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About this Guide

The Project Management Professional (PMP) Certification designation will set you apart from other project managers
and we thank you for purchasing our PMP Exam Formula Study Guide to help you achieve this milestone. We are
certain that it will be the most beneficial tool you use while studying the formulas you need to know. We wish you all the
best for your PMP Exam!

This guide contains the following four sections:

Essential PMP Exam Formulas - The formulas you need to know for the PMP Exam.
Formula Elaboration - These formulas require a little more explanation
Values to Remember - A selection of important values to study in preparation for the PMP Exam.
Acronyms - The list of acronyms used throughout this guide as well as on the PMP Exam.

The Formula Table Explained

On the following pages you will find the essential formulas that you will need to know and apply in order to pass the PMP
Exam. The formulas are listed in a table with three columns. For each entry we explain the concept, list the formula(s),
and explain how to interpret the result of the calculation. For example:
Concept Formula Result Interpretation
The first column contains the concept behind the We list the actual formula in the second The formula wont do you much good if
formula. Instead of just giving you the formula CV = column. For some concepts multiple you cannot explain what the result is or
EV - AC we want to make sure that you understand formulas are needed so we list them all. means. That is why we include an
what the formula is trying to achieve. The best way When helpful we also add examples for interpretation in the third column. PMP
to do that is by explaining its concept. better understanding. questions may require interpretation.
Example: Example: Example:
Cost Variance (CV) CV = EV - AC Negative = over budget = bad
Provides cost performance of the project. Helps Positive = under budget = good
determine if the project is proceeding as planned.

Exponentiation
A number of formulas needed on the PMP Exam require exponentiation. The exponent is usually shown as a superscript
4 th
to the right of the base. For instance: 3 . This exponentiation can be read as 3 raised to the 4 power or as 3 raised to the
4
power of 4. And 3 would be calculated as 3*3*3*3=81.
4
The superscript notation 3 is convenient in handwriting but can lead to errors when you are in a hurry like on the PMP
Exam. For instance it is very easy to forget to raise the exponent in a formula when you are hurriedly writing it down in
n
the minutes before you start the exam. So it could easily happen that the formula PV = FV / (1+r) gets written down as
PV = FV / (1+r)n. The difference may seem trivial but the result is disastrous. Therefore, we chose to use an accepted,
alternative way of expressing the exponentiation by using the ^ character.
4 n
When using this character, 3 is now expressed as 3^4 and PV = FV / (1+r) is expressed as PV = FV / (1+r)^n. This
removes any margin for visual errors.

Copyright and Disclaimer

PMI, PMP, CAPM, PgMP, PMI-ACP, PMI-SP, PMI-RMP and PMBOK are trademarks of the Project Management Institute, Inc. PMI has
not endorsed and did not participate in the development of this publication. PMI does not sponsor this publication and makes no
warranty, guarantee or representation, expressed or implied as to the accuracy or content. Every attempt has been made by OSP
International LLC to ensure that the information presented in this publication is accurate and can serve as preparation for the PMP
certification exam. However, OSP International LLC accepts no legal responsibility for the content herein. This document should be
used only as a reference and not as a replacement for officially published material. Using the information from this document does not
guarantee that the reader will pass the PMP certification exam. No such guarantees or warranties are implied or expressed by OSP
International LLC.

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Essential PMP Exam Formulas
Concept Formula Result Interpretation
Cost Variance (CV) CV = EV - AC Negative = over budget = bad
Provides cost performance of the project. Helps Positive = under budget = good
determine if the project is proceeding as planned.
Cost Performance Index (CPI) CPI = EV / AC 1 = good. We are getting $1 for every $1
Measure of cost efficiency on a project. Ratio of spent. Funds are used as planned.
earned value to actual cost. >1 = good. We are getting >$1 for every
$1 spent. Funds are used better than
planned.
<1 = bad. We are getting <$1 for every
$1 spent. Funds are not used as
planned.
Schedule Variance (SV) SV = EV - PV Negative = behind schedule = bad
Provides schedule performance of the project. Positive = ahead of schedule = good
Helps determine if the project work is proceeding as
planned.
Schedule Performance Index (SPI) SPI = EV / PV 1 = good. We are progressing at the
Measure of schedule efficiency on a project. Ratio originally planned rate.
of earned value to planned value. Used to >1 = good. We are progressing at a
determine if a project is behind, on or ahead of faster rate than originally planned.
schedule. Can be used to help predict when a <1 = bad. We are progressing at a slower
project will be completed. rate than originally planned.
Estimate at Completion (EAC) EAC = BAC / CPI Original budget modified by the cost
Expected final and total cost of an activity or project Assumption: use formula if current performance. The result is a monetary
based on project performance. Helps determine an variances will probably remain the value.
estimate of the total costs of a project based on same through the end of the project.
actual costs to date. There are several ways to This is the formula most often required
calculate EAC depending on the current project on the exam.
situation and how the actual work is progressing as
EAC = AC + Bottom-up ETC Actual Cost plus a new estimate for the
compared to the budget. Look for certain keywords
Assumption: use formula if original remaining work. Result is a monetary
to determine what assumptions were made.
estimate was fundamentally flawed or value.
conditions have changed and
invalidated original estimating
assumptions.
EAC = AC + (BAC - EV) Actual cost to date (AC) plus unearned
Assumption: use formula if current budget (BAC - EV). Result is a monetary
variances will probably not occur again value.
through the end of the project, which
means the original budget is more
reliable.
EAC = AC + [(BAC - EV) / (CPI * SPI)] Actual cost to date (AC) plus unearned
Assumption: use formula if project is budget (BAC - EV) modified by both cost
over budget but still needs to meet a performance and schedule performance.
schedule deadline. Result is a monetary value.
Estimate to Complete (ETC) ETC = EAC - AC Expected total cost minus actual cost to
Expected cost needed to complete all the remaining Inversion of the same formula from the date. Result is a monetary value that will
work for a schedule activity, a group of activities or EAC calculations. tell us how much more the project will
the project. Helps predict what the final cost of the Note: This ETC formula is listed in only cost.
project will be upon completion. There are many one (the most famous) PMP prep
ways to calculate ETC depending on the workbook. No others list it. We
assumptions made. (Note the keywords in italic.) recommend using it, if no keywords are
given.
ETC = We create a new estimate when This is not the result of a calculation or
it is thought that the original estimate formula, but simply a new estimate of the
was flawed. remaining cost.

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Concept Formula Result Interpretation
ETC = BAC - EV (BAC - EV) will give the unearned project
Assumption: use formula if current budget. Result is a monetary value.
variances will probably not occur again
through the end of the project, which
means the original budget is more
reliable.
ETC = (BAC - EV) / (CPI * SPI) The remaining unearned budget (BAC -
Assumption: use formula if project is EV) modified by both cost performance
over budget but still needs to meet a and schedule performance. Result is a
schedule deadline. monetary value.
ETC = (BAC / CPI) - AC Original budget modified by the cost
Assumption: use formula if current performance minus the actual cost. The
variances will probably remain the result is a monetary value.
same through the end of the project.
This is the formula most often required
on the exam.
Percent Complete Percent Complete = EV / BAC * 100 The result is a percentage. What is
How much of the planned budget do we have currently completed divided by the
completed? original budget times 100.
To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI) Based on BAC: The TCPI is compared to the cumulative
The calculated project of cost performance that TCPI = (BAC - EV) / (BAC - AC) CPI to determine if a target EAC is
must be achieved on the remaining work to meet a reasonable. A target EAC is assumed to
specific management goal (e.g. BAC or EAC). Based on EAC: be reasonable if the TCPI is within plus
TCPI = (BAC - EV) / (EAC - AC) or minus 0.05 of the cumulative CPI EVM
It is the work remaining divided by the funds metric.
remaining.
Variance at Completion (VAC) VAC = BAC - EAC Result is a monetary value that estimates
Anticipates the difference between the originally how much over or under budget (the
estimated BAC and a newly calculated EAC. In variance) we will be at the end of the
other words, the cost we originally planned minus project.
the cost that we now expect. <0 = over budget
0 = on budget
>0 under budget
Earned Value (EV) EV = % complete * BAC The result is the EV, a monetary value.
A quick formula for calculating the Earned Value on
a project at a point in time.
Program Evaluation and Review Technique Beta = (Pessimistic + (4 * Most Likely) The result is the estimated duration of a
(PERT) - Beta Distribution + Optimistic) / 6 schedule activity expressed as a
Three point estimate for the expected duration of a weighted average. This is the preferred
schedule activity using pessimistic, optimistic and formula for the PMP Exam.
most likely durations. A probabilistic approach,
using statistical estimates of durations to get a
weighted average.
Program Evaluation and Review Technique Triangular = (Pessimistic + Most Likely The result is the estimated duration of a
(PERT) - Triangular Distribution + Optimistic) / 3 schedule activity expressed as a simple
Three point estimate for the expected duration of a average.
schedule activity using pessimistic, optimistic and
most likely durations. A probabilistic approach,
using statistical estimates of durations to get a
simple average.

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Concept Formula Result Interpretation
PERT Standard Deviation (Single Activity) = (Pessimistic - Optimistic) / 6 Large standard deviation indicates that
The standard deviation () is a reflection of the the data points are far from the mean
uncertainty in the estimates. It is a good measure of and a small standard deviation indicates
the statistical variability of an activity. If an activity that they are clustered closely around the
has different estimates: optimistic, most likely and mean. Hence, the larger the standard
pessimistic, the standard deviation will determine deviation, the greater the risk.
the variation in the same units of the
measurements.
PERT Activity Variance Variance = [ (Pessimistic - Optimistic) / Unlike expected absolute deviation, the
The variance is a reflection of the uncertainty in the 6 ] ^ 2 variance of a variable has units that are
estimates expressed in squared units of the the square of the units of the variable
measurements. It is also a measure of the statistical itself. For example, a variable measured
variability of an activity. The difference between in inches will have a variance measured
variance and standard deviation is that, the in square inches. For this reason,
variance is in the squared units of the describing data sets via their standard
measurements while the standard deviation is in the deviation or root mean square deviation
same units as the measurements. The standard is often preferred over using the
deviation is not additive and hence cannot be used variance.
in mathematical formulas for studying variations
among different populations; only variance can be
used in such cases.
PERT Standard Deviation (All Activities) sum((Pessimistic - Optimistic) / 6)^2 The result is one standard deviation (or
You may be required to calculate the duration of (Add up the variances of all the variance) from the mean of the given
multiple activities and give their standard deviation. activities and then take the square series of activities.
This is done by taking the square root of the total root.)
variance.
Activity Duration Duration = EF - ES + 1 Number of days this activity lasts.
Determines how long an activity lasts. There are Duration = LF - LS + 1
two formulas both will give the same result.
Free Float Free Float = Earliest ES of Following Number of days this activity can be
Determines how many days you can delay an Activities - ES of Present Activity - delayed without delaying the early start
activity without delaying the early start of the next Duration of Present Activity of the next activity.
activity. On most sample PMP exam questions, the Note: If the present activity has more
network diagrams are too small to show activities than one following activities, then use the
where free float and total float are different. In most Earliest ES of any of the following
sample questions they will be the same. activities.
Total Float Total Float = LS - ES Number of days this activity can be
Determines how many days you can delay an Total Float = LF - EF delayed without delaying the project.
activity without delaying the project. There are two
formulas both will give the same result.
1
Early Finish (EF) EF = (ES + duration) - 1 The earliest day on which this activity
Determine when an activity will finish at the earliest. can finish.
1
Early Start (ES) ES = (EF of predecessor) + 1 The earliest day on which this activity
Determine when an activity can start at the earliest. can start.
1
Late Finish (LF) LF = (LS of successor) - 1 The latest day on which this activity can
Determine when an activity should finish at the finish.
latest.
1
Late Start (LS) LS = (LF - duration) + 1 The latest day on which this activity can
Determine when an activity should start at the start.
latest.

1
See Formula Elaboration section
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Concept Formula Result Interpretation
Present Value (PV) PV = FV / (1+r)^n The result is the amount of money you
Receiving money in the present (today) has a need to invest today (PV) for n years at r
different value than receiving money in the future (in % interest in order to end up with the
three years). This formula calculates how much. target sum (FV). The higher the PV the
(Also described as value today of future cash better.
flows.) PV in this case should not be confused with
the Planned Value (PV).
Future Value (FV) FV = PV * (1+r)^n The result is the amount of money you
Receiving money in the future (in three years) has a will end up with (FV) if you invest a sum
different value than receiving money in the present of money (PV) for n years at r % interest.
(today). This formula calculates its future value.
(Also described as the discounted value of a future
cash flow.)
Net Present Value (NPV) Formula not required for exam. Positive NPV is good. Negative NPV is
Method for financial evaluation of long-term bad. The project with the higher NPV is
projects. (Also described as Present value of cash the better project.
inflow / benefits minus present value of cash outflow
/ costs.)
Return on Investment (ROI) Formula not required for Exam The project with the higher ROI is better
Ratio of money gained or lost on an investment and should be selected.
relative to the amount of money invested. The
amount of money gained or lost is often referred to
as interest, profit/loss, gain/loss, or net income/loss.
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Formula not required for exam. The project with the higher IRR is better
Interest rate at which the present value of the cash and should be selected.
flows equals the initial investment. More precise
and more conservative than NPV.
Payback period Add up the projected cash inflow minus The project with the shorter payback
Rough tool to estimate the time it takes to recover expenses until you reach the initial period is better and should be selected.
the initial investment by adding up the future cash investment.
inflows until they are equal to the initial investment.
(Or in plain English: The time it takes until you make
a profit.)
Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) Benefit / Cost BCR < 1 is bad. BCR > 1 is good. The
Ratio that describes the cost versus benefits of a project with the higher BCR is the better
project. one.
Cost Benefit Ratio (CBR) Cost / Benefit CBR > 1 is bad. CBR < 1 is good. The
Ratio that describes the benefits versus cost of a project with the lower CBR is the better
project. This is simply the reverse of the Benefit one.
Cost Ratio
Opportunity Cost Opportunity Cost = The value of the For the PMP exam the opportunity cost is
Opportunity cost is the cost incurred by choosing project not chosen. usually a monetary value: Project B was
one option over an alternative one. Thus, selected over project A, therefore the
opportunity cost is the cost of pursuing one choice opportunity cost is the unrealized profit of
instead of another. project A. Note that NO calculation is
required.
Communication Channels n * (n-1) / 2 Total number of communication channels
The number of communication channels on a team. among n people of a group
n-1 Number of communication channels that
one member of the team has with
everyone else on the team. I.e. you have
to make this many phone calls to call
everyone else.

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Concept Formula Result Interpretation
Expected Monetary Value (EMV) EMV = Probability * Impact in currency A monetary value that represents the
Gain or loss that will result when an event occurs. expected gain or loss of an event should
Takes probability into account. For instance: If it it come to be.
rains we will lose $200. There is a 25% chance that
it will rain, therefore the EMV is: 0.25 * $200 = $50.
Point of Total Assumption (PTA) PTA = ((Ceiling Price - Target Price) / The result is a monetary value. When
The point of total assumption (PTA) is a price Buyer's Share Ratio) + Target Cost reached then the seller covers all of the
determined by a fixed price plus incentive fee cost risk beyond.
contract (FPIF) above which the seller pays the cost
overrun. In addition, once the costs on an FPIF
contract reach PTA, the maximum amount the
buyer will pay is the ceiling price.
Straight-line Depreciation Depreciation Expense = Asset Cost / The result is either the Depreciation
A method that depreciates the same amount (or Useful Life Expense (the yearly depreciation
percent) each year by dividing the asset's cost by amount: $200) or the Depreciation Rate
the number of years it is expected to be in service. Depreciation Expense = (Asset Cost - (the yearly depreciation percentage: 5%).
The simplest of the depreciation methods. Scrap Value) / Useful Life If a Scrap Value is given then this can
also be factored in by subtracting it.
Depreciation Rate = 100% / Useful Life
Double Declining Balance Depreciation Rate = 2 * (100% / Useful The Depreciation Rate stays the same
Most common depreciation method that provides for Life) over the years, but the Depreciation
a higher depreciation charge in the first year of an Expense gets smaller each year because
asset's life and gradually decreasing charges in Depreciation Expense = Depreciation it is calculated from a smaller book value
subsequent years. It does this by depreciating twice Rate * Book Value at Beginning of Year each year.
the straight-line depreciation rate from an assets
book value at the beginning of the year. Book Value = Book Value at beginning
of year - Depreciation Expense
Sum-of-Years' Digits Method Sum of the digits = Useful Life + Both depreciation rate and depreciation
Sum-of-Years' Digits is a depreciation method that (Useful Life - 1) + (Useful Life - 2) + etc. fraction get smaller over time.
results in a more accelerated write-off than straight Example: Sum of the digits: If the useful
line, but less than declining-balance method. Under Depreciation rate = fraction of years left life is 5, then it is 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 =15
this method annual depreciation is determined by and sum of the digits (i.e. 4/15th) Depreciation rate: 5/15th for the 1st year,
multiplying the Depreciable Cost by a schedule of 4/15th for the 2nd year, 3/15th for the 3rd
fraction based on the useful life of the asset. year, 2/15th for the 4th year, and 1/15th
for the 5th year.
Average The sum of all the members of the list The result is a number representing the
In mathematics, an average refers to a measure of divided by the number of items in the arithmetic mean.
the "middle" of a data set. The most common list.
method is the arithmetic mean. That is why the
Average is sometimes also and simply called the Average of 2, 4, 6 = (2 + 4 + 6) / 3 = 4
Mean.
Mean See Average
Median Arrange the values from lowest value to The result is a number representing the
The middle value that separates the higher half highest value and pick the middle one. median.
from the lower half of the data set. Example: 4 is the median in 2, 4, 6

If there is an even number of values,

calculate the mean of the two middle
values. Example: 5 is the median in 2,
4, 6, 8 because 4 + 6 / 2 = 5
Mode Find the value in a data set that occurs The result is a number representing the
The most frequent value in a given data set. most often. Example: 2 is the mode of mode.
1, 2, 2, 3

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Formula Elaboration

There are two approaches for calculating ES, EF, LS and LF:
First approach: You calculate the network diagram starting on day 0
Second approach: You calculate the network diagram starting on day 1

In the PMP Exam Formula Study Guide we use the second approach, because when your sponsor tells you that your
project starts on the first day of September, then that is September 1, not September 0. This is also the way that all
modern scheduling tools seem to work. You schedule your project based on a calendar start date and not "on day 0".
That is why there is a slight difference between the calculations: you have to add/subtract 1 from the results in the second
approach.

Of course, this often leads to confusion for PMP exam students and they ask which formula should we use on the exam?

We have discussed this with a number of PMP trainer colleagues and they agree that PMI does not "support" a specific
method of calculating a network diagram. (Remember that next to the two options shown above you could also calculate a
network path starting on a specific calendar date in hours instead of days, making the calculations even more complex).

Neelesh Pandey, PMP (a PMP trainer) has told us the following about his teaching experience with these formulas:

I use a PowerPoint presentation with animations to prove that no matter what method you follow, the result is
same. I choose a part of a network diagram with four sequential activities, which sum up to a duration of 10. This
path has a float of two based which we calculate LS and LF. My participants once assured that it doesn't make a
difference tend to use the "zero" method. Somehow they find it simple as no subtraction is needed. PPT
animation helps me a lot and also I ask my participants to calculate ES, LS, EF, and LF for a simple network
diagram using both the methods.

As you see, both of these calculations will lead to the correct answer. However, in the exam the big difference is that the
first approach (starting on day 0) involves fewer calculations because you don't have to "+1 or -1" each time. So, in order
to reduce your "risk" of doing a calculation wrong and saving time during the exam, you might want to initiate the network
diagram with day 0. However, in "real life" starting with day 1 is more appropriate.

Since PMI is aware of these varying methods, you should not see a question on the exam where only the application of
one or the other leads to the correct answer.

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Values to Remember
Description Value Comment
1 sigma 68.27% (68.2689492) Also: 1 standard deviation
2 sigma 95.45% (95.4499736) Also: 2 standard deviations
3 sigma 99.73% (99.7300204) Also: 3 standard deviations
6 sigma 99.99% (99.9999998027) Also: 6 standard deviations
Note: 99.9999998027 is the so called
true 6 sigma value for normal
distribution. The practical 6 sigma is
99.999666666, but 99.99 is sufficient
for the PMP Exam and you do not need to
know these differences.
Control Limits Usually 3 standard deviations above and Control limits reflect the expected
below the mean variation in the data.
Control Specifications Not fixed but defined by the customer Must be looser than the control limits.
Represents the customers requirements.
Rough Order of Magnitude estimate -25% to +75% (PMBOK Guide) The estimate ranges are not 100%
agreed upon. Some books set the ROM
Preliminary estimate -15% to + 50%
at -25% to +75% others at -50% to
Budget estimate -10% to +25% +100%. See explanation below table for a
Definitive estimate -5% to +10% more detailed discussion.

Final estimate 0%
Float on the critical path 0 days
Paretos Law 80/20 For instance: 80% of your problems are
due to 20% of the causes.
Time a PM spends communicating 90% According to Harold Kerzner.
Crashing a project Crash the tasks with the least expensive Only crash activities on the critical path.
crash cost first.
Value of the inventory in a Just in Time 0% (or very close to 0%.)
(JIT) environment
Sunk Cost A cost that has been incurred and cannot Sunk cost is never a factor when making
be reversed. project decisions.
Negative Numbers (100) In the USA the number -100 is the same
- 100 as (100). Both indicate minus one
hundred.

The Estimate Ranges Disagreement

We often receive questions from students about the fact that they see different numbers for the Estimate Ranges when they
compare various training materials. That is true, because there is unfortunately no final authority that defines these ranges.

There is disagreement both on the names as well as on the actual ranges. Some books set the ROM at -25% to +75% others at
-50% to +100%. This is not surprising because estimate ranges are both application area and industry dependent. Everyone
does it slightly differently in their industry and on their projects. So it really isn't surprising that you will see different numbers in
different books.

The numbers that we provide in the table above have been successfully used by our students on the exam, so we believe them
to be a good approach for the exam.

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Formula Acronyms
Acronym Term Description

AC Actual Cost Total cost expended and reported during the accomplishment of a project task or project.
This can be labor hours alone; direct costs alone; or all costs, including indirect costs.

BAC Budget at Completion The sum of all budgets allocated to a project.

BCR Benefit Cost Ratio Ratio that compares benefits to cost

CBR Cost Benefit Ratio Ratio that compares cost to benefit (Inversion of BCR)

CPI Cost Performance Index The CPI is a cost efficiency rating on a project, expressed as a ratio of AC to EV.

CV Cost Variance A measure of cost performance on the project, expressed as the difference between
earned value and actual cost.

EAC Estimate at Completion The expected total cost for scheduled activity, a group of activities, or the project when
the work will be completed.

EF Early Finish Early finish of an activity

EMV Expected Monetary Value This is a statistical technique that calculates the probable financial results of events.

ES Early Start Early start of an activity

ETC Estimate to Complete ETC is the expected cost needed to complete all the remaining work for a scheduled
activity, a group of activities, or the project. ETC helps project managers predict what the
final cost of the project will be upon completion.

EV Earned Value EV is the value of completed work expressed in terms of the approved budget assigned
to that work for a scheduled activity or work breakdown structure component.

FV Future Value Value of money on a given date in the future

IRR Internal Rate of Return A capital budgeting metric used by firms to decide whether they should make
investments. It is an indicator of the efficiency of an investment.

JIT Just-in-Time Just-in-time is an inventory strategy that strives to improve a business's return on
investment by reducing in-process inventory and associated carrying costs.

LF Late Finish Late finish of an activity

LS Late Start Late start of an activity

NPV Net Present Value Standard method for the financial appraisal of long-term projects. Measures the excess
or shortfall of cash flows, in present value (PV) terms, once financing charges are met.

PERT Program Evaluation and Method that allows the estimation of the weighted average duration of tasks
Review Technique

PTA Point of Total Assumption Contract price above which the seller bears all the loss of a cost overrun.

PV Planned Value PV is the authorized budget assigned to the scheduled work to be accomplished for a
scheduled activity or work breakdown structure component.

PV Present Value Value of money received today instead of in the future.

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Acronym Term Description

ROI Return on Investment Ratio of money gained or lost on an investment relative to the amount of money invested

SPI Schedule Performance Ratio of work accomplished versus work planned, for a specified time period. The SPI is
Index an efficiency rating for work accomplishment, comparing work accomplished to what
should have been accomplished.

SV Schedule Variance A measure of schedule performance on the project, expressed as the difference
between earned value and planned value.

TCPI To-Complete Performance The calculated project of cost performance that must be achieved on the remaining work
Index to meet a specific management goal (e.g. BAC or EAC). It is the work remaining divided
by the funds remaining.

VAC Variance at Completion VAC forecasts the difference between the Budget-at-Completion and the expected total
costs to be accrued over the life of the project based on current trends.

Sigma The lower case Greek letter sigma is used to denote the standard deviation.

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