EE 431-INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

Lecture 07
Process Parameters and their measurements
 Introduction
The most common process parameters for
industrial processes that should me monitored
or maintained during the process could be:
Temperature
Pressure
Displacement
Taranlational
Rotational
Frequency
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 Temperature measurement
Temperature measurement is very important in the process
industries
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into
separate classes according
to the physical principle on which they operate.
The main principles used are:
The thermoelectric effect
Resistance change
Radiative heat emission (Pyrometry)
Thermography (self study)
Thermal expansion (self study)
Colour change (self study)
Change of state of material (self study)

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Thermoelectric effect sensors (Thermocouples)
Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that, when any
two different metals are connected together, an e.m.f., which is a function
of the temperature, is generated at the junction between the metals
The e.m.f.temperature relationship is approximately linear according to:

Wires of such pairs of materials are connected together at one end, and in
this formare known as thermocouples
Thermocouples are a very important class of device as they provide the
most commonly used method of measuring temperatures in industry
Thermocouples are manufactured from various combinations of the base
metals copper and iron, the base-metal alloys of alumel (Ni/Mn/Al/Si),
chromel (Ni/Cr), constantan (Cu/Ni), nicrosil (Ni/Cr/Si) and nisil (Ni/Si/Mn),
the noble metals platinum and tungsten, and the noble-metal alloys of
platinum/rhodium and tungsten/rhenium.

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 Thermocouples (Continued.)
Only certain combinations of these are used as thermocouples and each
standard combination is known by an internationally recognized type
letter, for instance type K is chromelalumel
The e.m.f.temperature characteristics for some of these standard
thermocouples are shown in Figure 14.1:

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 Thermocouples (Continued.)
A typical thermocouple, made from one chromel wire and one constantan
wire, is shown in Figure 14.2(a)
For analysis purposes, it is useful to represent the thermocouple by its
equivalent electrical circuit, shown in Figure 14.2(b)

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 Thermocouples (Continued.)
The e.m.f. generated at the point where the different wires are connected
together is represented by a voltage source, E1, and the point is known as
the hot junction
The temperature of the hot junction is customarily shown as Th on the
diagram
The e.m.f. generated at the hot junction is measured at the open ends of
the thermocouple, which is known as the reference junction
Thermocouples are typically only a few centimetres long so for practical
use extension leads attached to it which modifies the equivalent circuit as:

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 Thermocouples (Continued.)
The measuring system is completed by connecting the extension leads to
the voltage measuring instrument
As the connection leads will normally be of different materials to those of
the thermocouple extension leads, this introduces two further e.m.f.-
generating junctions into the system as shown in Figure:
The net output e.m.f measured (Em) is then given by:

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Ice-Bath Compensation

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 Thermocouple tables
If the e.m.f. output measured from a chromel
constantan thermocouple is 13.419mV with
the reference junction at 0C, find the hot
junction temperature from the table.

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Non-zero reference junction temperature
For non-zero reference junction temperature

where: ETh,T0 is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures

Th and T0,
ETh,Tr is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Th and
Tr, and
ETr,T0 is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Tr and
T0,
Th is the hot junction measured temperature,
T0 is 0C and
Tr is the non-zero reference junction temperature that is
somewhere between T0 and Th
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 Example
Suppose that the reference junction of a
chromelconstantan thermocouple is
maintained at a temperature of 80C and the
output e.m.f. measured is 40.102mV when the
hot junction is immersed in a fluid, find the
temperature using table.

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 Thermopile
The thermopile is the name given to a temperature-measuring device that
consists of several thermocouples connected together in series, such that
all the reference junctions are at the same cold temperature and all the
hot junctions are exposed to the temperature being measured, as shown
in Figure

The effect of connecting n thermocouples together in series is to increase

the measurement sensitivity by a factor of n.

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 Self Study
Thermocouple Types
Thermocouple colour code

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 Resistance Temperature Device
(RTD)
Resistance thermometers, which are alternatively known as
resistance temperature devices (or RTDs), rely on the principle that
the resistance of a metal varies with temperature according to the
relationship:

In the case of non-corrosive and non-conducting

environments, resistance thermometers are used
without protection.
In all other applications, they are protected inside a
sheath.
Such protection reduces the speed of response of
the system to rapid changes in temperature.
A typical time constant for a sheathed platinum resistance
thermometer is 0.4 seconds.

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 Moisture build-up with in the sheath can also impair measurement
accuracy.
Nominal resistance of standard RTDs=100 at 0C. Although special RTDs
with resistance from 50 to 200 are available.

Problem
A platinum RTD with a resistance temperature
coefficient of 0.00392\\C has a nominal
resistance of 100 at 0C.
a) Compute the resistance at 450C.
b) At which temperature the resistance is
142.6.
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 Thermistor
Thermally sensitive resistor that usually has a negative temperature
coefficient
As the temperature increases, the thermistor resistance decreases and
versa
Thermistors are very sensitive as much as 5% resistance change/C,
therefore they are capable to detect minute change in temperature
The major advantages of thermistors are their relatively low cost and their
small size

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Thermistor

Rt=Ro e/T

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Radiative Heat Emission (Pyrometry)
Waves can be characterized by their intensities and wavelengths
The hotter the object:
the shorter the wavelength
the more emitted light
Blackbody : A body that surface absorbs all
the thermal radiation incident on them
Contact less measurement can be possible
by knowing the temperature of that black body

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 Pressure Measurement
Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for most industrial
process control systems and many different types of pressure-sensing and
pressure-measurement systems are available
Pressure (P ) expresses the magnitude of normal force (F-N) per unit area
(A-m2) applied on a surface F F
P or P
A A
Units: Pa(= N/m2), psi(=lbf/in2), bar (=105 Pa=100 kPa), mmHg (or Torr=
133.3 Pascal)
Pabs Patm Pgage

Where Pabs : Absolute pressure

Patm : Atmospheric pressure (standard is: 101.3 kPa =14.696 psi=760
mmHg)
Pgage : Gage pressure
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 Capacitive Pressure Sensor
In capacitive pressure sensor, one of these metal plates is permitted to
move in and out so that the capacitance between them changes due to
varying distance between the plates.
The movable plate is connected to a diaphragm which senses the pressure
and then expands or compresses accordingly.
The movement of the diaphragm would affect the attached metal plates
position and capacitance would vary.
C = or A/d
Where:
o is the absolute permittivity,
r is the relative permittivity of the
dielectric medium between the plates,
A is the area of the plates and
d is the distance between them.

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Fibre-optic pressure sensors

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 Resonant-wire devices
A typical resonant-wire device is shown schematically:

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 Resonant-wire devices
Wire is stretched across a chamber containing fluid
at unknown pressure subjected to a magnetic field
The wire resonates at its natural frequency according
to its tension, which varies with pressure
Thus pressure is calculated by measuring the
frequency of vibration of the wire
Such frequency measurement is normally carried out
by electronics integrated into the cell
These devices are highly accurate, with a typical
inaccuracy of 0.2% full-scale reading

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 Strain Gauge
Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in
resistance when they are stretched or strained
Manufactured to various nominal values of resistance, of
which 120, 350 and 1000 are very common
The typical maximum change of resistance in a120 device
would be 5 at maximum deflection
The inputoutput relationship of a strain gauge is expressed
by the gauge factor, which is defined as the change in
resistance (R) for a given value of strain (S), i.e;

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 Strain Gauge
Two traditional types:
a. Wire type:
Consists of a length of metal resistance wire formed
into a zigzag pattern and mounted onto a flexible
backing sheet, as shown in Figure(a)
The wire is nominally of circular cross-section, As
strain is applied to the gauge, the shape of the
cross-section of the resistance wire distorts, changing the
cross-sectional area. As the resistance of the wire per unit
length is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area,
there is a consequential change in resistance.

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 Strain Gauge
Two traditional types:
b. Foil type:
Similar to metal-wire types except the active
element consists of a piece of metal foil cut into a
zigzag pattern.
Cutting a foil into the required shape is much
easier than forming a piece of resistance wire into the
required shape, and this makes the devices cheaper to
manufacture.

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 Strain Gauge
The resistance of the gauge is usually measured by a D.C bridge circuit and
the displacement is inferred from the bridge output measured
The maximum current that can be allowed to flow in a strain gauge is in
the region of 5 to 50 mA depending on the type. Thus, the maximum
voltage that can be applied is limited and consequently, as the resistance
change in a strain gauge is typically small, the bridge output voltage is also
small and amplification has to be carried out
This adds to the cost of using strain gauges

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 Example (ii)
A certain type of pressure transducer, designed to measure pressures in
the range 010 bar, consists of a diaphragm with a strain gauge cemented
to it to detect diaphragm deflections. The strain gauge has a nominal
resistance of 120 and forms one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit,
with the other three arms each having a resistance of 120. The bridge
output is measured by an instrument whose input impedance can be
assumed infinite. If, in order to limit heating effects, the maximum
permissible gauge current is 30mA, calculate the maximum permissible
bridge excitation voltage. If the sensitivity of the strain gauge is
338m/bar and the maximum bridge excitation voltage is used, calculate
the bridge output voltage when measuring a pressure of 10 bar.
Home Task: calculate the bridge output voltage when measuring a
pressure of 3bar

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 Piezo-resistive Sensors
A Piezo-resistive sensor is made from semiconductor
material in which a p-type region has been diffused
into an n-type base
The resistance of this varies greatly when the sensor
is compressed or stretched
Frequently used as a strain gauge, where it produces
a significantly higher gauge factor than that given by
metal wire or foil gauges
Also, measurement uncertainty can be reduced to
0.1%

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 Crystal Deformation changes the
Resistance of Material (Resistivity)

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 Piezoelectric transducers
Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is
applied to them
Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials
These have an asymmetrical lattice of molecules that distorts when a
mechanical force is applied to it

This distortion causes a reorientation of electric charges within the

material, resulting in a relative displacement of positive and negative
charges
The charge displacement induces surface charges on the material of
opposite polarity between the two sides
By implanting electrodes into the surface of the material, these surface
charges can be measured as an output voltage
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 Piezoelectric transducers
For a rectangular block of material, the
induced voltage is given by:

where F is the applied force in g, A is the area

of the material in mm, d is the thickness of the
material and k is the piezoelectric constant

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 Displacement Measurement
Movement (displacement) is an integral part
of many systems and therefore sensors to
measure motion are an important tool for
engineers
Displacement can take place in a straight line
which is Translational displacement
Or angular motion about an axis which is
Rotational displacement

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Translational Displacement Measurement
Translational displacement transducers are
instruments that measure the motion of a
body in a straight line between two points
Many different types of Translational
displacement transducer exist all of them
cannot be describe but the most common
translational displacement transducers would
be describe in next slides.

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 Resistive Potentiometer
The resistive potentiometer is perhaps the
best known displacement measuring device
It consists of a resistance element with a
movable contact as shown in Figure:

VO=(RCB\RAC)*Vs

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 Resistive Potentiometer
The body whose motion is being measured is
connected to the sliding element of the
potentiometer, so that translational motion of the
body causes a motion of equal magnitude of the
slider along the resistance element and a
corresponding change in the output voltage VO
Three different types of potentiometer exist, wire-
wound, carbon-lm and plastic-lm, so named
according to the material used to construct the
resistance element

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Resistive Potentiometer Operational Problems
Operational problems of potentiometers all occur at the point
of contact between the sliding element and the resistance
track
The most common problem is dirt under the slider, which
increases the resistance and there by gives a false output
voltage reading, or in the worst case causes a total loss of
output
High-speed motion of the slider can also cause the contact to
bounce, giving an intermittent output
Friction between the slider and the track can also be a
problem in some measurement systems where the body
whose motion is being measured is moved by only a small
force of a similar magnitude to these friction forces
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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The linear variable differential transformer, which is
commonly known by the abbreviation LVDT, consists of a
transformer with a single primary winding and two secondary
windings connected in the series opposing manner shown in
Figure:

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The object whose translational displacement is to be
measured is physically attached to the central iron
core of the transformer, so that all motions of the
body are transferred to the core
For an excitation voltage Vs given by:

The EMFs induced in the secondary windings Va and

Vb are given by:

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 The parameters Ka and Kb depend on the amount of
coupling between the respective secondary and
primary windings and hence on the position of the
iron core
With the core in the central position, Ka = Kb, and we
have:
Because of the series opposition mode of connection
of the secondary windings;
Hence with the core in the central position 0,
If the core is displaced then we have:

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Variable Capacitance Transducers

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 Variable Capacitance Transducers
Inaccuracies as low as 0.01% are possible with these
instruments, with measurement resolutions of 1 micron
Individual devices can be selected from manufacturers ranges
that measure displacements as small as 10^-11 m or as large
as 1m
The fact that such instruments consist only of two simple
conducting plates means that it is possible to fabricate devices
As there are no contacting moving parts, there is no friction or
wear in operation and the life expectancy quoted is 200 years
Used where the high accuracy and measurement resolution of
the instrument are required

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Range sensors

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 Rotational Displacement
Rotational displacement transducers measure the
angular motion of a body about some rotation axis
They are important not only for measuring the
rotation of bodies such as shafts, but also as part of
systems that measure translational displacement by
converting the translational motion to a rotary form
The various devices available for measuring
rotational displacements are presented in next slides

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Circular and Helical Potentiometers
The circular potentiometer is the cheapest device
available for measuring rotational displacements
It works on almost exactly the same principles as the
translational motion potentiometer, except that the
track is bent round into a circular shape
The measurement range of individual devices varies
from 010 to 0360 depending on whether the
track forms a full circle or only part of a circle
Where greater measurement range than 0360 is
required, a helical potentiometer is used, with some
devices being able to measure up to 60 full turns
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Circular and Helical Potentiometers

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Circular and Helical Potentiometers
Both kinds of device give a linear relationship between the
measured quantity and the output reading because the
output voltage measured at the sliding contact is proportional
to the angular displacement of the slider from its starting
position
However, as with linear track potentiometers, all rotational
potentiometers can give performance problems due to dirt on
the track causing loss of contact
They also have a limited life because of wear (friction)
between the sliding surfaces
The typical inaccuracy of this class of devices varies from 1%
of full scale for circular potentiometers down to 0.002% of
full scale for the best helical potentiometers
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Rotational Differential Transformer
This is a special form of differential transformer that measures rotational
rather than translational motion
The method of construction and connection of the windings is exactly the
same as for the Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT), except
that a specially shaped core is used that varies the mutual inductance
between the windings as it rotates, as shown in Figure

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Rotational Differential Transformer
Like its linear equivalent, the instrument suffers no
wear in operation and therefore has a very long life
with almost no maintenance requirements
It can also be modified for operation in harsh
environments by enclosing the windings inside a
protective enclosure

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Incremental Shaft Encoders

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Incremental Shaft Encoders

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How to find Direction of Rotation

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 Displacement Measurement
An incremental encoder measures displacement as a
pulse count, and it measures velocity as a pulse
frequency
A digital processor is able to express these readings
in engineering units (radians, degrees, rad/s, etc.)
Suppose that the maximum count possible is M
pulses and the range of the encoder is max
The angular position corresponding to a count of n
pulses is computed as:

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 Encoder Resolution
Digital Resolution: The resolution of an
encoder represents the smallest change in
measurement that can be measured
realistically

Suppose that the encoder count is stored as

digital data of r bits then M=2^r -1
Now

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 Encoder Resolution
The physical resolution of an encoder is governed by the
number of windows N in the code disk
If only one pulse signal is used (i.e., no direction sensing), and
if only the rising edges of the pulses are detected (i.e., full
cycles of the encoder signal are counted), the physical
resolution is given by

But if quadrature signals (i.e., two pulse signals, one out of

phase with the other by 90) are available and the capability
to detect both rising and falling edges of a pulse is also
present, four counts can be made per encoder cycle, thereby
improving the resolution by a factor of 4

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 Example
For an ideal design of an incremental encoder,
obtain an equation relating the parameters d,
w, and r, where:
d=diameter of encoder disk
w=number of windows per unit diameter of disk
r=word size (bits) of the angle measurement
Assume that quadrature signals are available. If
r=12 and w=500/cm, determine a suitable disk
diameter.
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Coded-Disc Shaft Encoders

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Coded-Disc Shaft Encoders

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Frequency Measurement

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Frequency Ratio Measurement

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Errors in Frequency Measurement

Gating error
Time base error
Trigger level error

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