Topic 2

Property Enhancing and Surface Processing

Operations
Coating and Deposition Processes
 Coating and Deposition Processes

1. Plating and Related Processes

2. Conversion Coatings
3. Physical Vapor Deposition
4. Chemical Vapor Deposition
5. Organic Coatings
6. Porcelain Enameling and Other Ceramic Coatings
7. Thermal and Mechanical Coating Processes
 Coating of Engineering Materials

Metal products are almost always coated - by painting,

plating, or other process
Exceptions: stainless steel, brass
Nonmetallic materials are sometimes coated
Plastic parts to give metallic appearance
Antireflection coatings on glass lenses
Coating and deposition processes used in the
fabrication of semiconductor chips and printed circuit
boards
 Principal Reasons for Coating Metal

Corrosion protection of the substrate

Enhance product appearance, e.g., color and/or
texture
Wear resistance and/or friction reduction
Increase electrical conductivity or resistance
Prepare metallic surface for subsequent processing
Rebuild surfaces worn or eroded during service
 Plating and Related Processes

Coating thin metallic layer onto the surface of a substrate

material
Substrate is usually metallic, although methods
available to plate plastic and ceramic parts
Processes:
Electroplating (most common plating process)
Electroforming
Electroless plating
Hot dipping
 Electroplating

Electrolytic process in which metal ions in an electrolyte

solution are deposited onto a cathode workpart
Also called electrochemical plating
Anode is generally made of the plating metal and serves
as source of the plate metal
Direct current from an external power supply is passed
between anode and cathode
Electrolyte is an aqueous solution of acids, bases, or
salts
Electroplating

Setup for electroplating.

 Theoretical Electroplating Equation
Faradays laws can be summarized:
V=CIt
where V = volume of metal plated, mm3; C = plating
constant which depends on electrochemical equivalent
and density, mm3/amp-s; I t (current x time) = electrical
charge, amp-s
The value of C indicates the amount of plating material
deposited onto the cathodic workpart per electrical
charge
 Cathode Efficiency
For most plating metals, not all the electrical energy in
the process is used for deposition; some energy may be
consumed in other reactions, such as the liberation of
hydrogen at the cathode. This reduces the amount of
metal plated.

The actual amount of metal deposited on the cathode

(workpart) divided by the theoretical amount given by V =
C I t is called the cathode efficiency.

Thus, the volume of metal plated,

V=ECIt

where E = cathode efficiency.

 Average Plate Thickness
The average plating thickness,

V
d
A

where d = plate thickness, mm; V = volume of metal

plated, mm3; and A = surface area of plated part, mm2.
 Principal Electroplating Methods
Barrel plating - performed in rotating barrels oriented
either horizontally or at an oblique angle (35) - suited to
plating many small parts in a batch

Rack plating racks made of heavy-gauge copper wire

and formed into suitable shapes to hold parts and conduct
current to them - used for parts that are too large, heavy,
or complex for barrel plating

Strip plating continuous strip is pulled through the

plating solution by means of a take-up reel suited to
high production
Barrel plating
Rack plating
Strip plating
 Common Coating Metals

Zinc - plated on steel products such as fasteners,

wire goods, electric switch boxes, and sheetmetal
parts as a sacrificial barrier to corrosion
Nickel - for corrosion resistance and decorative
purposes on steel, brass, zinc die castings, and
other metals
Also used as base coat for chrome plate
Tin - widely used for corrosion protection in "tin
cans" and other food containers
 More Coating Metals

Copper - decorative coating on steel and zinc, either

alone or alloyed as brass
Also important in printed circuit boards
Chromium - decorative coating widely used in
automotive, office furniture, and kitchen appliances
Also one of the hardest electroplated coatings for
wear resistance applications
Precious metals - plated on jewelry
Gold is also used for electrical contacts
 Electroforming

Electrolytic deposition of metal onto a pattern until

the required thickness is achieved, after which
the pattern is removed to leave the formed part
Process is virtually the same as electroplating
but its purpose is different
Whereas typical plating thickness is only about
0.05 mm (0.002 in) or less, electroformed parts
are often substantially thicker, so the production
cycle is proportionally longer
 Electroformed Products

Metals used for electroforming: copper, nickel,

and nickel cobalt alloys most common
Typical applications: fine molds and dies (e.g., for
lenses) and plates for embossing and printing
Notable application: molds for compact disks
(CDs) and video disks (DVDs)
Surface details imprinted onto a CD are
measured in m.
 Electroless Plating

Plating driven entirely by chemical reactions - no

external source of electric current is required
Deposition of metal onto a part surface occurs in
an aqueous solution containing ions of the desired
plating metal
Workpart surface acts as a catalyst for the
reaction in presence of reducing agent
Metals that can be electroless plated are limited:
nickel and certain of its alloys, copper, and gold
Notable application: copper for plating
through-holes of printed circuit boards
 Hot Dipping

Metal substrate (part) is immersed in a molten

bath of a second metal; when removed, the
second metal is coated onto the first
Common substrate metals: steel and iron
Coating metals: zinc, aluminum, tin, and lead
Primary purpose is corrosion protection
 Hot Dipping

A hot-dip galvanizing 'kettle' with fume hood

 Hot Dipping Processes

Galvanizing - zinc (Zn) coated onto steel or iron

Most important hot dipping process
Aluminizing - coating of aluminum (Al) onto a substrate
Excellent corrosion protection, in some cases five
times more effective than galvanizing
Tinning - coating of tin onto steel for food containers,
dairy equipment, and soldering applications
 Conversion Coatings

Family of coating processes in which a thin film of

oxide, phosphate, or chromate is formed on a
metallic surface by chemical or electrochemical
reaction
Immersion and spraying are the two common
methods of exposing metal surface to the reacting
chemicals
Common metals treated: steel (including galvanized
steel), zinc, and aluminum
 Reasons for Using Conversion Coatings

Corrosion protection
Preparation for painting
Wear reduction
Permits surface to better hold lubricants for
metal forming processes
Increase electrical resistance of surface
Decorative finish
 Conversion Coating Processes

Chemical conversion coatings - chemical

reaction only
Phosphate and chromate conversion
coatings are the common treatments
Anodizing - oxide coating produced by
electrochemical reaction
Anodize is a contraction of anodic oxidize
Most commonly used on aluminum and its
alloys
 Chemical Conversion Coatings

Phosphate coating - transforms base metal

surface (e.g., steel, zinc) into phosphate film
by exposure to phosphate salts and dilute
phosphoric acid
Useful preparation for painting of
automobiles
Chromate coating - transforms base metal
(e.g., aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc)
into various forms of chromate films
(sometimes colorful) using solutions of
chromic acid, chromate salts, etc.
 Chemical Conversion Coatings

Zinc chromate conversion coating on small steel parts.

 Anodizing

Electrolytic treatment that produces a stable

oxide layer on a metallic surface
Applications: aluminum and magnesium
most common
Also zinc, titanium, and other metals
Dyes can be incorporated into anodizing
process to create a wide variety of colors
Especially common in aluminum
anodizing
Functions: primarily decorative; also
corrosion protection
 Anodizing

These inexpensive decorative carabiners have an anodized

aluminium surface that has been dyed and are made in many colors.
Anodizing

Colored iPod Mini cases are dyed

following anodization.
 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

Family of processes in which a material is

converted to its vapor phase in a vacuum
chamber and condensed onto substrate
surface as a very thin film
Can be used for a wide variety of coating
materials: metals, alloys, ceramics and other
inorganic compounds, even some polymers
Possible substrates: metals, glass, and
plastics
Very versatile coating technology, applicable
to an almost unlimited combination of
coatings and substrate materials
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

Setup for vacuum evaporation PVD.

 Applications of PVD

Decorative coatings on plastic and metal parts

such as trophies, toys, pens and pencils,
watchcases, and interior trim in automobiles
Antireflection coatings of magnesium fluoride
(MgF2) onto optical lenses
Depositing metal to form electrical connections
in integrated circuits
Coating titanium nitride (TiN) onto cutting tools
and plastic injection molds for wear resistance
 Processing Steps in PVD

All physical vapor deposition processes

consist of the following steps:
1. Synthesis of coating vapor
2. Vapor transport to substrate
3. Condensation of vapors onto substrate
surface
These steps are generally carried out in a
vacuum chamber, so evacuation of the
chamber must precede PVD process
 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

Involves interaction between a mixture of gases

and the surface of a heated substrate, causing
chemical decomposition of some of the gas
constituents and formation of a solid film on the
substrate
Reactions occur in enclosed reaction chamber
Reaction product nucleates and grows on
substrate surface to form the coating
Most CVD reactions require heat
Variety of coating and substrate materials
 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

A typical reactor used in chemical vapor deposition.

 Applications of CVD

Industrial metallurgical processes

Mond process to reduce nickel from its ore
Coated carbide tools
Solar cells
Refractory metals on jet engine turbine blades
Integrated circuit fabrication
Other applications for resistance to wear,
corrosion, erosion, and thermal shock
 Applications of CVD

Photomicrograph of cross-section of a coated carbide cutting tool

using both CVD and PVD.
 Organic Coatings

Polymers and resins (natural or synthetic) usually

formulated to be applied as liquids that dry or
harden as thin surface films on substrate
materials
Advantages:
Wide variety of colors and textures possible
Capacity to protect the substrate surface
Low cost
Ease with which they can be applied
 Ingredients in Organic Coatings

1. Binders - give the coating its properties.

2. Dyes or pigments - provide color to the
coating
3. Solvents - dissolve the polymers and resins
and add proper fluidity to the liquid
4. Additives.
 Binders

Polymers and resins that determine the solid

state properties of the coating, such as
strength, physical properties, and adhesion to
the substrate surface
Binder holds the ingredients in the coating
during and after application to the surface
Common binders in organic coatings:
Natural oils (to produce oil-based paints)
Resins of polyesters, polyurethanes,
epoxies, acrylics, and cellulosics
 Dyes and Pigments
Provide color to the coating two types:
Dyes - soluble chemicals that color coating
liquid but do not conceal surface beneath
Coatings generally transparent or
translucent
Pigments - solid particles of microscopic size
dispersed in coating liquid but insoluble in it
Not only color the coating, but also hide
the surface below
Since pigments are particulate, they also
tend to strengthen the coating
 Solvents

Liquid substances used to dissolve the binder and

certain other ingredients in the liquid coating
composition
Common solvents used in organic coatings:
Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
Alcohols
Esters
Ketones
Chlorinated solvents
 Additives

Surfactants (to facilitate spreading on the

surface)
Biocides and fungicides
Thickeners
Heat and light stabilizers
Coalescing agents
Plasticizers
Defoamers
Catalysts to promote cross-linking
 Application Methods
Brushing
Rolling
Spraying
Dip coating (immersion)
Flow coating (showering)
 Drying and Curing

Drying - process in which organic coating

converts from liquid to solid
Many organic coatings dry by evaporation of
their solvents
Curing - to form a durable film on the substrate
surface, a further conversion is necessary
Involves a chemical change in the organic
resin in which polymerization or cross-linking
occurs to harden the coating
Application Example: Automobile Car Body

Typical sequence applied to sheet-metal car

body in mass production of automobiles:
1. Phosphate coat applied by dipping car
body
2. Primer coat applied by dipping car body
3. Color paint coat applied by spray coating
4. Clear coat (for high gloss and added
protection) applied by spraying
 Porcelain Enameling

Porcelain coatings are valued for:

Beauty and color
Smoothness and ease of cleaning
Chemical inertness and general durability
Porcelain enameling is the name given to the
technology of these ceramic coating materials
and the processes by which they are applied
 Porcelain Enameling

Porcelain is a ceramic made from kaolin,

feldspar, and quartz
Substrates: steel, cast iron, and aluminum as a
vitreous porcelain enamel
Products: sinks, bathtubs, lavatories, ranges,
water heaters, washing machines,
dishwashers, jet engine components,
automotive mufflers, and electronic circuit
boards
Porcelain Enameling

Protective surface for washing machine

 Thermal Spraying

Spraying molten coating materials onto substrate,

where they solidify and adhere to surface
Coating materials:
Pure metals and metal alloys; ceramics
(oxides, carbides, certain glasses); other
metallic compounds (sulfides, silicides);
cermet composites; and certain plastics
(e.g., epoxy, nylon, teflon).
Substrates:
Metals, ceramics, glass, some plastics,
wood, and paper
 Applications of Thermal Spraying

First applications were to rebuild worn areas on

used machinery components and to salvage
workparts that had been machined undersize
Also used in manufacturing as a coating
process for corrosion resistance, high
temperature protection, wear resistance,
electrical conductivity, electrical resistance,
electromagnetic interference shielding
 Hard Facing

Surfacing technique in which alloys are applied

as welded deposits to substrate metals
Distinguishing feature is that fusion occurs
between coating and substrate, whereas the
bond in thermal spraying is typically
mechanical interlocking which does not stand
up as well to abrasive wear
Especially suited to applications requiring good
wear resistance
Applications: coating of new parts and repair of
heavily worn, eroded, or corroded part surfaces
Cleaning Workparts
CLEANING AND SURFACE TREATMENTS

1. Chemical Cleaning
2. Mechanical Cleaning and Surface Preparation
3. Diffusion and Ion Implantation
 Overview of Industrial Cleaning
Almost all workparts must be cleaned one or
more times during their manufacturing
sequence
Processes used to clean the work surfaces:
Chemical cleaning methods - use
chemicals to remove unwanted
contaminants from the work surface
Mechanical cleaning - involves removal of
contaminants by various mechanical
operations
Reasons Parts Must be Cleaned
Prepare surface for subsequent
processing, such as a coating application
or adhesive bonding
Improve hygiene conditions for workers
and customers
Remove contaminants that might
chemically react with the surface
Enhance appearance and performance of
the product
Factors in Selecting a Cleaning Method
Contaminant to be removed
Degree of cleanliness required
Substrate material to be cleaned
Purpose of cleaning
Environmental and safety factors
Size and geometry of the part
Production and cost requirements
 Contaminant to be Removed
Various contaminants build up on part surfaces,
either due to previous processing or factory
environment
Principal surface contaminants found in factory:
Oil and grease, e.g., lubricants in
metalworking
Solid particles such as metal chips, abrasive
grits, shop dirt, dust, etc.
Buffing and polishing compounds
Oxide films, rust, and scale
 Degree of Cleanliness
Refers to the amount of contaminant remaining
after a given cleaning operation
A simple test is a wiping method, in which the
surface is wiped with a clean white cloth
Amount of soil absorbed by the cloth is
observed
Non-quantitative but easy to use
 Other Factors in Selection
The substrate material must be considered, so
that damaging reactions are not caused by the
cleaning chemicals
Aluminum is dissolved by most acids and
alkalis
Steels are resistant to alkalis but react with
virtually all acids
Cleaning methods and associated chemicals
should be selected to avoid pollution and
health hazards
 Chemical Cleaning Processes
Alkaline cleaning
Emulsion cleaning
Solvent cleaning
Acid cleaning
Ultrasonic cleaning
In some cases, chemical action augmented
by other energy forms
Ultrasonic cleaning uses high-frequency
mechanical vibrations combined with
chemical cleaning
 Alkaline Cleaning
Uses an alkali to remove oils, grease, wax, and
various types of particles (metal chips, silica,
light scale) from a metallic surface
Most widely used industrial cleaning method
Alkaline solutions include sodium and
potassium hydroxide (NaOH, KOH), sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3), borax (Na2B4O7)
Cleaning methods: immersion or spraying,
usually at temperatures of 50-95C
(120-200F), followed by water rinse to remove
residue
 Emulsion Cleaning
Uses organic solvents (oils) dispersed in an
aqueous solution
The use of suitable emulsifiers (soaps) results
in a two-phase cleaning fluid (oil-in-water),
which functions by dissolving or emulsifying the
soils on the part surface
Used on either metal or nonmetallic parts
Must be followed by alkaline cleaning to
eliminate all residues of the organic solvent
prior to plating
 Solvent Cleaning
Organic soils such as oil and grease are removed
from a metallic surface by chemicals that
dissolve the soils
Common application techniques: hand-wiping,
immersion, spraying, and vapor degreasing
Vapor degreasing (a solvent cleaning method)
uses hot vapors of chlorinated or fluorinated
solvents
 Acid Cleaning
Removes oils and light oxides from metal
surfaces using acid solutions combined with
water-miscible solvents, wetting and
emulsifying agents
Common application techniques: soaking,
spraying, or manual brushing or wiping carried
out at ambient or elevated temperatures
Cleaning acids include hydrochloric (HCl), nitric
(HNO3), phosphoric (H3PO4), and sulfuric
(H2SO4)
 Acid Pickling
More severe acid treatment to remove thicker
oxides, rusts, and scales
Distinction between acid cleaning and acid
pickling is a matter of degree
Generally results in some etching of the
metallic surface which serves to improve
organic paint adhesion
 Ultrasonic Cleaning
Mechanical agitation of cleaning fluid by
high-frequency vibrations (between 20 and 45
kHz) to cause cavitation (formation of low
pressure vapor bubbles that scrub the surface)
Combines chemical cleaning and mechanical
agitation of the cleaning fluid
Cleaning fluid is generally an aqueous solution
containing alkaline detergents
Highly effective for removing surface
contaminants
 Mechanical Cleaning
Physical removal of soils, scales, or films from the
work surface by means of abrasives or similar
mechanical action
Often serves other functions also, such as
deburring, improving surface finish, and
surface hardening
Processes:
Blast finishing
Shot peening
Mass finishing processes
 Blast Finishing
High velocity impact of particulate media to clean
and finish a surface
Media is propelled at the target surface by
pressurized air or centrifugal force
Most well-known method is sand blasting,
which uses grits of sand as blasting media
Other blasting media:
Hard abrasives such as aluminum oxide
(Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC)
Soft media such as nylon beads
 Shot Peening
High velocity stream of small cast steel pellets
(called shot) is directed at a metallic surface to
cold work and induce compressive stresses
into surface layers
Used primarily to improve fatigue strength of
metal parts
Purpose is therefore different from blast
finishing, although surface cleaning is
accomplished as a byproduct of the operation
 Mass Finishing
Finishing parts in bulk by a mixing action in a
container, usually in the presence of an
abrasive media
Mixing causes parts to rub against media and
each other to achieve desired finishing action
Parts are usually small and therefore
uneconomical to finish individually
Processes include:
Tumbling
Vibratory finishing
 Tumbling
Use of a horizontally oriented barrel of hexagonal
or octagonal cross-section in which parts are
mixed by rotating the barrel at speeds = 10 to
50 rev/min
Finishing by "landslide" action - media and
parts rise in the barrel as it rotates, then top
layer tumbles down due to gravity
Drawbacks: slow, noisey, and large floor-space
required
 Tumbling (Barrel Finishing)

Figure 28.1 Diagram of tumbling (barrel finishing) operation showing

"landslide" action of parts and abrasive media to finish the parts.
 Vibratory Finishing
Alternative to tumbling
Vibrating vessel subjects all parts to agitation
with the abrasive media, as opposed to only
the top layer as in barrel finishing
Processing times for vibratory finishing are
significantly reduced
Open tubs permit inspection of parts during
processing, and noise is reduced
 Mass Finishing Media
Most are abrasive
Some media perform nonabrasive operations
such as burnishing and surface hardening
Natural media (corundum, granite,
limestone) - generally softer and nonuniform
in size
Synthetic media (Al2O3 and SiC) - greater
consistency in size, shape, and hardness
Steel - used for surface-hardening,
burnishing, and light deburring operations
Media Shapes in Mass Finishing

Figure 28.2 Typical preformed media shapes used in

mass finishing operations: (a) abrasive media for
finishing, and (b) steel media for burnishing.
Processes to Alter Surface Chemistry
Two processes that impregnate the surface of
a substrate with foreign atoms:
Diffusion
Ion implantation
 Diffusion
Alteration of surface layers of material by diffusing
atoms of a different material (usually an
element) into surface, usually at high
temperatures
Surface still contains a high proportion of
substrate material
Diffused element has maximum percentage at
the surface and rapidly declines with distance
below surface
Applications in metallurgy and semiconductor
manufacture
 Profile of Diffused Element

Figure 28.3 Characteristic profile of diffused element as a function of

distance below surface in diffusion. The plot given here is for
carbon diffused into iron.
Metallurgical Applications of Diffusion
Surface treatments to increase hardness and
wear resistance
Carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding,
chromizing, and boronizing
Surface treatments to increase corrosion
resistance and/or high-temperature oxidation
resistance
Aluminizing - diffusion of aluminum into
carbon steel, alloy steels, and superalloys
Siliconizing diffusion of silicon into steel
part surface
 Semiconductor Applications
Diffusion of an impurity element into the
surface of a silicon chip is used to change the
electrical properties at the surface to create
devices such as transistors and diodes
Called doping in semiconductor processing
 Ion Implantation
Embedding atoms of one (or more) foreign
element(s) into a substrate surface using a
high-energy beam of ionized particles
Results in alteration of the chemistry and
physical properties of layers near the substrate
surface
Produces a much thinner altered layer and
different concentration profile than diffusion
Alternative to diffusion when the latter is not
feasible due to high temperatures required
 Profile of Surface Chemistry

Figure 28.4 Profile of surface

chemistry as treated by ion
implantation. Shown here is a
typical plot for boron implanted in
silicon. Note the difference in
profile shape and depth of altered
layer compared to diffusion
coating in Figure 28.3.
 Advantages of Ion Implantation
Low temperature processing
Good control and reproducibility of impurity
penetration depth
Solubility limits can be exceeded without
precipitation of excess atoms
No problems with waste disposal as in
electroplating and many coating processes
No discontinuity between coating and substrate
as in coating processes
Principal Applications of Ion Implantation
Modifying metal surfaces to improve properties
Fabrication of semiconductor devices