system

S
IS
The supply should last at least 15 minutes at a pressure altitude of
8000 feet at 30 liters per minute

W
On civil aircraft, the system, dedicated for the oxygen supply in the
cockpit, requests the installation of a particular tank that generally

ES
operates at 1850 psi (12.7 MPa).
In particular:AC
1. Provision of oxygen mixed with air on demand
2. Provision of oxygen only on request
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Oxygen system

S
IS
W
ES
AC
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Crew oxygen system

S
IS
The technical solution used for the emergency oxygen system is

W
double:

ES
To install some supply circuits, dedicated to the passengers and the
flight crew
To equip the aircraft with some oxygen tanks/bottle (both fixed
AC
and portable)
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Crew oxygen system

S
IS
On civil aircraft, the system dedicated for the cockpit oxygen supply,

W
requests:

ES
The installation of a particular tanks operating at 1850 psi
A distribution net must reach every single certificate position of the
crew AC
Some regulations to allows the flow to come into the mask
Some masks, one for each crew member
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Crew oxygen system

S
IS
W
ES
AC
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Crew oxygen system

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Chemical oxygen generators

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Chemical oxygen generators

S
IS
The chemical oxygen generators are especially used for the passenger

W
cabin oxygen system

ES
The chemical oxygen generators are made by:
A metallic container
A candle of chlorate sodium
AC
A pressure detonator
TR

The oxygen is produced by the exothermal reaction developed in the

candle
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Chemical oxygen generators

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Oxygen system

S
IS
The information about the oxygen system is displayed on the lower

W
right corner of the DOOR/OXY page.
The OXY writing indicates the value of the pressure of the oxygen.

ES
This value is expressed in psi.
When it is normal, the information is displayed in green (Green
band and black rectangular symbol on white back-ground), while if
AC
the value is too low the number is colored by the amber
TR
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Oxygen system

S
IS
W
ES
AC
TR
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Oxygen system on military jet

S
IS
On military jets, the pilot breathing is guaranteed through a mask,

W
similar to that of the picture. This mask is usually used during the
whole flight, and the oxygen concentration, that it provides, varies

ES
according to the aircraft altitude

AC
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IS
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ES
AC
Chapter 13,18

PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM

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Pneumatic system - users

S
IS
The pneumatic system works at 10MPa that correspond to a 2 to 8% bleed

W
from compressor
The main users of the pneumatic system usually are:

ES
The pressurization and the conditioning system
The anti-ice system
The system dedicated to the start-up of engines.
AC
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APU

S
IS
A check valve is installed so that when the APU is not running air

W
from the pneumatic manifold cannot back feed through the APU
Air pressure from the APU is controlled by altering the inlet guide

ES
vanes to the load compressor

AC
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Indications and warnings

S
IS
The pneumatic system is automatically controlled and monitored

W
by 2 BMCs.
There is one BMC for each engine bleed system. However, both

ES
BMCs are interconnected and if one fails, the other takes-over most
of its functions (NOT ALL)
AC
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Indications

S
IS
The information concerning the pneumatic system is also displayed

W
on the lower part of the ECAM BLEED page. On this page the valves
of the pneumatic system are represented by a little circle, with a

ES
line inside

AC
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IS
W
ES
AC
Chapter 13,19

WATER AND WASTE

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Potable water system

S
IS
Storage:

W
Potable water is stored in a small tankers
The stored water must be sufficient for the whole flight

ES
A quick and clean refilling must be allowed
Heating:
The water must be heated to the right temperature for the hot
AC
water taps
The water must be enough heated to make hot drinks
TR

Cooling:
The water of the drinking fountains must be cooled
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Potable water system

S
IS
Distribution:
The pressure must be enough to force the water to all taps, heaters

W
and beverage makers
Contents indication:

ES
The cabin crew must be able to control the water level during the
flight
The technician must be able to control the quantity of loaded water
AC
Anti-frost system:
It prevents the water freezing in the supply pipes
Some Electrical heaters are placed around the pipes
TR

Removal of waste water:

The waste water must be removed from sinks, drinking fountains
O

towards the outside of the aircraft

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Water and waste system

S
IS
Toilet system can be classed into three groups:

W
1. Removable toilets, often called Elson type
2. Re-usable toilets liquid flush type

ES
3. Clean water flush type, or vacuum flush type
The sink water is drained outside the aircraft
AC
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Flush type

S
IS
The flush type single toilet unit has a sink that distributes hot and

W
cold potable water, and a WC that uses instead a management
system of black water. This system is made of a tank containing a

ES
liquid, which is treated with chemical additives. These substances
protect from the fermentation and the development of bacteria
AC
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Corrosion aspect

S
IS
The toilets, especially the sinks, are the places in which the
corrosion starts.

W
The toilet floor does not have an easy access for maintenance and is
subject to moisture, so it is a common place where corrosion can

ES
start (It must be used floor panel sealings)
To avoid corrosion it is necessary to provide some extra protection.
A strong corrosion resistant material is the titanium.
AC
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IS
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ES
AC
Chapter 13,20

INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONIC

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IMA - Introduction

S
IS
Electronic sets operated on aircraft generally are summarized as

W
avionic = aviation electronic equip-ment
A new concept, labeled Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA), first

ES
presented by Honeywell for cockpit functions on the Boeing 777
aircraft in 1995
A strong SW/SW partitioning and HW/SW segregation characterize
AC
the IMA

SW= software
TR

HW= hardware
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Core Processing and IO Module (CPIOM)

S
IS
The Core Processor Input/output Module (CPIOM) is the controller

W
and it is common avionics computer resources supporting most of
the software implemented functions of the aircraft across all

ES
aircraft system domains. The CPIOM is a standard hardware
platform designed to host several independent aircraft functions.

AC
For example, CPIOMs for the Utilities domain perform fuel
management, measurement and display, as well as the landing-
gear extension and retraction systems, braking, and the aircraft's
TR

nose-wheel steering software. CPIOMs in the Energy domain use

the standardized architecture to control electrical power
distribution.
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Common Remote Data Concentrator (CRDC)

S
IS
It concentrates data from analog and discrete signals remotely (for

W
example, in proximity to associated sensors and actuators) and then
communicates this data to computer processing resources on the

ES
aircraft
The CRDC is an avionics unit generally installed outside of the
avionics compartment.
AC
TR
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IS
W
ES
AC
Chapter 13,21

CABIN SYSTEMS
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Cabin Intercommunication Data System (CIDS)

S
IS
The Cabin Intercommunication Data System, or CIDS, gives the
interface between the flight crew (cabin/cockpit) and the cabin

W
systems
The main improves for new CIDS are related to the exclusive use of

ES
touch-screen interfaces, common software platform and a
common, user-friendly interface to obtain fleet uniformities and to
reduce costs (components and specialization courses).
AC
These systems are generally operated by means of control panels,
especially the cabin attendant panels.
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Cabin Network Service (CNS)

S
IS
The Cabin Network Service (CNS) is a new kind of system that

W
allows interconnecting the entire aircraft system to the available
services: communication, entertainment, diagnosis system, flight

ES
data, etc.

The principle of operation of the CNS can be compared to that of a

AC
common pc network where the data runs on wires and transmits
information to all the connected stations.
TR

The first advantage is that with a single wire it is possible to

transmit more information to different LRUs and on board systems.
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In-flight entertainment system

S
IS
The satellite television is the most recent innovation for in flight
entertainment system

W
The covered area and the relative satellite are:
o West Europe (ASTRA and HOTBIRD)

ES
o East Europe, Russian zone (EUTELSAT W4)
o North Africa and Mid-East (ARABSAT and NILESAT)
AC
o India (INSAT 4B)
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IS
W
ES
AC
Chapter 13,22

INFORMATION SYSTEM
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Means of storing

S
IS
On modern aircrafts memories used are SSD Solid State Drive that

W
have completely replaced the older technology based on the Hard
Disk Drive HDD. SSD shows a breaking risk lower than an Hard Disk

ES
Drive because in a SSD there are no moving parts. Moreover
o SSD doesnt need defrag
o SSD is more shock resistant than the HDD
AC
o SSD produces less heat than the HDD
Usually this kind of drive is based on flash memory. Flash memories
use the features of Floating Gate MOSFET (metal-oxide-
TR

semiconductor field effect transistor) a field effect transistor able to

store electric charge for a long time.
The limit of flash memories is that they cannot be wrote and read
O

limitless like hard disk drives therefore they have lifecycles

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