Neuron

Review

Acetylcholine as a Neuromodulator:
Cholinergic Signaling Shapes
Nervous System Function and Behavior
Marina R. Picciotto,1,2,3,* Michael J. Higley,2,3 and Yann S. Mineur1
1Department of Psychiatry
2Department of Neurobiology
3Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair

Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA

*Correspondence: [email protected]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.036

Acetylcholine in the brain alters neuronal excitability, influences synaptic transmission, induces synaptic
plasticity, and coordinates firing of groups of neurons. As a result, it changes the state of neuronal networks
throughout the brain and modifies their response to internal and external inputs: the classical role of a neuro-
modulator. Here, we identify actions of cholinergic signaling on cellular and synaptic properties of neurons in
several brain areas and discuss consequences of this signaling on behaviors related to drug abuse, attention,
food intake, and affect. The diverse effects of acetylcholine depend on site of release, receptor subtypes, and
target neuronal population; however, a common theme is that acetylcholine potentiates behaviors that are
adaptive to environmental stimuli and decreases responses to ongoing stimuli that do not require immediate
action. The ability of acetylcholine to coordinate the response of neuronal networks in many brain areas
makes cholinergic modulation an essential mechanism underlying complex behaviors.

Acetylcholine (ACh) is a fast-acting, point-to-point neurotrans- ergic activation of interneurons in the auditory cortex that con-
mitter at the neuromuscular junction and in the autonomic tribute to learning (Letzkus et al., 2011). All these models are
ganglia; however, there are fewer demonstrations of similar consistent with a primary role of ACh as a neuromodulator that
actions in the brain (Changeux, 2010). Instead, central cholin- changes the state of an ensemble of neurons in response to
ergic neurotransmission predominantly changes neuronal excit- changing environmental conditions.
ability, alters presynaptic release of neurotransmitters, and coor- In this review, we will provide further support for the idea that
dinates the firing of groups of neurons (Kawai et al., 2007; Rice cholinergic neurotransmission in the brain is primarily neuromo-
and Cragg, 2004; Wonnacott, 1997; Zhang and Sulzer, 2004). dulatory and is categorically distinct from the actions of ACh at
As a result, ACh appears to act as a neuromodulator in the brain, the neuromuscular junction. We propose that the role of ACh
despite its role as the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the as a neuromodulator in the brain is to increase neurotransmitter
periphery. release in response to other inputs, to promote burst firing, and/
The definition of a neuromodulator is flexible, but has evolved or suppress tonic firing, depending upon the system and the
to describe any kind of neurotransmission that is not directly neuronal subtypes stimulated. Further, ACh contributes to syn-
excitatory (mediated through ionotropic glutamate receptors) aptic plasticity in many brain areas.
or inhibitory (mediated through ionotropic gamma-aminobutyric
acid [GABA] receptors) (Ito and Schuman, 2008; Siggins, 1979). Cholinergic Neurons and Ach Receptors
Neuromodulation can be thought of as a change in the state of The two primary sources of ACh in the brain include projection
a neuron or group of neurons that alters its response to sub- neurons that innervate distal areas and local interneurons that
sequent stimulation. A number of models have been proposed are interspersed among their cellular targets. Cholinergic projec-
to explain the actions of ACh in the central nervous system tion neurons are found in nuclei throughout the brain, such as
(CNS). For example, ACh has been suggested to be critical for the pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental areas (PPTg
the response to uncertainty, such that an increase in cholinergic and LDTg), the medial habenula (MHb) (Ren et al., 2011), and
tone predicts the unreliability of predictive cues in a known the basal forebrain (BF) complex (Mesulam, 1995; Zaborszky,
context and improves the signal-to-noise ratio in a learning envi- 2002; Zaborszky et al., 2008), including the medial septum.
ronment (Yu and Dayan, 2005). Another model has suggested These cholinergic neurons project widely and diffusely, inner-
that ACh reinforces neuronal loops and cortical dynamics during vating neurons throughout the CNS. Cholinergic interneurons
learning by enhancing the influence of feed-forward afferent are typified by the tonically active ACh neurons of the striatum
inputs to the cortex carrying sensory information and decreas- and nucleus accumbens, and there is some indication from
ing excitatory feedback activity mediating retrieval (Hasselmo, anatomical studies that cholinergic interneurons are present in
2006). ACh can also alter firing of neurons on a rapid time scale, the rodent and human neocortex, but not the nonhuman primate
as in fear-conditioning, when foot-shock results in direct cholin- cortex (Benagiano et al., 2003; Mesulam, 1995; von Engelhardt

116 Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Neuron

Review
Figure 1. Sites of Action for Nicotinic and
Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors
Nicotinic (nAChR) and muscarinic (mAChR)
acetylcholine receptors are localized both pre- and
postsynaptically. Presynaptic mAChRs (M2, M4)
are largely inhibitory and act as inhibitory autor-
eceptors on cholinergic terminals, with M2 the
predominant autoreceptor in the hippocampus
and cerebral cortex and M4 predominant in
striatum (Wess, 2003b; Wess et al., 2003). Post-
synaptic mAChRs can be either inhibitory (M2, M4)
or excitatory (M1, M3, M5) (Wess, 2003b; Wess
et al., 2003). Presynaptic nAChRs induce release
of a number of neurotransmitters, including GABA,
glutamate, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine,
and acetylcholine (McGehee et al., 1995; Wonna-
cott, 1997). Postsynaptic nAChRs depolarize
neurons, increase their firing rate, and can con-
tribute to long-term potentiation (Bucher and
Goaillard, 2011; Ge and Dani, 2005; Ji et al., 2001;
Kawai et al., 2007; Mansvelder and McGehee,
2000; Picciotto et al., 1995, 1998; Radcliffe and
Dani, 1998; Wooltorton et al., 2003).

et al., 2007). The actions of ACh released from both populations tonin (McGehee et al., 1995; Wonnacott, 1997) (Figure 1). Nico-
of cholinergic cells are mediated through pre- and postsynaptic tinic modulation of neurotransmitter release is often subtype-
receptors on a large variety of neuronal subtypes throughout the specific, and this specificity can vary across brain areas, with
brain, and it should be noted that cholinergic inputs contribute to distinct nAChRs coupling to release of glutamate (a7) versus
cortical and hippocampal function across phylogeny. GABA (a4b2) (Mansvelder et al., 2002) in the ventral tegmental
ACh signals through two classes of receptors: metabotropic area (VTA), while b2-containing nAChRs can modulate the
muscarinic receptors (mAChRs) and ionotropic nicotinic recep- release of glutamate from thalamocortical projections (Parikh
tors (nAChRs) (reviewed in Picciotto et al., 2000 and Wess, et al., 2010). Similarly, different nAChR subtypes mediate the
2003a). Muscarinic receptors are coupled either to Gq proteins release of DA (a4/a6b2) versus ACh (a3b4) (Grady et al., 2001).
(M1, M3, and M5 subtypes) that activate phospholipase C or Presynaptic effects of nAChRs contribute to synaptic plasticity
Gi/o proteins (M2 and M4 subtypes) that negatively couple to ad- in the VTA (Mansvelder and McGehee, 2000; Wooltorton et al.,
enylate cyclase (reviewed in Wess, 2003a), linking ACh activity to 2003), hippocampus (Ge and Dani, 2005; Ji et al., 2001; Radcliffe
a variety of biochemical signaling cascades. Moreover, mAChRs and Dani, 1998), and prefrontal cortex (Couey et al., 2007). In
are located both pre- and postsynaptically throughout the brain, addition, nAChRs may also be important for synchronizing
producing diverse consequences for brain activity (Figure 1). As neuronal activity. For example, nicotine is reported to coordinate
examples of the heterogeneous effects of mAChR stimulation, firing of thalamocortical fibers through effects on nAChRs in
presynaptic M2/M4 mAChRs can act as inhibitory autoreceptors white matter (Bucher and Goaillard, 2011; Kawai et al., 2007).
on cholinergic terminals (Douglas et al., 2002; Raiteri et al., 1984) Despite the clear effects of presynaptic nAChRs in electro-
and reduce glutamate release from corticocortical and cortico- physiological studies, their relationship to the behavioral
striatal synapses (Higley et al., 2009, Gil et al., 1997). In contrast, consequences of nicotine administration is not completely
M1/M5 receptors can stimulate dopamine (DA) release from understood. For example, nicotine stimulates the firing of DA
striatal synaptosomes (Zhang et al., 2002) and postsynaptic neurons through actions in the VTA and increases release of
M1/M5 receptors can increase excitability of cortical pyramidal DA from the midbrain projections to the nucleus accumbens
neurons (Douglas et al., 2002; McCormick and Prince, 1985). (NAc) through actions on terminal nAChRs, but local infusion of
Nicotinic receptors function as nonselective, excitatory cation nicotine into the VTA has much greater effects on locomotion
channels (Changeux et al., 1998; Picciotto et al., 2001) and occur and self-administration than local infusion into the NAc (Ferrari
as homomeric or heteromeric assemblies of a large family of a- et al., 2002; Ikemoto et al., 2006). Recent studies have, however,
and b-subunits (a2-a7 and b2-b4; reviewed in Picciotto et al., suggested that nAChRs in the NAc are important for the motiva-
2000). While neuromodulators are typically associated with tional effects of nicotine (association between stimulus and drug
metabotropic signaling, the role of the ionotropic nAChRs in intake), rather than the primary reinforcing effects of the drug
the brain appears to be largely modulatory as well (Picciotto, (desire for drug) (Brunzell et al., 2010). In addition, it is clear
2003). For example, nAChRs are not clustered at postsynaptic that cholinergic interneurons and their regulation of muscarinic
membranes apposed to sites of ACh release, but are rather receptor signaling are also critical components in striatum-
dispersed along the surface (and intracellular compartments) dependent decision making (see, e.g., Goldberg et al., 2012).
of neurons, including presynaptic terminals (McGehee et al., While presynaptic effects of nAChRs have been the focus of
1995; Vidal and Changeux, 1993), cell bodies, and even axons a great deal of work, effects of nicotinic stimulation are clearly
(Arroyo-Jimenez et al., 1999; Hill et al., 1993; Kawai et al., not exclusively presynaptic (Figure 1). Exogenous application
2007). In addition, stimulation of nAChRs can increase the of nicotine can induce significant inward currents in neurons in
release of glutamate, GABA, DA, ACh, norepinephrine, and sero- a number of brain areas (Lena and Changeux, 1999; Picciotto

Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc. 117

 Neuron

Review

et al., 1995, 1998), and there have been several examples of and Hasselmo, 2007 and McKay et al., 2007), and these effects
direct postsynaptic effects of ACh in the brain (Alkondon et al., are mediated through intracellular signaling pathways down-
1998; Jones et al., 1999). Notably, recent studies using optoge- stream of mAChRs and nAChRs (reviewed in Berg and Conroy,
netic techniques demonstrated that ACh can mediate postsyn- 2002; Cancela, 2001; Lanzafame et al., 2003; and Rathouz
aptic responses through nAChRs in the hippocampus (Bell et al., 1996). Recent studies suggest that the timing of ACh
et al., 2011; Gu and Yakel, 2011) and cortex (Arroyo et al., 2012). release and the subtype of receptor is critical for the type of plas-
ticity induced (Gu and Yakel, 2011); however, it is clear that
Modes of Cholinergic Neuromodulation nAChRs and mAChRs on both GABAergic and glutamatergic
Although there is considerable evidence for the actions of ACh neurons in the hippocampus can alter the subsequent response
on target neurons, the mode of cholinergic transmission has to excitatory inputs (Drever et al., 2011). Similarly, stimulation of
remained controversial. The debate has focused on whether nAChRs on glutamatergic terminals in the VTA can induce long-
cholinergic signaling occurs via traditional synapses (cellular term potentiation (LTP) of excitatory inputs onto DA neurons
specializations comprising closely apposed pre- and postsyn- (Mansvelder and McGehee, 2000), whereas differential time-
aptic membranes with associated release/receptor machinery) scales of effects of nAChRs on glutamatergic and GABAergic
or via volume transmission (actions of a neurotransmitter that terminals in this area appears to be important for changes in
occur at a distance from its site of release, mediated by diffusion dopaminergic firing following prolonged exposure to nicotine
through the extracellular space (Zoli et al., 1999). Accumulating (Mansvelder et al., 2002; Wooltorton et al., 2003).
evidence indicates that ACh can act through volume transmis- The ability of ACh to influence synaptic plasticity and dy-
sion in the brain. The relatively diffuse nature of brain cholinergic namics of local circuits can also occur through astrocytic control
innervation further reinforces this idea. There is an anatomical of synaptic Ca2+ concentration following nAChR stimulation (Ta-
mismatch between the sites of ACh release (Houser, 1990; kata et al., 2011). Astrocytic signaling can lead to LTP as a result
Wainer et al., 1984a, 1984b) and the location of cholinergic of the temporal coincidence of the postsynaptic activity and the
receptors (Arroyo-Jimenez et al., 1999; Hill et al., 1993; Kawai astrocyte Ca2+ signal simultaneously evoked by cholinergic
et al., 2007). There is also evidence that extracellular levels of stimulation (Navarrete et al., 2012).
ACh fluctuate in a manner that is not consistent with localized In contrast to the ability of nAChR stimulation to promote LTP
clearance of a synaptic transmitter (Hajnal et al., 1998; Laplante in a number of brain areas, nAChR-mediated facilitation of GABA
et al., 2004; Mark et al., 1996; Parikh et al., 2004; Reid et al., release reduces calcium levels in prefrontocortical dendrites
1998). However, contrasting observations, including the role of (Couey et al., 2007). In addition, activation of nAChRs can also
ACh in fast synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction decrease subsequent stimulation of calcium entry into cortical
and the high level of expression of ACh esterase (AChE; a highly neurons in response to glutamate (Stevens et al., 2003). The
efficient degradative enzyme responsible for clearing ACh from decrease in glutamate-mediated calcium entry is mediated
the extracellular space) have limited the acceptance of this through activation of high affinity nAChRs, subsequent activation
idea. Ultimately, it is difficult to know how far ACh can diffuse of the protein phosphatase calcineurin, and inactivation of
from its site of release and whether volume transmission would L-type calcium channels. If this mechanism is also recruited as
allow for rapid transfer of information, suggesting that this is a result of ACh signaling in vivo, it would suggest that one conse-
not the only mechanism through which ACh influences neuronal quence of cholinergic activity in cortical neurons would be a
function in the brain. Anatomical studies have identified cortical significant decrease in subsequent calcium-mediated glutamate
cholinergic synapses that are structurally similar to those of other responses.
point-to-point neurotransmitters in both rats (Turrini et al., 2001) Finally, in addition to the ability of ACh to modulate neuronal
and humans (Smiley et al., 1997). Effects of ACh on a rapid time- activity acutely in adulthood, ACh can also alter a number of
scale likely underlie its role in stimulus-response tasks in which processes in neuronal development, and the molecular basis
subsecond reactivity is required for appropriate behavioral re- for a number of these developmental effects of ACh signaling
sponses, as in prefrontal cortex-dependent cue detection (Par- have been elucidated recently. For example, one fundamental
ikh et al., 2007a) or auditory discrimination (Letzkus et al., role for ACh signaling through nAChRs is to regulate the timing
2011). The data indicate that differences in sites of receptor of expression of the chloride transporter that is necessary for
expression, affinity of ACh at both mAChRs and nAChRs, rates the ability of GABA to hyperpolarize, and therefore inhibit, central
of synaptic clearance by [AChE]) and local concentration of neurons (Liu et al., 2006). Disrupting nAChR signaling delays the
ACh in and outside the synapse are critical for the control and switch from GABA-mediated excitation to inhibition. Recent
specificity of cholinergic signaling. In addition, differences in studies have also shown that nAChRs contribute to the matura-
the time-scale of release at the local microcircuit level further tion of GABAergic (Kawai et al., 2002; Zago et al., 2006) and glu-
refine the action of ACh in complex behaviors (reviewed in Has- tamatergic (Lozada et al., 2012a, b) synapses, highlighting an
selmo and Giocomo, 2006; Sarter et al., 2009; and Yu and important role for ACh signaling in synaptic development, as
Dayan, 2005). well as neuronal pathfinding and target selection (reviewed in
Role and Berg, 1996). In addition, signaling through nAChRs is
Role of Ach in Synaptic Plasticity and Neuronal also important for establishing critical periods for activity-depen-
Development dent shaping of visual cortical function (Morishita et al., 2010)
An important role for both nAChRs and mAChRs has been and maturation of thalamocortical (Aramakis and Metherate,
defined in hippocampal synaptic plasticity (reviewed in Giocomo 1998; Aramakis et al., 2000; Hsieh et al., 2002) and

118 Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Neuron

Review

corticothalamic (Heath et al., 2010; Horst et al., 2012; King et al.,

2003; Picciotto et al., 1995) glutamatergic synapses. It appears
likely that ACh release, potentially in response to salient stimuli,
potentiates glutamatergic synapses during development
through an LTP-like mechanism (Aramakis and Metherate,
1998), highlighting another important role for cholinergic
signaling in synaptic plasticity. Several neurotrophic factors are
also involved in the development and maturation of cholinergic
neurons, but the dependence on neurotrophins is not homoge-
nous throughout the CNS (for reviews, see Angelucci et al.,
2005 and Schindowski et al., 2008). Although a comprehensive
review of the developmental effects of ACh is beyond the scope
Figure 2. Effects of Acetylcholine on Activity of Dopamine Neurons
of this article, it is important to note that various developmental in the Mesolimbic Circuit
processes can be affected by ACh signaling (for more compre- Salient cues associated with primary reward increase activity of PPTg
hensive reviews, see Heath and Picciotto, 2009; Liu et al., neurons, inducing acetylcholine release in the VTA (Futami et al., 1995;
Omelchenko and Sesack, 2006). Acetylcholine increases firing of DA neurons
2007; Metherate and Hsieh, 2003; and Role and Berg, 1996).
in the VTA and is likely to be important for burst firing of these neurons
(Maskos, 2008). Salient cues associated with reward also induce a pause in
Brain Systems Modulated by Ach Signaling firing of tonically active cholinergic neurons in the NAc (Goldberg and Rey-
Mesolimbic DA System, Addiction and Reward nolds, 2011). Decreased release of ACh onto terminals in NAc attenuates DA
release due to tonic firing of DA neurons, while preserving DA release in
A great deal of research has focused on the effects of cholinergic response to phasic firing (Exley and Cragg, 2008).
agents on the mesolimbic DA system and its short- and long-
term modulation (for reviews, see Fagen et al., 2003; and Man-
svelder et al., 2003), particularly because the addictive effects can regulate the duration, magnitude, and spatial pattern of
of nicotine are mediated primarily through stimulation of nAChRs activity of striatal neurons, potentially creating an attentional
in the VTA (Drenan et al., 2008; Maskos et al., 2005; McGranahan gate that facilitates movement toward salient stimuli (Oldenburg
et al., 2011; Picciotto et al., 1998). Cholinergic input from the and Ding, 2011). The function of striatal cholinergic interneurons
PPTg and LDTg acting through both mAChRs and nAChRs is is also impaired in patients with movement disorders involve the
critical for modulating the function of the VTA. Stimulation of dopaminergic system, such as Parkinsons and Huntingtons
nAChRs and M5-type mAChRs increases the tonic excitability disease and in animal models of these diseases (Ding et al.,
of these DA neurons (Corrigall et al., 2002; Miller and Blaha, 2011). Cholinergic signaling in striatum and NAc is also thought
2005; Yeomans and Baptista, 1997). ACh released in the VTA to be critical for mediating the association between drugs of
would potentiate glutamatergic synaptic transmission onto DA abuse and cues in the environment that drive drug craving and
neurons through a7 nAChRs and therefore increase the likeli- relapse to drug use after abstinence (Exley and Cragg, 2008).
hood of burst firing of these neurons (Grenhoff et al., 1986; Mas- The effects of striatal ACh are mediated in part through activation
kos, 2008; McGehee et al., 1995). of nAChRs on dopaminergic terminals, leading to tonic, low level
Extracellular ACh levels are increased in the VTA during drug DA release when cholinergic interneurons are firing. The pause
self-administration (You et al., 2008), which could result from results in decreased tonic DA release, but maintained phasic
an increase in ACh release from PPTgg and LDTg afferents (Fu- DA release (Exley and Cragg, 2008). In contrast, mAChRs reduce
tami et al., 1995; Omelchenko and Sesack, 2006). Cholinergic the probability of glutamate release from excitatory afferents to
neurons within PPT do not exhibit burst firing, and they are the striatum, negatively regulating the ability of these inputs to
more active during wakefulness and rapid eye movement drive striatal activity (Barral et al., 1999; Higley et al., 2009; Pak-
(REM) sleep versus slow wave sleep (Datta and Siwek, 2002); hotin and Bracci, 2007). Reduced concentration of glutamate in
however, there is currently no evidence that VTA DA neurons the synaptic cleft results in diminished activation of voltage-
show circadian variations in activity, suggesting that the diurnally dependent N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate recep-
regulated neurons may not project to VTA. In addition, PPTg tors, shortening excitatory response duration and limiting
neurons change their firing rate in response to both locomotion temporal integration of inputs (Higley et al. 2009). Thus, the
and acquisition of reward (Datta and Siwek, 2002). These obser- pause in cholinergic interneuron firing would be predicted to
vations have led to the idea that the PPTg acts as a gate for enhance the efficacy and summation of glutamatergic inputs
salient sensory information associated with reward and/or arriving during this period.
requiring movement (Norton et al., 2011). These findings suggest that salient sensory stimuli in the
In contrast to the increased firing rate of cholinergic neurons in environment, such as those associated with reward or drugs
the PPTg in response to contextual information related to of abuse, would increase activity of PPTg cholinergic neurons,
reward, tonically active cholinergic interneurons in the striatum leading to increased phasic firing of DA neurons in the VTA (Mas-
pause their firing following exposure to cues associated with kos, 2008), while at the same time decreasing the firing of toni-
reward (Goldberg and Reynolds, 2011). The pause is thought cally active cholinergic neurons in the NAc and striatum, leading
to be mediated by interactions between the cells intrinsic to a larger differential in DA release in response to phasic firing as
membrane properties and strong feed-forward excitation from compared to tonic firing (Exley and Cragg, 2008) (Figure 2). At the
the thalamus (Ding et al., 2010). These cholinergic interneurons behavioral level, this conclusion is consistent with the finding

Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc. 119

 Neuron

Review

that disruption of PPTg activity decreases the rewarding and

locomotor effects of drugs of abuse, such as cocaine and nico-
tine (Champtiaux et al., 2006; Corrigall et al., 1994, 2002), while
lesion of NAc cholinergic neurons increases cocaine self-admin-
istration, as might be expected if a pause in cholinergic inter-
neuron firing in NAc signals salience (Smith et al., 2004).
The behavioral role of individual ACh receptor subtypes in NAc
is more complex, however. Consistent with a role for the pause in
NAc cholinergic neurons in behaviors related to drug reward,
antagonism of a7-type nAChRs in NAc increases motivation to
lever press for nicotine (Brunzell and McIntosh, 2012). Less intu-
itively, blockade of mAChRs using scopolamine decreases rein-
statement of cocaine seeking (Yee et al., 2011), but this may be
due to increased ACh release through blockade of inhibitory
autoreceptors (Douglas et al., 2001). Consistent with the fact
that neuromodulation can be complex, it has also been shown
that antagonism of the a6/b2 class of nAChRs expressed on
Figure 3. Effects of Acetylcholine on Activity of Cortical Neurons
DA terminals in NAc decreases the breakpoint for progressive Salient cues induce acetylcholine release onto interneurons targeting the
ratio responding in rats self-administering nicotine, suggesting apical dendrites of cortical pyramidal neurons, resulting in rapid inhibition
that there is also a role for ACh signaling through this class of of pyramidal cells (Arroyo et al., 2012; Couey et al., 2007; Fanselow et al.,
receptors for mediating the motivational value of nicotine (Brun- 2008; Ferezou et al., 2002; Gulledge et al., 2007; Kawaguchi and Kubota,
1997). Acetylcholine subsequently depolarizes pyramidal neurons through M1
zell et al., 2010). mAChRs (Delmas and Brown, 2005; McCormick and Prince, 1985, 1986).
A number of studies have focused on the ability of the habe- Acetylcholine also activates stimulatory a4b2 nAChRs on glutamatergic tha-
nula, particularly the MHb, to oppose the behavioral processes lamocortical terminals (Gil et al., 1997; Lambe et al., 2003; Oldford and Castro-
Alamancos, 2003) and inhibitory M2 mAChRs on GABAergic terminals of
mediated through the VTA (for reviews, see Fowler and Kenny, parvalbumin-expressing (PV) interneurons (Kruglikov and Rudy, 2008). Acti-
2012 and Hikosaka, 2010). The MHb-interpeduncular pathway vation of PV interneurons enhances stimulation of pyramidal neuron firing by
is cholinergic, and it has been proposed that its effects on VTA thalamocortical inputs (Gabernet et al., 2005; Higley and Contreras, 2006;
Kruglikov and Rudy, 2008). Acetylcholine also suppresses corticocortical
neuron firing are mediated indirectly through inhibition of the
transmission through inhibitory M2 mAChRs on pyramidal cell axon terminals
PPTg (Maskos, 2008). Decreasing the expression of nAChRs (Gil et al., 1997; Hsieh et al., 2000; Kimura and Baughman, 1997; Oldford and
containing the a5 subunit in the MHb results in increased nicotine Castro-Alamancos, 2003), reducing intracortical communication while pre-
self-administration (Fowler et al., 2011), suggesting that this serving responses to thalamic inputs (Kimura et al., 1999).
cholinergic system normally acts as a brake on drug reward.
Taken together, these studies suggest that point-to-point ACh inhibition is at least partially mediated by the actions of both
signaling could have opposing behavioral consequences, de- nAChRs and mAChRs that increase the excitability and firing
pending on the receptor subtypes, neuronal populations, and brain rates of dendrite-targeting GABAergic interneurons (Arroyo
areas stimulated, and that effects of ACh mediated through vol- et al., 2012; Couey et al., 2007; Fanselow et al., 2008; Ferezou
ume transmission could be distinct from those mediated locally. et al., 2002; Gulledge et al., 2007; Kawaguchi and Kubota,
Cortex and Attention 1997). The slow depolarization is mediated by M1 mAChR-
Numerous studies indicate that ACh plays an important role in mediated closure of M-type (KCNQ) potassium channels in
the regulation of cortical activity over multiple timescales. The pyramidal neurons (Delmas and Brown, 2005), enhancing their
precise function of ACh on any given circuit also depends on excitability and reducing their spike frequency adaptation (Gul-
the specific expression pattern of nAChRs and mAChRs, as ledge et al., 2007; Hasselmo and Giocomo, 2006). In addition,
well as the temporal dynamics of ACh concentration in the extra- nAChRs expressed in deep layer pyramidal neurons may con-
cellular space. Neocortical ACh function has been linked to tribute to direct excitation of these cells (Bailey et al., 2010; Kas-
control of circuits underlying attention, cue detection, and sam et al., 2008; Poorthuis et al., 2012).
memory (Hasselmo and Sarter, 2011). The primary cholinergic ACh also modulates synaptic transmission in cortical circuits
input to the cerebral cortex comes from the BF complex (Figure 3). Activation of a4b2 nAChRs on thalamocortical termi-
including the substantia innominata the nucleus basalis of Mey- nals enhances glutamate release in both sensory and associa-
nert (Mesulam, 1995), though the latter remains debated (Za- tion cortex (Gil et al., 1997; Lambe et al., 2003; Oldford and
borszky et al., 1999). Cholinergic terminals are distributed Castro-Alamancos, 2003), whereas activation of mAChRs on
throughout the cortex, with more dense projections in superficial terminals of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons decreases
layers (Mesulam, 1995). the probability of GABA release onto the perisynaptic compart-
The cellular mechanisms underlying the effects of ACh on ment of pyramidal neurons and therefore reduces postsynap-
cortical circuits have been investigated at many levels. Seminal tic inhibition of pyramidal neurons (Kruglikov and Rudy, 2008).
studies revealed that ACh can produce biphasic changes in These interneurons normally decrease the response of cortical
the activity of pyramidal neurons, the principal excitatory cells neurons to feed-forward excitation (Gabernet et al., 2005; Higley
in the neocortex, comprising fast inhibition followed by a slow and Contreras, 2006), and the reduction of GABA release from
depolarization (McCormick and Prince, 1985, 1986). The fast these interneurons by ACh therefore enhances the ability of

120 Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Neuron

Review

thalamocortical inputs to stimulate pyramidal neuron firing (Kru- (Gu and Singer, 1993), and in rodents, the protein Lynx1
glikov and Rudy, 2008). suppresses nicotinic signaling in primary visual cortex, and its
In contrast, mAChRs located on pyramidal cell axon terminals removal promotes ocular dominance plasticity in older animals
suppress corticocortical transmission (Gil et al., 1997; Hsieh (Morishita et al., 2010).
et al., 2000; Kimura and Baughman, 1997; Oldford and Castro- At the cellular level, cholinergic agonists enhance LTP of glu-
Alamancos, 2003). Moreover, the ACh-mediated increased ex- tamatergic association fibers in the piriform cortex and Schaeffer
citability of dendrite-targeting interneurons described above collaterals in the CA1 region of the hippocampus (Huerta and Lis-
likely contributes to reduced efficacy of intracortical communi- man, 1993). In contrast, M3 mAChRs facilitate long-term depres-
cation. The simultaneous enhancement of feed-forward inputs sion of synapses in the monocular area of the superficial visual
from the thalamus through cholinergic actions on parvalbumin- cortex (Kirkwood et al., 1999; McCoy and McMahon, 2007).
positive interneurons and suppression of intracortical feedback Surprisingly, the same authors observed enhanced LTP in the
inputs through effects on dendrite-targeting interneurons may binocular cortex (McCoy et al., 2008). These regional differences
increase the signal-to-noise ratio in cortical networks, making indicate that cell-type specific expression of different receptor
neurons more sensitive to external stimuli. In keeping with this subtypes is critical for the varied actions of ACh.
view, mAChR activation strongly suppresses the spread of intra- The pleiotropic effects of ACh on cortical circuits described
cortical activity, leaving responses to thalamic inputs relatively above are likely to underlie its ability to modulate cognitive
intact (Kimura et al., 1999). Intriguingly, in the prefrontal cortex, behaviors. In rodents, lesions of cholinergic inputs to the cortex
the expression of nAChRs in deep pyramidal cells may produce impair tests of sustained attention, particularly across sensory
layer-specific cholinergic modulation, selectively enhancing modalities (McGaughy et al., 1996, 2002; Turchi and Sarter,
activity of output neurons (Poorthuis et al., 2012). 1997). In addition, stimulation of a4b2 nAChRs in the medial
Although the cellular and synaptic effects of ACh described prefrontal cortex enhances performance in a visual attention
above provide a potential mechanism for the ability of ACh to task (Howe et al., 2010), while genetic deletion of these receptors
increase signal detection and modulate sensory attention, a in the medial PFC impairs visual attention (Guillem et al., 2011)
number of observations suggest that this simple model is incom- and auditory discrimination (Horst et al., 2012). Notably, transient
plete. ACh, acting via M4 mAChRs, directly inhibits spiny stellate rises in prefrontal ACh are significantly correlated with cue
cells in somatosensory cortex receiving thalamic input (Egger- detection, suggesting that the temporal dynamics of cholinergic
mann and Feldmeyer, 2009). Furthermore, activation of M1 signaling are also critical for normal behavior (Parikh et al.,
mAChRs hyperpolarizes pyramidal neurons via a mechanism 2007b). In primates, locally applied ACh enhances the attentional
dependent on fully loaded internal calcium stores that occurs modulation of neuronal activity in the primary visual cortex, while
more quickly than the closure of M-type potassium channels the muscarinic antagonist scopolamine reduces the effects of
(Gulledge et al., 2007; Gulledge and Stuart, 2005). Thus, the attention (Herrero et al., 2008). Taken together, these findings
effect of ACh on the activity of pyramidal neurons depends crit- suggest that cholinergic actions across both ionotropic and me-
ically on the state of the neuron and the timing of ACh release. tabotropic receptors and diverse brain areas contribute to cogni-
Neurons with depleted calcium stores would be more suscep- tive processing.
tible to indirect ACh-induced depolarization via M4 mAChRs, Hypothalamus and Food Intake
whereas rapid, direct inhibitory effects of ACh through M1 The role of ACh in control of autonomic functions is well known,
mAChRs would dominate in neurons with fully replenished but it is likely that actions of ACh in the brain also modulate adap-
stores. Furthermore, studies showing that mAChR activation tive responses to environmental and metabolic conditions.
reduces cortico-cortical transmission have relied on electrical Cholinergic signaling can alter thermoregulation (Myers and Wal-
stimulation to evoke glutamate release, leaving the identity of ler, 1973), sleep patterns (Steriade, 2004), food intake (Grunberg
the activated presynaptic terminals ambiguous. It is possible et al., 1988; Mineur et al., 2011), and endocrine functions, such
that distinct populations of intracortical synapses, such as those as pancreatic release of insulin and glucagon (Ishikawa et al.,
comprising local recurrent networks versus long-range intra- 1982). The hypothalamus is essential for homeostatic responses
areal projections, might be differentially modulated by ACh. regulating metabolism, and consequently, modulation of hypo-
Indeed, in the CA1 region of the hippocampus, long-range perfo- thalamic function by ACh is likely to be an important component
rant inputs from the entorhinal cortex are less inhibited by ACh of adaptation to peripheral autonomic signals to the brain.
than the Schaeffer collaterals arising from CA3 (Hasselmo and A small number of studies have investigated the role of ACh
Schnell, 1994). The advent of optogenetic tools for selectively signaling in the hypothalamus, which receives input from the
targeted difference populations of excitatory inputs (Gradinaru PPTg and LDTg (Hallanger and Wainer, 1988; Jones and Beau-
et al., 2007) will be a key development for elucidating the precise det, 1987). Activity in both these areas adapts quickly to environ-
role of ACh on various circuit elements. mental changes (Majkutewicz et al., 2010; Woolf, 1991) and is
ACh also modulates cortical circuits over longer time scales linked to peripheral control of feeding behavior (Phillis, 2005).
by influencing neuronal plasticity. In the auditory cortex, pairing There are also intrinsic neurons within the hypothalamus that
sensory stimulation with stimulation of the basal forebrain results express cholinergic markers (Tago et al., 1987) along with the
in long-term reorganization of cortical receptive field structure, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) peptide (Meister et al., 2006),
including a persistent shift in the receptive field toward the paired and nAChRs in the hypothalamus are critical for feeding behavior
stimulus (Froemke et al., 2007). In the visual system, ACh facili- (Jo et al., 2002). It has also been suggested that neurons in the
tates ocular dominance plasticity in kittens via M1 mAChRs median eminence could project to the hypothalamus (Schafer

Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc. 121

 Neuron

Review

et al., 1998). Corticotropin-releasing hormone-expressing neu-

rons in this area can affect metabolism. In nonhuman primates,
neurons in the substantia innominata and lateral hypothalamus
(LH), most of which express cholinergic markers, were activated
in response to presentation of food when the animals were
hungry (Rolls et al., 1979). Consistent with a potential role for
ACh in coordinating caloric need with food-seeking behaviors,
long-term maintenance on a high-fat/high-sugar diet signifi-
cantly downregulated levels of AChE in a number of brain areas
that was particularly pronounced in the hypothalamus (Kaizer
et al., 2004). One possibility is that the role of ACh in the hypo-
thalamus is to integrate the interoceptive cues related to hunger
with exteroceptive cues of food availability, threat, or other
salient conditions (Craig, 2002, 2003), but this remains to be
tested.
At the cellular level, stimulation of nAChRs and mAChRs on
LH neurons increases and decreases GABA release, respec-
tively (Jo and Role, 2002). The data suggest that nAChRs and Figure 4. Effects of Acetylcholine on Hippocampal-Amygdala Stress
mAChRs may be localized to different populations of Response
Stress increases acetylcholine release in the hippocampus and frontal cortex
GABAergic terminals, but from these studies, it is difficult to (Mark et al., 1996) and impairs signaling in the PFC (Arnsten, 2009). The
determine what the effects of synaptically evoked ACh on LH hippocampus provides inhibitory feedback to the amygdala through inhibition
GABA release might be. Optogenetic stimulation of cholinergic of the HPA axis (Tasker and Herman, 2011), whereas the PFC can normally
transmission in the LH and hypothalamus will be useful in decrease basolateral amygdala activity through projections to the intercalated
nucleus (Manko et al., 2011; Pinard et al., 2012). The effects of stress-induced
identifying the source of ACh input to these areas, the role of acetylcholine release on output of the hippocampus and cortex is unknown,
intrinsic ACh in hypothalamic function, and the differential role but cholinergic modulation of cortico-amygdala glutamatergic connections
of mAChRs and nAChRs in shaping responses to ACh in these strengthens associations between environmental stimuli and stressful events
(Mansvelder et al., 2009).
brain regions. In the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, nico-
tine increases the firing rate of both POMC- and neuropeptide Y
(NPY)-positive neurons, although the increase in POMC neuron POMC neurons are critical for the ability of nicotine to reduce
activity predominates in vitro due to more rapid desensitization food intake in mice (Mineur et al., 2011). These observations
of nAChR responses in NPY neurons, and in vivo, as evidenced underscore a potential role for ACh in metabolic regulation
by an increase in c-fos immunoreactivity predominantly in involving POMC neurons; however, very little is known about
POMC-positive cells (Huang et al., 2011; Mineur et al., 2011). the role of endogenous ACh-mediated modulation of the arcuate
Thus, as in the mesolimbic system and the cortex, distinct nucleus.
actions of ACh appear to converge through effects on receptor ACH and Stress-Related Systems
populations with different electrophysiological properties ex- Increasing evidence suggests that ACh signaling in a number of
pressed on distinct subsets of neurons to promote a coordinated brain areas is important for stress responses (Figure 4). In addi-
output, in this case, activation of POMC neurons. tion to the well-documented role of the hippocampus in learning
ACh also regulates glutamatergic transmission in other neu- and memory, the amygdala in mediating fear responses and the
ronal subtypes involved in food intake. Stimulation of nAChRs prefrontal cortex (PFC) in attention, these brain areas are critical
on orexin-positive neurons in the LH induces concurrent release nodes in adaptation and responses to stress (Belujon and Grace,
of glutamate and ACh, which could lead to feed-forward stimu- 2011; Gozzi et al., 2010; McGaugh, 2004; Sapolsky, 2000; Tot-
lation of this circuit once activated (Pasumarthi and Fadel, tenham and Sheridan, 2009). Dysfunction in the activity of these
2010). There is also some indication from studies of hypotha- regions is strongly implicated in major depressive disorder
lamic neurons in culture that ACh signaling can be upregulated (Sheline et al., 1998; Videbech and Ravnkilde, 2004). The hippo-
to compensate for prolonged blockade of glutamatergic sig- campus, amygdala, and PFC receive a very high level of cholin-
naling (Belousov et al., 2001). Thus, ACh acting through nAChRs ergic input that comes from the BF complex and, in particular,
may also potentiate glutamate signaling in particular neuronal from the medial septum and nucleus basalis, respectively (Mesu-
subtypes of the hypothalamus, although the functional conse- lam, 1995). Several studies have shown that stress increases
quences of this regulation are not yet known. ACh release in a brain region-specific manner (Mark et al.,
As might be expected from the complex regulation of hypo- 1996). For instance, hippocampal and cortical ACh levels can
thalamic neuronal activity by ACh, cholinergic modulation of increase following restraint stress in rats, while ACh levels in
feeding behavior is multifactorial and state-dependent. In rats, the amygdala are unchanged, although an increase in amygdalar
the mAChR competitive antagonist atropine modestly altered cholinergic tone can also reduce basolateral amygdala (BLA)
the frequency and choice of meals, but not their size (Nissen- activity though activation of mAChRs (Power and Sah, 2008).
baum and Sclafani, 1988). Consistent with the ability of nicotine Conversely, acute activation of presynaptic a7 nAChRs in the
in tobacco smoke to decrease body weight in humans and food BLA can also favor the release of glutamate from impinging
intake in rats (Grunberg et al., 1988), b4-containing nAChRs on cortical projections, which is critical for aversive memory and

122 Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Neuron

Review

fear (Klein and Yakel, 2006). Stimulation of this pathway during administration of the AChE blocker physostigmine to patients
development blunts paired facilitation due to subsequent with a history of depression, individuals with Tourettes syn-
stimulation, however, which would be expected to decrease drome, and normal volunteers (Risch et al., 1980, 1981; Shytle
BLA reactivity (Jiang and Role, 2008), further highlighting the et al., 2000). A similar effect has also been described with organ-
role of cholinergic signaling in plasticity of this system. The ophosphate inhibitors of AChE (Rosenstock et al., 1991). More
hippocampus provides inhibitory feedback to the amygdala recently, human imaging and post mortem studies have sug-
through inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) gested that there is increased occupancy of nAChRs by ACh
axis (Tasker and Herman, 2011). Interestingly, relief from stress that is highest in individuals who are actively depressed and
leads to an increase in cholinergic signaling in the amygdala intermediate in those who have a history of depression with no
and PFC (Mark et al., 1996), indicating that the valence of ACh change in overall nAChR number (Saricicek et al., 2012). In
varies by brain area. The effect of increased cortical ACh levels rodent studies, the Flinders rat model was selected for its sensi-
on amygdala signaling has not been studied, but stress impairs tivity to challenge with an AChE inhibitor, and sensitive rats also
PFC output (Arnsten, 2009), and PFC can normally decrease ba- display a constellation of depression-like endophenotypes, sup-
solateral amygdala activity through projections to the interca- porting the idea that increasing ACh levels increases symptoms
lated nucleus (Man ko et al., 2011; Pinard et al., 2012). of depression (Overstreet, 1993).
At the cellular level, neuronal activity in the hippocampus is Consistent with an increase in ACh leading to symptoms
strongly modulated by both nAChRs and mAChRs. Cholinergic of depression, antagonism of mAChRs or nAChRs or blockade
inputs to the hippocampus from the medial septum and the of ACh signaling through nAChRs with partial agonists can
diagonal band of Broca impinge on both glutamatergic and decrease depression-like behavior in rodents (Caldarone et al.,
GABAergic neurons throughout the structure, and a comprehen- 2004; De Pablo et al., 1991; Mineur et al., 2007; Picciotto et al.,
sive review of the effects of ACh on synaptic plasticity in the 2002; Rabenstein et al., 2006). In humans, clinical trials have sug-
hippocampus has been published recently (Drever et al., 2011). gested that blockade of either mAChRs (Furey and Drevets,
The ability of ACh to induce synaptic plasticity through actions 2006; Furey et al., 2010) or nAChRs (George et al., 2008; Shytle
on pre- and postsynaptic nAChRs and mAChRs is likely to et al., 2002) can decrease symptoms of depression. While an
modulate learning and memory, including memory of stressful increase in cholinergic tone appears to be sufficient to induce
events (Nijholt et al., 2004), and a role for ACh in regulation of depression-like symptoms in humans, a recent study has shown
hippocampal excitability through presynaptic release of gluta- that decreasing striatal cholinergic tone in the mouse can lead to
mate and GABA has also been well-characterized (Alkondon depression-like symptoms, likely through interneuron-depen-
et al., 1997; Freund et al., 1988; Radcliffe et al., 1999). Stress dent disinhibition of striatal neurons (Warner-Schmidt et al.,
also induces alternative splicing of the AChE messenger RNA 2012), highlighting the fact that ACh can induce heterogeneous
(mRNA) in the hippocampus, leading to altered ACh signaling effects in different brain areas that appear to have opposite
in this structure (Nijholt et al., 2004). There is currently no behavioral consequences. The behavioral effect of ACh signaling
consensus on how these cholinergic actions converge to regu- in vivo likely depends on the baseline conditions in the particular
late the output of the hippocampus in response to stress, circuit of interest at the time of ACh release and is the result of
although one possibility is that ACh is critical for regulating integration of its sometimes conflicting effects in different
theta oscillations, and the concurrent effects of mAChRs and circuits. More studies are necessary to determine whether
nAChRs on excitatory and inhibitory transmission serve to regu- preclinical studies of cholinergic signaling in hippocampus,
late rhythmic activity (Drever et al., 2011; Fisahn et al., 1998). PFC, and/or amygdala can be linked to the effects of ACh in
Although theta rhythms are thought to be critical for memory en- human subjects and to identify physiological mechanisms that
coding, disturbance of hippocampal rhythms may also con- are essential for these effects on behaviors related to mood
tribute to mood disorders (Femena et al., 2012). and affect.
The amygdala also receives cholinergic inputs from the
basal forebrain complex (Mesulam, 1995) and is consistently Conclusions
hyperactivated in fMRI studies of patients with mood disorders A comprehensive explanation of cholinergic neuromodulation is
(Drevets, 2001). In rodents, decreasing ACh signaling through not yet possible, given the large number of behaviors, circuits,
nAChRs depresses neuronal activity in the basolateral amyg- neuronal subtypes, and cholinergic receptors in the brain.
dala, as measured by c-fos immunoreactivity (Mineur et al., Despite that complexity, some unifying themes have emerged.
2007). As discussed above, ACh shapes the output of cortical The well-defined temporal association between firing of cholin-
neurons, and cortico-amygdala glutamatergic connections are ergic projection neurons in the brain stem and the pause in firing
also strongly and persistently potentiated by nAChR stimulation of tonically active cholinergic interneurons in the striatum can
(Mansvelder et al., 2009). Thus, ACh release in the amygdala facilitate the association of salient rewarding events with cues
is thought to strengthen associations between environmental in the environment, contributing to reward prediction and pro-
stimuli and stressful events, potentially contributing to maladap- moting orienting behaviors toward potentially rewarding stimuli.
tive learning underlying affective disorders (Mansvelder et al., This likely occurs through coordinated increases in glutamater-
2009). gic drive that facilitate DA neuron burst firing and decreases
There is strong evidence that increasing ACh signaling in hu- in response to subthreshold, tonic signals from DA terminals.
mans results in increased symptoms of depression (Janowsky Similarly, salient signals that require focused attention for correct
et al., 1972; Risch et al., 1980). This has been observed with performance of behavioral tasks increase feed-forward

Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc. 123

 Neuron

Review

activation of principal cortical neurons and decrease inhibition Arroyo, S., Bennett, C., Aziz, D., Brown, S.P., and Hestrin, S. (2012). Prolonged
disynaptic inhibition in the cortex mediated by slow, non-a7 nicotinic excita-
through specific classes of interneurons. The promotion of coor- tion of a specific subset of cortical interneurons. J. Neurosci. 32, 38593864.
dinated firing of adjacent axons and the promotion of rhythmic
activity in structures, such as the hippocampus when ACh is Arroyo-Jimenez, M.M., Bourgeois, J.P., Marubio, L.M., Le Sourd, A.M., Ot-
tersen, O.P., Rinvik, E., Fairen, A., and Changeux, J.P. (1999). Ultrastructural
released and levels are high, may provide an increase in the localization of the alpha4-subunit of the neuronal acetylcholine nicotinic
baseline excitability of neurons that are then available for robust receptor in the rat substantia nigra. J. Neurosci. 19, 64756487.
responses to glutamate, and this state dependent facilitation of
Bailey, C.D.C., De Biasi, M., Fletcher, P.J., and Lambe, E.K. (2010). The nico-
neurotransmission in pathways activated in response to ACh tinic acetylcholine receptor alpha5 subunit plays a key role in attention circuitry
release is likely to be maintained due to facilitated neuronal and accuracy. J. Neurosci. 30, 92419252.
plasticity. This organization is echoed in the hypothalamus, Barral, J., Galarraga, E., and Bargas, J. (1999). Muscarinic presynaptic inhibi-
where, despite the ubiquitous expression of nAChRs on multiple tion of neostriatal glutamatergic afferents is mediated by Q-type Ca2+ chan-
neuronal subtypes with reciprocal functions, the kinetics of acti- nels. Brain Res. Bull. 49, 285289.
vation of one set of receptors may bias the output in one direc- Bell, K.A., Shim, H., Chen, C.K., and McQuiston, A.R. (2011). Nicotinic excit-
tion, based on the starting conditions. This is obviously a gross atory postsynaptic potentials in hippocampal CA1 interneurons are pre-
dominantly mediated by nicotinic receptors that contain a4 and b2 subunits.
oversimplification that will be sensitive to the timing, duration, Neuropharmacology 61, 13791388.
and localization of ACh signaling, but may provide a framework
for generation of hypotheses. Finally, increases in ACh signaling Belousov, A.B., OHara, B.F., and Denisova, J.V. (2001). Acetylcholine
becomes the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the hypothalamus in vitro
appear to contribute to stress-related illnesses, such as major in the absence of glutamate excitation. J. Neurosci. 21, 20152027.
depressive disorder, although the specific neuronal substrates
and cellular mechanisms responsible for these effects are only Belujon, P., and Grace, A.A. (2011). Hippocampus, amygdala, and stress: in-
teracting systems that affect susceptibility to addiction. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci.
beginning to be studied. 1216, 114121.
Despite a great deal of progress, there are still critical gaps in
Benagiano, V., Virgintino, D., Flace, P., Girolamo, F., Errede, M., Roncali, L.,
our understanding of the dynamics of ACh release from different and Ambrosi, G. (2003). Choline acetyltransferase-containing neurons in the
neuronal populations; how that changes in response to environ- human parietal neocortex. Eur. J. Histochem. 47, 253256.
mental conditions, such as metabolic need or stress; and how far
Berg, D.K., and Conroy, W.G. (2002). Nicotinic alpha 7 receptors: synaptic
from the site of release ACh can diffuse in different brain areas. options and downstream signaling in neurons. J. Neurobiol. 53, 512523.
While novel tools will allow more precise stimulation of ACh
Brunzell, D.H., and McIntosh, J.M. (2012). Alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine
release, the patterns of release will not be optimal unless there receptors modulate motivation to self-administer nicotine: implications for
is a better understanding of the physiological patterns of firing. smoking and schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 37, 11341143.
The ability to mimic patterns of ACh release in vivo will be critical
Brunzell, D.H., Boschen, K.E., Hendrick, E.S., Beardsley, P.M., and McIntosh,
for identifying the physiological effects of cholinergic neuromo- J.M. (2010). Alpha-conotoxin MII-sensitive nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in
dulation and distinguishing the actual from the possible effects the nucleus accumbens shell regulate progressive ratio responding main-
of ACh in the brain. tained by nicotine. Neuropsychopharmacology 35, 665673.

Bucher, D., and Goaillard, J.M. (2011). Beyond faithful conduction: short-term
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS dynamics, neuromodulation, and long-term regulation of spike propagation in
the axon. Prog. Neurobiol. 94, 307346.

This work was supported by NIH grants DA014241 and MH077681 (M.R.P.), Caldarone, B.J., Harrist, A., Cleary, M.A., Beech, R.D., King, S.L., and Pic-
a Smith Family Award for Excellence in Neuroscience (M.J.H.), and a Sloan ciotto, M.R. (2004). High-affinity nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are required
Research Fellowship (M.J.H.). for antidepressant effects of amitriptyline on behavior and hippocampal cell
proliferation. Biol. Psychiatry 56, 657664.
REFERENCES Cancela, J.M. (2001). Specific Ca2+ signaling evoked by cholecystokinin and
acetylcholine: the roles of NAADP, cADPR, and IP3. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 63,
Alkondon, M., Pereira, E.F., Barbosa, C.T., and Albuquerque, E.X. (1997). 99117.
Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor activation modulates gamma-ami-
nobutyric acid release from CA1 neurons of rat hippocampal slices. J. Pharma- Champtiaux, N., Kalivas, P.W., and Bardo, M.T. (2006). Contribution of dihy-
col. Exp. Ther. 283, 13961411. dro-beta-erythroidine sensitive nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the ventral
tegmental area to cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization in rats. Behav.
Alkondon, M., Pereira, E.F., and Albuquerque, E.X. (1998). alpha-bungaro- Brain Res. 168, 120126.
toxin- and methyllycaconitine-sensitive nicotinic receptors mediate fast
synaptic transmission in interneurons of rat hippocampal slices. Brain Res. Changeux, J.-P. (2010). Allosteric receptors: from electric organ to cognition.
810, 257263. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 50, 138.

Angelucci, F., Brene, S., and Mathe, A.A. (2005). BDNF in schizophrenia, Changeux, J.P., Bertrand, D., Corringer, P.J., Dehaene, S., Edelstein, S., Lena,
depression and corresponding animal models. Mol. Psychiatry 10, 345352. C., Le Novere, N., Marubio, L., Picciotto, M., and Zoli, M. (1998). Brain nicotinic
receptors: structure and regulation, role in learning and reinforcement. Brain
Aramakis, V.B., and Metherate, R. (1998). Nicotine selectively enhances Res. Brain Res. Rev. 26, 198216.
NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission during postnatal develop-
ment in sensory neocortex. J. Neurosci. 18, 84858495. Corrigall, W.A., Coen, K.M., and Adamson, K.L. (1994). Self-administered
nicotine activates the mesolimbic dopamine system through the ventral
Aramakis, V.B., Hsieh, C.Y., Leslie, F.M., and Metherate, R. (2000). A critical tegmental area. Brain Res. 653, 278284.
period for nicotine-induced disruption of synaptic development in rat auditory
cortex. J. Neurosci. 20, 61066116. Corrigall, W.A., Coen, K.M., Zhang, J., and Adamson, L. (2002). Pharmacolog-
ical manipulations of the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus in the rat
Arnsten, A.F. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex reduce self-administration of both nicotine and cocaine. Psychopharmacology
structure and function. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10, 410422. (Berl.) 160, 198205.

124 Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Neuron

Review
Couey, J.J., Meredith, R.M., Spijker, S., Poorthuis, R.B., Smit, A.B., Brussaard, Fisahn, A., Pike, F.G., Buhl, E.H., and Paulsen, O. (1998). Cholinergic induc-
A.B., and Mansvelder, H.D. (2007). Distributed network actions by nicotine tion of network oscillations at 40 Hz in the hippocampus in vitro. Nature 394,
increase the threshold for spike-timing-dependent plasticity in prefrontal 186189.
cortex. Neuron 54, 7387.
Fowler, C.D., and Kenny, P.J. (2012). Habenular signaling in nicotine reinforce-
Craig, A.D. (2002). How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiolog- ment. Neuropsychopharmacology 37, 306307.
ical condition of the body. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3, 655666.
Fowler, C.D., Lu, Q., Johnson, P.M., Marks, M.J., and Kenny, P.J. (2011).
Craig, A.D. (2003). Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of Habenular a5 nicotinic receptor subunit signalling controls nicotine intake.
the body. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 13, 500505. Nature 471, 597601.

Freund, R.K., Jungschaffer, D.A., Collins, A.C., and Wehner, J.M. (1988).
Datta, S., and Siwek, D.F. (2002). Single cell activity patterns of pedunculopon-
Evidence for modulation of GABAergic neurotransmission by nicotine. Brain
tine tegmentum neurons across the sleep-wake cycle in the freely moving rats.
Res. 453, 215220.
J. Neurosci. Res. 70, 611621.
Froemke, R.C., Merzenich, M.M., and Schreiner, C.E. (2007). A synaptic
De Pablo, J.M., Ortiz-Caro, J., Sanchez-Santed, F., and Guillamon, A. (1991). memory trace for cortical receptive field plasticity. Nature 450, 425429.
Effects of diazepam, pentobarbital, scopolamine and the timing of saline injec-
tion on learned immobility in rats. Physiol. Behav. 50, 895899. Furey, M.L., and Drevets, W.C. (2006). Antidepressant efficacy of the antimus-
carinic drug scopolamine: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial.
Delmas, P., and Brown, D.A. (2005). Pathways modulating neural KCNQ/M Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 63, 11211129.
(Kv7) potassium channels. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6, 850862.
Furey, M.L., Khanna, A., Hoffman, E.M., and Drevets, W.C. (2010). Scopol-
Ding, J.B., Guzman, J.N., Peterson, J.D., Goldberg, J.A., and Surmeier, D.J. amine produces larger antidepressant and antianxiety effects in women than
(2010). Thalamic gating of corticostriatal signaling by cholinergic interneurons. in men. Neuropsychopharmacology 35, 24792488.
Neuron 67, 294307.
Futami, T., Takakusaki, K., and Kitai, S.T. (1995). Glutamatergic and cholin-
Ding, Y., Won, L., Britt, J.P., Lim, S.A., McGehee, D.S., and Kang, U.J. (2011). ergic inputs from the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus to dopamine
Enhanced striatal cholinergic neuronal activity mediates L-DOPA-induced neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Neurosci. Res. 21, 331342.
dyskinesia in parkinsonian mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108, 840845.
Gabernet, L., Jadhav, S.P., Feldman, D.E., Carandini, M., and Scanziani, M.
Douglas, C.L., Baghdoyan, H.A., and Lydic, R. (2001). M2 muscarinic autore- (2005). Somatosensory integration controlled by dynamic thalamocortical
ceptors modulate acetylcholine release in prefrontal cortex of C57BL/6J feed-forward inhibition. Neuron 48, 315327.
mouse. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 299, 960966.
Ge, S., and Dani, J.A. (2005). Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at glutamate
Douglas, C.L., Baghdoyan, H.A., and Lydic, R. (2002). Postsynaptic musca- synapses facilitate long-term depression or potentiation. J. Neurosci. 25,
rinic M1 receptors activate prefrontal cortical EEG of C57BL/6J mouse. 60846091.
J. Neurophysiol. 88, 30033009.
George, T.P., Sacco, K.A., Vessicchio, J.C., Weinberger, A.H., and Shytle,
R.D. (2008). Nicotinic antagonist augmentation of selective serotonin reuptake
Drenan, R.M., Grady, S.R., Whiteaker, P., McClure-Begley, T., McKinney, S.,
inhibitor-refractory major depressive disorder: a preliminary study. J. Clin.
Miwa, J.M., Bupp, S., Heintz, N., McIntosh, J.M., Bencherif, M., et al. (2008).
Psychopharmacol. 28, 340344.
In vivo activation of midbrain dopamine neurons via sensitized, high-affinity
alpha 6 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Neuron 60, 123136. Gil, Z., Connors, B.W., and Amitai, Y. (1997). Differential regulation of neocor-
tical synapses by neuromodulators and activity. Neuron 19, 679686.
Drever, B.D., Riedel, G., and Platt, B. (2011). The cholinergic system and
hippocampal plasticity. Behav. Brain Res. 221, 505514. Giocomo, L.M., and Hasselmo, M.E. (2007). Neuromodulation by glutamate
and acetylcholine can change circuit dynamics by regulating the relative influ-
Drevets, W.C. (2001). Neuroimaging and neuropathological studies of depres- ence of afferent input and excitatory feedback. Mol. Neurobiol. 36, 184200.
sion: implications for the cognitive-emotional features of mood disorders.
Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 11, 240249. Goldberg, J.A., and Reynolds, J.N. (2011). Spontaneous firing and evoked
pauses in the tonically active cholinergic interneurons of the striatum. Neuro-
Eggermann, E., and Feldmeyer, D. (2009). Cholinergic filtering in the recurrent science 198, 2743.
excitatory microcircuit of cortical layer 4. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106,
1175311758. Goldberg, J.A., Ding, J.B., and Surmeier, D.J. (2012). Muscarinic modulation of
striatal function and circuitry. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 208, 223241.
Exley, R., and Cragg, S.J. (2008). Presynaptic nicotinic receptors: a dynamic
and diverse cholinergic filter of striatal dopamine neurotransmission. Br. J. Gozzi, A., Jain, A., Giovannelli, A., Bertollini, C., Crestan, V., Schwarz, A.J.,
Pharmacol. 153 (Suppl 1 ), S283S297. Tsetsenis, T., Ragozzino, D., Gross, C.T., and Bifone, A. (2010). A neural switch
for active and passive fear. Neuron 67, 656666.
Fagen, Z.M., Mansvelder, H.D., Keath, J.R., and McGehee, D.S. (2003). Short-
and long-term modulation of synaptic inputs to brain reward areas by nicotine. Gradinaru, V., Thompson, K.R., Zhang, F., Mogri, M., Kay, K., Schneider, M.B.,
Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 1003, 185195. and Deisseroth, K. (2007). Targeting and readout strategies for fast optical
neural control in vitro and in vivo. J. Neurosci. 27, 1423114238.
Fanselow, E.E., Richardson, K.A., and Connors, B.W. (2008). Selective, state-
Grady, S.R., Meinerz, N.M., Cao, J., Reynolds, A.M., Picciotto, M.R.,
dependent activation of somatostatin-expressing inhibitory interneurons in
Changeux, J.-P., McIntosh, J.M., Marks, M.J., and Collins, A.C. (2001). Nico-
mouse neocortex. J. Neurophysiol. 100, 26402652.
tinic agonists stimulate acetylcholine release from mouse interpeduncular
nucleus: a function mediated by a different nAChR than dopamine release
Femena, T., Gomez-Galan, M., Lindskog, M., and Magara, S. (2012). Dysfunc- from striatum. J. Neurochem. 76, 258268.
tional hippocampal activity affects emotion and cognition in mood disorders.
Brain Res. Published online April 5, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ Grenhoff, J., Aston-Jones, G., and Svensson, T.H. (1986). Nicotinic effects on
j.brainres.2012.03.053. the firing pattern of midbrain dopamine neurons. Acta Physiol. Scand. 128,
351358.
Ferezou, I., Cauli, B., Hill, E.L., Rossier, J., Hamel, E., and Lambolez, B. (2002).
5-HT3 receptors mediate serotonergic fast synaptic excitation of neocortical Grunberg, N.E., Popp, K.A., and Winders, S.E. (1988). Effects of nicotine on
vasoactive intestinal peptide/cholecystokinin interneurons. J. Neurosci. 22, body weight in rats with access to junk foods. Psychopharmacology
73897397. (Berl.) 94, 536539.

Ferrari, R., Le Novere, N., Picciotto, M.R., Changeux, J.P., and Zoli, M. (2002). Gu, Q., and Singer, W. (1993). Effects of intracortical infusion of anticholiner-
Acute and long-term changes in the mesolimbic dopamine pathway after gic drugs on neuronal plasticity in kitten striate cortex. Eur. J. Neurosci. 5,
systemic or local single nicotine injections. Eur. J. Neurosci. 15, 18101818. 475485.

Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc. 125

 Neuron

Review
Gu, Z., and Yakel, J.L. (2011). Timing-dependent septal cholinergic induction Hsieh, C.Y., Leslie, F.M., and Metherate, R. (2002). Nicotine exposure during
of dynamic hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Neuron 71, 155165. a postnatal critical period alters NR2A and NR2B mRNA expression in rat audi-
tory forebrain. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 133, 1925.
Guillem, K., Bloem, B., Poorthuis, R.B., Loos, M., Smit, A.B., Maskos, U.,
Spijker, S., and Mansvelder, H.D. (2011). Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor Huang, H., Xu, Y., and van den Pol, A.N. (2011). Nicotine excites hypothalamic
b2 subunits in the medial prefrontal cortex control attention. Science 333, arcuate anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin neurons and orexigenic neuropep-
888891. tide Y neurons: similarities and differences. J. Neurophysiol. 106, 11911202.

Gulledge, A.T., and Stuart, G.J. (2005). Cholinergic inhibition of neocortical Huerta, P.T., and Lisman, J.E. (1993). Heightened synaptic plasticity of hippo-
pyramidal neurons. J. Neurosci. 25, 1030810320. campal CA1 neurons during a cholinergically induced rhythmic state. Nature
364, 723725.
Gulledge, A.T., Park, S.B., Kawaguchi, Y., and Stuart, G.J. (2007). Heteroge-
neity of phasic cholinergic signaling in neocortical neurons. J. Neurophysiol. Ikemoto, S., Qin, M., and Liu, Z.-H. (2006). Primary reinforcing effects of nico-
97, 22152229. tine are triggered from multiple regions both inside and outside the ventral
tegmental area. J. Neurosci. 26, 723730.
Hajnal, A., Pothos, E.N., Lenard, L., and Hoebel, B.G. (1998). Effects of feeding
and insulin on extracellular acetylcholine in the amygdala of freely moving rats. Ishikawa, K., Suzuki, M., and Shimazu, T. (1982). Effects of acetylcholine injec-
Brain Res. 785, 4148. tion into the hypothalamus on the insulin and glucagon release. Neuroendocri-
nology 34, 310314.
Hallanger, A.E., and Wainer, B.H. (1988). Ascending projections from the pe-
dunculopontine tegmental nucleus and the adjacent mesopontine tegmentum Ito, H.T., and Schuman, E.M. (2008). Frequency-dependent signal transmis-
in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 274, 483515. sion and modulation by neuromodulators. Front. Neurosci. 2, 138144.
Hasselmo, M.E. (2006). The role of acetylcholine in learning and memory. Curr. Janowsky, D.S., el-Yousef, M.K., Davis, J.M., and Sekerke, H.J. (1972).
Opin. Neurobiol. 16, 710715. A cholinergic-adrenergic hypothesis of mania and depression. Lancet 2,
632635.
Hasselmo, M.E., and Giocomo, L.M. (2006). Cholinergic modulation of cortical
function. J. Mol. Neurosci. 30, 133135. Ji, D., Lape, R., and Dani, J.A. (2001). Timing and location of nicotinic activity
enhances or depresses hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Neuron 31, 131141.
Hasselmo, M.E., and Schnell, E. (1994). Laminar selectivity of the cholinergic
suppression of synaptic transmission in rat hippocampal region CA1: compu- Jiang, L., and Role, L.W. (2008). Facilitation of cortico-amygdala synapses
tational modeling and brain slice physiology. J. Neurosci. 14, 38983914. by nicotine: activity-dependent modulation of glutamatergic transmission.
J. Neurophysiol. 99, 19881999.
Hasselmo, M.E., and Sarter, M. (2011). Modes and models of forebrain cholin-
ergic neuromodulation of cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology 36, 5273.
Jo, Y.H., and Role, L.W. (2002). Cholinergic modulation of purinergic and
GABAergic co-transmission at in vitro hypothalamic synapses. J. Neurophy-
Heath, C.J., and Picciotto, M.R. (2009). Nicotine-induced plasticity during
siol. 88, 25012508.
development: modulation of the cholinergic system and long-term conse-
quences for circuits involved in attention and sensory processing. Neurophar-
Jo, Y.H., Talmage, D.A., and Role, L.W. (2002). Nicotinic receptor-mediated
macology 56 (Suppl 1 ), 254262.
effects on appetite and food intake. J. Neurobiol. 53, 618632.
Heath, C.J., King, S.L., Gotti, C., Marks, M.J., and Picciotto, M.R. (2010).
Jones, B.E., and Beaudet, A. (1987). Retrograde labeling of neurones in the
Cortico-thalamic connectivity is vulnerable to nicotine exposure during early
brain stem following injections of [3H]choline into the forebrain of the rat.
postnatal development through a4/b2/a5 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
Exp. Brain Res. 65, 437448.
Neuropsychopharmacology 35, 23242338.

Herrero, J.L., Roberts, M.J., Delicato, L.S., Gieselmann, M.A., Dayan, P., and Jones, S., Sudweeks, S., and Yakel, J.L. (1999). Nicotinic receptors in the
Thiele, A. (2008). Acetylcholine contributes through muscarinic receptors to brain: correlating physiology with function. Trends Neurosci. 22, 555561.
attentional modulation in V1. Nature 454, 11101114.
Kaizer, R.R., da Silva, A.C., Morsch, V.M., Correa, M.C., and Schetinger, M.R.
Higley, M.J., and Contreras, D. (2006). Balanced excitation and inhibition (2004). Diet-induced changes in AChE activity after long-term exposure. Neu-
determine spike timing during frequency adaptation. J. Neurosci. 26, 448457. rochem. Res. 29, 22512255.

Higley, M.J., Soler-Llavina, G.J., and Sabatini, B.L. (2009). Cholinergic modu- Kassam, S.M., Herman, P.M., Goodfellow, N.M., Alves, N.C., and Lambe, E.K.
lation of multivesicular release regulates striatal synaptic potency and integra- (2008). Developmental excitation of corticothalamic neurons by nicotinic
tion. Nat. Neurosci. 12, 11211128. acetylcholine receptors. J. Neurosci. 28, 87568764.

Hikosaka, O. (2010). The habenula: from stress evasion to value-based deci- Kawaguchi, Y., and Kubota, Y. (1997). GABAergic cell subtypes and their
sion-making. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 11, 503513. synaptic connections in rat frontal cortex. Cereb. Cortex 7, 476486.

Hill, J.A., Jr., Zoli, M., Bourgeois, J.-P., and Changeux, J.-P. (1993). Immuno- Kawai, H., Zago, W., and Berg, D.K. (2002). Nicotinic alpha 7 receptor clusters
cytochemical localization of a neuronal nicotinic receptor: the b 2-subunit. on hippocampal GABAergic neurons: regulation by synaptic activity and neu-
J. Neurosci. 13, 15511568. rotrophins. J. Neurosci. 22, 79037912.

Horst, N.K., Heath, C.J., Neugebauer, N.M., Kimchi, E.Y., Laubach, M., and Kawai, H., Lazar, R., and Metherate, R. (2007). Nicotinic control of axon excit-
Picciotto, M.R. (2012). Impaired auditory discrimination learning following peri- ability regulates thalamocortical transmission. Nat. Neurosci. 10, 11681175.
natal nicotine exposure or b2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit deletion.
Behav. Brain Res. 231, 170180. Kimura, F., and Baughman, R.W. (1997). Distinct muscarinic receptor
subtypes suppress excitatory and inhibitory synaptic responses in cortical
Houser, C.R. (1990). Cholinergic synapses in the central nervous system: neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 77, 709716.
studies of the immunocytochemical localization of choline acetyltransferase.
J. Electron Microsc. Tech. 15, 219. Kimura, F., Fukuda, M., and Tsumoto, T. (1999). Acetylcholine suppresses the
spread of excitation in the visual cortex revealed by optical recording: possible
Howe, W.M., Ji, J., Parikh, V., Williams, S., Mocaer, E., Trocme-Thibierge, C., differential effect depending on the source of input. Eur. J. Neurosci. 11, 3597
and Sarter, M. (2010). Enhancement of attentional performance by selective 3609.
stimulation of alpha4beta2(*) nAChRs: underlying cholinergic mechanisms.
Neuropsychopharmacology 35, 13911401. King, S.L., Marks, M.J., Grady, S.R., Caldarone, B.J., Koren, A.O., Mukhin,
A.G., Collins, A.C., and Picciotto, M.R. (2003). Conditional expression in corti-
Hsieh, C.Y., Cruikshank, S.J., and Metherate, R. (2000). Differential modulation cothalamic efferents reveals a developmental role for nicotinic acetylcholine
of auditory thalamocortical and intracortical synaptic transmission by cholin- receptors in modulation of passive avoidance behavior. J. Neurosci. 23,
ergic agonist. Brain Res. 880, 5164. 38373843.

126 Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Neuron

Review
Kirkwood, A., Rozas, C., Kirkwood, J., Perez, F., and Bear, M.F. (1999). Modu- reinforcement and cognition restored by targeted expression of nicotinic
lation of long-term synaptic depression in visual cortex by acetylcholine and receptors. Nature 436, 103107.
norepinephrine. J. Neurosci. 19, 15991609.
McCormick, D.A., and Prince, D.A. (1985). Two types of muscarinic response
Klein, R.C., and Yakel, J.L. (2006). Functional somato-dendritic alpha7-con- to acetylcholine in mammalian cortical neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82,
taining nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the rat basolateral amygdala 63446348.
complex. J. Physiol. 576, 865872.
McCormick, D.A., and Prince, D.A. (1986). Acetylcholine induces burst firing in
Kruglikov, I., and Rudy, B. (2008). Perisomatic GABA release and thalamocort- thalamic reticular neurones by activating a potassium conductance. Nature
ical integration onto neocortical excitatory cells are regulated by neuromodu- 319, 402405.
lators. Neuron 58, 911924.
McCoy, P.A., and McMahon, L.L. (2007). Muscarinic receptor dependent long-
Lambe, E.K., Picciotto, M.R., and Aghajanian, G.K. (2003). Nicotine induces term depression in rat visual cortex is PKC independent but requires ERK1/2
glutamate release from thalamocortical terminals in prefrontal cortex. Neuro- activation and protein synthesis. J. Neurophysiol. 98, 18621870.
psychopharmacology 28, 216225.
McCoy, P., Norton, T.T., and McMahon, L.L. (2008). Layer 2/3 synapses in
Lanzafame, A.A., Christopoulos, A., and Mitchelson, F. (2003). Cellular monocular and binocular regions of tree shrew visual cortex express
signaling mechanisms for muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Receptors mAChR-dependent long-term depression and long-term potentiation. J. Neu-
Channels 9, 241260. rophysiol. 100, 336345.
Laplante, F., Stevenson, C.W., Gratton, A., Srivastava, L.K., and Quirion, R.
McGaugh, J.L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memo-
(2004). Effects of neonatal ventral hippocampal lesion in rats on stress-
ries of emotionally arousing experiences. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27, 128.
induced acetylcholine release in the prefrontal cortex. J. Neurochem. 91,
14731482.
McGaughy, J., Kaiser, T., and Sarter, M. (1996). Behavioral vigilance following
Lena, C., and Changeux, J.P. (1999). The role of beta 2-subunit-containing infusions of 192 IgG-saporin into the basal forebrain: selectivity of the behav-
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain explored with a mutant mouse. ioral impairment and relation to cortical AChE-positive fiber density. Behav.
Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 868, 611616. Neurosci. 110, 247265.

Letzkus, J.J., Wolff, S.B., Meyer, E.M., Tovote, P., Courtin, J., Herry, C., and McGaughy, J., Dalley, J.W., Morrison, C.H., Everitt, B.J., and Robbins, T.W.
Luthi, A. (2011). A disinhibitory microcircuit for associative fear learning in (2002). Selective behavioral and neurochemical effects of cholinergic lesions
the auditory cortex. Nature 480, 331335. produced by intrabasalis infusions of 192 IgG-saporin on attentional perfor-
mance in a five-choice serial reaction time task. J. Neurosci. 22, 19051913.
Liu, Z., Neff, R.A., and Berg, D.K. (2006). Sequential interplay of nicotinic and
GABAergic signaling guides neuronal development. Science 314, 16101613. McGehee, D.S., Heath, M.J., Gelber, S., Devay, P., and Role, L.W. (1995).
Nicotine enhancement of fast excitatory synaptic transmission in CNS by
Liu, Z., Zhang, J., and Berg, D.K. (2007). Role of endogenous nicotinic presynaptic receptors. Science 269, 16921696.
signaling in guiding neuronal development. Biochem. Pharmacol. 74, 1112
1119. McGranahan, T.M., Patzlaff, N.E., Grady, S.R., Heinemann, S.F., and Booker,
T.K. (2011). a4b2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on dopaminergic neurons
Lozada, A.F., Wang, X., Gounko, N.V., Massey, K.A., Duan, J., Liu, Z., and mediate nicotine reward and anxiety relief. J. Neurosci. 31, 1089110902.
Berg, D.K. (2012a). Glutamatergic synapse formation is promoted by a7-con-
taining nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. J. Neurosci. 32, 76517661. McKay, B.E., Placzek, A.N., and Dani, J.A. (2007). Regulation of synaptic
transmission and plasticity by neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Bio-
Lozada, A.F., Wang, X., Gounko, N.V., Massey, K.A., Duan, J., Liu, Z., and chem. Pharmacol. 74, 11201133.
Berg, D.K. (2012b). Induction of dendritic spines by b2-containing nicotinic
receptors. J. Neurosci. 32, 83918400. Meister, B., Gomuc, B., Suarez, E., Ishii, Y., Durr, K., and Gillberg, L. (2006).
Hypothalamic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons have a cholinergic
Majkutewicz, I., Cecot, T., Jerzemowska, G., Trojniar, W., Jaskulski, M., and phenotype. Eur. J. Neurosci. 24, 27312740.
Wrona, D. (2010). Lesion and stimulation of the ventral tegmental area
increases cholinergic activity in the rat brain. Acta Neurobiol. Exp. (Warsz.) Mesulam, M.M. (1995). Structure and function of cholinergic pathways in the
70, 2839. cerebral cortex, limbic system, basal ganglia, and thalamus of the human
brain. In Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress, F.E. Bloom
Manko, M., Geracitano, R., and Capogna, M. (2011). Functional connectivity of and D.J. Kupfer, eds. (New York, New York: Raven Press).
the main intercalated nucleus of the mouse amygdala. J. Physiol. 589, 1911
1925. Metherate, R., and Hsieh, C.Y. (2003). Regulation of glutamate synapses by
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in auditory cortex. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem.
Mansvelder, H.D., and McGehee, D.S. (2000). Long-term potentiation of excit- 80, 285290.
atory inputs to brain reward areas by nicotine. Neuron 27, 349357.
Miller, A.D., and Blaha, C.D. (2005). Midbrain muscarinic receptor mechanisms
Mansvelder, H.D., Keath, J.R., and McGehee, D.S. (2002). Synaptic mecha-
underlying regulation of mesoaccumbens and nigrostriatal dopaminergic
nisms underlie nicotine-induced excitability of brain reward areas. Neuron
transmission in the rat. Eur. J. Neurosci. 21, 18371846.
33, 905919.

Mansvelder, H.D., De Rover, M., McGehee, D.S., and Brussaard, A.B. (2003). Mineur, Y.S., Somenzi, O., and Picciotto, M.R. (2007). Cytisine, a partial
Cholinergic modulation of dopaminergic reward areas: upstream and down- agonist of high-affinity nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, has antidepressant-
stream targets of nicotine addiction. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 480, 117123. like properties in male C57BL/6J mice. Neuropharmacology 52, 12561262.

Mansvelder, H.D., Mertz, M., and Role, L.W. (2009). Nicotinic modulation of Mineur, Y.S., Abizaid, A., Rao, Y., Salas, R., DiLeone, R.J., Gundisch, D., Di-
synaptic transmission and plasticity in cortico-limbic circuits. Semin. Cell. ano, S., De Biasi, M., Horvath, T.L., Gao, X.-B., and Picciotto, M.R. (2011).
Dev. Biol. 20, 432440. Nicotine decreases food intake through activation of POMC neurons. Science
332, 13301332.
Mark, G.P., Rada, P.V., and Shors, T.J. (1996). Inescapable stress enhances
extracellular acetylcholine in the rat hippocampus and prefrontal cortex but Morishita, H., Miwa, J.M., Heintz, N., and Hensch, T.K. (2010). Lynx1, a cholin-
not the nucleus accumbens or amygdala. Neuroscience 74, 767774. ergic brake, limits plasticity in adult visual cortex. Science 330, 12381240.

Maskos, U. (2008). The cholinergic mesopontine tegmentum is a relatively ne- Myers, R.D., and Waller, M.B. (1973). Differential release of acetylcholine from
glected nicotinic master modulator of the dopaminergic system: relevance to the hypothalamus and mesencephalon of the monkey during regulation.
drugs of abuse and pathology. Br. J. Pharmacol. 153 (Suppl 1 ), S438S445. J. Physiol. 230, 273293.

Maskos, U., Molles, B.E., Pons, S., Besson, M., Guiard, B.P., Guilloux, J.P., Navarrete, M., Perea, G., Maglio, L., Pastor, J., Garca de Sola, R., and Araque,
Evrard, A., Cazala, P., Cormier, A., Mameli-Engvall, M., et al. (2005). Nicotine A. (2012). Astrocyte Calcium Signal and Gliotransmission in Human Brain

Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc. 127

 Neuron

Review
Tissue. Cereb. Cortex. Published online May 10, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/ Picciotto, M.R., Brunzell, D.H., and Caldarone, B.J. (2002). Effect of nicotine
10.1093/cercor/bhs122. and nicotinic receptors on anxiety and depression. Neuroreport 13, 1097
1106.
Nijholt, I., Farchi, N., Kye, M., Sklan, E.H., Shoham, S., Verbeure, B., Owen, D.,
Hochner, B., Spiess, J., Soreq, H., and Blank, T. (2004). Stress-induced alter- Pinard, C.R., Mascagni, F., and McDonald, A.J. (2012). Medial prefrontal
native splicing of acetylcholinesterase results in enhanced fear memory and cortical innervation of the intercalated nuclear region of the amygdala. Neuro-
long-term potentiation. Mol. Psychiatry 9, 174183. science 205, 112124.

Nissenbaum, J.W., and Sclafani, A. (1988). A comparison of the effects of Poorthuis, R.B., Bloem, B., Schak, B., Wester, J., de Kock, C.P., and Man-
atropine on real-feeding and sham-feeding of sucrose in rats. Pharmacol. svelder, H.D. (2012). Layer-specific modulation of the prefrontal cortex by
Biochem. Behav. 29, 231238. nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Cereb. Cortex. Published online January
30, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr390.
Norton, A.B., Jo, Y.S., Clark, E.W., Taylor, C.A., and Mizumori, S.J. (2011).
Independent neural coding of reward and movement by pedunculopontine
Power, J.M., and Sah, P. (2008). Competition between calcium-activated K+
tegmental nucleus neurons in freely navigating rats. Eur. J. Neurosci. 33,
channels determines cholinergic action on firing properties of basolateral
18851896.
amygdala projection neurons. J. Neurosci. 28, 32093220.
Oldenburg, I.A., and Ding, J.B. (2011). Cholinergic modulation of synaptic inte-
gration and dendritic excitability in the striatum. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 21, Rabenstein, R.L., Caldarone, B.J., and Picciotto, M.R. (2006). The nicotinic
425432. antagonist mecamylamine has antidepressant-like effects in wild-type but
not beta2- or alpha7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit knockout mice.
Oldford, E., and Castro-Alamancos, M.A. (2003). Input-specific effects of Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 189, 395401.
acetylcholine on sensory and intracortical evoked responses in the barrel
cortex in vivo. Neuroscience 117, 769778. Radcliffe, K.A., and Dani, J.A. (1998). Nicotinic stimulation produces multiple
forms of increased glutamatergic synaptic transmission. J. Neurosci. 18,
Omelchenko, N., and Sesack, S.R. (2006). Cholinergic axons in the rat ventral 70757083.
tegmental area synapse preferentially onto mesoaccumbens dopamine
neurons. J. Comp. Neurol. 494, 863875. Radcliffe, K.A., Fisher, J.L., Gray, R., and Dani, J.A. (1999). Nicotinic modula-
tion of glutamate and GABA synaptic transmission of hippocampal neurons.
Overstreet, D.H. (1993). The Flinders sensitive line rats: a genetic animal model Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 868, 591610.
of depression. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 17, 5168.
Raiteri, M., Leardi, R., and Marchi, M. (1984). Heterogeneity of presynaptic
Pakhotin, P., and Bracci, E. (2007). Cholinergic interneurons control the excit- muscarinic receptors regulating neurotransmitter release in the rat brain.
atory input to the striatum. J. Neurosci. 27, 391400. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 228, 209214.
Parikh, V., Pomerleau, F., Huettl, P., Gerhardt, G.A., Sarter, M., and Bruno, J.P. Rathouz, M.M., Vijayaraghavan, S., and Berg, D.K. (1996). Elevation of intra-
(2004). Rapid assessment of in vivo cholinergic transmission by amperometric cellular calcium levels in neurons by nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Mol.
detection of changes in extracellular choline levels. Eur. J. Neurosci. 20, 1545 Neurobiol. 12, 117131.
1554.
Reid, M.S., Nishino, S., Tafti, M., Siegel, J.M., Dement, W.C., and Mignot, E.
Parikh, V., Kozak, R., Martinez, V., and Sarter, M. (2007a). Prefrontal acetyl-
(1998). Neuropharmacological characterization of basal forebrain cholinergic
choline release controls cue detection on multiple timescales. Neuron 56,
stimulated cataplexy in narcoleptic canines. Exp. Neurol. 151, 89104.
141154.

Parikh, V., Kozak, R., Martinez, V., and Sarter, M. (2007b). Prefrontal acetyl- Ren, J., Qin, C., Hu, F., Tan, J., Qiu, L., Zhao, S., Feng, G., and Luo, M. (2011).
choline release controls cue detection on multiple timescales. Neuron 56, Habenula cholinergic neurons co-release glutamate and acetylcholine and
141154. activate postsynaptic neurons via distinct transmission modes. Neuron 69,
445452.
Parikh, V., Ji, J., Decker, M.W., and Sarter, M. (2010). Prefrontal beta2 subunit-
containing and alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors differentially control Rice, M.E., and Cragg, S.J. (2004). Nicotine amplifies reward-related dopa-
glutamatergic and cholinergic signaling. J. Neurosci. 30, 35183530. mine signals in striatum. Nat. Neurosci. 7, 583584.

Pasumarthi, R.K., and Fadel, J. (2010). Stimulation of lateral hypothalamic Risch, S.C., Cohen, R.M., Janowsky, D.S., Kalin, N.H., and Murphy, D.L.
glutamate and acetylcholine efflux by nicotine: implications for mechanisms (1980). Mood and behavioral effects of physostigmine on humans are accom-
of nicotine-induced activation of orexin neurons. J. Neurochem. 113, 1023 panied by elevations in plasma beta-endorphin and cortisol. Science 209,
1035. 15451546.

Phillis, J.W. (2005). Acetylcholine release from the central nervous system: Risch, S.C., Cohen, R.M., Janowsky, D.S., Kalin, N.H., Sitaram, N., Gillin, J.C.,
a 50-year retrospective. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 17, 161217. and Murphy, D.L. (1981). Physostigmine induction of depressive symptom-
atology in normal human subjects. Psychiatry Res. 4, 8994.
Picciotto, M.R. (2003). Nicotine as a modulator of behavior: beyond the in-
verted U. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 24, 493499. Role, L.W., and Berg, D.K. (1996). Nicotinic receptors in the development and
modulation of CNS synapses. Neuron 16, 10771085.
Picciotto, M.R., Zoli, M., Lena, C., Bessis, A., Lallemand, Y., Le Novere, N., Vin-
cent, P., Pich, E.M., Brulet, P., and Changeux, J.-P. (1995). Abnormal avoid-
Rolls, E.T., Sanghera, M.K., and Roper-Hall, A. (1979). The latency of activation
ance learning in mice lacking functional high-affinity nicotine receptor in the
of neurones in the lateral hypothalamus and substantia innominata during
brain. Nature 374, 6567.
feeding in the monkey. Brain Res. 164, 121135.
Picciotto, M.R., Zoli, M., Rimondini, R., Lena, C., Marubio, L.M., Pich, E.M.,
Fuxe, K., and Changeux, J.P. (1998). Acetylcholine receptors containing the Rosenstock, L., Keifer, M., Daniell, W.E., McConnell, R., and Claypoole, K.;
beta2 subunit are involved in the reinforcing properties of nicotine. Nature The Pesticide Health Effects Study Group. (1991). Chronic central nervous
391, 173177. system effects of acute organophosphate pesticide intoxication. Lancet 338,
223227.
Picciotto, M.R., Caldarone, B.J., King, S.L., and Zachariou, V. (2000). Nicotinic
receptors in the brain. Links between molecular biology and behavior. Neuro- Sapolsky, R.M. (2000). The possibility of neurotoxicity in the hippocampus in
psychopharmacology 22, 451465. major depression: a primer on neuron death. Biol. Psychiatry 48, 755765.

Picciotto, M.R., Caldarone, B.J., Brunzell, D.H., Zachariou, V., Stevens, T.R., Saricicek, A., Esterlis, I., Maloney, K.H., Mineur, Y.S., Ruf, B.M., Muralidharan,
and King, S.L. (2001). Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit A., Chen, J.I., Cosgrove, K.P., Kerestes, R., Ghose, S., et al. (2012). Persistent
knockout mice: physiological and behavioral phenotypes and possible clinical b2*-Nicotinic Acetylcholinergic Receptor Dysfunction in Major Depressive
implications. Pharmacol. Ther. 92, 89108. Disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 169, 851859.

128 Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc.

Neuron

Review
Sarter, M., Parikh, V., and Howe, W.M. (2009). Phasic acetylcholine release Wainer, B.H., Bolam, J.P., Freund, T.F., Henderson, Z., Totterdell, S., and
and the volume transmission hypothesis: time to move on. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. Smith, A.D. (1984a). Cholinergic synapses in the rat brain: a correlated light
10, 383390. and electron microscopic immunohistochemical study employing a mono-
clonal antibody against choline acetyltransferase. Brain Res. 308, 6976.
Schafer, M.K., Eiden, L.E., and Weihe, E. (1998). Cholinergic neurons and
terminal fields revealed by immunohistochemistry for the vesicular acetylcho- Wainer, B.H., Levey, A.I., Mufson, E.J., and Mesulam, M.M. (1984b). Cholin-
line transporter. I. Central nervous system. Neuroscience 84, 331359. ergic systems in mammalian brain identified with antibodies against choline
acetyltransferase. Neurochem. Int. 6, 163182.
Schindowski, K., Belarbi, K., and Buee, L. (2008). Neurotrophic factors in
Alzheimers disease: role of axonal transport. Genes Brain Behav. 7 (Suppl Warner-Schmidt, J.L., Schmidt, E.F., Marshall, J.J., Rubin, A.J., Arango-Lie-
1 ), 4356. vano, M., Kaplitt, M.G., Ibanez-Tallon, I., Heintz, N., and Greengard, P.
(2012). Cholinergic interneurons in the nucleus accumbens regulate depres-
Sheline, Y.I., Gado, M.H., and Price, J.L. (1998). Amygdala core nuclei volumes sion-like behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109, 1136011365.
are decreased in recurrent major depression. Neuroreport 9, 20232028.
Wess, J. (2003a). Novel insights into muscarinic acetylcholine receptor func-
Shytle, R.D., Silver, A.A., and Sanberg, P.R. (2000). Comorbid bipolar disorder tion using gene targeting technology. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 24, 414420.
in Tourettes syndrome responds to the nicotinic receptor antagonist meca-
mylamine (Inversine). Biol. Psychiatry 48, 10281031. Wess, J. (2003b). Novel insights into muscarinic acetylcholine receptor func-
tion using gene targeting technology. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 24, 414420.
Shytle, R.D., Silver, A.A., Sheehan, K.H., Sheehan, D.V., and Sanberg, P.R.
(2002). Neuronal nicotinic receptor inhibition for treating mood disorders: Wess, J., Duttaroy, A., Zhang, W., Gomeza, J., Cui, Y., Miyakawa, T., Bymas-
preliminary controlled evidence with mecamylamine. Depress. Anxiety 16, ter, F.P., McKinzie, L., Felder, C.C., Lamping, K.G., et al. (2003). M1-M5
8992. muscarinic receptor knockout mice as novel tools to study the physiological
roles of the muscarinic cholinergic system. Receptors Channels 9, 279290.
Siggins, G.R. (1979). Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and their medi-
ation by cyclic nucleotides. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 116, 4164. Wonnacott, S. (1997). Presynaptic nicotinic ACh receptors. Trends Neurosci.
20, 9298.
Smiley, J.F., Morrell, F., and Mesulam, M.M. (1997). Cholinergic synapses in
human cerebral cortex: an ultrastructural study in serial sections. Exp. Neurol. Woolf, N.J. (1991). Cholinergic systems in mammalian brain and spinal cord.
144, 361368. Prog. Neurobiol. 37, 475524.

Smith, J.E., Co, C., Yin, X., Sizemore, G.M., Liguori, A., Johnson, W.E., 3rd, Wooltorton, J.R.A., Pidoplichko, V.I., Broide, R.S., and Dani, J.A. (2003). Differ-
and Martin, T.J. (2004). Involvement of cholinergic neuronal systems in intrave- ential desensitization and distribution of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
nous cocaine self-administration. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 27, 841850. subtypes in midbrain dopamine areas. J. Neurosci. 23, 31763185.

Steriade, M. (2004). Acetylcholine systems and rhythmic activities during the Yee, J., Famous, K.R., Hopkins, T.J., McMullen, M.C., Pierce, R.C., and
wakingsleep cycle. Prog. Brain Res. 145, 179196. Schmidt, H.D. (2011). Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the nucleus ac-
cumbens core and shell contribute to cocaine priming-induced reinstatement
Stevens, T.R., Krueger, S.R., Fitzsimonds, R.M., and Picciotto, M.R. (2003). of drug seeking. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 650, 596604.
Neuroprotection by nicotine in mouse primary cortical cultures involves activa-
tion of calcineurin and L-type calcium channel inactivation. J. Neurosci. 23, Yeomans, J., and Baptista, M. (1997). Both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors
1009310099. in ventral tegmental area contribute to brain-stimulation reward. Pharmacol.
Biochem. Behav. 57, 915921.
Tago, H., McGeer, P.L., Bruce, G., and Hersh, L.B. (1987). Distribution of
choline acetyltransferase-containing neurons of the hypothalamus. Brain You, Z.B., Wang, B., Zitzman, D., and Wise, R.A. (2008). Acetylcholine release
Res. 415, 4962. in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system during cocaine seeking: condi-
tioned and unconditioned contributions to reward and motivation. J. Neurosci.
Takata, N., Mishima, T., Hisatsune, C., Nagai, T., Ebisui, E., Mikoshiba, K., and 28, 90219029.
Hirase, H. (2011). Astrocyte calcium signaling transforms cholinergic modula-
tion to cortical plasticity in vivo. J. Neurosci. 31, 1815518165. Yu, A.J., and Dayan, P. (2005). Uncertainty, neuromodulation, and attention.
Neuron 46, 681692.
Tasker, J.G., and Herman, J.P. (2011). Mechanisms of rapid glucocorticoid
feedback inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Stress 14, Zaborszky, L. (2002). The modular organization of brain systems. Basal fore-
398406. brain: the last frontier. Prog. Brain Res. 136, 359372.

Tottenham, N., and Sheridan, M.A. (2009). A review of adversity, the amygdala Zaborszky, L., Pang, K., Somogyi, J., Nadasdy, Z., and Kallo, I. (1999).
and the hippocampus: a consideration of developmental timing. Front. Hum. The basal forebrain corticopetal system revisited. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. 877,
Neurosci. 3, 68. 339367.

Turchi, J., and Sarter, M. (1997). Cortical acetylcholine and processing Zaborszky, L., Hoemke, L., Mohlberg, H., Schleicher, A., Amunts, K., and
capacity: effects of cortical cholinergic deafferentation on crossmodal divided Zilles, K. (2008). Stereotaxic probabilistic maps of the magnocellular cell
attention in rats. Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res. 6, 147158. groups in human basal forebrain. Neuroimage 42, 11271141.

Turrini, P., Casu, M.A., Wong, T.P., De Koninck, Y., Ribeiro-da-Silva, A., and Zago, W.M., Massey, K.A., and Berg, D.K. (2006). Nicotinic activity stabilizes
Cuello, A.C. (2001). Cholinergic nerve terminals establish classical synapses convergence of nicotinic and GABAergic synapses on filopodia of hippo-
in the rat cerebral cortex: synaptic pattern and age-related atrophy. Neurosci- campal interneurons. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 31, 549559.
ence 105, 277285.
Zhang, H., and Sulzer, D. (2004). Frequency-dependent modulation of dopa-
Vidal, C., and Changeux, J.P. (1993). Nicotinic and muscarinic modulations of mine release by nicotine. Nat. Neurosci. 7, 581582.
excitatory synaptic transmission in the rat prefrontal cortex in vitro. Neurosci-
ence 56, 2332. Zhang, W., Yamada, M., Gomeza, J., Basile, A.S., and Wess, J. (2002). Multiple
muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes modulate striatal dopamine
Videbech, P., and Ravnkilde, B. (2004). Hippocampal volume and depression: release, as studied with M1-M5 muscarinic receptor knock-out mice. J. Neu-
a meta-analysis of MRI studies. Am. J. Psychiatry 161, 19571966. rosci. 22, 63476352.

von Engelhardt, J., Eliava, M., Meyer, A.H., Rozov, A., and Monyer, H. (2007). Zoli, M., Jansson, A., Sykova, E., Agnati, L.F., and Fuxe, K. (1999). Volume
Functional characterization of intrinsic cholinergic interneurons in the cortex. transmission in the CNS and its relevance for neuropsychopharmacology.
J. Neurosci. 27, 56335642. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 20, 142150.

Neuron 76, October 4, 2012 2012 Elsevier Inc. 129