Chapter 1

The impact of mentoring on

leadership capacity and professional
learning
Kate Thornton

Introduction
Mentoring is an important strategy for supporting new and aspiring
teachers, as well as experienced leaders. It is also an effective leader-
ship approach that enhances professional learning and practice. This
chapter will begin by considering definitions of mentoring and the dif-
ferences and similarities between mentoring and coaching. Mentoring
and coaching practices and the mentoring role of leaders from both
within and outside of early childhood education (ECE) services will
then be discussed.
I will be drawing on research from both the school and ECE sec-
tors, and in particular my research over the last decade into approaches
to leadership practice, leadership development, and leadership in pro-
fessional learning communities. The chapter will conclude with a dis-
cussion of the lack of support for leaders to develop their mentoring
and coaching capacity, and suggestions for future professional learn-
ing. This discussion provides an opportunity for teachers to reflect on
how mentoring and coaching are enacted in their contexts.

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Mentoring in early childhood education: A compilation of thinking, pedagogy and practice

Defining mentoring
Mentoring has been described as a relationship that involves support-
ing, motivating, shaping, guiding and encouraging, with the purpose
of helping a mentee to reach their potential (Varney, 2012). While
there is general agreement about these key mentoring strategies, there
are different interpretations of the nature of mentoring relationships
and the balance of influence within these relationships. Traditionally
mentoring has referred to a more experienced person passing on their
skills and knowledge to a less experienced person (Craft, 2000), but
several authors advocate a less top-down, more collaborative relation-
ship involving mutual learning (Asada, 2012; Bollinger, 2009).
The voluntary nature of mentoring relationships is also a source of
debate. Traditionally, mentoring relationships are informal, and it is
up to the mentee to select their own mentor. However, mentoring has
increasingly become associated with formal preparation programmes,
and mentors are assigned because of their expertise rather than being
chosen because of their compatibility with mentees.

Mentoring or coaching?
There appears to be confusion between the terms mentoring and
coaching, with some authors suggesting there is little difference
(Brockbank & McGill, 2006; Pask & Joy, 2007), while others see them
as quite distinct activities (Fletcher, 2012). There seems to be broad
agreement that mentoring is a more holistic term that suggests an
ongoing supportive relationship, whereas coaching involves more spe-
cific actions such as listening, questioning and goal setting (Fletcher,
2012). Coaching has been described as the process used to help people
reflect, find power and courage within themselves, and think and act
in new ways in order to bring about positive change (Wise & Jacobo,
2010, p. 163). Ives (2008) considers that the purpose of coaching is to
help the person being coached to focus on and achieve their clearly
defined goals (p. 103).
It has been suggested that coaching is an essential aspect of men-
toring, along with relating, assessing and guiding (Rowley, 2006).
Solansky (2010) sees the two roles as complementary and advocates for
mentors to engage in coaching behaviours that increase the likelihood
of leadership learning. The importance of coaches using open-ended

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 Chapter 1: The impact of mentoring on leadership capacity and professional learning

questions to provide thought, raise awareness, and to inspire motiva-

tion and commitment (Ives, 2008, p. 103) could also apply to men-
tors. Both concepts are relevant to teachers working in ECE services,
whether they are in formal leadership roles or not.
There are different views on the specific expertise and skills required
by mentors and coaches. Rodd (2013) suggests that mentors need to
have specific knowledge and experience of the work of the mentee,
while seeing coaches as taking a more specific time-bound role in help-
ing individuals move forward, and so do not need specific expertise.
However, Waniganayake, Cheeseman, Fenech, Hadley and Shepherd
(2012) propose an alternative distinction, suggesting that coaches have
specific expertise and focus on skill development, whereas mentoring
is a process of sharing knowledge and skills and does not require tech-
nical expertise. A different perspective again is offered by Brockbank
and McGill (2006), who have suggested that the most useful way of
distinguishing between mentoring and coaching is by looking at the
purpose and practices involved in each activity. In line with this idea,
the purpose of each term was discussed above, and the practice will be
explored in the following section.

Mentoring and coaching practices

Mentoring in the education sector in Aotearoa New Zealand has typ-
ically focused on supporting beginning teachers by providing access
to a mentor teacher, who enables them to gain full teacher registra-
tion. The term mentor teacher was introduced with the release of
the Guidelines for Induction and Mentoring and Mentor Teachers (New
Zealand Teachers Council [NZTC], 2011). The change in terminology
from the previous term tutor teacher to mentor in these guidelines
signalled a shift in the way that beginning teachers are supported, with
the focus being on educative mentoring, which involves support, pro-
vision of feedback and the facilitation of evidence-informed reflective
learning conversations (NZTC, 2011, p. 10), rather than advice and
guidance that may have limited benefits.
The benefits of induction and mentoring programmes are well
established. Effective mentoring of beginning teachers within schools
and ECE services has been shown to have a positive effect on the
retention of teachers, the quality of teaching and learning, and the

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Mentoring in early childhood education: A compilation of thinking, pedagogy and practice

achievement of students (Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlinson,

2009; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Pavia, Nissen, Hawkins, Monroe, &
Filimon-Demeyen, 2003).
Mentoring is also employed in many leadership development pro-
grammes because it is viewed as an effective leadership development
strategy. It is one of six approaches discussed by Day (2000), who argues
that mentoring can be either formal or informal, and has the potential
to support leadership development if it is aimed at growing leadership
in the whole organisation rather than in individual leaders. The use
of mentoring to support leadership development is also discussed by
Solansky (2010), who suggests that a useful purpose of mentoring is
for mentees to develop security in their leadership roles. Rhodes and
Fletcher (2013) highlight mentoring as an effective leadership develop-
ment approach that builds self-efficacy and has the potential to reduce
the attrition rate of those in leadership positions. Ongoing mentoring
for leaders in ECE is promoted by Waniganayake et al. (2012), who sug-
gest that mentoring benefits both experienced and new leaders, because
mentors can act as sounding boards and critical friends. Critical friends
have been described as those who offer a different perspective on ones
practice (Costa & Kallick, 1995). The inherent tension between the
roles of critic and friend has been discussed, with the conclusion drawn
that the concept is more complex than the simple balance between the
two potentially contrasting roles, as it is the combination of these roles
that provides richness (Thornton, 2009, p. 170).
Coaching has been referred to as a key tool in programmes focused
on developing school leaders (Burley & Pomphrey, 2011). Such pro-
grammes involve goal setting to support the professional learning of
individual leaders, with the purpose of achieving learning and personal
growth (Blackman, 2010). Coaching not only supports the professional
learning of those in leadership positions, but also encourages leadership
in others. Fletcher (2012) has suggested that school leaders who have
been coached are likely to go on to identify and coach aspiring leaders
in their institutions (p. 36). A leader who uses coaching as a strategy
is likely to be perceived as more collaborative than directive, and more
of a listener and facilitator than a teller and decision maker (Bloom
& Krovetz, 2009). Coaching leaders assist those they work with to
identify their unique strengths and weaknesses and tie them to their

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 Chapter 1: The impact of mentoring on leadership capacity and professional learning

personal and career aspirations (Goleman, 2000, p. 87). They are less
worried about short-term task completion than ongoing learning. This
coaching approach to leadership is seen to have a positive impact on
organisational climate and performance (Goleman, 2000).

Mentoring and coaching for leadership in early

childhood education
Mentoring and coaching are both seen as important strategies for sup-
porting leadership and professional learning in ECE settings. A study
exploring the definitions and perceptions of leadership in the UK early
years sector (Aubrey, Godfrey, & Harris, 2013) identified leading oth-
ers by mentoring and coaching as a common theme, along with being
a role model and having a clear vision. Rodd (2013) has suggested that
both mentoring and coaching are important leadership strategies for
supporting the professional learning of both individuals and teams.
She also likened the role of the mentor to that of a critical friend, and
suggested that the relationship should be based on trust, honesty and
mutual respect, and should also be supportive and non-judgemental.
A recent study by Murphy and Butcher (2015) found that beginning
teachers are more likely to develop confidence in their own leadership
capacity if they have experienced positive mentoring relationships.
Mentoring and coaching have been promoted as strategies for both
leadership development and effective leadership practice in the New
Zealand ECE sector. I identified mentoring as an important leadership
development strategy in a study exploring notions of leadership in the
Centres of Innovation programme (Thornton, 2005). This research,
which explored how leadership was defined and enacted in several of
the first-round Centres of Innovation, identified a lack of support for
leadership development in both teacher preparation and professional
development programmes, and suggested strategies that would encour-
age the development of distributed leadership. Distributed leadership
has been defined as leadership that is dispersed across group members
and is characterised by interdependence and co-operation (Thornton,
2009). Mentoring approaches recommended in this study included
developing relationships based on professionalism, mutual trust and
respect. A study carried out by Clarkin-Phillips (2007) explored a par-
ticular model of professional development and identified coaching as

5
Mentoring in early childhood education: A compilation of thinking, pedagogy and practice

an aspect of professional development that supports distributed lead-

ership, along with networking and collaboration. The results of this
research included the finding that distributed leadership is a signifi-
cant factor in empowering teachers and affording them opportunities
for ongoing learning and leadership (p. 132).
More recently, I have been involved in research on professional
learning communities in the ECE sector. Professional learning com-
munities are groups of professional educators working collectively and
purposefully to create and sustain a culture of learning for all students
and adults (Hipp & Huffman, 2010, p. 12). Among the indicators of
effective professional learning communities are shared and supported
leadership and shared personal practice, including opportunities for
mentoring and coaching. Professional learning communities are rele-
vant to the New Zealand ECE sector because there is an expectation
that all registered teachers will contribute to the professional learning
community as an indicator of showing leadership that contributes to
effective teaching and learning (NZTC, 2011, p. 11). A national sur-
vey revealed that opportunities for coaching and mentoring were not
as prevalent as some other aspects of shared personal practice and were
mainly available for provisionally registered teachers (Thornton &
Wansbrough, 2012, p. 57). This research also highlighted the impor-
tance of mentoring and coaching as leadership actions that support the
collective learning of all teachers (p. 59). Subsequent research focused
on the factors that contribute to effective professional learning commu-
nities, particularly organisational and structural factors (Cherrington
& Thornton, 2015). This study involved case studies of different models
of professional learning communities, and the role of the researchers/
facilitators will be discussed later in the chapter.
In an article offering a vision of effective ECE leadership practice
(Thornton, 2009), I suggested that relationships within and between
services should include aspects of both mentoring and coaching. These
relationships may involve the professional leader mentoring less experi-
enced teachers or they may take the form of critical friend relationships
where teachers both support and challenge each others practice (p. 5).
The lack of leadership development opportunities for those working in
the New Zealand ECE sector was emphasised in this article, and there
seems little evidence that anything has changed over the past 6 years.

6
 Chapter 1: The impact of mentoring on leadership capacity and professional learning

Access to professional learning and/or tertiary qualifications for men-

toring teachers was also highlighted in another New Zealand study
focusing on the relationships and experiences of ECE student teachers
working with their associates while on practicum (Murphy & Butcher,
2013).

Inside and outside mentoring roles

The mentoring and coaching roles taken by leaders, both within ECE
services and from outside of ECE services, have been discussed in the
literature. Waniganayake et al. (2012) have suggested that ECE leaders
have a responsibility to mentor others in order to promote professional
learning, leading to positive learning outcomes for children. Mentoring
may take the form of modelling and encouraging a culture of con-
tinual growth and professional responsibility (Waniganayake et al.,
2012, p. 100). Those who mentor or coach others can benefit just as
much from the relationship as those they mentor or coach, and leaders
who engage in mentoring may be encouraged to reflect on their own
practice. Rodd (2013) has discussed the benefits for mentors from an
ECE perspective, including the development of insight and new under-
standing, the enhancement of professional competence, and increased
self-awareness and reflection.
The importance of trusted professionals from outside ECE ser-
vices providing mentoring and coaching has been discussed in New
Zealand research. My study, involving three of the first-round Centres
of Innovation, identified several mentoring roles. One of these was the
role taken by the programme co-ordinator, Dr Anne Meade, who pro-
vided support and encouragement to the Centres of Innovation. Also,
one of the services in this study mentored a nearby service; the rela-
tionship between these services was described as collegial and ongo-
ing (Feltham, 2004). It was not so much a relationship of dependence
as one that was characterised by trust and reciprocity (Feltham,
2004, p.1), and involved mutual learning. Both these roles had posi-
tive impacts on the effectiveness of the programme and the sector as a
whole (Thornton, 2005).
I coined the term trusted inquisitor for the role I took as an action
learning facilitator in my doctoral research into blended action learn-
ing for leadership learning in ECE (Thornton, 2009). As the researcher/

7
Mentoring in early childhood education: A compilation of thinking, pedagogy and practice

facilitator, I worked with small groups of leaders over a period of 6 to

8 months to support their leadership learning, both in face-to-face ses-
sions and through online interactionshence the term blended learn-
ing. Action learning involves a questioning and reflective listening
process in response to a problem or issue, and in the context of a small
group of learners. This role involved coaching in the practice of form-
ing and encouraging trusting relationships characterised by empa-
thy and support; and also questioning and challenging participants
to encourage reflective practice and leadership learning (Thornton,
2009, p. 169). This coaching role also involved providing participants
with options for how they might proceed in their leadership journeys.
As a result of being coached, participants in this study began to use
coaching strategies with their teaching teams and several commented
on how empowering their teachers found this approach.
The recent research exploring the relevance of professional learning
communities to the New Zealand ECE sector (referred to earlier) dis-
cusses the roles taken by the facilitators/researchers and their similarity
to critical friends. These roles involved facilitating face-to-face meet-
ings and responding to the online postings of the study participants.
Among the elements of the role commented on by the participants were
the provision of resources, non-judgemental listening, and questioning
to encourage reflection (Thornton & Cherrington, 2014), actions sim-
ilar to those taken by mentors or coaches. In the more effectively func-
tioning professional learning communities in this study, where there
was a high level of relational trust and the participants were willing to
be challenged, deeper level questioning encouraged reflection and led
to shifts in practice (p. 101).
All the mentoring and coaching relationships described above pro-
mote professional learning and encourage leadership in different ways.
Although leaders who coach and mentor teachers within their service
provide support, someone from outside the service is able to provide
a different perspective on service practice and/or leadership and can
encourage critical reflection. The importance of outside facilitation
to effective professional learning has been emphasised in a review of
continuing professional development in the New Zealand ECE sector
(Cherrington & Thornton, 2013). This outsider role was discussed in
Mitchell and Cubeys (2003) best evidence synthesis on professional

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 Chapter 1: The impact of mentoring on leadership capacity and professional learning

development in early childhood settings, which concluded that expert

facilitators have an important role in challenging practice and providing
alternative perspectives. The value of a trusted but impartial person from
outside the service supporting a mentoring relationship was promoted
by Pavia et al. (2003). These authors suggested that such third parties
have the potential to contribute to the effectiveness of the relationship
by assessing the ongoing needs of both and collaborating with mentors
to devise strategies for more effective interactions (p. 259).

Future mentoring/coaching practice in the

New Zealand ECE sector
The provision of support for leadership development programmes
involving elements of mentoring and coaching in the New Zealand
school sector contrasts with the lack of support for leadership devel-
opment in the ECE sector and the lack of opportunities for those in
leadership roles to develop their mentoring and coaching skills. First-
time principals in Ministry of Education-funded programmes are
assigned a mentor for the course of their 1-year programme, and aspir-
ing principals involved in the National Aspiring Principals programme
(also nationally funded) receive coaching. There are no equivalent
Ministry of Education-funded programmes to support leadership devel-
opment in the ECE sector, with the only financial support available for
more generic professional development. There is clear evidence in the
research literature that mentoring and coaching are important strate-
gies for supporting beginning teachers (Murphy & Butcher, 2013), for
aspiring leaders (Waniganayake et al., 2012), and for building and sus-
taining professional learning communities (Thornton & Cherrington,
2014). There are, however, very few opportunities for professional lead-
ers to develop the necessary skills, or to learn about and reflect on their
role as mentors and coaches.
The model of professional learning communities offers a useful
framework for reflecting on the way shared and supportive leadership,
collective learning, shared personal practice and supportive relation-
ships are enacted in ECE services. Professional leaders wanting to
develop collaborative leadership practices and to distribute leadership
across the teaching team need to focus on effective mentoring and
coaching strategies. These include listening, giving non-judgemental

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 Mentoring in early childhood education: A compilation of thinking, pedagogy and practice

feedback, effective questioning, and goal setting, and their effective

implementation requires specific and ongoing opportunities for profes-
sional learning.
Becoming an effective mentor requires specialist preparation and
support (Patterson & Thornton, 2014). Such opportunities should be a
priority for the Ministry of Education to ensure that not only are ECE
teachers able to demonstrate professional leadership and participate
in professional learning communities, as required in the Registered
Teacher Criteria (NZTC, 2011), but can also contribute to a stronger,
critically reflective ECE sector (Cherrington & Thornton, 2015).

Conclusion
Effective ECE leadersmentor and coach their colleagues and encour-
age them to become involved in leadership. This approach supports the
development of professional learning communities, characterised by
shared and supportive leadership,collective learning, shared personal
practice and supportive relationships. Mentoring and coaching both
require complex skills, but there are very few opportunities for leaders
or teachers in the New Zealand ECE sector to develop these skills. The
provision of professional learning programmes for leaders in the sector
that include aspects of mentoring and coaching would provide support
for effective leadership practice and for participating in professional
learning communities. This provision is long overdue and should be a
priority for the sector.

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