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Grouting

This manual from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers provides guidance on grouting technology for civil works projects. It discusses grouting applications for pre-construction foundation treatment and post-construction remedial measures. The manual describes different grouting methods and various types of grout materials and their appropriate uses. It provides detailed information on planning, designing, and executing grouting projects based on site investigations and flow modeling.

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Grouting

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PTchong

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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-3506

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CECW-EG Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-2-3506 31March2017

Engineering and Design

GROUTING TECHNOLOGY

1. Purpose. The purpose of this manual is to provide detailed technical guidance and criteria for
civil works grouting applications.

2. Applicability. This manual applies to all HQUSACE elements and USACE commands
having responsibility for construction of civil works.

3. Distribution Statement. This publication is approved for public release; distribution is

unlimited.

4. References. References are listed in Appendix A.

5. Discussion. This manual provides detailed information on state-of-the-art technology,

practices, procedures, materials, and equipment for use in planning and executing a grouting
project. Different grouting applications are discussed, including preconstruction foundation
treatment and post-construction remedial measures. Methods of grouting that have proven to be
effective are described, and various types of grout, their proportions, and their best-suited uses
are addressed. The manual discusses grouts composed primarily of cementitious suspensions
and additives, although other types of grout are mentioned.

FOR THE COMMANDER:

4 Appendices PAUL .OWEN

Appendix A References COL, EN
Appendix B Pressure Calculations Chief of Staff
Appendix C Glossaiy of Terms and
Abbreviations
Appendix D Acronyms

This manual supersedes EM 1110-2-3506, dated 20 January 1984.

EM 1110-2-3506
31 Mar 17

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-3506

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CECW-CE Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-2-3506 31 March 2017

Engineering and Design

GROUTING TECHNOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraph Page

CHAPTER 1. Introduction

Purpose.............................................................................................. 1-1 1-1

Applicability ..................................................................................... 1-2 1-1

Distribution Statement ...................................................................... 1-3 1-1

References......................................................................................... 1-4 1-1

Changes............................................................................................. 1-5 1-1

General Considerations..................................................................... 1-6 1-1

Brief History of Injection Grouting .................................................. 1-7 1-1

CHAPTER 2. Purposes and Applications of Grouting

Purposes of Grouting ........................................................................ 2-1 2-1

Typical Applications of Grouting ..................................................... 2-2 2-1

Selection of Methods of Treatment................................................... 2-3 2-2

Potential Risk and Reliability Issues of Grouting............................. 2-4 2-3

Permanence of Grouting ................................................................... 2-5 2-4

Communication of Grouting Issues .................................................. 2-6 2-4

CHAPTER 3. Grouting Planning, Design, and Construction Process

Application of Design Principles ...................................................... 3-1 3-1

Effectiveness of Grouting ................................................................. 3-2 3-1

Reconnaissance Phase....................................................................... 3-3 3-1

Feasibility Phase ............................................................................... 3-4 3-1

Preconstruction Engineering and Design Phase ............................... 3-5 3-6

CHAPTER 4. Grouting Geology and Site Characterization Requirements

Impacts of Geology on Grouting ...................................................... 4-1 4-1

Generalized Grouting Geology Profiles............................................ 4-2 4-1

Regional and Site Geology ................................................................ 4-3 4-5

Structural Geology............................................................................4-4 4-5

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Rock Types .......................................................................................4-5 4-14

CHAPTER 5. Geohydrology and Flow Modeling

Introduction....................................................................................... 5-1 5-1

Hydraulic Conductivity Units ........................................................... 5-2 5-1

Geohydrologic Flow Systems ........................................................... 5-3 5-4

Flow in Saturated Porous Media....................................................... 5-4 5-6

Flow in Saturated Fractured Media................................................... 5-5 5-7

Application of Seepage Flow Models in Grouting Program

Design ......................................................................................... 5-6 5-11

Pre-grouting Hydraulic Conductivity Values for Flow Models ....... 5-7 5-14

Hydraulic Conductivity Values for Grouted Zones .......................... 5-8 5-15

Guidelines for Determining Number of Grout Lines for

Seepage Control .......................................................................... 5-9 5-17

Effective Width of Grouted Zones and Spacing of Grout

Lines........................................................................................... 5-10 5-19

Constant Head Boundaries and Known Intermediate

Piezometric Levels for Flow Models......................................... 5-11 5-21

Analytical Models............................................................................ 5-12 5-22

Flow Net Seepage Flow Models ...................................................... 5-13 5-24

Numerical Seepage Flow Models .................................................... 5-14 5-37

Department of Defense GMS........................................................... 5-15 5-38

Two-Dimensional Numerical Seepage Flow Models

Commonly Used in Grouting..................................................... 5-16 5-39

Three-Dimensional Numerical Seepage Flow Models Used in

Grouting ..................................................................................... 5-17 5-41

Effects of Grouting Defects on Performance of Grouted

Barriers....................................................................................... 5-18 5-43

CHAPTER 6. Site Investigations

General.............................................................................................. 6-1 6-1

Planning Considerations ................................................................... 6-3 6-2

Site Investigation Equipment............................................................ 6-4 6-3

Test Drilling and Test Grouting Programs........................................ 6-5 6-8

Supplemental Investigations During Construction ........................... 6-6 6-12

CHAPTER 7. Grout Materials, Mixes, and Their Properties

Types of Grout .................................................................................. 7-1 7-1

Process for Selecting Grouting Materials ......................................... 7-2 7-5

Basic Elements of Cement-Based Suspension Grouts...................... 7-3 7-13

Behavior of Cement-Based Suspension Grout .................................7-4 7-15

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Desired Properties of Cement-Based Suspension Grout ..................7-5 7-16

Unstable Suspension GroutsBalanced Stable Grouts ....................... 7-7 7-19

CHAPTER 8. Overburden and Embankment Drilling Equipment

Overburden Drilling Equipment ....................................................... 8-1 8-1

Drilling Methods............................................................................... 8-2 8-2

Casing of Holes................................................................................. 8-3 8-9

CHAPTER 9. Rock Drilling, Washing, and Pressure Testing Equipment

Rock Drilling Equipment.................................................................. 9-1 9-1

Hole Washing Equipment ................................................................. 9-2 9-11

Pressure Testing Equipment ............................................................. 9-3 9-13

CHAPTER 10. Grouting Equipment for HMGs

General............................................................................................. 10-1 10-1

Grout Mixers.................................................................................... 10-2 10-2

Agitators........................................................................................... 10-3 10-4

Additive and Admixture Dispensers................................................ 10-4 10-5

Pumps............................................................................................... 10-5 10-7

Power Sources.................................................................................. 10-6 10-9

Valves .............................................................................................. 10-7 10-9

Grout Headers .................................................................................. 10-8 10-11

Circulation Lines and Equipment Arrangement .............................. 10-9 10-14

Water Distribution System.............................................................. 10-10 10-15

CHAPTER 11. Grouting Equipment for Other Types of Grouts

Other Types of Grouting.................................................................. 11-1 11-1

Chemical Grouting........................................................................... 11-2 11-1

Low-Mobility and Compaction Grouting ........................................ 11-3 11-1

Bitumen Grouting ............................................................................ 11-4 11-2

CHAPTER 12. Monitoring and Control Equipment

Introduction...................................................................................... 12-1 12-1

Water and Grout Injection Measurement Equipment ...................... 12-2 12-1

Electronic Instrument Accuracy ...................................................... 12-3 12-6

Automated Monitoring Systems ...................................................... 12-4 12-7

CHAPTER 13. Site Access and Site Preparation

Introduction......................................................................................13-1 13-1

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Site Access and Site Preparation Equipment ...................................13-2 13-1

Grout Standpipes and Grout Caps.................................................... 13-3 13-8

Galleries ........................................................................................... 13-4 13-14

Site Infrastructure Systems .............................................................. 13-5 13-18

Hot and Cold Weather Operations................................................... 13-6 13-22

Site Safety ........................................................................................ 13-7 13-25

CHAPTER 14. Hydraulic Barrier Design

Introduction...................................................................................... 14-1 14-1

New Earth Dams .............................................................................. 14-2 14-1

New Concrete Dams ........................................................................ 14-3 14-3

Remedial Grouting at Dams............................................................. 14-4 14-4

Grouting in Connection with Cutoff Walls at Dams ....................... 14-5 14-5

Environmental Applications ............................................................ 14-6 14-7

Dewatering Flow Control ................................................................ 14-7 14-7

Other Factors Considered in the Basis for Design........................... 14-8 14-8

CHAPTER 15. Hydraulic Barriers: Field Procedures

General Considerations.................................................................... 15-1 15-1

Field Decisions................................................................................. 15-2 15-1

Field Preparation Activities ............................................................. 15-3 15-1

Equipment Checking and Equipment Calibrations.......................... 15-4 15-2

Downstage and Upstage Drilling and Grouting Procedures ............ 15-5 15-4

Drilling Operations .......................................................................... 15-6 15-7

Hole Washing After Drilling ........................................................... 15-7 15-15

Pressure Testing ............................................................................... 15-8 15-16

Injection Pressures ........................................................................... 15-9 15-24

Grouting Operations........................................................................ 15-10 15-31

Refusal Criteria ............................................................................... 15-11 15-42

Routine Problems During Grouting ................................................ 15-12 15-45

Other Special Issues........................................................................ 15-13 15-46

Closure Analyses and Program Verification................................... 15-14 15-47

CHAPTER 16. Hydraulic Barriers: Records and Reports

Introduction...................................................................................... 16-1 16-1

Purpose of Records .......................................................................... 16-2 16-1

Records Keepers .............................................................................. 16-3 16-2

Recordkeeping Methods .................................................................. 16-4 16-2

Information Dissemination .............................................................. 16-5 16-3

Pre-Contract Information ................................................................. 16-6 16-3

Reporting and Technology...............................................................16-7 16-3

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Paragraph Page

Production Records..........................................................................16-8 16-5

Quantity Reconciliation ...................................................................16-9 16-11

Summary Project Records...............................................................16-10 16-13

CHAPTER 17. Grouting in Karst Environments

General.............................................................................................17-1 17-1

Dissolution Rates and Their Impacts on Grouting Approach ..........17-2 17-1

Karst Areas, Profiles, and Features..................................................17-3 17-2

Investigation and Characterization of Karst Sites............................17-4 17-21

Grouting for Improving Foundation Support...................................17-5 17-31

Karst Features and the Performance of Dams..................................17-6 17-32

Field Drilling and Grouting Issues in Karst Features ......................17-7 17-34

Grouting Concept Mechanisms and Reliability of Grouting in

Karst...........................................................................................17-8 17-38

General Protocols for Remedial Drilling and Grouting in

Karst...........................................................................................17-9 17-41

Treatment of Large Cavities and Caves..........................................17-10 17-45

CHAPTER 18. Grouting Under High-Head and/or High-Flow Conditions

Introduction......................................................................................18-1 18-1

High-Flow and/or High-Head Conditions .......................................18-2 18-1

Categorization of Conditions ...........................................................18-3 18-3

Assessment of Conditions................................................................18-4 18-3

Common Treatment Methods ..........................................................18-5 18-4

CHAPTER 19. Special Considerations for Cutoff Wall Pre-Grouting

Programs

Introduction......................................................................................19-1 19-1

Aspects of Cutoff Wall Construction and Performance ..................19-2 19-1

Systematic Pre-Grouting Programs for Remedial Cutoff Wall

Projects.......................................................................................19-3 19-4

Basis of Design ................................................................................19-4 19-6

Number of Lines, Hole Spacing, and Line Spacing.........................19-5 19-6

Grouting Pressures ...........................................................................19-6 19-8

CHAPTER 20. Blanket Grouting and Consolidation Grouting

Introduction......................................................................................20-1 20-1

Blanket Grouting..............................................................................20-2 20-1

Consolidation Grouting Principles and Basis of Design..................20-3 20-3

Consolidation Grouting Equipment, Materials, and

Methodology..............................................................................20-4 20-4

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Paragraph Page

CHAPTER 21. Grouting Considerations for Conduits

Introduction...................................................................................... 21-1 21-1

Annular Space Grouting .................................................................. 21-2 21-1

Voids Adjacent to Conduits ............................................................. 21-3 21-5

Grouting Cracks and Leaking Joints................................................ 21-4 21-8

Pipe Abandonment........................................................................... 21-5 21-8

CHAPTER 22. Void Filling

Introduction...................................................................................... 22-1 22-1

Basic Considerations for Void-Filling Operations .......................... 22-2 22-1

Common Applications ..................................................................... 22-3 22-2

Investigations ................................................................................... 22-4 22-4

Design Considerations ..................................................................... 22-5 22-5

Field Methods .................................................................................. 22-6 22-7

CHAPTER 23. Pre-stressed Rock Anchor Grouting

Introduction...................................................................................... 23-1 23-1

Basic Elements and Terminology .................................................... 23-2 23-1

Grouting for Anchor Construction................................................... 23-3 23-4

Anchor Grouts and Their Properties ................................................ 23-4 23-8

Grouting Equipment and Operations ............................................... 23-5 23-14

QA/QC for the Mixed Grout............................................................ 23-6 23-17

Submittals, Records, and Reports .................................................... 23-7 23-19

CHAPTER 24. Tunnel Grouting

Introduction...................................................................................... 24-1 24-1

Applications ..................................................................................... 24-2 24-1

CHAPTER 25. Grouting of Concrete Structures

Introduction...................................................................................... 25-1 25-1

Materials .......................................................................................... 25-2 25-1

General Procedures .......................................................................... 25-3 25-1

Grouting Contraction Joints or Between First and Second

Stage Concrete Placements ........................................................ 25-4 25-3

Instrumentation for Detecting Structural Movement....................... 25-5 25-7

CHAPTER 26. Vibration Control Near Grouting Operations

Introduction......................................................................................26-1 26-1

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Other Information Sources...............................................................26-2 26-1

Types of Vibrations..........................................................................26-3 26-1

Variables in Vibration Problems......................................................26-4 26-2

Established Thresholds ....................................................................26-5 26-4

Grouting Considerations ..................................................................26-6 26-7

Recommendations Specific to Vibrations and Grouting .................26-7 26-9

CHAPTER 27. Compaction Grouting

Introduction......................................................................................27-1 27-1

Applications .....................................................................................27-2 27-2

Design Considerations .....................................................................27-3 27-2

Materials ..........................................................................................27-4 27-4

Equipment ........................................................................................27-5 27-5

Procedures........................................................................................27-6 27-6

Monitoring .......................................................................................27-7 27-8

Verification ......................................................................................27-8 27-9

CHAPTER 28. Hydrofracture Grouting

Introduction......................................................................................28-1 28-1

Complexity of Terms .......................................................................28-2 28-1

Principle Theories and Terms ..........................................................28-3 28-2

Ground Improvement Mechanisms and Applications .....................28-4 28-4

Field Methods ..................................................................................28-5 28-5

Gauging Improvement .....................................................................28-6 28-6

Case Histories ..................................................................................28-7 28-7

CHAPTER 29. Grouting Contract Considerations

Fundamental Considerations for Contracting ..................................29-1 29-1

Source Selection and Contract Types ..............................................29-2 29-2

CHAPTER 30. Measurement and Payment

General Considerations....................................................................30-1 30-1

Unit Price Schedule Items................................................................30-2 30-1

CHAPTER 31. Quantity Estimates

General Considerations....................................................................31-1 31-1

Test Grouting ...................................................................................31-2 31-1

Use of Historical Records ................................................................31-3 31-1

Site Characterization Information....................................................31-4 31-1

Unit Take Method ............................................................................31-5 31-2

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Paragraph Page

Estimating the Quantity of Individual Bid Items .............................31-6 31-2

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A - References.....................................................................................................A-1

APPENDIX B - Pressure Calculations ....................................................................................B-1

APPENDIX C - Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations...........................................................C-1

APPENDIX D - Acronyms......................................................................................................D-1

LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)

Table 3-1 - Feasibility Phase elements. 3-4

Table 3-2 - PED Phase elements. 3-6

Table 3-3 - Advantages, disadvantages, and other considerations for downstage and

upstage methods. 3-12

Table 5-1 - Hydraulic conductivity unit conversion factors. 5-3

Table 5-2 - Typical ranges of hydraulic conductivities for soils. 5-7

Table 5-3 - Discrete fracture flow rates. 5-10

Table 5-4 - Typical uses of flow models in grouting design applications. 5-12

Table 5-5 - Considerations for selection of number of grout lines for seepage control. 5-20

Table 6-1 - General guide to the selection of exploration methods. 6-3

Table 7-1 - Common grout additives. (After Wilson and Dreese 1998.) 7-19

Table 7-2 - Summary of mix designs for Penn Forest Dam, PA. 7-24

Table 7-3 - Quality control tests for HMG. 7-27

Table 7-4 - Summary of grout mix designs for Mississinewa Dam, IN. 7-33

Table 7-5 - Summary of grout mix properties for Mississinewa Dam, IN. 7-34

Table 7-6 - Summary of grout mix designs for Patoka Dam, IL. 7-34

Table 7-7 - Summary of grout mix properties for Patoka Dam, IL. 7-35

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LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)

Table 7-8 - Summary of grout mix designs for Wolf Creek Dam, KY. 7-36

Table 7-9 - Summary of grout mix designs for Clearwater Dam, MO. 7-37

Table 12-1 - Summary of measurement equipment and accuracies. 12-2

Table 15-1 - Applicability, advantages, disadvantages, and other considerations for

downstage and upstage methods. 15-6

Table 15-2 - Summary of measured drill hole deviations. 15-11

Table 17-1 - Summary of major karst areas of the United States. 17-3

Table 17-2 - Engineering classifications and characteristics of karst types, best viewed
in conjunction with Fig. 17-3. 17-6

Table 18-1 - Range of approximate grout set times for cement-sodium silicate grouts. 18-7

Table 23-1 - Corrosion protection requirements. 23-14

Table 24-1 - Grouting techniques and their general application to tunneling. 24-2

Table 26-1 - Swiss standard for vibrations in buildings. 26-5

Table 26-2 - Summary of commonly used criteria for vibration-induced building

damage. 26-6

Table 26-3 - Range of unconfined compressive strengths for various balanced stable
grouts from a recent USACE project. 26-8

Table 26-4 - Range of calculated maximum particle velocities for grout using the
above equation derived from EM 1110-2-3800. 26-9

Table 28-1 - Applications of compensation grouting. 28-2

Table 31-1 - Example of estimated grout take in cubic feet/linear foot. 31-2

Table 31-2 - Deeres Grout Take Classification System. 31-5

LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 3-1 - Typical grout hole layout. 3-10

Figure 4-1 - Generic geologic profile showing physical zones of interest in grouting. 4-1

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 4-2 - Geologic profile in sedimentary rock at abutment, Lyman Run Dam,

PA. 4-2

Figure 4-3 - Geologic profile in sedimentary rock valley, Lyman Run Dam, PA. 4-2

Figure 4-4 - Geologic profile in a karst quarry in PA. 4-3

Figure 4-5 - Geologic profile in metamorphic rock, Hunting Run Dam, VA. 4-3

Figure 4-6 - Differential bed thicknesses, bed orientations, and joint spacings in

sandstone, near Slate Run, PA. 4-9

Figure 4-7 - Thick sandstone unit with large, widely spaced vertical fractures

terminating at mudstone units located above and below, Penn Forest

Dam, PA. 4-9

Figure 4-8 - Smooth, vertical fracture in massive sandstone with extensive

continuity crossing a dam foundation, overlain by mudstone unit,

Penn Forest Dam, PA. 4-10

Figure 4-9 - Rock outcrop adjacent to a dam abutment, Sierra Nevada Mountains,

CA. 4-10

Figure 4-10 - Salt Springs Dam, CA. 4-11

Figure 4-11 - Sheeted and blocky jointing in Granite, CA. 4-11

Figure 4-12 - Abutment area of Olivenhain Dam, CA. 4-12

Figure 4-13 - Dolomite with a solution feature discontinuity at a quarry in PA. 4-12

Figure 4-14 - Weathered limestone exposure, Mississinewa Dam, IN. 4-13

Figure 4-15 - Limestone with solution and erosion features along the Wabash River,

IN. 4-13

Figure 4-16 - Limestone with solution features, varied bed thickness, and vertical

joints at a highway rock cut in south central Kentucky. 4-14

Figure 5-1 - Parallel plate model of discrete fracture flow. Unit flow rate per foot of

single fracture under gradient i = 5. 5-9

Figure 5-2 - Calculation of seepage when conditions are suitable for direct

application of Darcys equation. 5-23

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 5-3 - Simplified estimate of seepage through a fully penetrating grouted

barrier. 5-24

Figure 5-4 - Entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions of line of seepage:

(a) conditions for point of entrance of line of seepage, (b) conditions

for point of discharge of line of seepage, (c) deflection of line of

seepage at boundary between soils of different permeability. 5-25

Figure 5-5 - Transfer conditions at boundaries between soils of different

permeabilities. 5-26

Figure 5-6 - Example of a section with a highly permeable foundation. 5-29

Figure 5-7 - Example of flow net construction and calculations for a section with no

treatment of the foundation. 5-30

Figure 5-8 - Example of flow net construction and calculations for a section with a

foundation with a fully penetrating grouted barrier. 5-31

Figure 5-9 - Two simplified solutions for the same scenario as in Fig. 5-8. 5-32

Figure 5-10 - Flow net solution and flow calculations for a 100-Lu foundation with

no barrier. 5-33

Figure 5-11 - Flow net solution and flow calculations for a very poorly constructed
barrier that achieved an end result of only 50 Lu within the grouted
zone. 5-34

Figure 5-12 - Flow net solution and flow calculations for grouting a barrier to 10 Lu

within the 100-Lu foundation material. 5-35

Figure 5-13 - Flow net solution and flow calculations for grouting a 6-m (20-ft)

wide barrier to 5 Lu. 5-36

Figure 5-14 - Flow net solution and flow calculations for grouting a 20-ft-wide

barrier to 1 Lu. 5-37

Figure 5-15 - Three-dimensional flow model of an earth dam developed by ERDC

with GMS. 5-39

Figure 5-16 - Seep2D sample output. 5-40

Figure 5-17 - Seep/W sample output. 5-41

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 5-18 - Study of partially penetrating cutoffs: (a) cross section and flow net
for a partial cutoff, (b) complete cutoff (minute flow through dam),
(c) relationship between depth of cutoff and seepage quantity. Note

that suitable filters must be provided to prevent piping of soil at faces

A-B-C in (a) and (b). 5-44

Figure 5-19 - Flow net solution and flow calculations for grouting a 6-m- (20-ft-)

wide, partially penetrating barrier to 1 Lu. 5-45

Figure 5-20 - Flow net study of imperfect cutoffs: (a) cross section, (b) curves. 5-47

Figure 6-1 - Sonic drilling samples from Mississinewa Dam, IN. From top to

bottom: alluvial soils (top two bags), highly weathered rock, and

moderately weathered rock. 6-5

Figure 6-2 - Core from a triple-tube split inner barrel from Mississinewa Dam, IN,

showing excellent recovery and the intact structure of soil seams and

rock materials from a highly weathered rock zone. 6-5

Figure 6-3 - Triple-tube core in slightly weathered rock at Mississinewa Dam, IN. 6-6

Figure 6-4 - Borehole logging system for imaging the borehole sidewall and

fractures at McCook Reservoir grouting test section, Chicago, IL. 6-6

Figure 6-5 - Digital image of a borehole sidewall and fractures taken with a down-

hole logging system at McCook Reservoir Grouting Test Section,

Chicago, IL. Post-processing allows determination of the fracture

strike and dip. 6-7

Figure 6-6 - Use of exploration data and 3-D CADD to illustrate a karst feature

beneath a foundation at Clearwater Dam, MO. 6-7

Figure 6-7 - Seismic tomography image of probable voids in karst in southeast PA. 6-8

Figure 6-8 - Grout results from a circle-grouted test section, Cerrillos Dam, Puerto

Rico. 6-11

Figure 7-1 - Bleed testing of neat cement and balanced stable grouts with ingredient

ratios and physical properties noted for mixes used at Penn Forest

Dam, PA. These results represent grout bleed in the static state

condition. Note: bwc denotes by weight of cement. 7-2

Figure 7-2 - Low-mobility grout. 7-3

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 7-3 - Hot bitumen and HMG from co-injection that escaped to the surface

from deep karst. 7-4

Figure 7-4 - Schematic of grouting methods. 7-6

Figure 7-5 - Grouting materials for use in fractured rock. 7-7

Figure 7-6 - Recommended aggregate gradation for compaction grout. 7-8

Figure 7-7 - Leaky grout cap caused by improper concrete consolidation. 7-10

Figure 7-8 - Urethane grouting used to waterproof the grout cap. 7-10

Figure 7-9 - Concrete cores before and after grouting with urethane grout. 7-11

Figure 7-10 - HMG-filled fracture. The grout is indicated in purple by

phenolphthalein. 7-12

Figure 7-11 - Recommended methods and materials for grouting of karst and large

voids. 7-12

Figure 7-12 - Floating water intake for a grouting project during a flood at

Mississinewa Dam, IN. 7-15

Figure 7-13 - Bingham fluid behavior. 7-15

Figure 7-14 - Grouting theory for unstable cement grouts. 7-18

Figure 7-15 - Testing for apparent viscosity and pressure filtration. 7-21

Figure 7-16 - Marsh funnel viscosity values from the Penn Forest Dam mix testing

program. 7-24

Figure 7-17 - Plate cohesion values from the Penn Forest Dam mix testing program. 7-25

Figure 7-18 - Pressure filtration coefficient values from the Penn Forest Dam mix

testing program. 7-26

Figure 7-19 - On-site quality control testing lab. 7-27

Figure 7-20 - Grouting theory for balanced stable grouts. 7-29

Figure 7-21 - Range of grain sizes of typical admixtures. 7-32

Figure 8-1 - Components of a hollow stem auger system 8-3

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 8-2 - Hollow stem auger system in use. 8-4

Figure 8-3 - Schematic of sonic drill operating principle. 8-5

Figure 8-4 - Sonic drill equipped with mast braced to permit angle drilling. 8-6

Figure 8-5 - Sonic drill with support truck. 8-7

Figure 8-6 - Track-mounted sonic rig. 8-7

Figure 8-7 - Example duplex casing shoe and drill bit. 8-8

Figure 8-8 - Duplex drill installing relief wells at the toe of a dam. 8-9

Figure 8-9 - Rotary duplex auger drill rig with dual hammers. 8-10

Figure 8-10 - Duplex system equipped with a carbide casing shoe and an inner auger

string with a carbide bit. 8-10

Figure 8-11 - MPSP; the photo on the left shows a port beneath the gasket. 8-11

Figure 8-12 - Overburden casing sealing options in the non-critical sections of the

dam. 8-12

Figure 9-1 - Use of conventional survey equipment to align a drill rig. 9-2

Figure 9-2 - Truck-mounted high-speed rotary drill rig. 9-3

Figure 9-3 - Track-mounted and hand-held high-speed rotary drills. 9-4

Figure 9-4 - High-speed rotary drills for difficult access and confined spaces. 9-4

Figure 9-5 - Top hole percussion drill tooling. Bit is shown at top left followed by

larger diameter starter rod, followed by traditional drill rod. 9-6

Figure 9-6 - Air-track, top-hole percussion drill. 9-6

Figure 9-7 - Self-contained, track-mounted, top-hole percussion drill with a rod

handler. 9-7

Figure 9-8 - Details of RC systems. 9-8

Figure 9-9 - Numa dual-fluid system schematic. 9-10

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 9-10 - Water-powered down-hole hammer in action at McCook Reservoir. A

large drill was used as depths exceeded 400 ft on this project. 9-11

Figure 9-11 - Light-weight washout bit and hose for manual applications. 9-12

Figure 9-12 - Track-mounted mechanical washing system for deep holes. 9-12

Figure 9-13 - Cup-type friction packer. 9-13

Figure 9-14 - Mechanical packers. 9-14

Figure 9-15 - Inflatable or pneumatic packer. 9-15

Figure 9-16 - Assembled double packer system. 9-15

Figure 9-17 - Manually read mechanical water meter and pressure gauges for

pressure testing. 9-16

Figure 9-18 - Electronic system for flow and pressure readings used in pressure

testing. 9-16

Figure 10-1 - Mobile grout plant capable of being moved around a site near the

injection point. 10-1

Figure 10-2 - Site with a centralized mixing station. 10-2

Figure 10-3 - Schematic of a high-shear mixer. 10-3

Figure 10-4 - Rotor of a high-shear mixer with the mixer cover removed. 10-3

Figure 10-5 - Vortex inside a high-shear mixer. 10-4

Figure 10-6 - 500-L high-shear mixer (on left) with a 1,500-L agitator. 10-4

Figure 10-7 - Inside view of an agitator tank with a bottom sweeper and other

paddles. 10-5

Figure 10-8 - Pneumatic additive dispensers. 10-6

Figure 10-9 - Gravity-feed admixture dispenser tanks re-filled via admixture pumps,

with a 15-L polymer tank on the left and a 200-L bentonite slurry
tank on the right with sight glasses for dosing. 10-6

Figure 10-10 - Cutaway section of a progressive cavity pump. 10-7

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 10-11 - Piston pump with a reciprocating power source. 10-8

Figure 10-12 - Schematic of a diaphragm valve. 10-9

Figure 10-13 - Header operator using a diaphragm valve on a return line to control

injection pressure. 10-10

Figure 10-14 - Ball valve fully open (left) and partially open (right). 10-11

Figure 10-15 - Typical Grout Header. 10-12

Figure 10-16 - Grout header for manual pressure observation and control during

HMG injection. 10-13

Figure 10-17 - Header system for electronic monitoring of flow and pressure for

HMG injection. 10-13

Figure 10-18 - Grout circulation system with return. (Flow meter not shown; see

Fig. 10-17 for configuration.) 10-14

Figure 10-19 - Direct injection grout supply system with no return. (Flow meter not

shown; see Fig. 10-17 for configuration.) 10-15

Figure 10-20 - Typical water distribution system with field demands. 10-16

Figure 11-1 - Single-acting, dual-cylinder piston pump during assembly. 11-2

Figure 11-2 - Portable, diesel-powered LMG plant. 11-3

Figure 11-3 - Bitumen injection system with insulated piping and instrumentation

system. 11-5

Figure 11-4 - Bitumen injection project with heated holding tanks and pumps

(foreground), bitumen transport trucks, and injection system

(background). Note the high concentration of equipment on this small

site. 11-5

Figure 12-1 - Magnetic flow meter and pressure transducer pair with LCD readouts. 12-5

Figure 12-2 - Centralized automated system for real-time processing and display for

actively monitoring and controlling injections. 12-8

Figure 13-1 - Gravel drilling and grouting platform after a short period of use. 13-2

Figure 13-2 - Hard surface platform after extensive drilling and grouting operations. 13-2

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 13-3 - Smooth foundation surface along sedimentary rock horizontally

bedded in a valley area. 13-4

Figure 13-4 - Rough foundation surface along sedimentary rock bedding in an

abutment area. 13-4

Figure 13-5 - Large-amplitude roughness resulting from a fracture system and deep-

weathered seams in metamorphic rock. 13-5

Figure 13-6 - Moderate-amplitude roughness in metamorphic rock. 13-5

Figure 13-7 - Smooth valley and abutment surfaces in sedimentary rock sufficiently

soft to permit significant smoothing by excavation. 13-6

Figure 13-8 - Extensive use of dental concrete for grouting access on a rough

foundation. 13-7

Figure 13-9 - Working conditions resulting from not using a planned access

solution. 13-7

Figure 13-10 - Porous grout cap requiring chemical grouting. 13-8

Figure 13-11 - Ridges Basin Dam right abutment scaffolding for grouting

operations. 13-9

Figure 13-12 - Drilling rig operating on an inclined concrete platform. 13-9

Figure 13-13 - Crane-supported drilling platform on a steep abutment. 13-10

Figure 13-14 - Standpipes embedded in rock for protecting holes in a wet

excavation. 13-11

Figure 13-15 - Heavily jointed rock suitable for excavating a cutoff cap. 13-12

Figure 13-16 - Inclined and stepped surface grout cap on a rough, ledgy abutment of

a concrete dam foundation. 13-13

Figure 13-17 - Smooth-surface grout cap used on a steep, ledgy, and broken rock

surface. 13-13

Figure 13-18 - Grout cap used on a smooth, slaking rock surface. 13-14

Figure 13-19 - Plinth allowing grouting (on left) to be concurrent with RCC dam

construction (on right). 13-15

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 13-20 - Drilling operations concurrent with RCC dam construction. 13-15

Figure 13-21 - Final grouting operations being completed as an RCC dam nears

completion. 13-16

Figure 13-22 - Entrance to a gallery in an RCC dam reserved for drainage and

remedial grouting. 13-16

Figure 13-23 - Low-clearance pneumatic rotary drill. 13-17

Figure 13-24 - Remedial grout injection. Note the crowded conditions in this 9-ft-

wide space. 13-17

Figure 13-25 - Minimal sheltering limited to plastic sheeting to cover bags of

cement. 13-18

Figure 13-26 - Field-constructed shelter over grout mixing station. 13-19

Figure 13-27 - Fully enclosed and heated prefabricated shelter for materials storage

and mixing. 13-19

Figure 13-28 - Inside view of a fully enclosed, pre-fabricated shelter. 13-20

Figure 13-29 - Custom mobile grout headers and injection control equipment. 13-20

Figure 13-30 - Typical access stairways on abutment areas, Folsom Dam

(Sacramento District). 13-21

Figure 13-31 - Hard surface platform with a cross slope leading to a collection

trench. 13-21

Figure 13-32 - Wash water and cuttings being directed to an environmental control

system. 13-22

Figure 13-33 - Winter drilling operations. 13-23

Figure 13-34 - Water heating and pumping plant. 13-24

Figure 13-35 - Winter-ready site with covered equipment storage, a fully enclosed

and heated shelter for materials and mixing plant, and a water heating

system. 13-24

Figure 13-36 - Winter shelter for core logging operations. 13-25

Figure 15-1 - Example of a limiting capacity curve for a pressure testing system. 15-3

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 15-2 - Example of field-determined head loss curves for grout mixes. 15-4

Figure 15-3 - Typical numbering and color-coded marking scheme for grout holes. 15-8

Figure 15-4 - Maximum separation distance between adjacent holes for 5-ft nominal

surface spacing and for various depths as a function of equivalent

angular deviation. 15-9

Figure 15-5 - Effects of stage length on measured Lugeon values and interpretation

of site conditions. 15-18

Figure 15-6 - Laminar flow behavior. When the test section is composed of clean,
finer fractures, there will normally be little variation of the Lugeon
value with pressure because it is dominated by simple laminar flow.
The permeability is constant within the range of pressures used. 15-19

Figure 15-7 - Turbulent flow behavior. 15-19

Figure 15-8 - Dilation behavior. 15-20

Figure 15-9 - Permanent uplift behavior. 15-20

Figure 15-10 - Washout behavior. 15-20

Figure 15-11 - Clogging behavior. 15-21

Figure 15-12 - Grouting record with dilation that closed on reduction of pressure. 15-25

Figure 15-13 - Schematic illustrating effective pressure calculation. (Flow meter not

shown; see Fig. 10-16 for configuration.) 15-27

Figure 15-14 - Illustration of grout head loss graph. 15-28

Figure 15-15 - Grouting to refusal under a single mix, with a gradual, steady decline

of grout take and Apparent Lugeon value. 15-33

Figure 15-16 - Grouting to refusal under a single mix. The mix was not thickened

because injection at the maximum rate showed that the pressure was
building to desired pressure. 15-34

Figure 15-17 - Gradual refusal after one mix change. The mix was changed after

there was no pressure buildup at the maximum rate of injection. 15-35

Figure 15-18 - Gradual refusal after four mix changes. The mixes were changed in

response to pressure plateaus while injecting at maximum rate. The

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

sudden decrease in pressure near minute 100 could be interpreted as

hydrofracturing through clay in fracture. 15-36

Figure 15-19 - Termination of grouting without reaching refusal at a predetermined

maximum stage injection quantity of 1000 gallons. There were four
mix changes without any indication of approaching refusal. The rapid
thickening was based on early stage response. 15-37

Figure 15-20 - Abrupt refusal of a low Lugeon stage after a second mix change. The
decision to thicken was based on time management of the stage and
the extremely slow rate of approaching refusal under Mix 2. 15-38

Figure 15-21 - Abrupt refusal of a moderate Lugeon stage after a third mix change.
The decision to thicken to Mix 4 was based on no indication of
progress toward refusal under Mix 3. 15-39

Figure 15-22 - Sudden increase in grout take as the desired pressure is first
approached at 130 minutes in karst geology, interpreted as
hydrofracturing through infilled materials. Refusal was reached after
extended grouting with Mix 3. 15-40

Figure 15-23 - Rapid refusal on a tertiary hole. 15-41

Figure 15-24 - Standpipe arrangement for unstable grouts equipped with a bleed
valve. 15-43

Figure 16-1 - Completed drilling log using ENG Form 1836. 16-6

Figure 16-2 - Completed drilling log using a form provided by a contractor. 16-7

Figure 16-3 - Hole washing log using a form provided by a contractor. 16-8

Figure 16-4 - Stage water pressure testing log from a Level 3 or high Level 2
system. 16-9

Figure 16-5 - Grout plant batch log. 16-10

Figure 16-6 - Grout batch quality control log. 16-11

Figure 16-7 - Stage grouting log from a Level 3 system. 16-12

Figure 16-8 - Quantity summary spreadsheet for quantity projections. 16-13

Figure 16-9 - Detailed geologic profile being developed as part of grouting. 16-14

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 16-10 - Hand-drawn profile containing all progress and results on a single

sheet. 16-15

Figure 16-11 - Computer-generated profile showing water pressure testing results

with scaled color coding. 16-15

Figure 16-12 - Computer-generated grouting results profile. 16-16

Figure 16-13 - Simple average value closure diagrams: pressure test results, grout

take, and combined plot. 16-17

Figure 16-14 - Closure report graphs produced using spreadsheets and statistical

functions. 16-18

Figure 16-15 - Closure report histogram summarizing the frequency of measured

Lugeon values. 16-19

Figure 16-16 - Closure plot for water testing. 16-19

Figure 16-17 - Closure plot for grout take. 16-20

Figure 16-18 - Closure plot for the percentage of stages with water loss during

drilling. 16-20

Figure 16-19 - Water level profiles upstream of a barrier indicative of changes in

piezometer readings after the completion of each series of holes. 16-21

Figure 16-20 - Closure plot for grouting time per hole. 16-21

Figure 16-21 - Closure plot for multiple lines (work sequence was A-Line, B-Line,

C-Line). 16-22

Figure 16-22 - Closure analysis by hole series and by elevation of center of stages. 16-22

Figure 16-23 - Closure plots by vertical elevation and hole series. 16-23

Figure 17-1 - Karst areas of the United States. 17-2

Figure 17-2 - Sinkhole types. 17-5

Figure 17-3 - Schematics of karst classifications. Typical morphological features of

karstic ground conditions with the five classes of karst (Table 17-2).
These examples show horizontal bedding of the limestone; dipping
bedding planes and inclined fractures add complexity to most of the
features and also create planar failures behind steep cliff faces. The

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

dotted ornament represents any type of clastic soil or surface

sediment. 17-8

Figure 17-4 - Schematic of karst profile. 17-9

Figure 17-5 - Soil arch in an incipient dropout sinkhole in cohesive soil exposed
during excavation in Hershey, PA. No surface expression of void was
visible. Before excavation, the surface had been proof-rolled with
loaded scrapers and compacted. The site had approximately 35
sinkholes with surface expressions. 17-10

Figure 17-6 - Sandbagged dropout sinkhole that developed in an emergency

spillway approach channel during a flood at Patoka Dam (Louisville
District). 17-10

Figure 17-7 - Karst profile at a Pennsylvania quarry wall in folded limestone. 17-11

Figure 17-8 - Near-surface weathering conditions in Pennsylvania limestone. 17-11

Figure 17-9 - Limestone exposure at Mississinewa Dam (Louisville District). 17-12

Figure 17-10 - Cambrian dolomite outcrop at Clearwater Dam, Missouri (Little

Rock District). 17-12

Figure 17-11 - Cambrian dolomite outcrop at Clearwater Dam, MO (Little Rock

District). 17-13

Figure 17-12 - Near-surface vertical feature at Center Hill Dam (Nashville District). 17-13

Figure 17-13 - Near-surface soil-filled cylindrical features at Center Hill Dam

(Nashville District). 17-14

Figure 17-14 - Outcrop exposure downstream from the right abutment at Center Hill
Dam (Nashville District). 17-14

Figure 17-15 - Isolated dissolution features along the structure at Wolf Creek Dam
(Nashville District). 17-15

Figure 17-16 - Isolated near-vertical dissolutioning along the structure at Wolf

Creek Dam (Nashville District). 17-15

Figure 17-17 - Large expanse of minimally dissolutioned rock at Center Hill Dam
(Nashville District). 17-16

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 17-18 - Plan and section schematics of cave type features. 17-16

Figure 17-19 - Elliptical tube cave features at Center Hill Dam (Nashville District). 17-17

Figure 17-20 - Entrance to Robert Hall Cave, a fissure-type cave near Patoka Lake

Dam (Louisville District). 17-17

Figure 17-21 - Geologists field map of Robert Hall Cave near Patoka Lake Dam

(Louisville District). 17-18

Figure 17-22 - Triangular dissolution feature in the foundation of Mississinewa

Dam, treated at the time of original construction (Louisville District). 17-18

Figure 17-23 - Triangular dissolution feature in the excavation sidewall of

Mississinewa Dam, treated at the time of original construction
(Louisville District). 17-19

Figure 17-24 - Foundation treatment of a network of caves and dissolution channels

at Wolf Creek Dam as part of original construction (Nashville
District). 17-19

Figure 17-25 - Deep dissolution feature beneath the original foundation of

Clearwater Dam. The foundation rock profile shows locations where
large intersecting dissolution features crossed the foundation and
were treated during original construction. Note that the deep feature
was small immediately below the rock foundation, but expanded to
large size at depth. The deep feature delineation is based on remedial
grouting results. 17-20

Figure 17-26 - Clearwater Dam epikarst exposure (Little Rock District). 17-21

Figure 17-27 - Typical rock core from limestone with dissolution features (Little

Rock District). 17-22

Figure 17-28 - Clearwater Dam at shallow depth into rock (Little Rock District).
The vertical scales are meters. Note the relatively clean, high-angle
fractures and dissolutioning along bedding and as vugs. 17-23

Figure 17-29 - Clearwater Dam at moderately shallow depth into rock (Little Rock
District). The vertical scales are meters. Note the very large feature
on the right photo. 17-24

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 17-30 - Clearwater Dam at substantial depth into rock (Little Rock District).

The vertical scales are meters. Note the extent of soil infilling in the

left photo and the approximately 1-m feature in the right photo. 17-25

Figure 17-31 - Clearwater Dam at moderately shallow depth into rock (Little Rock

District). The vertical scales are meters. Note the significant

dissolution feature. 17-26

Figure 17-32 - Clean bedding plane fracture at Wolf Creek Dam, Leipers formation.

The vertical scales are feet. 17-27

Figure 17-33 - Multiple bedding plane fractures with localized soil filling at Wolf

Creek Dam, Leipers formation. The vertical scales are feet. 17-27

Figure 17-34 - Weathered and partly infilled bedding plane fracture at Wolf Creek

Dam, Leipers formation. The vertical scales are feet. 17-28

Figure 17-35 - Bedding plane fractures at 0.1- to 0.2-ft intervals at Wolf Creek Dam
Leipers formation. The lower fractures are infilled. The vertical

scales are feet. 17-28

Figure 17-36 - Virtual core (four views; see compass at top of each core) showing

large, soil-filled bedding fractures at Wolf Creek Dam, Leipers

formation. The vertical scales are feet. 17-29

Figure 17-37 - The same fractures, as shown in Fig. 17-36, but showing conditions

before washing (left photo) with high-pressure radial water jets and

after washing (right photo) of fractures. The vertical scales are feet. 17-30

Figure 17-38 - Clean 1-ft feature at Wolf Creek Dam, Leipers formation. The

vertical scales are feet. 17-30

Figure 17-39 - Water loss locations at Mississinewa Dam in a cutoff wall test

section. Water loss symbols are color coded and vary by hole series. 17-36

Figure 17-40 - Hole connection diagram at Mississinewa Dam in a cutoff wall test

section. Arrows indicate the origin and extent of hole connections. 17-37

Figure 17-41 - Large, clean fracture in limestone completely filled with grout. 17-39

Figure 17-42 - Soil sample from a sleeve-port grouted zone, with grout presence

indicated by phenolphthalein and recovered grout lenses. 17-41

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 17-43 - Overburden sampling program with a sonic drill at Wolf Creek Dam

(Nashville District). 17-43

Figure 17-44 - Sleeve-port casing to be installed in overburden and soil-filled

dissolution features at Mississinewa Dam in Indiana (Louisville

District). 17-43

Figure 18-1 - Seepage through rock bolt drill holes into a rail tunnel during

rehabilitation. 18-2

Figure 18-2 - Seepage under and through a cellular cofferdam structure driven by

approximately 20 ft of head. 18-2

Figure 18-3 - Source of major inflow into an adjacent open pit quarry excavation

through a solution feature. 18-4

Figure 19-1 - Hydraulic clamshell and hydromill machines at Mississinewa Dam

(Louisville District). 19-2

Figure 19-2 - Cable-operated clamshell for overburden excavation at the

Mississinewa Dam cutoff wall (Louisville District). 19-2

Figure 19-3 - Hydromill cutter wheels for limestone excavation at the Mississinewa

Dam cutoff wall (Louisville District). 19-3

Figure 19-4 - Pre-grouting for the Mississinewa Dam cutoff wall. 19-5

Figure 19-5 - Pre-grouting lines for the Mississinewa Dam cutoff wall (Louisville

District). 19-7

Figure 20-1 - Blanket grout hole layout from the Portugues and Bucana Rivers

Project, Jacksonville District, USACE. 20-2

Figure 21-1 - Double-drum paddle mixer with a cement auger feed and foaming

device (lower left). 21-2

Figure 21-2 - Grout pipe slick lines extrusion welded at the crown of an HDPE liner. 21-4

Figure 21-3 - Downstream bulkhead with slick lines and air vents at a slip lining

project. 21-4

Figure 21-4 - Drilling a grout hole inside a conduit 21-6

Figure 21-5 - Typical ring grouting detail from a contract drawing. 21-7

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 22-1 - Mechanics of underground abandoned mine subsidence. 22-2

Figure 22-2 - LMG injection into a mine void. 22-3

Figure 22-3 - Time-lapse photos showing the advancement of LMG injected into a

tunnel. 22-3

Figure 22-4 - Extensive network of large voids beneath a spillway slab, which

necessitated demolition and construction of new spillway. 22-4

Figure 22-5 - Grout holes for injection of HMG to fill a void beneath conduit. 22-10

Figure 23-1 - Typical components of an anchor. 23-2

Figure 23-2 - Partially bonded tendon. 23-5

Figure 23-3 - Conditions in which excess water pressure can be encountered. 23-7

Figure 23-4 - Strengths for various water-cement ratios. 23-11

Figure 23-5 - Effect of water content on cement grout properties. 23-11

Figure 23-6 - Corrugated ducts being prepared before insertion into pre-grouted and

waterproofed anchor holes at Gilboa Dam, NY. Note the multiple

tremie tubes attached to the outside of the ducts to allow external

grouting to be accomplished in several stages. 23-12

Figure 23-7 - Corrugated duct being inserted into the prepared anchor hole at

Bluestone Dam, WV (Huntington District). The numerous external

tremie tubes are clearly visible. 23-13

Figure 23-8 - Typical grout batching plant being fed by bulk cement from a silo at

Gilboa Dam, NY. 23-15

Figure 23-9 - Minimum recommended levels of grout QC programs. 23-17

Figure 23-10 - Wet density vs. water-cement ratio. 23-18

Figure 24-1 - Jet grouting within a soft ground tunnel. 24-2

Figure 24-2 - Jet grouting from the ground surface for a soft ground tunnel. 24-3

Figure 24-3 - Compaction grouting from the ground surface for a soft ground tunnel. 24-3

Figure 24-4 - Permeation grout fan array from a tunnel heading. 24-4

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 24-5 - Permeation grout parallel array from the ground surface. 24-4

Figure 24-6 - Soil groutability based on soil particle size. 24-4

Figure 24-7 - Pre-consolidation grouting ahead of tunnel excavation. 24-6

Figure 24-8 - Post-consolidation grouting behind tunnel excavation. 24-6

Figure 24-9 - Combination of pre- and post-consolidation grouting. 24-7

Figure 24-10 - Probe hole/grout hole drilled in advance of tunneling. 24-7

Figure 24-11 - Sequence for contact grouting a horseshoe-shaped tunnel. 24-8

Figure 25-1 - Diagram of crack/joint repair hole spacing. 25-2

Figure 25-2 - Backfill grouting operations to fill voids under the downstream

parabolic spillway slab at Barker Dam outside of Houston, TX

(Galveston District). Holes were drilled on 10-ft centers, and injection
pressures were controlled by the manifold at the injection point. A
circulating system was used to verify the volume of voids being filled
with cementitious grout. 25-2

Figure 25-3 - Metal seals inserted in the face of the first concrete placement and
extended into the adjacent monolith, or second concrete placement to
contain grout within area to be grouted. 25-4

Figure 25-4 - Typical grout piping system for a lock wall monolith joint. 25-5

Figure 25-5 - Contraction joint piping system at Theodore Roosevelt Dam, AZ. 25-6

Figure 25-6 - Crack displacement devices installed at the spillway wall and

parabolic slab at Barker Dam west of Houston, TX (Galveston

District). The instruments were monitored in real time during
grouting to ensure that there was no movement or displacement of the
walls and slab. 25-7

Figure 26-1 - Types of construction vibrations. 26-2

Figure 26-2 - Nomogram showing the relationships between frequency (f),

acceleration (a), vibration velocity (v), and amplitude (A); e.g., if f =

100 c/s and A = 0.025 mm, then v = 15 mm/s and a = 1 g. 26-3

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LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 26-3 - Recommended safe levels of blasting vibration for houses using a

combination of velocity and displacement. 26-4

Figure 27-1 - Injected grout mass displacing and compacting surrounding soil. 27-1

Figure 27-2 - Extracted columnar-shaped compaction grout mass. 27-1

Figure 27-3 - Typical range of soils suitable for compaction grouting. 27-3

Figure 27-4 - Stiff mortar-like compaction grout material being extruded through

casing. 27-5

Figure 27-5 - Preferred aggregate gradation band for compaction grout. 27-5

Figure 27-6 - Casing withdrawal using extraction jacks. 27-6

Figure 27-7 - Large-bend radius at a connection to a compaction grout casing. 27-7

Figure 27-8 - Ground surface heave and cracking during compaction grout injection. 27-8

Figure 27-9 - Actual dimensions of an extracted compaction grout column compared

to the design dimensions. 27-9

Figure B-1 - Illustration of an injection system. B-3

Figure B-2 - Conditions for Problem 1. B-5

Figure B-3 - Conditions for Problem 2. B-6

Figure B-4 - Conditions for Problem 3. B-7

Figure B-5 - Conditions for Problem 4. B-8

Figure B-6 - Conditions for Problem 5. B-10

Figure B-7 - Head loss summary for grout. B-10

Figure B-8 - Conditions for Problem 6. B-12

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1-1. Purpose. This manual provides technical criteria and guidance for civil works grouting
applications. Information on procedures, materials, and equipment for use in planning and
executing a grouting project is included, and types of problems that might be solved by grouting
are discussed. Methods of grouting that have proven to be effective are described, and various
types of grout and their proportions are listed. The manual discusses grouts composed primarily
of cementitious suspensions and additives, although other types are mentioned.

1-2. Applicability. This manual applies to all HQUSACE elements and USACE commands
having responsibility for construction of civil works.

1-3. Distribution Statement. This publication is approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.

1-4. References. References are listed in Appendix A.

1-5. Changes. Users of this manual are encouraged to submit recommended changes or
comments to improve it. Comments should reference the specific page, paragraph, and line of
the text for which the change is recommended. Reasons should be provided for each comment to
ensure understanding and complete evaluation. Comments should be prepared using DA Form
2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications) and forwarded directly to HQUSACE (CECW
CE) Washington, DC 20314.

1-6. General Considerations. Grouting in civil works activities is performed as: (1) an element
of permanent construction, (2) a post-construction remedial treatment, or (3) an element of
expedient construction or repair. Examples of permanent construction are curtain grouting in
foundations for dams and ground stabilization of foundation materials for large buildings.
Examples of post-construction remedial treatment include grouting voids under concrete
structures and reducing leakage through dam foundations or abutments. Grouting is used for
both temporary and permanent treatments. It should be considered in combination with other
appropriate types of treatment for best results. Other types of treatment may include excavation,
compaction, concrete cutoff walls, slurry trenches, impervious blankets, drainage blankets, and
filter zones. Treatments also include relief wells, drilled drains, sheet pile cutoff, dental
concrete, drainage tunnels and galleries, underpinning, and structural foundations. Purposes of
expedient grouting include repair of roadways, cofferdams, and stability and groundwater control
during construction.

1-7. Brief History of Injection Grouting.

a. Origins. Injection grouting originated in Europe. The first known case history of
deliberate pressure injection occurred in France in 1802, where it was used to repair the
foundations of a timber weir and a sluice structure. A crude type of piston pump was used to
inject clay grout into alluvial materials and mortar grout into voids. Subsequently, injection
grouting was used for the repair of a number of lock structures and repair of masonry structures

1-1

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in the period from 1802 into the 1850s. From the mid-1850s into the early 1890s, there were a
number of significant advances in grouting that led to more frequent use in foundation repair,
mining, and hydraulic structures. Compressed air pressure vessels were developed to facilitate
increased injection pressure, stirring systems were developed to keep grout in suspension, and
improved piston pumps were developed. The first known application of rock grouting for dams
occurred in England between 1876 and 1878.

b. Dam Foundation Grouting in the United States.

(1) Systematic grouting of dam foundations in the United States appears to have started at
New Croton Dam in New York in 1893. A limestone foundation was treated on a large scale by
drilling holes with compressed air drills, washing out major fissures, and grouting under a
gravity head or with a hand-operated pump and/or a piston-like rammer. The first major
application of cement grouting occurred in 1912 at Estacada Dam in Oregon, where three rows
of grouting totaling 34,120 ft (10,400 m) of grout holes were used in its construction.
Publication of the details of the grouting program by the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) in 1915 led to great interest and discussion within the profession on grouting
procedures, problems, and results.

(2) Grouting at Hoover Dam in the 1930s marked the development of a systematic approach to
dam grouting and the acceptance of cement grouting as a normal feature for treatment of dam
foundations. Grouting at Hoover Dam was far less than fully successful, and excessive seepage
occurred on first filling, requiring extensive remedial grouting between 1938 and 1947. From the
1930s forward, dam construction and dam foundation grouting was a prominent activity within the
United States. Agencies such as USACE, the Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), and Tennessee Valley
Authority (TVA) all constructed a large number of dams from that point into the early 1980s.

c. Recent History of Advances in Grouting within USACE.

(1) Advances have been made based on available technology in computers and
instrumentation. The Waterways Experiment Stations (WESs) * CAGE program (Computer
Applications in Geotechnical Engineering) developed a computer program for monitoring
grouting that was used at Buffalo Districts Black Rock Lock in 1975 and at Center Hill in 1984.
The program was crude by todays standards and lacked the capability for graphical outputs so
interest in it wanted. Interest by USACE in using better technology on site for grouting was
revived by the Jacksonville District during the grouting of the Portuguese Dam foundation in
Ponce, Puerto Rico, in 19971999. Efforts led by the Jacksonville District and supported by
geologists and engineers from 10 other districts resulted in using the best available technology
and practice in many areas, including: geologic surface mapping, core borings, exploratory adit
mapping, borehole video mapping to determine fracture frequency, orientation, and aperture
thickness, water pressure testing, and grout pressure tests. The results of these investigations and
other field experimental efforts led to the determination that ultrafine cement was required for
effective grout penetration, which marked the first use of ultrafine cement grouts on a USACE

*
Now known as the Engineer Research and Development Center, Waterways Experiment Station (ERDC-WES).

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project. Additionally, special project-specific computer programs were developed to track all
grouting data collected in the field. These programs permitted input of grout data into a central
database to allow continuous tracking of certain critical parameters.

(2) Concurrent with the USACE efforts, the private sector was in the process of
implementing other major advances in technology. In 1998, Penn Forest Dam in Pennsylvania
was the first project to use real-time automated data collection and display technology for
grouting, along with balanced stable grout formulations. A USACE Grouting Workshop was
held at that site in 1998 with attendees from many districts to demonstrate the application of the
new technology.

(3) Since 1998, USACE has actively supported and embraced the latest developments in
grouting, including: (1) design of grouting as an engineered feature, (2) use of balanced stable
grout mixes, (3) advanced computer monitoring, control, and analysis for controlling grout
injection, production of project records, and performance verification, and (4) Best Value
Selection for grouting projects. These efforts were led by the Louisville District and
Headquarters through use of these approaches in projects and by organizing on-site USACE
workshops for dissemination of the information. In 2000, the Patoka Lake Project, where a
grouted cutoff was constructed in karstic limestone between the dam and the emergency
spillway, was the first USACE project to successfully incorporate and integrate all of these
elements. Following the success at Patoka Lake Dam, the same general approach with
substantially more advanced and more powerful computer technology was used effectively in the
Chicago McCook Reservoir test grouting program (Chicago District), the Mississinewa Dam
cutoff wall pre-grouting program (Louisville District), the sinkhole remediation project and
cutoff wall pre-grouting project at Clearwater Dam (Little Rock District), and the cutoff wall
pre-grouting project in karstic geology at Wolf Creek Dam (Nashville District). Many of the
specific approaches and techniques for best application of the new technology were developed
and refined on these USACE projects. Headquarters determined that this update of the Grouting
Technology Manual should include all of the advances in equipment, methodology, materials,
and technology that have been accomplished on these exemplary projects. At the current time,
due to the progressive and diligent efforts by staff from these districts, USACE is at the forefront
of best practice in grouting.

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CHAPTER 2

Purposes and Applications of Grouting

2-1. Purposes of Grouting.

a. General. Grouting is the process of injecting liquids, mixed suspensions, or semi-solid

mixtures under pressure to achieve one or more desirable end results in terms of improving
engineering properties. To accomplish this, the injected grout must eventually form either a gel
or a solid within the treatment zone. Permeation grouting is the injection of high-mobility grouts
(HMGs) into small voids within soil or rock masses, into small voids between these materials
and an existing structure, and/or into small cracks or fractures within structures themselves.
Void-filling grouting involves using low- (or limited) mobility grout (or grouting) (LMG) or
other materials having properties suitable for effective filling of large voids. Compaction
grouting is the injection of plastic, semi-solid mixtures to densify or displace deformable
materials. In-situ modification or replacement includes specialized techniques such as jet
grouting or hydrofracture grouting. The following paragraphs describe the engineering
properties that can be improved by grouting. Depending on the specific application, grouting is
used as either the primary or sole means of effecting property improvement, or it may be used in
conjunction with other technologies and methods.

b. Permeability Reduction. Grouting is commonly used to reduce permeability, which

might be necessary for reducing rates of seepage or leakage through or into new or existing
structures and foundations, reducing hydrostatic forces acting on structures, altering flow
gradients or flow paths to achieve specific design objectives, inhibiting internal erosion of
foundation and embankment materials, and/or controlling water for excavations as required to
facilitate dewatering or excavation stability. In any critical hydraulic application, grouting is
normally one of several lines of defense.

c. Improvement of Mechanical Properties. Grouting can be used to improve the

mechanical properties of soil or rock foundation materials for structure or excavation support
purposes. Properties that can be improved by grouting include enhancement of bearing capacity,
improvement in settlement-related properties such as elastic modulus and void ratio,
improvement in shear strength, and elimination of voids that might adversely affect either
loading conditions or the response to loads. Grouting can also be used as a settlement
compensation method to prevent or repair damage to structures.

2-2. Typical Applications of Grouting.

a. Dams and Lock Structures. Typical applications of grouting for new or existing earth
and concrete dams, and for lock structures include:
(1) Hydraulic barrier grouting to control leakage and pressure distributions (i.e., grout
curtain construction).
(2) Foundation consolidation grouting to reduce foundation and structure deformations
under load.

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(3) Contact grouting of the interface between structures and foundations.

(4) Void filling in foundations beneath structures.
(5) Compaction grouting for densification of loose deposits or jet grouting to replace
zones of loose materials.
(6) Pre-treatment of fractured rock foundations to enable cutoff wall construction.
(7) Grouting of leaking cracks or joints in structures.
(8) Abandonment or backfilling of exploration and instrument holes.
(9) Improvement of zones as required to facilitate dewatering and/or excavation stability.

b. Tunnels. Typical applications of grouting for tunnel work include:

(1) Grouting in advance of tunneling to reduce water inflows during construction.
(2) Grouting in advance of tunneling to improve excavation stability and/or reduce or to
prevent ground loss during tunneling.
(3) Grouting between the tunnel lining and the tunnel excavation surfaces to reduce long
term tunnel loads, improve stress distributions, and reduce water inflows.
(4) Remedial grouting of joints and cracks to reduce leakage.
(5) Compensation grouting during tunneling to prevent settlement and to protect
structures that would be adversely affected by ground loss during tunneling.

c. Other Grouting Applications.

(1) Rock and soil anchor grouting to develop anchor capacity and to provide corrosion
protection.
(2) Lifting of structures by displacement grouting methods.
(3) Filling of abandoned pipes or other underground structures.
(4) Annular space grouting for pipes being re-lined.
(5) Environmental applications.
(6) Filling of mine voids.

2-3. Selection of Methods of Treatment. Grouting is one method of treating problematic

subsurface conditions to reduce permeability or improve engineering properties of the
foundation. However, other methods of treatment may be required in addition to or instead of
grouting. Where structural safety is involved, multiple lines of defense will frequently be
required. The selection of grouting as the method of treatment should be based on an evaluation

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of all pertinent aspects of the problem, including engineering needs, subsurface conditions, and
economic considerations.

2-4. Potential Risk and Reliability Issues of Grouting.

3-3. Reconnaissance Phase. The purpose of the Reconnaissance Phase is to identify an existing
problem and potential solutions or to define a project to address a specific public need. Any
evaluation of the possible applicability of grouting as an element of a project will be based on
general geologic information, any site-specific information that might exist, and sound
engineering judgment of conditions generally suitable for grouting and reasonable expectations
of grouting results in comparison to other technologies that are available. An important outcome
of the Reconnaissance Phase is an understanding of the scope of investigations and studies
required for the Feasibility Phase.

3-4. Feasibility Phase.

a. Purpose. The purpose of the Feasibility Phase is to formulate a specific solution to

address a specific public need. Work in this phase includes studying potential solutions,
evaluating costs and benefits, preparing initial designs, and recommending a plan to solve the
problem. An important objective is to develop the design of the recommended plan in enough
detail that it can be authorized, implemented, and constructed without major changes in concept,
cost, or schedule. With respect to grouting, the Feasibility Phase will include a site investigation
and characterization, a preliminary evaluation of the technical suitability of the site for grouting,

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a determination of the potential benefits to be derived from grouting, and a preliminary estimate
of the cost. Geophysical investigations can be used to define seepage pathways and to aid in the
design of further investigations. The geotechnical investigations may include borings, which
allow both water tests for estimating in-situ hydraulic conductivity and borehole imaging for
characterizing the ability of the rock to accept grout. These boreholes may also be used for
installing additional instrumentation in areas where information is deficient. The intended
outcome from this phase is a rapid, but reasonably reliable assessment of whether grouting is
likely to solve the problem at hand. Table 3-1 lists (and the following sections describe) elements
of this phase.

b. Quantification of Site Conditions. Geologic and geotechnical investigation data need to

be summarized in terms of engineering parameters and also in terms of the parameters needed to
assess the applicability of the specific grouting methods being considered. Items that should be
considered for rock materials include: (1) presence and locations of discontinuities,
(2) orientation and spacing of rock fracture systems, (3) rock mass permeability, (4) rock quality
as it relates to the ability to maintain open grout holes, (5) depth or thickness of weathered and
infilled fractures, (6) compressive strength of the rock, (7) elastic modulus of the rock,
(8) abrasiveness of the rock, and (9) effective stress conditions in the rock. Items that should be
considered for soil materials include: (1) Unified Soil (USCS) classification, (2) density or
consistency, (3) grain size distribution, (4) consolidation properties, (5) and effective stress
conditions in the overburden. For the site in general, the piezometric levels and the nature of the
flow regime must also be known with reasonable certainty.

c. Assessment of Grouting Suitability and Special Issues. Information gathered during the
site characterization can be used to define areas that are suitable or not suitable for grouting and
the probable degree of improvement. In addition, zones requiring downstage grouting and
special treatment, such as zones with artesian pressures, the soil-rock interface, open and infilled
voids, and alluvial materials, should be defined.

d. Establishment of Design Criteria and Objectives. Clear and quantitative design criteria
and objectives should be established for the performance of the structure. Examples include
such items as: (1) a specific maximum seepage rate, (2) a maximum foundation deformation
and/or structure deflection, (3) a target density, (4) a specific pressure distribution pattern, (5) a
specific shear strength, or (6) a specific permeability in a grouted zone.

e. Analysis of Foundation and Structure Behavior on the Basis of No Improvement in

Properties. As a baseline condition needed to assess the benefits of the proposed grouting, the
foundation and/or structure should first be analyzed on the basis of the unaltered properties. For
a preliminary evaluation and assessment of the feasibility of grouting, detailed analytical models
are not necessarily required. Simplified models can be adequate provided that they are
fundamentally correct and that the input data are sound. The model should be used to define
problem zones that require improvement. The results from the models should be compared to
the design criteria and objectives to determine if grouting is of potential benefit for the specific
site and application.

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f. Development of Cost Estimates and Selection of Recommended Program. Preliminary

cost estimates for alternatives that meet or exceed the performance requirements should be
developed. Then the quantitative and qualitative benefits of each alternative and the incremental
performance benefits derived from different concepts and configurations should be evaluated.
Based on these evaluations, a recommended program should be selected. Once a program is
selected, the details of the program should be expanded, including the development of a detailed
list of work items. From this, a final cost estimate using quantities and units should be prepared
and a cost-reality check using information from other successful projects and external
information sources should be performed.

g. Preliminary Assessment of Grouting Applicability. If property improvement is of

potential benefit or necessary for the performance of the structure, the next step is to perform a
preliminary assessment of the suitability of the site for grouting. Some general guidelines for
various rock and soil conditions are:

(1) Clean rock fractures are readily groutable at Lugeon values of 50100 or greater, and
it is possible to routinely achieve post-grouting permeabilities of 10 or less, depending on the
sophistication of the grouting program.

(2) Clean rock fractures are marginally groutable at Lugeon values of about 10. It is
possible to achieve post-grouting permeabilities on the order of 1 with a very carefully planned
and executed program. If numerous special methods and materials are used, it might be possible
to achieve post-grouting permeabilities on the order of 0.1 Lugeon.

(3) Clean rock fractures are barely groutable at Lugeon values of about 1. Rarely is
grouting required at this level, but if it is needed for special applications, the permeability can be
reduced to about 0.1 Lugeon if special methods and materials are used.

(4) Highly weathered and soil-infilled fractures in rock are problematic for grouting. In
general, it is not possible to thoroughly wash erodible materials from the fractures before grouting.
These materials have been successfully grouted by using multiple lines of grouting to confine the
infilling and reduce the flow gradient across the zone. Provided all stages on all holes and on all
lines are brought to full refusal at the desired grouting pressure, some level of confidence is
possible that the zone has been adequately grouted. However, there are differing opinions on the
longevity of the grouting effectiveness due to concerns about long-term erosion of semi-
confined, erodible materials.

(5) Consideration must be given to the quality of the rock and/or the frequency of water
losses, as those items affect the required drilling and grouting procedures and costs. In general, a
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) less than about 40% may require downstage grouting rather
than upstage grouting. Frequent water loss during drilling is also a strong indicator that either
certain geologic zones or perhaps one or more series of holes in the grouting sequence will
require the use of downstage drilling and grouting procedures. Section 3-5 provides further
discussion of the applicability of downstage and upstage procedures. Additionally, consideration
should be given to the presence of special zones at depth that may limit the amount of time a
grout hole will stay open. Highly fractured units, soft or slaking zones, and other such
conditions may require special techniques.

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Table 3-1. Feasibility Phase elements.

Task Details
Site characterization Research, review, and summarize available data.
for grouting Perform supplemental geologic mapping, field investigations, and
testing.
Quantify all site conditions into usable design parameters for
grouting (i.e., soil stratigraphy and characteristics, rock stratigraphy,
fracture system spacings and orientations, permeability profiles, rock
quality, weathering profiles, rock mass properties, etc.).
Establishment of Develop project-specific definitions of performance requirements for
quantitative design the completed work such as maximum seepage rates, maximum
criteria and objectives foundation deformations or structure deflections, density
requirements for soils, specific pressure distributions, and required
shear strengths.
Simplified modeling Establish the extent to which improvement in properties is required
and analyses based on for project performance.
no improvement in Define problem zones that require improvement.
properties
Preliminary Define groutable zones and probable degree of improvement
assessment of grouting possible.
suitability and special Define non-groutable zones.
issues Define zones requiring downstage grouting and zones suitable for
upstage grouting.
Identify special treatment zones (e.g., artesian zones, soil-rock
interface zones, open and infilled voids, and alluvial materials).
Assignment of Assign properties that can be reasonably expected to be achievable in
expected improvement consideration of all factors that can affect grouting results.

in properties in grouted Define possible alternate treatments for zones that are not good
zones candidates for grouting.
Configuration of Conduct a trial and error process to evaluate various alternatives.
alternate designs and Compare results from each trial with design performance
models and re-analysis requirements.
of behavior with
improvements
Development of Prepare rough comparative cost estimates for alternatives that meet
preliminary cost or exceed the performance requirements.
estimates and selection Evaluate total quantitative and qualitative benefits for each
of recommended alternative.
program Evaluate incremental performance benefits derived from different
concepts and configurations.
Select a recommended program.

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1:43 PM. (Continued).

Development of final Expand the details of the recommended program.

cost estimate for Develop a detailed list of work items.
recommended program Prepare a final cost estimate using quantities and units.
Perform cost-reality checks using other information (e.g., final total
costs for similar successful projects, and external information
sources).

(6) Known artesian zones may require special construction techniques.

(7) The ability to effectively grout soils by permeation into the pore spaces is highly
dependent on the grain size characteristics of the soils and the uniformity of the soil deposits.
While chemical grouts have a viscosity similar to water, grouts may penetrate into soils
extremely slowly due to very low permeability created by even a small percentage of silts, clays,
and very fine sands.

(8) The effectiveness of compaction grouts is a function of soil density, soil permeability,
and groundwater levels. In a semipervious material, the desired densification will be inhibited
by the buildup of pore pressures in the soil, which might also create problems in their own right.

h. Assignment of Improved Properties for Grouted Zones. After the determination of

what zones can be effectively grouted, the properties that can be reasonably expected to be
achieved in the grouted zones should be assigned. An equally important part of this step is to
determine how zones that are not good candidates for grouting will be treated. Techniques for
zones that are not good candidates for effective grouting include removal of materials and/or
application of other technologies such as cutoff walls.

i. Configuration of the Dimensions of Grouted Zones and Re-analysis of Behavior with

Improved Properties within Those Zones. A trial and error modeling process should be used for a
preliminary evaluation of the benefits of various grouting configurations. The results from each trial
configuration should be compared with the design criteria and performance objectives, and with each
other, to understand both the total performance of a particular configuration and the incremental
benefit/cost relationships of different alternatives. The analyses should also include sensitivity
analyses for various grouting outcomes. For hydraulic applications, the sensitivity analyses may
need to be based on order-of-magnitude variations, since that is generally the fundamental unit of
variation in both natural conditions and potentially in grouting performance. For other properties and
applications, the sensitivity variation may be less than an order of magnitude.

j. Development of a Preliminary Cost Estimate for Grouting. After one or more trial
grouting plans are established, a rough estimate of the quantities and costs should be prepared.
At this level of assessment, the simplest method is to use bulk total grouting costs obtained from
reasonably similar projects converted to a simple, single unit. When using data from other
projects, it is important that the data be obtained from project completion reports and records
rather than from initial unit pricing, since there can be a significant discrepancy between the two.
The project completion reports represent data generated from actual conditions, whereas the

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projected values are based on the initial pricing. Costs may vary greatly, depending on the
application, project size, and injected volumes.

k. Development of a Final Cost Estimate for the Feasibility Phase. After the
recommended grouting program is developed, a final cost estimate should be based on actual
estimated quantities and units. Costs may vary greatly, depending on the application, project
size, and injected volumes.

3-5. Preconstruction Engineering and Design Phase.

a. General. If the Feasibility Phase evaluation indicates that grouting is a technically

effective and economically viable project element and part of the recommended plan, it will
move forward to the Preconstruction Engineering and Design (PED) Phase. In the PED phase,
the design is finalized, the plans and specifications (P&S) are prepared, and the construction
contract is prepared. The intent is to have a grouting plan and contract documents that can be
expected to achieve the design goals, is readily constructible, and is free from any major
technical, contractual, or financial flaws. Table 3-2 lists (and the following sections describe)
elements of work in this phase.

Table 3-2. PED Phase elements.

Task Details
Outline of the major Consider the fundamental nature of the project site conditions and
project execution the grouting performance requirements.
elements required in Assess the criticality of the grouting with respect to the
context of project performance and safety of the project.
difficulty, criticality, Assess the sensitivity of the end performance of the program to
project performance potential grouting effectiveness outcomes.
requirements, and site Determine whether the grouting program can be highly defined by
conditions prescriptive methods or if it might need to evolve during the course
of the work.
Determine the nature and degree of performance verification
required.
Assess the experience and knowledge of the Corps project team
providing program oversight.
Acquisition of Perform additional site investigations and testing.
supplemental design data Review existing instrumentation and determine if additional
instrumentation is required.
Perform full-scale test sections.
Detailed assessment of Identify all necessary equipment, methodologies, and procedures
equipment and necessary for execution.
methodologies Identify all special requirements, problems, constraints, and
workable remedies.

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Table 3-2. (Continued).

Definition of the Define the minimum required geometry and properties that must be
minimum verifiable end achieved for acceptable performance.
results that must be Define the target minimum permeability requirements.
achieved
Determination of Plan sequencing of grouting with respect to other aspects of the
Impacts to Grouting due construction schedules to achieve the best technical result.
to Construction
Activities and
Sequencing
Development of detailed Determine the surface from which grouting will be performed, the
program layout site preparation requirements, the hole and line spacings, the hole
orientations, the grouting depth, the stage lengths, the downstage
and upstage zones, any special treatment zones, any sequencing
requirements, etc.
Design of field Determine what results will be obtained and how the results will be
monitoring, control, analyzed, presented and verified.
analysis, and verification
programs
Design of QC and QA Identify all staffing required for observation, testing,
organization and recordkeeping, reporting, and analysis.
responsibilities Identify staff qualification requirements.
Determine the respective functions and responsibilities of the
Government and the contractor.
Development of units for Review final list of units for adequacy, fairness, and flexibility.
measurement and Review units for potential impact on quality of work (i.e., units that
payment create quality disincentives).
USACE District Quality Conduct all appropriate levels of review: District Quality Control
Control/Quality (DQC), Agency Technical Review (ATR), Biddability,
Assurance Constructability, Operability, and Environmental Review (BCOE),
Independent External Peer Review (IEPR), Compliance with
Environmental Operating Principles (EOPs), and Policy and Legal
Review.
Preliminary Design Cost Combine results of all previous elements into a revised cost
Estimate estimate based on estimated quantities for the specific contract line
items selected.
Develop quantities based on directly estimated plan amounts, with
appropriate contingencies.
Preparation of P&S and Tailor all elements of the specifications to the project.
final cost estimate Understand the basis for every requirement in the documents.

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b. Assessment of the Fundamental Nature of the Site Conditions, Project Criticality and
Difficulty, and Performance Requirements. A critical first step in the PED phase is to consider
the fundamental nature of the project site conditions and the grouting performance requirements
for the project. Information that must be considered is: (1) whether the grouting is being relied
on as a critical or non-critical element with respect to the performance and safety of the project,
(2) the sensitivity of the end performance of the program to potential grouting effectiveness
outcomes, (3) the vulnerability of the project to potential negative impacts from the grouting,
(4) whether site conditions (and/or knowledge of the site conditions) permit the grouting
program to be highly defined by prescriptive methods or whether conditions or knowledge are
such that the specifics of the grouting program might need to evolve during the course of the
work, (5) the nature and degree of performance verification that is required, and (6) the
experience and knowledge of the Corps project team providing program oversight. These factors
will control the choice of many items relating to successful contract preparation and successful
field execution of the project, including: (1) the extent of supplemental exploration and testing
required as part of the grouting contract, (2) the choice of grouting materials and methods, (3) the
choice of contracting method, (4) the level of technology required for monitoring, control, and
analysis, (5) the measurement and payment items and units, (6) the quantity estimates, (7) the
QC and QA organizations required by the contractor and by the Government, (8) the need for
full-scale test sections, (9) the methods to be used to verify the grouting outcome performance,
(10) the recordkeeping requirements, (11) the need for special equipment and techniques to be
available for the project, and (12) the decision responsibility during execution.

c. Acquisition of Supplemental Data. If the Feasibility Phase or early consideration of the

site conditions and performance requirements during the PED phase discloses data deficiencies
or gaps that would prevent conclusive evaluations and proper continuation with the PED,
additional site investigations and testing must be undertaken to remedy the data issues. This
frequently includes investigations into localized areas, special investigation and testing
techniques, or filling general data gaps. As part of the design phase, the existing instrumentation
should be evaluated to determine if additional instrumentation is required to monitor the project
response to grouting operations. Full-scale test sections can be used to gather this data.

d. Detailed Design of Grouting Program. Whereas the Feasibility Phase elements did not
require a comprehensive understanding of every element of grouting, the PED phase cannot be
initiated effectively without a thorough knowledge of equipment and methodologies that are
appropriate and/or required for project-specific grouting conditions and applications. After
preliminary selection of appropriate methodologies and equipment, it is necessary to outline the
entire drilling and grouting process for typical grout holes in the sites geologic conditions,
including all the steps and sequences that might be required on a hole. All special problems and
issues must be identified, and workable solutions must be devised. Special problems can include
such items as: (1) special requirements for drilling through existing dam embankments,
(2) grouting of structure-foundation interface zones, (3) drilling and grouting in unstable zones,
(4) dealing with voids, (5) drilling and grouting in weathered rock zones, the soil-rock interface
area, and soil-filled fractures, (6) handling artesian conditions, (7) establishing environmental
controls, (8) special deviation requirements, (9) protection of adjacent structures or features, and
(10) site access and terrain considerations for the proposed equipment. When grouting through
an existing embankment dam or other critical structure, it is essential to determine the allowable

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safe grouting pressure that can be used without causing hydrofracture or damage due to
displacement. This may require the use of numerical models or other methods to estimate the
principal stresses at the locations where the grout can be exposed to the soils (see Section 15-9).
For grouting rock beneath a dam, a reliable method must be developed for isolating the grout
from the foundation or embankment soils. This may include sleeve-port grouting of the soil-rock
interface and downstage grouting at low or gravity pressures for the first few stages. After the
complete process for a typical hole is verified to be workable, consideration must be given to the
sequencing of holes, the work area requirements, and the outcome verification procedures. The
realities of equipment, materials, and methods that are available must be carefully considered in
this process to allow the program to be constructible in a production environment.

e. Final Design Criteria. In the PED phase, it is necessary to establish the minimum
verifiable end results that can be achieved by grouting. The geometry and properties of the
grouted zone need to be established with certainty. Because the satisfactory performance of the
design is contingent on achieving these properties, they must be selected with care, conservatism,
and due consideration of all the factors that might impact achieving them. After these values
(such as the target permeabilities) have been determined, the construction process must result in
attaining them. Grouting history unfortunately contains many cases in which either outcome
expectations were unrealistic in the context of the design and/or the contract execution, or the
design requirements were abandoned during construction as a result of unrealistically low cost
expectations. In both scenarios, the result is the expenditure of a great amount of effort and
funds with an unsatisfactory project performance outcome.

f. Constructability Evaluation. Considering grouting within the overall needs of the

project should be done early in the design process to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages
of sequencing scenarios. Sequencing the grouting operation with respect to other aspects of the
construction schedules should ideally be planned and controlled for the best technical result. For
example, on some jobs it may be advisable or necessary to delay grouting until other portions of
the project are completed, but in other cases, the opposite sequence may be far more desirable.
Grouting a foundation ahead of placing the embankment may reduce the pressures that can safely
be used, potentially reducing its effectiveness; however, grouting earlier reduces the footage of
drilling, and also the costs and risks associated with drilling and grouting through an
embankment. Damage to the foundation that may occur during grouting is more apparent and
can be addressed before an embankment is in place. In other cases, various constraints on
construction such as cost, schedule and site geometry, construction season, or logistical
considerations may force the construction activities into a less-favorable sequence. For example,
grouting may have to precede blasting and excavation to control water, even though blasting may
impact the grouted rock/soil mass. In these cases, damage, if any, to the completed works will
be difficult to quantify and remediate, so these situations should be avoided where possible.
Measures should be taken to protect previously constructed elements of a project and to
minimize adverse impacts of one activity on another when less-favorable sequencing cannot be
avoided.

g. Development of Detailed Program Layout. Work during the PED phase will include a
detailed layout of the drilling and grouting program, including hole spacings, line spacings, and
hole inclinations and azimuths. Figure 3-1 shows a typical grout hole layout. The detailed layout
must also establish: (1) the surface from which drilling and grouting is to commence, (2) the

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surface and site preparation requirements, (3) the depth of grouting, (4) the stage lengths for
grouting, (5) any special vertical or horizontal sequence requirements, and (6) a determination of
whether drilling and grouting is to be upstage, downstage, or some combination of the two.

Figure 3-1. Typical grout hole layout.

h. Design of Monitoring, Control, and Verification Methods. Careful consideration

should be given to how the results of the program will be analyzed as the work progresses in
light of the project performance requirements. This includes the level of technology to be used,
the records to be obtained, and how the records will be presented and used for verification. It
should be anticipated that the grouting design will be modified as the work progresses. The
design should be flexible to allow for the grouting program to be engineered in the field.

i. Preliminary Design Cost Estimate. The next step in the PED phase is to combine the
results of all previous elements into a revised cost estimate based on the estimated quantities for
the specific contract line items that are selected. If costs are to be extracted from another project,
it is essential that a conversation occur with representatives who were directly involved in the
work to ensure that their experience is captured in the data that are used. However, great care

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must be taken to ensure that the work is, in fact, actually comparable. For example, the same
line item from another contract might include distributed costs associated with work that was
required, but was neither specifically covered by the line item nor listed as an incidental cost
item. Quantities should be based on the directly estimated plan amounts, with appropriate
contingencies applied to each item. An adequate and appropriate budget is essential. One of the
most problematic issues in grouting contracts has been underestimation of project costs and
inadequate budgeting. Remedying this problem after the work is underway can result in claims
and increased costs for both the Government and the contractor.

j. Contract Units for Measurement and Payment. A complete list of all contract line
items, the units for measurement, and payment must be established with care as part of the PED
phase. The selection of line items for measurement and payment can affect both project quality
and project costs. The items must be appropriate for the work that is defined, the uncertainties
that may be inherent in the plan, and any flexibility that may be needed. They must be workable
in terms of field execution, and they need to be structured such that undue risk is not placed on
either the contractor or the Government. The use of a and b bid items are encouraged as it
provides significant flexibility in administration of the contract.

k. Plans and Specifications. Provided all the steps in the Feasibility and PED Phases have
been executed properly, a sound blueprint for preparation of the P&S will be well established.
The documents must provide an adequately detailed description of the materials, equipment,
resources, methodologies, and results that are required by the contractor, and also a clear basis
for acceptance, measurement, and payment for each element of the work. In some types of work,
relatively standard specifications can be used as the base document. However, in many other
applications, the specifications will need to be very carefully crafted to properly reflect the work.
For more complex, critical projects, it is recommended that a geotechnical baseline report be
included in the contract documents. When the contract documents are considered to be
complete, they should be given a final review by the ATR team.

l. Quality Control and Quality Assurance Plan. A complete list of all personnel and
requisite skill sets that are required for successful control and execution must be compiled. The
list must outline their responsibilities and experience qualifications and detail when these
personnel should physically be on the project site. The complete process of observation, testing,
recordkeeping, reporting, and analysis activities should be diagrammed. The QC program
required of the contractor should cover the entire process. After the QC program requirements
and personnel needs have been thoroughly identified, the Government QA program should be
detailed with the goal of assuring that the contractors QC program is adequate and continually
monitored for contract compliance. It is essential that sufficient staff be provided and that they
have appropriate specific experience for their assigned roles and responsibilities. Using
inexperienced or junior staff is only permissible when they are functioning under the direct
guidance of highly experienced senior staff. Experienced USACE personnel are required to be
an integral part of the QA organization and should provide 100% coverage of the grouting
operations.

m. USACE District Quality Control/Quality Assurance. Technical review is a continuing

process from the start to the completion of the PED phase. After the grouting program has been
detailed as outlined in the steps above, it is required as part of the design process that an in-depth

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technical review be performed in accordance with EC 1165-2-214, Civil Works Review Policy.
The complete program should be presented to all appropriate levels of review (DQC, ATR,
BCOE, IEPR, and Policy and Legal Review) as described in EC 1165-2-214. The presentation
should include: (1) a detailed explanation of site conditions, special problems, and uncertainties,
(2) a clear definition of the basis of the design and outcome requirements, (3) an explanation of
the basis for the selection of materials, equipment, and methodologies, (4) a description of the
monitoring, control, and verification methods, (5) an outline of the QC and QA organizational
structure required to achieve the design requirements, (6) any contract forms necessary to
achieve the desired results, (7) a proposed structuring of the measurement and payment items,
and (8) the project schedule.

3-6. Downstage and Upstage Drilling and Grouting Procedures. In both the Feasibility Phase
and the PED Phase, it is necessary to determine which portions of the work are expected to be
conducted using downstage drilling and grouting procedures and which portions are expected to
be conducted using upstage procedures (Table 3-3). This determination is important for
structuring and preparing the contract documents and for estimating costs and schedule.
Downstage drilling and grouting involves completing drilling, washing, water testing, and
grouting of a stage within the hole and allowing the grout to set before advancing the hole to the
next stage. Upstage drilling and grouting involves the advancement of the hole to full depth in
one drilling operation, followed by washing the complete length of the hole in one washing
operation and then pressure testing and grouting the hole in stages starting at the bottom of the
hole and working upwards. More discussion on downstage and upstage drilling and grouting can
be found in Chapter 15 of this manual.

Table 3-3. Advantages, disadvantages, and other considerations for downstage and upstage
methods.

4-1. Impacts of Geology on Grouting. Grouting of soil or rock is an in-situ process resulting in
the alteration of the natural geologic conditions. Given that grouting is an injection process,
every aspect of a grouting program is either controlled or heavily influenced by the geologic
conditions. Therefore, it is impossible to overemphasize the importance of obtaining sound
qualitative and quantitative information on the geology and interpreting the data in terms of its
relevance to the grouting program. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight some of the
considerations in different geologic environments. A partial list of the multitude of factors that
will be affected or controlled by the geologic environment includes: (1) design of the site
investigation program, (2) site access and site preparation, (3) drilling equipment and methods,
(4) hole orientation and depth, (5) hole pattern and spacing, (6) hole staging and sequencing,
(7) hole stability, (8) choice of grouting materials, (9) rate of grout injection, (10) grout travel
distance, (11) uniformity of properties within the grouted zone, (12) grout program quantity
estimates, (13) need for special procedures, (14) verification program design, (15) interpretation
of drilling and grouting results during the execution phase, and (16) reliability and/or
permanence of the grouting program.

4-2. Generalized Grouting Geology Profiles.

a. General. Figure 4-1 shows a generic geologic profile structured to illustrate physical
zones of interest for grouting. Depending on the particular grouting application, one or all of the
zones may be of interest. In some geologic settings, not all of the zones may be present.
Additionally, the nature and the characteristics of the zones will vary greatly according to the
geologic environment in which the zones were formed. Figures 4-2 through 4-5 show a few
examples of geologic profiles exposed through excavation.

geologic environments. This zone is characterized by materials having soil-like characteristics,
but retaining an in-situ relict structure from the parent rock material. Drilling in these materials
can be difficult because they can be both erodible and prone to hole collapse. Water pressure
testing can be problematic due to softening and disturbance effects caused by the introduction of
water. Grouting effectiveness in this zone can be very limited, and in new construction, this
zone is normally removed by excavation before grouting whenever possible. It is common for
the permeability of this zone to be the result of very fine fractures. Accordingly, grout
penetration into the fracture system may be very restricted. Additionally, grouting will not
improve the properties of the materials themselves. Where grouting is necessary, sleeve-port
pipes or very short down stages are typically required. The overall effectiveness of grouting
completely weathered rock can be marginal. Benefits may result, but they may not be
predictable.

d. Highly Weathered Rock or Mixed Soil/Rock. This zone is characterized by

predominantly lithified materials with a readily identifiable rock structure and fracture system,
but substantial portions of the fracture systems are partially or completely filled with soil-like
materials resulting from either severe weathering of the fractures or infilling of fractures with
overlying soils. At one end of the spectrum, the general types of problems similar to those in
completely weathered rock zones may occur, necessitating short downstage drilling and grouting
or the use of sleeve-port methods. At the other end of the spectrum, the material might be
predominantly rock, and holes may be stable even when penetrating soil-filled joints. A
common misconception is that joint infillings can be effectively removed by washing. Even with
extended washing until the return flow from the top of the hole is clear, it has been found that the
effective washing distance is either very small or that only a limited number of joints have been
washed clean (i.e., removal of material only to point of accepting the wash water injection rate).
Accordingly, in these materials it should be assumed that soil-infilled joints will remain within
the grouted zone. When this zone cannot be removed by excavation and when grouting of this
zone is required, it is common to use a variety of methods to improve the effectiveness of the
grouting. Wider grouted zones created by additional lines of grouting are often employed to
improve the containment of infilled materials and reduce gradients through those materials.

e. Due to the potential for structural damage, hydrofracturing shall not be considered an
appropriate measure for remedial grouting at existing dam projects. For projects where the
potential for damage is less of a concern, hydrofracture grouting of infill may be beneficial. If
episodic hydrofracturing occurs within infilled fractures at pressures less than the desired refusal

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pressure, grout injection should be extended as necessary until those episodes cease and refusal
at the maximum desired pressure is reached. Pressure reductions to prevent the hydrofracturing
are, in general, not recommended. Provided that hydrofracturing is not causing other incidental
damage, the hydrofracturing will be beneficial in assisting to compact and contain the infilled
materials, and it can chemically alter and improve the erosion resistance of the infilled materials
if they contain some percentage of clay minerals.

f. Moderate to Slightly Weathered Rock. This zone is characterized entirely by lithified

materials. The fractures are generally open, but may show evidence of staining extending
several inches into the parent rock. After drilling, holes typically stand open. Upstage grouting
should be possible, but the presence of highly fractured zones may warrant downstage techniques
at some locations.

g. Unweathered Rock. Most geologic profiles contain unweathered rock with clean
fracture systems. Weathering of fractures, if present, is sufficiently slight that staining is
surficial. Similar to moderate to slightly weathered rocks, holes stand open indefinitely and the
formation readily accepts grout.

4-3. Regional and Site Geology. A thorough knowledge of the regional and site geologic
history is essential for the design and treatment of the foundation in many grouting applications,
particularly when constructing hydraulic barriers at dams. It is particularly important for
planning effective site investigation and testing programs, interpreting site investigation data,
and making field decisions throughout the course of construction. Available sources of
published information and records from prior investigations should be collected, compiled, and
used. The available data should be supplemented as necessary by original geologic fieldwork
and additional investigations. A cautionary note is that, for many projects, investigations have
occurred in a series of phases stretching over many years and perhaps for multiple purposes.
Rarely has all of the information been compiled, re-interpreted, and integrated into a single
coherent form for the specific purpose of grouting programs. Failure to fully organize and use
the information properly as one of the first steps has, on some occasions, led to defective designs
and/or defective contract documents, both of which were readily apparent after problems were
encountered and the data were reviewed.

4-4. Structural Geology.

a. Structure. Rock structure is a broad term referring to the spatial relationships of rock
features and their discontinuities. Folds, faults, and fracture systems are all common elements of
rock structure that are important in grouting.

b. Folds. A common type of deformation is folding. The folded rocks often show
considerable fracturing along the axis of the fold. The severity of engineering problems depends
on the complexity of the fold with relation to the type and geometry of the proposed structures
and could include excavation, stability, and leakage problems. Folded sedimentary rocks have
the potential to contribute to severe foundation leakage if the fold axes cross the dam axis.
Fractures associated with the fold axes develop in the more brittle rocks in the sedimentary
sequence, but they might not extend through the intervening, less competent layers. Openings in
these fractures, which are the result of tensional forces at the crests and troughs of folds, may not

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even totally penetrate the brittle beds, as compressional forces will be dominant at the inner part
of the folds. Therefore, the potential seepage paths are, in effect, more nearly linear than planar,
so they require a dense pattern of grout holes for effective treatment.

c. Faults. Faults are fractures along which masses of rock have been moved in a direction
parallel or perpendicular to the fault surface. The movement may vary from less than a
centimeter to many kilometers. Faults created by compressional tectonic forces are likely to be
impermeable, but can be bordered by strongly fractured and/or jointed rock that may be
permeable. Faults created by extensional tectonic forces may themselves be permeable, and
down-dropped blocks overlying inclined faults are likely to contain permeable joints. Faults
very rarely show a clean and uncomplicated break. The rocks normally exhibit folding,
fracturing, crushing, and grinding. Sometimes the walls exhibit polished and smoothly striated
surfaces called slickensides. The rocks on the opposite sides of the fault surface may
occasionally be broken into angular fragments referred to as fault breccia. In addition to these
mechanical effects, faults may result in channels for transmitting water or may be impermeable
and form groundwater barriers. Recognition of faults is of great importance because faults
represent zones of weakness in the crust of the Earth, and the presence of these zones affect the
engineering properties of a site, including seismological considerations, excavation, tunnel
support, dam stability, and leakage problems. It is prudent to stitch-grout fault zones in dam
foundations, crisscrossing them at various depths with fans of grout holes.

d. Joints. Joints are almost universally present and are of considerable engineering
importance for that reason. Joints offer channels for groundwater conveyance. Joints may also
exert an important influence on weathering and excavation characteristics.

(1) Rocks formed at great depth, such as granitic and metamorphic rocks, tend to have
strongly developed orthogonal joint systems as a result of stress release as erosion strips away
thousands of feet of overburden. Weathering may proceed to substantial depths along steeply
dipping joints, but joint openings below the zone of weathering may take significant volumes of
grout.

(2) Sheet jointing, a form of load release jointing that parallels the ground surface, is
particularly common in granitic rock. The orientation of these joints, together with the extensive
grout travel that they may make possible, places a substantial constraint on the injection pressure
that may be applied safely. It may even be prudent to consider installing grouted dowels or rock
bolts to increase the factor of safety against hydraulic jacking. Where sheet joints intersect the
face of a foundation excavation, pneumatically applied concrete or extensive caulking may be
required to prevent or restrain surface leakage.

(3) Elastic rebound tends to occur in compaction shales when overburden is removed,
whether by erosion or by construction excavation. This rebound commonly creates open joints
in sandstones that are interbedded with the compaction shale, creating a highly permeable
condition that may require an elaborate system of curtain grouting.

(4) Rapid erosional downcutting in steep-sided canyons and valleys sometimes leads to
the development of deep, wide fracture systems and the subsequent separation and spreading of
ridges on one or both sides of the valley. This phenomenon has been known to develop in

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granitic rocks, adversely affecting the stability of engineering structures, but it more readily
occurs in layered rocks such as limestones and sandstones, where pre-existing steeply dipping
joints propagate downward and pull apart. The resulting rock blocks can be quite large and
composed of competent material. However, they are often fully detached blocks bounded by
wide fractures, many of which may be infilled with unconsolidated materials. Grouting of wide
fractures surrounding fully detached blocks is unlikely to be an effective mitigation measure, and
it is frequently necessary to remove the rock blocks by excavation until fractures are sufficiently
tight for grouting. These features can easily be missed or misunderstood during exploration,
particularly when investigation methods comprise only borings. They will, however, be readily
apparent as excavation proceeds. When fully detached blocks are unexpectedly encountered on a
naturally steep abutment, effective solutions can be problematic.

(5) Gravity slump features, which are a consequence of oversteepening of slopes in weak
rock or soil masses as a result of erosion or excavation, sometimes require extensive grouting
where conditions require that they be left in place in a dam foundation. They include so-called
gravity-slip faults, which occur along undercut joints or bedding planes. They also include
landslides, which, if recognized before construction, are presumably avoided or removed during
stripping of the foundation. However, landslides of significant size sometimes develop during
the course of stripping operations for dams on weak rock foundations and must be left in place.

(6) Measurement of joint orientations (strike and dip) and frequencies is a critical step for
appropriately designing grout hole alignment. Traditional surface geological methods such as
mapping outcrops and detailed lines, provided that representative outcrops are located on or
adjacent to the site and that wide variation in joint orientations is not expected, will provide the
designer with this information. Stereonet analyses provide a convenient means of displaying the
orientation of multiple joint sets. The orientation of the joints with respect to the grout curtain
alignment must be considered. True dip is the measurement of joint inclination normal to the
strike of the joint and is the value reported and/or displayed on the stereonet. Apparent dip,
however, is the dip of the joint relative to the strike of the grout curtain. Apparent dip is always
a shallower angle than true dip. In all likelihood, not all of the formations to be grouted will be
exposed at the ground surface for mapping. Recent advances in down-hole imagery equipment
and associated processing software now allow for mapping of joints in subsurface strata.
Typically, these systems operate by recording high-resolution images of the borehole sidewall.
Some post-processing software automatically detects likely joints and tags them for orientation
calculation. The sidewall images allow operators to manually interpret and tag the joints.
Regardless of the selection method, the strike and dip of the tagged joints are then calculated,
considering the inclination of the borehole and any measured borehole deviations. The result is a
comprehensive package of joint orientation data spanning the entire surveyed length of the
boring. The use of these systems also aids in the field identification of geologic contacts in
destructively drilled holes, and of the presence of joint infilling materials.

(7) Some extrusive igneous rocks present complex open networks that can be challenging.
Contact zones between flows can be brecciated, and shrinkage during cooling produces highly
interconnected open jointing with variable orientation. Quantities of grout accepted by the
formation (grout takes) under these conditions can be high and hard to predict.

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e. Grouting Considerations. Since many rock types have low primary permeability, but
relatively high fracture and joint permeability, the importance of grouting the structural
discontinuities is apparent. The type of structural feature (e.g., fault, fold, or joint) will dictate to
a large part the type and extent of excavation treatment and the grouting methods. The spacing
and nature of the fractures (e.g., open, weathered, or solutioned) influence the type of grout
treatment selected, such as consolidation grouting and curtain grouting. The selection of a
single-line or multiple-line curtain and the grout hole spacing are also affected. The orientation
(dip and strike) of these features in relation to a structure influences the planned angle and
direction of the grout holes and the drain holes. The spatial variations in the permeability of the
fractures affects the depth of a grout curtain. The grout holes should intersect all the features,
and each inclined or vertical feature should ideally be intersected by several holes at different
depths. Faults may be gouge filled and impermeable, thereby forming a barrier, or they may be
open and carry groundwater. Joints may be filled or open, may have weathered or non-
weathered faces, and may intersect and be connected over a wide area. The condition of the
joints will affect the drilling, cleaning, pressure testing, and grouting of the hole.

f. Engineering Grouting Programs in the Field. It is imperative that grouting projects be

designed and executed to allow for changes based on field conditions. Advances in drilling and
grouting technology in recent years make engineered grouting technically achievable,
assuming that all phases of the work are performed, supervised, and reviewed by well-qualified
personnel. However, accomplishing this result requires that the sites geologic conditions be
thoroughly known and considered in preparing the site-specific grouting specifications.
Additionally, the sites geological conditions must be continuously interpreted during the course
of the work, and the grouting program must be modified on a timely basis whenever necessary to
treat those conditions that differ from those originally anticipated.

g. Rock Structure and Rock Jointing Examples. Figures 4-6 to 4-16 show examples of a
variety of rock structure and rock jointing types. These figures are included to allow
visualization of the different orientations and spacings of grout holes that would be appropriate
to accomplish effective grouting.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 4-6. Differential bed thicknesses, bed orientations, and joint spacings in sandstone, near

Figure 4-16. Limestone with solution features, varied bed thickness, and vertical joints at a
highway rock cut in south central Kentucky.

4-5. Rock Types.

a. General. The differing properties of various rock types, by nature of their origin,
lithology, and structure, will influence the grouting conditions at a particular site. Thorough
knowledge of the rock types at the site, and their geologic history, is therefore necessary for the
design and treatment of the foundation. The geologic features affecting grouting may be
grouped into two categories, primary and secondary features. Primary features include those
physical parameters or characteristics that are related to the formational or depositional
mechanism. Examples of primary features contributing to permeability and to a possible need
for grouting include the intergranular interstices in alluvial deposits and in poorly cemented
sandstones, lava tubes, cooling cracks in lava and shallow intrusive rocks (e.g., dikes and sills),
and depositional contact zones. Secondary features are the result of geologic forces that have
acted on a soil or rock mass subsequent to its deposition or formation. Examples of secondary
features contributing to rock mass permeability include solution cavities, faults, shears, folds,
and stress release joints. The exploration and grouting programs must be adapted to the site
geologic conditions. An understanding of the site geologic conditions and the conditions of
width, distribution, and interconnection of potential seepage or leakage paths should be
considered an essential part of designing a grouting program that will have the optimum
opportunity to identify and intersect potentially open geologic discontinuities and treat them
effectively. An understanding of the site geologic conditions and their engineering implications
also may be an essential part of a process in which it is decided that some remedial treatment
other than, or in addition to, grouting may be appropriate. Different rocks with the same general
fracture permeability and void characteristics can be loosely grouped together. As a broad

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generality, examples of some of the more common rock types, together with those general
characteristics that could influence required foundation treatment, are listed below.

b. Crystalline Rocks. Crystalline rock is an inexact, but convenient term that identifies
igneous and metamorphic as opposed to sedimentary rocks.

(1) Intrusive igneous rocks include granites, syenites, diorites, and gabbros. Some
features commonly found in these rocks are sheet jointing, shear zones, dikes, and sills.

(2) Jointing in three directions is characteristic of intrusives. One set is usually nearly
horizontal (sheet or uplift jointing), and the other two are near-vertical and generally normal to
each other. The spacing of sheet joints near the surface is frequently close and tends to increase
with depth.

(3) Grout take normally occurs in the joints and the fractures, and the volume depends on
the size and continuity of the openings along the fractures. Certain metamorphic rocks such as
gneisses react in a manner similar to that of the granites. Grout takes in schists and slates depend
on the presence and characteristics of associated jointing or fine fracturing. Most quartzites are
highly fractured and would readily accept grout. Marble is a crystalline rock, but should also be
considered in the category of karstic formations since solution cavities should be anticipated.

c. Volcanics. Volcanics generally include the extrusive igneous rocks. Felsites, a group
of very dense, fine-grained rocks, are extrusive and near-surface equivalents of granites, syenites,
and other related crystalline rocks. In addition to granite-like jointing, they may exhibit
columnar structure. Basalts are a group of very dense, dark, igneous rocks. The jointing may be
platy or columnar. Basalts in many flows commonly exhibit columns with three to six sides.
Pumice and scoria are often associated with basalts. Pyroclastics, such as agglomerates and
tuffs, are materials formed by explosive volcanic activity and consist of fragments torn loose by
such explosions, or they are formed from deposits of wind-borne ash. Large-scale engineering
operations in pyroclastic rocks are generally difficult. Volcanics require extensive examination
before engineering characteristics can be determined and will usually require special treatment.
The presence of columnar jointing in lava flows tends to lower the strength of the mass as a
whole, and extensive grouting can be expected. Permeability may be great in lava flows due to
the extensive jointing that normally is present and also due to the presence of piped vesicles and
gas cavities. These features may transmit copious flows of water. In some cases, however, the
joints are tight and/or filled, and the rock mass may have a very low permeability. Each case
must be evaluated individually to determine the need for and effectiveness of grouting.

(1) Volcanic and pyroclastic rocks can present substantial problems to the dam designer.
They can be extremely complex in some areas, where the sequence of eruptions can include
extremely fluid lavas, viscous lavas, solid ejecta of various sizes, and glowing avalanches.
Lava tubes are commonly associated with the more fluid lavas, while the viscous lavas can
produce highly porous and permeable clinker-like deposits. Both of these types of lava develop
cooling cracks in various orientations, the most common and widest of which are perpendicular
to the upper and lower surfaces. These cracks completely penetrate thin flows, but the centers of
thick flows (such as are commonly found in plateau basalts) tend to be dense and impermeable.
The most common, or widespread, type of solid airborne ejecta is pumice, which is the major

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ingredient of air-fall tuff. Although highly porous, pumice is not necessarily highly permeable.
However, due to its low density, it can be subject to piping if in the unweathered state. It
decomposes to expansive clay, which may form an impervious barrier between flows. Glowing
avalanches, which are extremely hot gaseous products of some types of explosive eruption, form
welded tuffs. Having been formed from a hot gas, welded tuffs are even more likely than lavas
to contain large, wide-open cooling cracks. However, if hot volcanic ejecta (especially hot
gases) come in contact with snow-covered slopes, relatively impervious mudflow deposits are
formed. It is not uncommon for these various types of volcanic and pyroclastic deposits to be
interspersed with one another, creating challenges for geologic interpretation and engineering
ingenuity. Moreover, due to the intermittent nature of volcanic activity, these deposits
commonly are interspersed with alluvial (interflow) deposits.

(2) The various conditions described above can produce high permeability, sometimes to
the point of bringing into question the technical and economic feasibility of constructing a water
storage reservoir. Some reservoirs in basaltic terrain, such as Jerome Reservoir in Idaho, have
failed to hold water. Therefore, siting studies for dams to be constructed in volcanic terrain
should include geohydrologic investigations to verify that the reservoirs can be made to hold
water. These investigations should include studies of the position and flow direction of the
groundwater surface in the reservoir rims. Assuming that the conditions appear to be acceptable,
extensive grouting to seal the dam abutments, foundations, and reservoir rims still may be
required, but the likelihood that the grouting program will be both efficient and effective will be
greatly enhanced by the knowledge gained from the exploratory program.

d. Soluble Rocks. Limestone, dolomite, gypsum, anhydrite, and halite are included in this
group. The principal discontinuity in this rock group is solubility in varying degrees, which can
ultimately cause high mass permeability, slump, collapse, and sinks, resulting in karst
topography. Soluble rocks could be placed in two broad categories: those that are only slightly
soluble, but that dissolve over geologic time, and those that have the potential to rapidly dissolve
if exposed to reservoir conditions, including seepage flow. Limestone, dolomite, and calcareous
dikes fall in the first category; anhydrite, gypsum, halite salt, and other evaporite minerals fall in
the second category.

(1) Limestones and dolomites are the most widespread of the soluble sediments. These
rocks may be vuggy and may display a wide range of permeability as a unit. Limestone and
dolomite are generally jointed and usually exhibit two or three distinct sets of jointing. Solution
features are frequently well developed along bedding planes, joints, and contacts with other rock
types. Joints and cavities may be either filled or open, and the size may vary greatly. Depending
on the extent of jointing and cavities, extensive treatment and grouting can be anticipated. The
problems presented by cavernous limestones are well known. In general, the remedial treatment
involves constructing a grout curtain or other form of cutoff to an underlying impervious
formation or stratum. However, some limestone sites may not be underlain by impervious rock
at a depth that can reasonably be reached by a grout curtain. Therefore, consideration may have
to be given to whether acceptable results can be obtained by merely diverting the underflow to
some selected depth beneath the dam foundation. It should be recognized that not all limestones
are cavernous. Nonetheless, relatively minor solution activity along joint planes and bedding
planes can lead to a need for an extensive grouting program. Moreover, the extent of fracturing

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may dictate a need for extensive grouting, and the extent of weathering can make that grouting
difficult to perform successfully.

(2) Anhydrite is pure calcium sulfate, whereas gypsum is the hydrated form. Both are soft
and fairly soluble in water. Both may be jointed and have a varying number and size of solution
cavities. The cavities often are filled with clay or other reworked material. Grout takes depend
on the presence and characteristics of the joints and cavities. Gypsum and its parent mineral,
anhydrite, are commonly associated with both shales and limestones. The failure of Quail Creek
Dike in Utah pointed out that the presence of gypsum or anhydrite in dam foundations can
present problems that can be difficult or impossible to mitigate by grouting, especially if the
foundation rock is strongly jointed or fractured. Mosul Dam in Iraq is located on a
gypsum/anhydrite-rich foundation and has been continuously grouted since first filling. The
results of studies of the potential for dissolution of gypsum and anhydrite beds in dam
foundations led one engineering organization to conclude that grouting can be effective in
reducing seepage to a safe level in gypsum beds, but that a positive cutoff (such as plastic
concrete) should be used in anhydrite. That conclusion was based on the results of calculations
of solution rates for those two minerals, assuming fractures of various widths. The limiting
fracture width for dissolution to occur in anhydrite was found to be 0.1 mm, which is about half
the width of fissures that could be penetrated by grouts formulated with cements that were
generally available at that time (ultrafine cements are capable of penetrating fissures 0.1 mm in
width and, being pozzolanic, should be resistant to sulfate attack).

(3) Halite (rock salt) is soft and soluble in water. The extremely soluble halite is not
found in outcrops, but may be found at depth. The principal engineering significance of halite is
the effect its presence or proximity may have on the proposed project, such as solutioning and
subsidence, in addition to its effects on groundwater.

(4) Clastic Sedimentary Rocks. Conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, and shales are the
principal types of clastic sedimentary rocks. The physical properties of sandstone, siltstone, and
conglomerate depend on the degree and type of cementation. These coarser clastics may be tight
and impermeable, or they may be sufficiently porous and permeable to need treatment. Jointing
would be the main concern in the treatment of impermeable clastics. The finer clastics, such as
claystones and shales, are made up of clay minerals, various oxides, silica, fine particles of
ordinary minerals, and some amount of colloidal and organic materials. These clastics may
contain a great amount of water. Two shale types are cementation shale and compaction shale.
Compaction shales usually contain no joints capable of being grouted. Cemented shales are
more resistant to change and have engineering properties superior to those of the compaction
type. Cemented to slightly metamorphosed shales are sufficiently brittle to react to structural
changes and develop joints similar to those in sandstone. Some pervious, poorly cemented
sandstones may allow significant volumes of water to pass through their intergranular interstices,
potentially contributing to excessive pore-water pressure. Whether this seepage can be mitigated
by cement grouting is problematic. The greatest potential hazard presented by poorly cemented
sandstones is internal erosion (piping). Thorough grouting of open foundation discontinuities is
essential to prevent seepage flows from reaching potentially erosive velocities. However, the
poor cementation might contribute to the joints being loosely filled with sand, and also to
fractures and shear zones being made up principally of pipable loose sand. Chemical grouts may
be applicable in such cases, but other control methods may be required.

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CHAPTER 5

Geohydrology and Flow Modeling

5-1. Introduction. Understanding of the site geohydrology, both qualitatively and

quantitatively, is central and essential for grouting applications where the purpose of grouting is
to alter flow rates, flow paths, flow velocities, or pressure distributions. Geohydrologic models,
regardless of complexity, provide an invaluable tool for rationally evaluating design alternatives,
optimizing grouting configurations for best technical value and cost efficiency, predicting
performance of the completed work, and designing field verification programs to be used in
execution of the work. Models can also be used to guide the sequence of how the work should
be performed, which can be an important element for remedial work on existing dams.

Historically, at a significant number of U.S. dams that were grouted, the results of water tests for
the hydraulic conductivity of the foundation materials were reported in units of ft3/min. The
flow volume was used as a guide for determining the need for grouting and the starting grout
mixes. In reviewing grout records from previous construction, be aware that this is a flow
estimate and not a hydraulic conductivity.

5-2. Hydraulic Conductivity Units.

a. Definitions.

(1) Intrinsic Permeability. Intrinsic permeability is a fundamental material property

providing a measure of the ability of a material to transmit fluids. Intrinsic permeability values
are independent of the type, density, and viscosity of the fluid. The intrinsic permeability is
defined as:

k = Cd2
where:
k = intrinsic permeability
C = dimensionless constant related to the configuration of the flow paths
d = average or effective pore diameter.
The units, therefore, for intrinsic permeability k are length squared (e.g., cm2). Common units
for intrinsic permeability include the Darcy (d) or millidarcy (mD), where 1 Darcy equals
approximately 10-12 m2. In most cases, the intrinsic permeability is determined by measuring
hydraulic conductivity using Darcys Law.

(2) Hydraulic Conductivity. The hydraulic conductivity, which is often simply referred to
as permeability, is represented by the symbol K. Hydraulic conductivity is defined as the
discharge velocity of water flowing through a unit area under a unit hydraulic head. Unlike
intrinsic permeability, which is a fundamental material property independent of the fluid, the
hydraulic conductivity depends on the intrinsic permeability, the degree of saturation, the
specific weight of water, and the dynamic viscosity of water. The units for hydraulic

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conductivity are length/time (L/T), i.e., cm/s or ft/min. Hydraulic conductivity is related to the
intrinsic permeability by the following equation:

K=k/
where:
K = Hydraulic conductivity (units of L/T)
= Specific weight of water (units of M/L2 T2) (i.e., N/m3)
= Dynamic viscosity of water (units of M/LT) (i.e., kg/m s).

Since the dynamic viscosity of water is temperature dependent, the value for K also depends on
temperature. For nearly all normal types of engineering problems, dynamic viscosity and
specific weight values are selected on the basis of water being at 5060F.

b. Hydraulic Conductivity Units. A wide variety of hydraulic conductivity units are used in
engineering and geohydrology practice, depending on common convention for various types of
applications and also on preferences of individuals using the coefficient. Regardless of the units of
preference, hydraulic conductivity can always be expressed directly in the form of L/T or, in some
cases, units that can be reduced to the form of L/T. Common units in use include cm/s, ft/min,
ft/day, and m/s. It is not uncommon for different units to be used for different purposes on the
same problem. For example, a profile might be depicted in terms of hydraulic conductivity units of
cm/s, while model calculations might be based on units of ft/min. The most important issue is that
hydraulic conductivity units that are selected for use must be compatible with other units used in
flow calculations. Less common and less recognizable units include gallons per day per square
foot (gpd/ft2), which can be reduced to ft/min or ft/day through simple conversions. For grouting
on USACE projects, ft/min is the recommended standard unit for hydraulic conductivity.

c. Lugeon Unit. A special unit of hydraulic conductivity that is in widespread use in rock
grouting is the Lugeon unit. The Lugeon test (named after Swiss geologist M. Lugeon) is a
water injection test. One Lugeon (Lu) unit is equal to 1 L of water per minute injected into 1 m
of borehole at an injection pressure of 10 bars. It is extremely rare to set up the test to duplicate
those parameters in the field. In practice, the Lugeon value for a particular portion of the
foundation is found by isolating a known length of borehole by packers, measuring the rate of
water injection under a selected pressure, and then calculating the Lugeon value based on those
parameters. For USACE projects, it is common to use a water testing pressure equal to the
proposed grouting pressure. As with any test of this type, the water being injected will travel in
any direction that is permitted by the intersected fractures. The test does not provide information
about the size or spacing of fractures, since a single large fracture within the test interval could
produce the same Lugeon value as numerous closely spaced, fine fractures. As originally
applied, Lugeon values were not corrected for equipment head losses, and not necessarily
corrected for the depth to static groundwater level. However, current practice includes both of
those corrections for calculating the effective pressure applied during the test to improve the
accuracy of the results. The dynamic head loss characteristics are, in fact, essential for
determining whether water injection at any combination of pressure and flow is being limited by
the fracture system or by the injection equipment. Lugeon values are normally reported as whole
numbers only. An inherent advantage of determining the hydraulic conductivity in terms of the

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Lugeon unit is that general guidelines exist that relate Lugeon values to both the need for
grouting and the intensity of grouting required (Houlsby 1990).

d. Conversion Factors. Table 5-1 lists conversion factors for hydraulic conductivity units.
The factor for converting between Lugeon units and hydraulic conductivity units is from
Houlsby (1990). All conversions between Lugeon units and hydraulic conductivity units are
approximate, a fact pointed out by Houlsby (1990) and other authors. Kutzner (1996) provides a
discussion of the differences between the physical conditions for Lugeon tests performed in rock
and hydraulic conductivity tests performed in porous media. However, the Lugeon/conductivity
conversion factors listed in Table 5-1 have been generally accepted for use in practice within the
grouting community with an understanding of their approximate nature.

Table 5-1. Hydraulic conductivity unit conversion factors.

Starting Unit Desired Unit Multiplication Factor

cm/s ft/min 1.97
cm/s ft/day 2834.6
cm/s Lugeon 76923
ft/min cm/s 0.508
ft/min ft/day 1440
ft/min Lugeon 39047
ft/day cm/s 3.53 104
ft/day ft/min 6.94 104
ft/day Lugeon 27.1
Lugeon cm/s 1.3 105
Lugeon ft/min 2.6 105
Lugeon ft/day 3.7 102

e. Apparent Lugeon value. Special discussion is warranted of another unit that is now in
common use in grouting and that has been called the Apparent Lugeon value. Hydraulic
conductivity values are determined for steady-state flow conditions with water as the fluid.
However, since the intrinsic permeability of the material is a constant regardless of fluid, when
the fluid is changed to a grout (provided that it is a stable suspension with constant properties), it
follows that during grouting an equivalent water hydraulic conductivity can be calculated if the
following ratio of specific weights and dynamic viscosities is present:
gw / wg = 1
For normal field operations, Naudts (2003) proposed that an initial Apparent Lugeon value be
calculated immediately after the start of grout injection based on:
Apparent Water Lugeon Value = Lugeon Value with Grout Ratio of Marsh Funnel Viscosities

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or
Apparent Luw = Lug VMarsh of Grout / V Marsh of Water.

Naudts further proposed that an Apparent Lugeon value calculated in the field could only be
valid when compared with a known Lugeon value determined with water. In other words, when
the initial Apparent Lugeon value is calculated to be approximately equal to the actual Lugeon
value determined by water testing, then it can be assumed that the grout is initially penetrating
the fractures with the same ease as water. When the ratio of Apparent Lugeon value to actual
Lugeon value is less than 1, then it indicates that grout is not penetrating all of the fractures and
that the Apparent Lugeon value is not accurate. The practical and useful aspects of this are:

(1) When water Lugeon values and calculated Apparent Lugeon values are essentially
identical, it is a very strong indicator that a proper starting mix for grout has been formulated and
is being used.

(2) It is best practice to water pressure test each stage in all primary holes at a minimum.
Depending on the purpose of the grouting program, when a large number of confirming data has
been obtained under field conditions and the data show a consistent, nearly identical result for
water pressure testing Lugeon values and calculated Apparent Lugeon values, the data can be
used to support a reduction in the frequency of water pressure testing, and the initial permeability
can be assumed to be equal to the initial Apparent Lugeon value.

(3) Since Apparent Lugeon values are calculated with both flow and pressure being
applied, at any point in time the Apparent Lugeon value is constant. At any given moment,
changing the pressure will increase the flow rate, but the Apparent Lugeon value will remain
unchanged. This is a distinct advantage in monitoring progression toward refusal, and it is also
highly valuable in monitoring dilation or uplift, since only a physical change of that type would
suddenly alter the Apparent Lugeon value. It is also of high value in detecting premature refusal,
since a dramatic decrease in the Apparent Lugeon value would indicate abrupt choking within
the fractures.

(4) The Apparent Lugeon value should not be interpreted as indicating that a particular
mass of rock has achieved a certain final permeability value. It is providing information about
entrance of grout into the fractures in the immediate vicinity of the grout hole. It does not
provide information about the extent of grout travel nor does it necessarily provide information
on the completeness of filling. For example, a hole could be brought to rather rapid refusal with
a thick grout, and it would show a very low final Apparent Lugeon value. However, there may
have been very little penetration into the rock mass, and finer fractures may not have been
grouted at all.

5-3. Geohydrologic Flow Systems.

a. General Nature of Flow Systems. In the most general case, flow systems within any
physical region of interest can be extremely complex. There will be constant head boundaries
subject to time fluctuation in levels, and the location and the values for constant head boundaries
might differ for different geologic units. There can be flow both within soil materials, which are a
porous media, and within rock materials, which can have both flow within the rock matrix, and

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fracture flow. There may be surficial recharge zones that periodically introduce water and alter the
flow regime. There can be withdrawal points (e.g., wells) within the region of interest. There can
be zones of confined, pressurized flow, zones with free water surfaces, and zones of partially
saturated flow. Flow is often three dimensional. The various soil and rock media may not be
homogeneous, and they may be subject to consolidation or compression under pressure changes.
There may be temperature differentials, which can change the dynamic viscosity and density of
water. Depending on flow velocities, flow can be either laminar or turbulent. Alteration of the
flow regime due to a change in conditions also involves time dependency, which might or might
not be an issue for particular types of problems. Simultaneous solution of all these factors would
provide a comprehensive description of the complete flow system, including flow rates, directions,
velocities, and their time dependencies. Fortunately, for most grouting applications, there are
many simplifications that can provide quite adequate solutions and yet are relatively easy to solve.

b. Flow System Simplifications for Analysis of Grouting Applications. Normal

simplifications that can be used for flow system analysis in the design of grouting include:

(1) The flow medium is homogeneous.

(2) Beneath the free water surface, the voids are completely full of water.

(3) The medium and the water are incompressible.

(4) Flow is laminar and Darcys Law applies.

(5) Steady-state flow conditions exist.

(6) Steady-state flow is represented by the Laplace Equation. In two dimensions, the
solution of the Laplace Equation can be most easily visualized as being represented by two
families of curves that intersect at right angles to form a pattern of square figures known as a
flow net. One set of lines are the flow lines or streamlines, and the other set represents
equipotentials. The flow lines represent the directional paths of flow, and the equipotential lines
are lines of equal energy or head.

c. Darcys Law. Darcys Law, empirically derived by Henri Darcy in 1856, is an equation
that states that the amount of flow discharging through a given area is proportional to the cross-
sectional area of flow, the hydraulic head gradient, and the hydraulic conductivity. Its most
familiar form is:

Q = KiA

where:
Q = flow rate
K = hydraulic conductivity
i = flow gradient (head differential divided by length of flow path)
A = gross cross-sectional flow area including both voids and solids.

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(1) Since flow rate Q = velocity v cross-sectional area A, the equation can also be stated
as v = Ki, in which v is defined as the Darcy discharge velocity, which differs from the actual
seepage velocity, which is the true flow velocity within the pores in which flow is occurring.
The actual pore velocity is obtained by dividing the Darcy discharge velocity by the effective
porosity, which is the ratio of the actual volume of pore spaces through which water is flowing to
the total volume. Usually the effective porosity is somewhat less than the total porosity.

(2) Darcys Law is valid only for slow, viscous flow (laminar flow). Fortunately, most
groundwater flow cases fall in this category. Experimentally, it has been shown that any
groundwater flow with a Reynolds number of less than 1 is clearly laminar and that flow regimes
with values of Reynolds numbers of up to 10 are generally suitable for application of Darcys
Law. The formula for the Reynolds number for porous media flow is:

Re = vd30 /
where:
Re = Reynolds number.
= density of water.
v = Darcy velocity (not the true seepage velocity).
d30 = representative grain diameter of media (often taken as the 30% passing size from
sieve analysis).
= dynamic viscosity of the water.

5-4. Flow in Saturated Porous Media.

a. Applicability of Darcys Law. Darcys Law, which originated from the study of water
flow through vertical pipes filled with sand, is applicable for most soil types, and it can be
applied directly in its original equation form when the geometry of the problem is sufficiently
simple. For complex boundary conditions and/or complex configurations of differing hydraulic
conductivity, other forms of modeling such as flow net analyses or numerical modeling are
required. Laminar flow conditions necessary for application of Darcys Law will normally be
met by all soils with grain sizes smaller than clean gravels. When water is flowing in highly
permeable media, such as clean coarse gravel, cobble, or rock-fill zones, the flow condition can
vary from laminar to fully turbulent, depending on the hydraulic gradients and velocities.
Significant turbulent effects have been found to occur at gradients less than 0.1 for aggregate
with a nominal particle size of 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) or larger. As flow makes a transition into the
semi-turbulent to turbulent regime, the increase in flow velocity and discharge, relative to an
increase in hydraulic gradient, is no longer a linear relationship. Semi-turbulent and turbulent
flows will result in velocity and flow rates that increase at a smaller rate than the gradient, and
significant flow reduction may occur.

b. Corrections for Turbulent Flow Conditions. There are several methods for
approximating the effects of turbulence in clean coarse gravels, cobble, and rock-fill materials.
There are empirical formulas available for estimating flow velocities through various types of
coarse materials. Another approach is to test coarse materials at the actual gradient that will occur
in the prototype; this largely eliminates the errors from turbulence because the measured hydraulic

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conductivity, though not a true Darcy value, already includes the turbulence effects. A variation on
this procedure is to perform hydraulic conductivity tests over a wide range of gradients ranging
from laminar to turbulent and develop plots of effective permeability vs. gradient.

c. Hydraulic Conductivity for Porous Media. Provided that laminar flow conditions are
present, the hydraulic conductivity for soil materials is a constant value. That value is a function
of several interacting factors, including grain size distributions, particle arrangement, structure,
and density. The hydraulic conductivity is extremely sensitive to the quantity, character, and
distribution of the finest soil fractions. As a rule, hydraulic conductivity should be determined
directly by laboratory and/or field tests, and design values should not be selected from individual
properties such as grain size. General relationships that are available are of use in understanding
the range of hydraulic conductivity that can be expected, but they should only be used as a
general guide. Cedergren (1989), which is an excellent reference for understanding the nature of
hydraulic conductivity, describes many types of test arrangements for determining its value, and
provides typical ranges of hydraulic conductivities for a variety of soil materials. Table 5-2 lists
some typical ranges of hydraulic conductivity for a variety of materials. It is the extremely broad
range of hydraulic conductivity values that soils can exhibit that make it essential that careful
testing be performed for selecting a design value.

Table 5-2. Typical ranges of hydraulic conductivities for soils.

Typical Range of Hydraulic

Soil Type Conductivity (cm/s)
Clean gravel 1 to 100
Clean sands, clean sand, and gravel mixtures 1 103 to 1
Fine sands; silts; mixtures of sand, silt, and clay; 1 107 to 1 103
silty sand; clayey sand; sandy clay

5-5. Flow in Saturated Fractured Media.

a. Nature of Fractured Media. A discrete mass of fractured media, which includes all rock
materials and which might also include certain soil or soil-like materials containing discrete
fissures, has two components: (1) matrix blocks and (2) fractures or fissures. The matrix blocks
are typically characterized by a high porosity and low hydraulic conductivity. Conversely, the
fractures or fissures have a very low porosity expressed as a percentage of the total block, but
have extremely high hydraulic conductivity. As examples, the matrix portion of the discrete
mass might have a porosity in the range of 2 to 30%, whereas the fracture portion of the mass
might typically have a porosity of only 0.001 to 0.1% of the mass. Conversely, a non-fractured
rock matrix might have a hydraulic conductivity in the range of 0 to 10-4 cm/s, while an
individual fracture having a size of as small as 0.1 mm can have a permeability as high as 0.85
cm/s.

b. Dominance of Fracture Flow. To assist with a practical understanding of the magnitude

of importance of flow through even very small open fissures or channels, Cedergren (1989)
compared flow through a variety of soil types vs. the size of an equivalent open flow path. For

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example, the flow through 929 cm2 (1 ft2) of clean, 2.5- to 2.8-cm (1- to 1.5-in.) gravel is
comparable to the flow that could be accommodated through a single, smooth, open pathway
having a diameter of only 0.25 cm (0.1 in.). Similarly, flow through a unit area of coarse sand
could be accommodated by a pathway with a diameter of only 0.25 mm (0.01 in.). Therefore, for
the practical solution of most engineering applications, fracture flow is such an overwhelming
component that flow through the matrix portion of the block can be neglected. Exceptions to this
rule might be in environmental applications of grouting, where the long-term contaminant
transport requires consideration of storage and release of contaminants from the matrix materials,
and sometimes where rock is highly porous, as in certain sandstones.

c. Discrete Fracture Flow Theory.

(1) Scale. The scale issue is normally not a problem for typical projects involving
hydraulic barriers, such as dams. The fracture networks are usually of sufficient density that, on
the project scale, the rock can be idealized as a porous medium. While the model might have
significant error in any specific, small slice of the foundation, it tends to be adequate on a bulk
basis.

(2) Bulk Hydraulic Conductivity Data. Hydraulic conductivity data for fractured and
fissured materials can be obtained through a variety of field tests. For grouting applications, the
field method of choice is normally through the use of short-interval (e.g., 3 m, or 10 ft) double
packer tests. When the holes are oriented to maximize the number of intersections with the
various sets of fractures in the rock, the test results provide a large number of bulk permeability
values that actually take into account both the permeability of the matrix materials and the
equivalent permeability of the fracture systems. The in-place measurements of the equivalent
permeability of the fracture systems, which are normally by far the dominant source of hydraulic
conductivity, empirically take into account all of the unknowns in the fracture system, such as
fracture continuity, individual aperture size, and many other variables. Further, if tests are
performed under proposed service heads, the data can at least partially account for the effects of
turbulent flow behavior.

(3) Pre-Grouting vs. Post-Grouting Conditions. Porous media models may tend to
produce greater error when analyzing pre-grouting conditions than for post-grouting conditions.
In the post-grouting conditions, flow behavior is greatly controlled by the properties of the
grouted zone, which should have hydraulic conductivities several orders of magnitude lower than
non-grouted portions of the mass. When a three orders-of-magnitude difference in relative
permeability has been achieved, the zones upstream of the grouted zone tend to act as an infinite
source and the zones downstream from the grouted mass tend to behave as an infinite drain.
Assuming that the design and execution of the grouting have been such that no fractures or
portions of fractures have simply been missed and that all fractures have been grouted to
absolute refusal, the small residual permeability in the grouted fractures will be due to relatively
uniformly distributed small discontinuities. Therefore, the post-grouting conditions should quite
closely behave as a porous media obeying Darcys Law. If the design and execution of the
grouting has resulted in not grouting certain fractures or portions of fractures, those types of
defects in the grouting will tend to behave in accordance with discrete fracture flow theory and
may result in leakage in great quantities.

5-6. Application of Seepage Flow Models in Grouting Program Design.

a. Purposes of Flow Models. Flow models greatly increase the level of understanding of
seepage flow rates, flow paths, and pressures far beyond the intuitive level, and they can provide
a logical basis for: (1) establishing the need for grouting, (2) determining the physical extent,
depth, and intensity of grouting required, (3) comparatively evaluating alternate designs, and
(4) assessing and communicating the technical and economic value of grouting to be performed.
For all of these reasons, seepage flow models are essential components of grouting program
design. Models are also vital tools for establishing critical locations for piezometers and other
instrumentation for the project and for providing predictions of instrument readings both during
and after successful completion of grouting.

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b. Complexity of Flow Models. Seepage flow models are available in all ranges of
complexity: (1) closed-form analytical solutions (equations) for specific, simplified conditions,
(2) 2-D flow net models that can be either very simplified or quite detailed, (3) 1-D, 2-D or 3-D
computer models based on finite element or finite difference solutions of flow equations, and
(4) models to simulate flow in fractured rock. In addition to modeling seepage, many of the
models can also be used to model contaminant transport to various degrees of sophistication. A
recent count indicates that more than 75 models, or variations of models, are currently in existence.
All of these models are useful, and the challenge is to select the complexity of the model that is
consistent with the quality and amount of data available, the project phase, and the project size and
needs. Multiple modeling techniques are often employed in different phases of a project, and
nearly every project should include simple analytic, 1-D models or 2-D flow net models as the
starting point. These models are easy to develop and can be quite accurate. Because these types of
models are manually developed, they have often been found to provide a more sound fundamental
understanding of seepage flows under the scenarios of interest. Additionally, these models are
often the means of reasonably checking the results of more complex models. In grouting
applications, complex computer models are not automatically favored over simpler models for
multiple reasons: (1) they can be time consuming and costly to develop, (2) they can provide a
false sense of accuracy that is not consistent with the quality of the input data, (3) highly complex
models can be extremely difficult to review for fundamental correctness, and errors can be difficult
to detect, and (4) highly complex modeling may require highly experienced specialists who may
not be readily available for the project. Conversely, complex computer models, applied in the
proper circumstances, can provide levels of sophistication that are of high value. Chapter 5 of EM
1110-2-1421 provides general guidance on important questions to consider when selecting a model
to be used. Table 5-4 summarizes typical applications and/or situations suitable for the various
types of flow models and provides comments related to their use. More detailed discussion and
examples of the various types of models are contained later in this chapter.

Table 5-4. Typical uses of flow models in grouting design applications.

Model Type Typical Applications Comments

Analytic These can be used at any level Provides an exact solution for a
Models provided the site conditions closely highly specific set of conditions.
(Equations) match the conditions required by the Can be used to quickly evaluate
model. seepage conditions and control
These are often used in alternatives on a comparative basis.
Reconnaissance Phase or as a first- Higher level models normally used to
level analysis in feasibility phase refine the solutions before concluding
provided that site simplifications feasibility phase.
required for use of model are
reasonable and fundamentally correct.

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Table 5-4. (Continued).

2D Flownet It is suitable for simple site conditions Must account for end effects (i.e.,
(Manual) in reconnaissance, feasibility, and/or flows around ends of hydraulic
PED phases. structures) via curvilinear cross
It is suitable for moderately complex sections or via use of modified
site conditions in reconnaissance and effective structure length.
feasibility phases provided site Can be used in field to assist with
simplifications required are rapid assessment of observed
reasonable and fundamentally correct. behavior.
It is suitable for rough checking Application becomes progressively
numerical models prepared for more difficult as number of
moderately complex to complex site permeability zones increases,
conditions. particularly when the permeability
Performing large number of analyses change from zone to zone is
using this model is problematic. incremental rather than abrupt and
substantial.
Difficult to facilitate sensitivity
analyses and/or large number of
alternatives.
2D It is suitable for simple to complex Reconnaissance phase may not have
Numerical site conditions in feasibility phase. adequate data to support use of 2D
(Computer) It is commonly required for numerical model.
completion of PED phase. Results require careful review and
Performing large numbers of analyses checking.
using this model is easily facilitated. Graphical output is professional in
Modeling results from this model can appearance.
be imported into other programs (i.e., This model must account for end
slope stability). effects (i.e., flows around ends of
hydraulic structures) via curvilinear
cross sections or via use of modified
effective structure length.
3D This model is suitable for complex This model provides most realistic
Numerical site conditions. modeling of flow behavior where
End effects are properly modeled large amounts of quality data are
rather than approximated. available.
3-D flows related to topographic Substantial effort and high degree of
and/or spatial geologic variations are expertise are necessary for proper
properly modeled. application of this model.
Use is often limited to large, complex Pre- and post-processors are required
projects due to modeling effort and (i.e., Groundwater Modeling System
data required to obtain value from [GMS]) to use this model.
model. Results may be difficult to check and
This model is normally applied in the model may be cumbersome to use
PED phase. due to complexity.

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Table 5-4. (Continued).

Discrete This model is not commonly used in Data requirements are substantial and
Fracture conventional grouting design may be difficult to obtain.
System applications. A limited number of modeling
Numerical This model is available for use in specialists with sufficient experience
highly critical or specialized are available.
applications (e.g., critical There is a high potential for increased
environmental applications). use of this model due to available
technology for down-hole fracture
mapping.

c. Accuracy of Flow Models. As a minimum, flow models are useful as a guide; at their
best, they are a reliable quantitative design tool. The primary factors affecting seepage flow model
accuracy are: (1) the quality and level of detail of geologic information, (2) the quality and amount
of valid geohydrologic data (hydraulic conductivities, boundary conditions, intermediate
piezometric levels, and availability of multiple sets of calibration data), (3) the amount of
simplification used in the model, and (4) the ability to execute grouting in the field to a verifiable
end result. This last point is critical in that not only is the accuracy of the model highly dependent
on achieving a verifiable end result in the field, the actual post-construction performance also
depends on it. This value, once selected as the basis for design, must be achieved. If the combined
effects of all results of all these factors do not instill confidence that at least an order-of-magnitude
solution will be the outcome, the model has relatively limited value, and remedies are required for
deficient items and/or a much higher level of intuitive judgment guided by the model results must
be used. When all these factors are highly adequate and favorable, the resulting accuracy of the
flow model may be significantly better by an order of magnitude.

5-7. Pre-grouting Hydraulic Conductivity Values for Flow Models.

a. Pre-Grouting Values. Hydraulic conductivity values for non-grouted materials are

determined by direct testing. Values for soils are usually based on a combination of laboratory
and field testing, whereas values for rock are determined solely by field test methods. It is
important that testing programs be structured to provide a large number of test values and values
representing small volumes of materials. Typically, for design purposes, packer tests with 3-m
(10-ft) test intervals should be used so that reasonable resolution of the spatial variations in
hydraulic conductivity is possible. With longer test intervals, important variations in
conductivity can be masked by averaging effects.

b. Mean Values. The necessary end product and goal of hydraulic conductivity testing is
to be able to divide the problem space into regions of similar hydraulic conductivity and to
assign specific values to those regions. Given that hydraulic conductivity is fundamentally an
order-of-magnitude property, in general, there is little or no value in attempting to define
separate regions with less than an order-of-magnitude difference in value. In determining the
mean value to assign to a region or zone, the data are often considered to have a log-normal
distribution, and the geometric mean is used. The geometric mean of a data set is always smaller
than or equal to the data sets arithmetic mean (the two means are identical only if all values

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within the data set are equal). The geometric mean of a data set is calculated as the nth root of
the product of all the members of the data set, where n is the number of values in the set:

Geometric Mean = (a1 a2 an)1/n.

Alternatively, design values are sometimes established by using either an arithmetic or geometric
mean after deleting strongly outlying values where there is a known, non-typical geologic cause
of the outlying value.

5-8. Hydraulic Conductivity Values for Grouted Zones.

a. General. In contrast to establishing design values for non-grouted zones, which is an

exercise in determining values for in-situ properties created by the natural geologic conditions,
the design hydraulic conductivity values for grouted zones are assigned values that are known
with certainty to be achievable through the application of grout and subsequently verifiable as
part of those field operations. As simple as that concept is, selecting design values that are
achievable for the grouted zone requires the utmost consideration and care.

b. Factors Affecting Hydraulic Conductivity of Grouted Zones. The known end

performance for grouted zones has ranged from results that were so high that the grouting as
planned and executed was essentially useless to values that were as low as 0.1 Lugeon under
favorable geologic conditions combined with best practice in every aspect of design and
execution. There have been project sites that were declared to be ungroutable based on the
results of one grouting contract at the site, and then those same sites were successfully grouted
under a later contract. Such extreme results are possible because of the large number of factors
that influence the end results and end performance. Houlsby (1990) provides a summary and
discussion of this multitude of factors in some detail. A partial listing of those factors includes:

(1) Geologic conditions.

(2) Drilling equipment and technique.

(3) Grout materials.

(4) Grout mixes.

(5) Mixing equipment.

(6) Hole washing.

(7) Grout pumping equipment.

(8) System setup.

(9) Valves and fittings.

(10) Bleed characteristics of grout.

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(11) Grouting technique.

(12) Hole spacing.

(13) Hole depth.

(14) Hole sequencing.

(15) Hole staging.

(16) Pressures.

(17) Contractor experience.

(18) Refusal criteria.

(19) Contract incentives and disincentives.

(20) Inspection.

(21) Monitoring and control technology.

(22) QC testing.

(23) Effectiveness of analyses during execution.

(24) Verification programs.

c. Guidelines for Selecting Hydraulic Conductivity of Grouted Zones.

(1) Guidelines for Achieving Permeability Reductions. The impact of grouting on the
behavior and performance of a hydraulic barrier has a great deal to do with two factors: the
absolute value of hydraulic conductivity of the grouted zone and the relative permeability of the
grouted zone. Either of these factors might control decisions on the value of hydraulic
conductivity required to accomplish the design intent. The absolute value will control the rate of
seepage through the completed work, whereas the relative value (i.e., as it compares to ungrouted
zones) will control the pressure distributions that can be achieved and the relative benefit in flow
reduction that can be derived from the grouting. Houlsby (1990) provides some broad-based
characterizations of the general ease of accomplishing both relative and absolute reductions in
permeability. The following paragraphs describe Houlsbys general framework.

(a) Readily Groutable Materials. Readily groutable materials are materials having an
initial permeability greater than 100 Lugeons, which is greater than approximately 1.3 103
cm/s. These materials will, in general, have well-connected fracture networks, generally contain
larger fractures, and/or have a high frequency of fractures. Accordingly, these materials are
generally favorable for both injection and travel of grout. For these materials, Houlsby suggests
that reductions of one to three orders of magnitude are possible, depending on the impact of
factors listed above. Obviously, better technique in those factors creates better results.

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Treatment of these materials is normally found to be required for adequate performance in most
applications. Grouting will significantly alter flow rates and pressure distributions.

(b) Marginally Groutable Materials. Marginally groutable materials are materials having
an initial permeability in the range of 10 Lugeons, which is approximately 1.3 104 cm/s. To
put this value into perspective, it is in the range of the hydraulic conductivity for very fine sands
and slightly silty sands. Houlsby (1990) suggests that grouting of these materials can produce a
reduction in permeability of one to two orders of magnitude, again depending on the impact of
factors listed above. Treatment of these materials might or might not be required, depending on
the specific project performance requirements. Effective grouting may be beneficial in reducing
the flows, but will be less effective in altering pressure distributions due to a smaller change in
relative permeability.

(c) Barely Groutable Materials. Barely groutable materials are materials having an initial
permeability in the range of 1 Lugeon, which is approximately 1.3 105 cm/s. Houlsby (1990)
notes that a number of special measures are required for achieving permeability reductions in
these materials. Special measures can include the use of materials such as silica fume, finely
ground cements, and/or chemical grouts to achieve penetration of very fine fractures. Even
though treatment of these materials may not be indicated based on the bulk initial permeability, it
is not at all uncommon to grout them with a single line of holes to eliminate high-conductivity
anomalies that may not have been disclosed in the exploration and characterization. Intensive
grouting of these materials may be required in special circumstances, such as in environmental
control applications or where the value of water is extremely high.

(2) Lower Bound Values. A second guideline that can be considered in choosing a design
value is the lower bound value that can be achieved by grouting. It has been shown that rock can
be grouted with balanced stable cement suspension formulations to mean values in the range of
0.1 Lugeon, which is less than approximately 1.3 106 cm/s. Grouting to this level requires an
intensive program, special grout mixes, electronic monitoring and control technology, intensive
quality control of mixes, and a high level of care and control in every operation.

(3) Philosophy for Selecting Design Values within the Range of Possibilities. Houlsby
(1990) clearly indicates that grouting results can vary by orders of magnitude, depending on the
quality of the design and execution of the grouting program. Wilson and Dreese (2003) reached
similar conclusions after reviewing project results performed with varying degrees of care and
sophistication. The incremental cost of performing work in accordance with best practice in
every phase of the work is negligible compared to the cost of executing a poorly conceived and
poorly executed project. Therefore, using less than best practice in every aspect cannot be
endorsed in either a general way or as a cost savings measure, given the potential for
unpredictable or unsatisfactory performance. If the approach of best practice is carefully adhered
to for every factor of the program, then design values for normal applications can be selected at
the lower end of the achievable ranges (e.g., in the range of 5 Lugeons or less).

5-9. Guidelines for Determining Number of Grout Lines for Seepage Control.

a. General. Hydraulic barriers have been constructed with as few as one line of grout holes
and with as many as seven lines. The number of lines has a significant impact on project costs and

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schedule and therefore is an important factor. The selection of the number of lines to be used for a
specific project application requires consideration of many factors. In the absence of performing a
full-scale test section to logically and comprehensively assess and verify the number of lines
required to achieve the design performance requirements, the decision on the number of lines must
rely on a combination of modeling, technical assessments based on the geologic conditions at the
site, risk evaluation, long-term performance considerations, and other elements.

b. Benefits of Multiple Grout Lines for Seepage Control. The benefits of multiple-line
grout barriers are as follow:

(1) Grouted Zone Thickness. All other factors being equal, multiple grout lines will
produce a thicker grouted zone. Flow gradients across the grouted zone will be smaller in direct
proportion to the thickness, which is of high value, particularly in the vicinity of soil/rock
interface areas. Rates of seepage will be reduced in approximately direct proportion to the
thickness of the grouted zone (i.e., doubling the thickness halves the seepage).

(2) Grouted Zone Permeability. Multiple-line grout curtains generally have lower
hydraulic conductivities. Whereas a reasonable target for hydraulic conductivity of a grouted
zone for a high-quality, single-line curtain might be 10 Lugeons, a multiple-line program of the
same quality might reasonably be expected to produce a grouted zone hydraulic conductivity in
the range of 1.0 Lugeon. The reduction in permeability can result from several factors:

(a) The first-pass grouting of a rock mass (i.e., the first line) will tend to treat the larger
fractures at the expense of the smaller fractures. When a stage consists of both fine and large
fractures, it will display a large grout take that will result in thickening of the grout mix, which
will then limit penetration into the fine fractures. Grouting of a rock mass with a second line will
primarily be a process of grouting the finer fractures.

(b) It is not uncommon that the strike and dip of sub-vertical fractures will vary across a
site. A single line of inclined holes can in some areas therefore result in hole orientations that
are nearly parallel to some fractures, rather than intersecting them. In such cases, some fractures
can be missed entirely. A second line, which is often oriented in an opposing inclined direction,
will generally increase the chance of intersecting those fractures. Best practice is to orient the
hole inclination to intersect the highest percentage of joint sets based on the site characterization.

(c) Where grout takes are very high, it may be necessary to limit the volume of grout
injection in stages to prevent inordinate travel distances that do not contribute to the value of the
grouting. However, this can also result in ineffective grouting of the portion of the rock mass of
interest. In these cases, it may be necessary to use upstream and downstream lines as
confinement lines, after which a third interior line is used for intensive grouting to refusal.

(3) Compensation for Quality Issues. Although compromises on quality in any regard are
to be avoided in every aspect of the work, the reality is that they have occurred in the past and
will occur in the future. If project circumstances are such that premium quality is not ensured,
multiple-line curtains can help overcome quality deficits. In such cases, the end result, however,
may be a multiple-line curtain with the performance of a very high-quality single line.

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(4) Long-term Durability. All other factors being equal, thicker grouted zones will
perform in a satisfactory manner for a longer period of time. There is always some residual flow
through a grouted zone, and it is this residual flow that gradually attacks the integrity of the zone.
The lower permeability of multiple lines results in much less residual flow, which decreases the
attack on the zone.

(5) Confinement of Soil Materials in Fractures. There are situations where it is not
possible to remove all soil-infilled fracture zones by excavation, so they remain in place at the
time of grouting. These materials, in general, cannot be effectively removed by washing the
grout holes. These soil-filled fractures are of considerable concern for long-term performance; if
the soil filling is kept in place, performance will be fine, but if the materials are gradually eroded
from the fractures, large amounts of leakage can develop. Multiple lines increase the probability
that the soil materials can be confined in place, they reduce access of water to the infilled
fractures through the clean fracture network, and they reduce gradients across the soil-infilled
fractures. Additionally, it is possible to repeatedly hydrofracture soil infillings with grout to the
point of inducing refusal within those fractures under pressures comparable to service heads,
thereby creating confinement cells within those fractures. Multiple penetrations of those
fractures through the use of multiple grout lines is beneficial; however, joint filling is probably
the greatest source of uncertainty in the long-term durability of a grout job.

c. Guidance Based on Modeling. Flow modeling should always be part of the basis for
selecting the number of grout lines required. Even if not a great deal is known about grouting
per se, flow modeling provides a basis for evaluating the required permeability and width of the
grouted zone based on certain project performance requirements. For example, it may be
necessary to limit residual flows to a certain value, induce certain post-grouting pressure
distributions or gradients, and/or match the performance of the grouted barrier to another element
of the project (i.e., matching the performance of the grouted zone to an overlying cutoff wall).

d. Typical Applications for Various Numbers of Lines. Table 5-5 lists the typical numbers
of grout lines commonly used in certain applications, and some of the considerations involved in
decision making.

5-10. Effective Width of Grouted Zones and Spacing of Grout Lines. The effective width of
grouted zones is the width within which it is either known or reasonably assumed that the
hydraulic conductivity is equal to or less than the required value at all points. Grout travel
distances obviously vary as a function of aperture size and orientation, grout mix, grout pressure,
and time duration of grout application. A range of 5 to 10 ft between lines is reasonable for most
site conditions. However, with grout containment lines installed for a cutoff wall, this may be
increased because of concern that irretrievable drill tooling may interfere with the subsequent
cutoff construction.

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Table 5-5. Considerations for selection of number of grout lines for seepage control.

Number of
Grout Lines Typical Applications/Considerations
Single line Confirmation grouting in critical applications (i.e., dam foundation in which
available data suggest that grouting may not be required, but where
performance is critical and isolated fractures might not have been identified
in exploration).
Dewatering or other temporary applications, particularly where moderate
performance is acceptable.
Highly favorable foundation conditions (i.e., strike and dip of fractures
creates favorable interval of penetration by a single line of grout holes, clean
rock fracture systems, and well-fractured rock masses with high
interconnection of fracture networks).
Grouting under new concrete and embankment dams with favorable
foundation conditions for grouting, where moderate seepage performance is
acceptable, and access is readily available for later remedial work if needed.
Two lines Foundation situations with fracture orientation variability such that a single
line of inclined holes may miss fractures.
Foundation situations with fracture orientations such that the intersection
interval of fractures with the final hole spacing on a single line is large
(>10 ft).
Grouting under concrete and earth dams where a higher level of seepage
performance is required and/or where foundation conditions are less
favorable for grouting and/or when later remedial work would be difficult or
costly.
Pre-grouting for slurry cutoff walls used in remediating existing dams.
Extensive use of verification holes within grouted mass is required.
Three lines Some earth dam foundations, particularly where the foundation is karst
limestone, within a certain depth below the embankment/rock interface,
which is simultaneously critical for performance and the most difficult to
grout; and also important for limiting gradients in lower portion of core of
dam.
Moderate-performance environmental containment grouting solutions (i.e., to
create a barrier in rock with a flux compatibility similar to the soil cutoff
wall).
Most limestone applications where long-term barrier is desired.
More than Particularly adverse foundation conditions or extreme performance
three lines requirements due to consequences of non-performance.
Critical applications where there are many soil-filled fractures.
Critical environmental applications.
Other Site-specific features that require non-standard grouting patterns.
variations

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5-11. Constant Head Boundaries and Known Intermediate Piezometric Levels for Flow Models.

a. Constant Head Boundaries. A critical first step in developing a flow model is to define
the constant head boundaries for the region being modeled. Constant head boundaries are, in
essence, the location of either an infinite source of water flowing into the mass being modeled or
the locations of constant head discharge points. The location of the constant head boundary can
effectively change based on the relationship of relative permeabilities.

(1) Reservoir Levels. The reservoir level for a dam is always one source of a constant
head boundary. On the upstream side of the dam, the constant head boundary will normally
extend along the face of the dam and along the bottom of the reservoir. However, if the dam has
an extremely pervious zone along its upstream face, the constant head boundary is effectively
located within the dam along the interface between the pervious zone and a substantially less
pervious zone (i.e., two to three orders of magnitude less permeable).

(2) River Levels. The river level on the downstream side of a dam is commonly selected
as the downstream constant head boundary. However, selecting that as a valid boundary requires
geologic configurations that allow free discharge to the river. If a geologic unit of high
permeability is effectively confined beneath the river at the toe of the dam, the free discharge
boundary for that unit may be located elsewhere.

(3) Springs. Springs often act as constant head boundaries. However, it should be
carefully considered as to whether they are functioning as a general constant head boundary for
the problem or as a local constant head boundary for only certain geologic units.

(4) Relief Wells. Properly designed relief wells will create a constant head boundary
when upstream heads are sufficient to cause well discharge. At heads less than the level at which
discharge occurs, the constant head boundary will be at a natural discharge location farther
downstream.

b. Known Intermediate Piezometric Levels. Known intermediate piezometric levels

within the region being modeled are of very high value for calibrating and validating the flow
model, particularly when multiple sets of steady-state readings are available that were obtained
under different sets of constant head boundary conditions. Intermediate piezometric levels must
be carefully validated before they are used in a flow model. In validation, the particulars of each
instrument installation must be examined carefully to determine what, in fact, that instrument
might actually be measuring. When an instrument has been carefully constructed, is located
within a single geologic unit, and is properly isolated, it approaches being a point measurement
and produces valid values for that particular point. If the instrument has been poorly
constructed, is located across multiple geologic units, or is not properly isolated from the other
units, it may be highly uncertain what is actually being measured and highly erroneous flow
models are possible. Instruments commonly referred to as monitoring wells are particularly
suspect, in that they often cross multiple geologic units. The water levels that will be observed
in such units are typically controlled by one of the geologic units at the expense of the others.
Depending on the geometric configuration of the units and their relative permeabilities,
erroneous interpretations could be either too high or too low.

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5-12. Analytical Models.

a. General. Analytical models provide an exact mathematical solution of a groundwater

flow problem in the form of an equation applicable for a specific, greatly simplified set of
conditions. These simplifications normally include reducing flow to steady-state flow in one
dimension, using a simple uniform media geometry to approximate the flow zone as a
homogeneous and isotropic unit, and also using uniform flow properties and simple boundary
conditions. Examples of analytical models include the Theiss or Neumann methods for wells
and Darcys equation for confined saturated flow. Because of the inherent simplifications
required, analytical models cannot account for temporal or spatial variations. However, when
field conditions can be reasonably represented in a simplified manner consistent with the
equations, analytical models provide very quick answers based on a few basic parameters.
Therefore, they continue to be of substantial value, particularly for rough estimation. Darcys
equation, Q = KiA, is directly applicable for one-dimensional flows. Conditions that must be
present for valid use are that the flow is confined, laminar flow. Figure 5-2 shows a classic
configuration for one-dimensional flow. An infinite supply of water is provided at one end of a
confined sample, and free overflow conditions exist at the exit end. Flow through the sample is
horizontal, and all head loss occurs linearly along the length of the sample.

(1) Note that, if the block of material shown in Figure 5-2 represented the foundation
beneath a concrete dam or the block of material beneath the core of an earth dam, this calculation
would significantly overestimate the seepage for a pre-grouting condition because substantial
effective flow lengths in the entrance and exit regions are ignored. Depending on the geometry
of the structure and the foundation, the error can be significant. However, the estimate could be
improved by simply estimating the effective block length based on an extension for some
distance into those regions. For example, for the relatively extreme geometry shown in Figure 5
2, the entrance and exit region effects would clearly be significant, and it is obvious just by
examination that the effective length involved in flow would be significantly more than the basic
block length. Simply by eye, it might be appropriate in this example to double or triple the basic
block length to account for those conditions, which would produce a rough flow estimate in the
range of 9.7/3 = 3.2 gpm per ft of width to 9.7/2 = 4.9 gpm per ft. Although this is extremely
crude, it is also extremely easy to apply, and when very rough estimates are needed instantly, it
can be effective.

(2) If a fully penetrating hydraulic barrier of extremely low permeability (i.e., a grout
curtain with Lugeon ~1) with a length of 20 ft was inserted in the center of the 1,000-Lugeon
zone, the differences in permeability between the base material and the barrier would be so great
that the modified flow regime would be essentially controlled by the barrier zone alone and could
be estimated with very little error by only considering flow through the barrier. Figure 5-3
illustrates this scenario and the accompanying calculations for a post-grouted condition.

(3) An extremely low barrier permeability relative to permeable material permeability (1:
1000) permits the use of Darcys equation with minimal error.

(4) Note that this type of simplified analytical approximation is only valid if there are
extreme differences in permeability between the base material and the barrier zone (i.e., 1,000 or
more). When these conditions exist, however, the accuracy of the analytical model is quite good;

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ignoring the remaining portions of the block and the entrance and exit flow regions has little
effect on accuracy. As indicated in the calculations, compared to the pre-grouting condition, the
gradient increased by a factor of five, and all head loss occurs across the barrier zone.

(5) Despite the complexities that exist in natural geologic settings, a surprising number of
conditions can be approximated by this type of analytical model with appropriate simplifications.

Flow calculation for porous material with permeability of 1000 Lugeons (1.3 102 cm/s):
L = 100 ft, Head Differential H = 50 ft, Thickness t = 100 ft;
Unit width d = 1 ft, and Permeability = 1,000 Lugeons = 0.026 ft/min
Unit Width Flow Area: A = t d = 100 ft 1 ft = 100 ft2
Hydraulic Gradient: i = H / L = 50 ft / 100 ft = 0.5
Flow Rate in ft3/min : Q = KiA = 0.026 ft/min 0.5 100 ft2 = 1.30 ft3/min
Flow Rate in gal/min = 1.30 ft3/min 7.48 gal/ft3 = 9.7 gpm per foot of width
Figure 5-2. Calculation of seepage when conditions are suitable for direct application of Darcys
equation.

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Post-grouting flow estimate:

L = 20 ft.
Head Differential H = 50 ft, Thickness t = 100 ft.
Unit width d = 1 ft, and Permeability = 1 Lugeon = 0.000026 ft/min.
Unit Width Flow Area: A = t d = 100 ft 1 ft = 100 ft2.
Hydraulic Gradient: i = H / L = 50 ft / 20 ft = 2.5.
Flow Rate in ft3/min: Q = KiA = 0.000026 ft/min 2.5 100 ft2 = 0.0065 ft3/min.
Flow Rate in gal/min: 0.0065 ft3/min 7.48 gal/ft3 = 0.05 gpm per foot of width.
Figure 5-3. Simplified estimate of seepage through a fully penetrating grouted barrier.

5-13. Flow Net Seepage Flow Models.

a. General. A flow net is a two-dimensional graph composed of two families of curves:

flow lines and equipotential lines. Flow lines indicate the path of the flow of water, and
equipotential lines are lines of equal head, which means that a piezometer placed at any location
along a particular equipotential line would register the same reading. In a homogeneous,
isotropic medium, the flow lines and equipotential lines intersect orthogonally and therefore
form squares. Flow nets provide a solution to the Laplace Equation and are applicable to
modeling the flow of two-dimensional cross sections of porous media for both confined and
unconfined flow problems. Flow net solutions are applicable when the following conditions
simultaneously exist: (1) flow is steady-state flow, (2) the medium is composed of saturated,
homogenous regions, and (3) flow is laminar and Darcys Law is valid. Most commonly, flow
nets are constructed on the basis of isotropic conditions (i.e., vertical and horizontal
permeabilities are identical). However, when it is known that anisotropic conditions exist within
a particular zone, the flow net method can be extended through the use of transformed sections.

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b. Requirements for Flow Nets. Any flow net that is drawn must meet the following basic
requirements:

(1) Flow lines and equipotential lines must intersect at right angles to form squares. The
size of the squares normally varies, depending on their location within the flow zone. Because
both sets of lines may be curvilinear, the requirement for squares is met when the average
width of a square is equal to the average length of the square.

(2) Specific entrance, discharge, and flow line deflection requirements at the boundaries
of materials (shown in Figure 5-4) having differing permeabilities must be met.

From Cedergren (1989), after Casagrande (1937). This material is reproduced with permission of John

Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Figure 5-4. Entrance, discharge, and transfer conditions of line of seepage: (a) conditions for
point of entrance of line of seepage, (b) conditions for point of discharge of line of seepage,
(c) deflection of line of seepage at boundary between soils of different permeability.

(3) When flow passes from one material into a material with differing permeability, not
only are the flow lines deflected, but the squares become rectangles in the second material,
with a dimensional ratio proportional to the permeability ratio of the two materials (Figure 5-5).
The angle of deflection (measured from the boundary surface) of the flow lines and the side ratio

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for the rectangles follow the relationships provided below. Note that the first equation will result
in no-flow line deflection if the flow line has a perpendicular intersection with the boundary:

tan / tan = k1 / k2

c / d = k2 / k1

From Cedergren (1989), after Casagrande (1937). This material is reproduced with permission of

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Figure 5-5. Transfer conditions at boundaries between soils of different permeabilities.

(4) Equipotential lines must be distributed so that head losses between any pair of lines
are equal.

(5) The same quantity of seepage flows between any pair of flow lines.

c. Basic Steps for Constructing Flow Nets. Construction of flow nets in isotropic
materials involves the following steps:

(1) Draw the cross section to true scale, including the structure, material zones, and
controlling water level boundary condition locations (i.e., pool level, tailwater level, drain
discharge elevation controls).

(2) Identify the top and bottom flow lines based on the flow boundaries.

(3) Roughly sketch a few intermediate flow lines between the boundary flow lines. These
lines will transition in shape between the top and bottom flow lines. Sketch equipotential lines
by adhering to right angle intersections with the flow lines to create squares.

(4) After the initial sketching, adjust the flow net by successive trials as needed to reach a
correct solution.

d. Other Guidance. The following tips will simplify flow net construction and help
achieve a reasonably good first-pass solution, which can be further refined if desired:

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(1) Research available references to locate flow nets for similar configurations and use
them as general guides in drawing the flow net. This will help avoid making fundamental
mistakes in the flow net.

(2) In most cases, five to 10 flow lines are sufficient. Using a large number of flow lines
does not substantially increase accuracy and makes the sketching process far more difficult.

(3) When permeability differences in materials equal or exceed 1,000, the materials interact
with each other as if one is infinitely permeable or impermeable with respect to the other. For example,
when a core and cutoff in an earth dam is 1,000 or more times less permeable than the adjacent shell or
foundation materials, the core or cutoff zone can be assumed to be impermeable for the purpose of
solving the problem of flow bypassing the cutoff. Conversely, if the same core and cutoff ties into an
impermeable zone beneath the dam, the permeable zones upstream of the cutoff will develop full
reservoir head and permeable zones downstream of the cutoff will be at tailwater level. This essentially
shifts the boundary conditions to the upstream and downstream sides of the cutoff, and flow will be
controlled only by flow through the cutoff and through the impermeable zone beneath it.

(4) When permeability differences in materials are on the order of 100, the materials still
generally behave as if they were infinitely permeable or impermeable with respect to each other,
which still allows simplifications of the problems to be reasonably made. However, at this range
of permeability differences, simplification errors start to occur that might not make a difference
in preliminary estimates, but that might not be acceptable for final design.

(5) When permeability differences in materials are on the order of 10, the differences in
relative permeability are such that it is normally necessary to consider flow and head loss
through all the materials. Simplifications of the problem into infinitely permeable and fully
impermeable zones can introduce significant errors. For flow lines passing from one material
into the other, the flow line deflection rules apply. Additionally, the flow net will be composed
of squares in one material and rectangles in the other material, with the rectangles having
side ratios of 10:1. Solutions can be simplified by sketching in the flow lines with the
deflections at material boundaries and drawing squares for the entire problem. Subsequently,
the squares in the less permeable material can be subdivided into rectangles containing 10
equipotential losses to produce the proper proportions.

e. Flow Calculations for Flow Nets. When the requirements listed above are satisfied,
seepage through a unit cross section can be calculated as:

q = K nf / nd H
where:
q = flow rate for a cross section having a unit thickness
K = hydraulic conductivity
nf = number of flow lines
nd = number of equipotential drops
H = total head differential.

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The total flow Qt over a reach of length L represented by the cross section is calculated as Qt = q
L. When the region of interest contains multiple materials of differing permeability resulting
in a flow net composed of regions that have been drawn as squares in one material and as
rectangles in other materials, the flow calculation is based on the permeability for the material
in which squares were drawn.

f. Advantages of Flow Net Models. Flow net models have endured as an extremely useful
modeling tool due to their advantages: (1) they are highly versatile and can be used to solve
quite complex problems, (2) remarkably adequate and workable solutions can often be obtained
with very little effort through appropriate simplifications, (3) the learning curve for drawing
proper flow nets is quite manageable, (4) they can be constructed by the persons most
knowledgeable with the physical conditions of the site and do not require expertise in numerical
modeling methods and software, (5) they are often used to provide a reality check on the results
of numerical models, and (6) they promote a sound fundamental understanding of the problems,
solutions, and critical aspects related to flow control on a particular site. One of the best
references on flow net construction is Cedergrens text entitled Seepage, Drainage, and Flow
Nets (1989).

g. Flow Net Examples. Figures 5-6 through 5-14 show examples of flow net construction
and flow calculations for assessing pre-grouting and post-grouting conditions for an earth dam
on a simple permeable foundation. Note that the solutions would essentially be the same for a
concrete dam provided that the base width of the concrete section was the same dimension as the
core contact area. The examples have been selected to illustrate: (1) general flow net
construction and flow calculation procedures, (2) the importance that grouting achieve a very
significant change in the relative permeability values for it to be effective, (3) and the amount of
error introduced by simplification in various scenarios.

(1) Highly Permeable Foundation (Lu = 1,000). Figures 5-6 through 5-9 illustrate basic
flow net construction and calculations for a grouted barrier in a simple geologic setting. These
figures apply to a case where the differences in permeability of the various materials are
sufficiently large that simplifications are applicable without introducing significant error.

(a) Figure 5-6 shows a section with a highly permeable foundation (Lu = 1,000). The
rock-fill zones are far more permeable than the foundation and therefore can be treated as
infinitely permeable relative to other materials. Conversely, the permeability of the core material
is infinitely impermeable in comparison to all other materials. The drain is highly permeable,
and it can be designed to not impede entrance of flow. Therefore, since it can accept all of the
flow that travels to it, the drain will also behave as infinitely permeable. Below the 30-m (100
ft) zone of permeable foundation material, it is assumed that tight shale with a permeability of 1
Lugeon exists, which therefore makes the shale effectively impermeable.

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Strata Permeability Relative Permeability

Core material 2 106 ft/min Impermeable
Rock fill 1,000 ft/min Infinitely permeable
Drain system 2 ft/min Infinitely permeable
Permeable foundation 2.6 102 ft/min (1,000 Lu) Permeable
Impermeable foundation 2.6 105 ft/min (1 Lu) Impermeable
Figure 5-6. Example of a section with a highly permeable foundation.

(b) Figure 5-7 shows the flow net solution for no treatment of the foundation and the
simplifications described above. As shown in Figure 5-7, the seepage calculation indicates a
flow rate of 4.9 gpm per foot of dam if no barrier is constructed. Note that, even if the
permeability of the foundation were different from the 1,000 Lugeon value (i.e., 100 Lugeon
instead), the flow net would remain identical and only the flow calculation would change. (The
calculated flow would be 0.49 gpm for 100-Lugeon material.)

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k = 0.026 ft/min (1,000 Lu)

nf = 4 nd = 8 H = 50 ft
q = k (nf/nd) H
q = 0.026 4/8 50 = 0.65 ft3/min = 4.9 gpm per ft
Figure 5-7. Example of flow net construction and calculations for a section with no treatment of
the foundation.

(c) Figure 5-8 shows a flow net for the foundation with a fully penetrating grouted barrier
having a width of 6 m (20 ft) and a grouted permeability of 10 Lugeons. As the relative
permeability ratio of the permeable foundation material to the grouted barrier is 1,000/10 = 100,
it suggests that the problem could be solved either by a flow net that accounts for flow through
all materials or by further simplification with the recognition that some error would be
introduced. Figure 5-8 shows the non-simplified solution, in which flow through all materials is
properly considered. Note that squares are drawn in the permeable zone and that rectangles
having a height-to-width ratio of 100 have been drawn in the barrier zone. (Each rectangle is 6
m [20 ft] high and 6 cm [0.2 ft] wide, thereby creating 100 equipotential lines within the barrier.)
As the squares were used in the permeable foundation portion of the flow net, the flow
calculation is based on its permeability rather than on the barriers permeability. The total
number of head drops is 110, and 100 of those drops occur within the barrier. The calculated
post-grouting seepage shown in Figure 5-8 is 0.44 gpm per foot of dam, which is only 9% of the
pre-grouting seepage, but which is still a very high value in terms of absolute flow rates.

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20-ft-wide grouted barrier (full depth) with kg = 10 Lu

kG/kB = 10/1000 = 1/100 (rectangle side ratio)
nf = 5 nd = 110 H = 50 ft
q = k (nf/nd) H
q = 0.026 5/110 50 = 0.059 ft3/min = 0.44 gpm per ft
Figure 5-8. Example of flow net construction and calculations for a section with a foundation
with a fully penetrating grouted barrier.

(d) Figure 5-9 shows two simplified solutions to the same scenario. In the simplifications,
the permeable foundation is now treated as being infinitely permeable with respect to the barrier
zone. Therefore, only the barrier zone is considered in the analyses. As shown in Figure 5-9, the
simplified solution in this case can be solved either using Q = KiA for the barrier or by drawing a
small flow net just for the barrier. Both solutions yield the same result, with a calculated post-
grouting seepage of 0.49 gpm per foot of dam. Compared to the exact solution used in Figure
5-8, the error resulting from this simplification is an overestimation of post-grouting seepage by
0.05 / 0.44 = 11%.

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20-ft-wide grouted barrier (full depth) with kg = 10 Lu

Simplified solutions:
Q = k i A = 0.00026 50/20 (100 1) = 0.065 ft3/min = 0.49 gpm per ft
OR
nf = 10 nd = 2 H = 50 ft
q = k (nf/nd) H
q = 0.00026 10/2 50 = 0.065 ft3/min = 0.49 gpm per ft
Figure 5-9. Two simplified solutions for the same scenario as in Fig. 5-8.

(2) Moderately High-Permeability Foundation (Lu = 100). Figures 5-10 through 5-14
illustrate the effects of achieving various permeabilities for a grouted barrier in a foundation with
moderately high permeability. Each figure shows a fully penetrating barrier of the same width.
These figures, along with their associated post-grouting seepage calculations, illuminate the
importance of achieving a significant change in relative permeability between the foundation
material and the barrier zone.

(a) Figure 5-10 shows the flow net solution and flow calculations for a 100-Lugeon
foundation with no barrier. Note that the net configuration is identical to the flow net for the
1000-Lugeon foundation. The calculated seepage for the site without a grouted barrier is 0.49
gpm per foot of dam, which in nearly every situation would be considered an excessive rate.

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Pre-grouting seepage = 0.49 gpm per ft

Seepage reduction = 0.45 gpm per ft = 0.45/0.49 = 92% reduction for 80% penetration

Figure 5-14. Flow net solution and flow calculations for grouting a 20-ft-wide barrier to 1 Lu.

5-14. Numerical Seepage Flow Models.

a. Model Capabilities and Applications. Numerical seepage models can solve the more
complex equations describing groundwater flow and solute transport. Although one-dimensional
models exist, the numerical models are generally used to approximate multi-dimensional flows,
contaminant transport, and chemical reactions.

b. Discretized and Non-Discretized Methods. Most numerical solutions for seepage fall
into the general category of discretized methods. These methods include both finite difference
and finite element solutions. These methods solve the groundwater flow equation by breaking
the problem area into many small elements (i.e., squares, triangles, blocks, etc.) and solving the
flow equation for each element. The individual elements are linked together using conservation
of mass across the boundaries between the elements. This results in a solution that approximates
the groundwater flow equation. Additionally, there are non-gridded methods available such as
the Analytical Element Method and the Boundary Element Method, where the majority of the
domain is mesh free. These latter methods, however, have seen little use outside of academic
and research environments.

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5-15. Department of Defense GMS.

a. General. Pre-processors are available to facilitate grid creation, interactive assignment

of boundary conditions, and assignment of hydraulic conductivity properties to the geologic
units. Similarly, post-processors allow numerical output to be presented as contour maps, raster
plots, flow path plots, or line graphs. At their best, they provide a comprehensive graphical
environment for numerical modeling tools to assist with site characterization, model
conceptualization, mesh and grid generation, and geostatistics; and they also provide
sophisticated tools for graphic visualization. Pre- and post-processing software can be specific to
one type of modeling software, or it may be configured to work with multiple modeling software
packages. GMS deserves special mention. GMS was developed by the Department of Defense
in partnership with the Department of Energy, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, and 20 academic partners. It offers the most sophisticated groundwater
modeling environment available today. GMS is available at no cost to employees of the
Department of Defense, EPA, DOE, and the National Research Council (NRC) and to on-site
contractors to these agencies. It is also commercially available through Environmental Modeling
Systems Inc. Training and support on GMS are available from the U.S. Army Groundwater
Modeling Technical Center at the Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC),
Vicksburg, MS, or via commercial sources. Some of the features and highlights of GMS
include:

(1) It incorporates a suite of graphical environment tools for every phase of groundwater
simulation, including site characterization, model development, post-processing, calibration, and
visualization.

(2) GMS is compatible with the Windows-based operating system.

(3) It supports a wide variety of finite difference and finite element models in two and
three dimensions. Supported models include MODFLOW 2000, MODPATH, MT3DMS/RT35,
SEAM35, ART35, UTCHEM, FEMWATER, PEST, UCODE, MODAEM, and SEEP2D.

(4) It allows models to be built using digital maps and elevation models. The Geographic
Information System (GIS) Module includes direct linkage to ArcGIS and almost any format of
GIS data.

(5) It allows borehole and cross-section data to be used in model development.

(6) Graphical representations of the site model include three-dimensional views with
contouring and shading to enhance visualization (Figure 5-15). Models can be displayed in plan
view or rotated interactively, and cross sections can be cut at any location.

(7) It provides automatic discretization of the site model.

(8) It provides model calibration tools.

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Figure 5-15. Three-dimensional flow model of an earth dam developed by ERDC with GMS.

5-16. Two-Dimensional Numerical Seepage Flow Models Commonly Used in Grouting.

a. Applicability. A majority of the numerical seepage models used for designing grouting
are two-dimensional cross-section models that have been developed specifically for these types
of problems. These models are relatively simple to use, and their output is easily understandable.
Spatial variations of geometry, geologic conditions, or hydraulic conductivity along the length of
the structure are modeled through the use of multiple cross sections. The two most common
applications are SEEP 2D and SEEP/W.

(1) SEEP 2D is a finite element program designed to compute two-dimensional, steady-

state seepage on profile models such as for dams, cut slopes, levees, canals, and foundation
excavations (Figure 5-16). This model code was initially developed at WES in the late 1980s.
The model can be applied to confined, partially confined, or unconfined flows. SEEP 2D
provides the location of the phreatic surface in unconfined or partially confined flow problems.
The model can be applied to problems involving complex geometries and materials that are
nonhomogeneous and anisotropic. The output is similar to the results of a flow net, in which
flow lines and equipotential lines are plotted. A SEEP 2D Interface Module provides a user-
friendly graphical interface to the flow model. SEEP 2D is a model supported by GMS, which
can provide options for displaying the results.

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Courtesy of Scientific Software Group.

Figure 5-16. Seep2D sample output.

(2) SEEP/W is a finite element program available from GEO-SLOPE International Ltd.
SEEP/W was also developed for two-dimensional seepage on profile models for dams, cut slopes,
levees, canals, and foundation excavations (Figure 5-17). It can model both saturated and unsaturated
flow, and, in addition to modeling steady-state conditions, it can solve sophisticated saturated-
unsaturated, time-dependent problems such as time-dependent migration of wetting fronts, dissipation
of excess pore pressures, and infiltration processes. While not supported by GMS, SEEP/W is highly
popular modeling software for a number of reasons: (1) it has a very good graphical interface for
creating the model, (2) it provides a wide variety of output product displays with interactive query
capabilities, and (3) the results are exportable to applications such as Excel and Word. SEEP/W is also
available as a component of GeoStudio, which is also available from GEO-SLOPE International.
GeoStudio is composed of seven application products including: (1) SLOPE/W for slope stability
analysis, (2) SEEP/W for seepage, (3) SIGMA/W for stress and deformation analysis, (4) QUAKE/W
for dynamic earthquake analysis, (5) TEMP/W for thermal analysis, (6) CTRAN/W for contaminant
transport, and (7) VADOSE/W for vadose zone and soil cover analysis. These products have a
common look and feel that promotes easier development of proficiency. Also, the various applications
share one model definition, and the results from one application can be used in other applications as
needed. For example, pore-water pressures computed by SEEP/W, SIGMA/W, or QUAKE/W can be
used in a SLOPE/W stability analysis; SEEP/W pore-water pressures can be used in a SIGMA/W
consolidation analysis; and excess pore pressures computed by QUAKE/W can be dissipated over time
in a SEEP/W transient seepage analysis.

b. End Effects. The models described above work perfectly well across most of the length
of a structure, but treating end effects is often an issue (i.e., residual flow occurring beyond the
termination point of a grout curtain). A simple method of approximating the end effects is to
draw a planimetric flow net for the most permeable units and then use the curvilinear flow lines
from that planimetric flow net as the cross-section lines for creating additional profiles for two-
dimensional analysis.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 5-17. Seep/W sample output.

5-17. Three-Dimensional Numerical Seepage Flow Models Used in Grouting.

a. Applicability. Three-dimensional numerical models are used frequently and

extensively in steady and unsteady groundwater flow modeling of aquifers, contaminant
transport, and similar applications. External stresses that influence flow, such as flow to wells,
areal recharge, evapotranspiration, flow to drains, flow through river beds, and many other
factors, can be included in the model. Hydraulic conductivities that vary spatially or are
anisotropic can be accommodated. On a comparative basis, three-dimensional modeling is more
complex, time consuming, and expensive to perform than two-dimensional models, and a high
level of modeling expertise is normally required. This expertise is readily available through the
ERDC Hydrogeology and Groundwater Modeling Team. While the use of three-dimensional
models in routine grouting applications has been relatively rare, that use is increasing rapidly.
Further, for certain grouting projects, three-dimensional numerical seepage modeling might be
fully appropriate and necessary. Examples where three-dimensional modeling might be
considered in grouting projects include:

(1) Situations where the impact of grouting on the local or regional groundwater flow
regime may be of interest.

(2) Grouting for environmental applications (i.e., to modify contaminant transport).

(3) Dams with geologic and/or geometric conditions so complex such that it is obvious
that a two-dimensional representation and modeling are not applicable or adequate.

(4) Problems where the visual output capability of three-dimensional models is of high
value in facilitating communication and understanding of site conditions and flow behavior with
other disciplines, other agencies, or the public.

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(5) Large and/or long-term dam remediation projects, where the model is continuously
refined to incorporate new data and used to display changes in flow pathways with time.

(6) Other time-dependent problems such as dissolution rates or large variations in

seasonal recharge.

b. MODFLOW. MODFLOW is a well known, extensively applied, three-dimensional

finite difference groundwater flow model (see http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/modflow/). Originally
published in 1984, it was developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) as a modular
simulation tool for modeling groundwater flow. The modular structure allows it to be easily
modified to adapt to particular applications. Many commercial products that enhance the
application are available to provide graphical user interfaces for input data and to provide pre
and post-processing of user data. Many other models have been developed to work with
MODFLOW input and output, which allows the use of linked models to simulate multiple
hydrologic solutions such as contaminant transport models, surface and groundwater models, and
chemical reaction models. MODFLOW simulates steady and unsteady flow in irregular-shaped
flow systems in which aquifers can be confined, unconfined, or a combination thereof. Flow
from external stresses such as wells, areal recharge, evapotranspiration, flow to drains, and flow
through riverbeds can be simulated. Hydraulic conductivities can differ spatially and be
anisotropic, and the storage coefficient can be heterogeneous. The flow region is subdivided into
blocks in which the properties are assumed to be uniform. In plan view, the blocks are made
from a grid of mutually perpendicular lines that can be variably spaced. Model layers can vary
in thickness. MODFLOW is supported by GMS and also by a number of other commercial
graphical interfaces. Because it uses a finite difference solution, MODFLOW is computationally
efficient. Further, its block structure readily facilitates changes in the model. MODFLOW can,
however, have stability problems or produce non-representative flow field results in unconfined
flow situations when a cell goes dry during the computational process.

c. FEMWATER. FEMWATER is a three-dimensional finite element model for use in

saturated and unsaturated zones (see http://www.aquaveo.com/software/gms-femwater). It can
also simulate density-driven flows (i.e., salinity intrusion or density-dependent contaminants).
FEMWATER is supported by GMS, and solutions can be displayed using realistic three-
dimensional plots and animation sequences.

d. FEFLOW. FEFLOW, developed privately by WASY in Germany and in widespread

use throughout the world, provides both two-dimensional and three-dimensional finite element
modeling of flows, contaminant transport, and heat transport in saturated and unsaturated zones
(see http://www.feflow.info/). FEFLOW is not supported by GMS, but it has its own pre
processing and post-processing packages. Information can be read in directly from ArcInfo,
ArcView, or MapInfo GIS data sources. Scanned photos and maps can be displayed as
background images, thereby permitting digitizing into the model. FEFLOW is available from
several commercial sources.

e. Seep3D. Seep3D, available from GEO-SLOPE International, is intended to provide

three-dimensional solutions for comparatively simple civil engineering problems that still require
a three-dimensional analysis, such as excavation dewatering, finger drains in dams, and
dewatering wells (see http://geostudio-seep3d.software.informer.com/). Seep3D is not intended

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for modeling large or complex systems. Seep3D model formulation is based on geometric
building blocks that are combined to create the full geometric model. The finite element mesh
pattern is inherent to each region in the domain, and as the blocks are connected together, the
mesh is built. The model will solve steady and non-steady-state flow problems.

f. Discrete Fracture Flow Models. The FracMan software suite, distributed and supported
through Golder Associates, is a unique, integrated set of tools for discrete fracture network
analysis (see http://www.fracman.com/home/software). FracMan includes modules for data
analysis, three-dimensional structural modeling and visualization, finite element flow solutions,
equivalent pipe network flow solutions, and contaminant transport modeling, as well as
numerous other modules.

5-18. Effects of Grouting Defects on Performance of Grouted Barriers.

a. Impacts of Defects. The performance requirements for a grouted barrier are project
specific. However, as a feature that is designed to produce a certain performance, the
constructed barrier must conform to the geometric configuration and permeability used as the
basis for design. Defects in the grouting, as a result of inadequate design or construction
implementation, can seriously affect the performance of the barrier, sometimes to the point of
rendering the work highly ineffective. Significant verification programs, combined with analysis
of data acquired during construction, are performed as the last step in the construction phase after
it appears that the barrier conforms with the design performance requirements. With an
extensive verification program, defects of most types will be detected. In the absence of
extensive verification, the performance may not be known until the project is in operation. This
section describes the general nature of defects that can occur and their impacts on performance.

b. Partially Penetrating Barriers. Partially penetrating grouted barriers are grouted zones
that do not fully penetrate the permeable foundation zones and/or that are terminated in a zone
with a marginally lower relative permeability (i.e., a termination zone that is not at least 100
times less permeable than the permeable foundation zone). Partially penetrating barriers are
sometimes intended to be partially penetrating by original design; if that is the intended basis of
design and the expected performance is fully understood, it certainly can be a valid approach to
achieve goals in certain geologic settings. They will alter flow paths and pressure distributions,
but they are notoriously inefficient in seepage reduction. Partially penetrating barriers become
defects when their performance behavior is not fully understood or anticipated in advance.
Figure 5-18 shows the adverse impact of a partially penetrating earthen cutoff on seepage
reduction. For this particular example, a 50% penetration of the permeable zone reduces seepage
rates by only 25%, and a 90% penetration reduces seepage by only about 65%. This is the
fundamental nature of partially penetrating barriers.

(1) Figure 5-19 provides an additional specific example using the same cross section and
properties as were used in the prior flow net examples for a fully penetrating cutoff. For a
6-m-wide (20-ft-wide), 1-Lugeon barrier penetrating to a depth of 80% of the 100-Lugeon
permeable foundation material, the seepage reduction provided by the barrier is less than 57%
(ignoring flow through the 1-Lugeon barrier). This result is similar to the results indicated in
Figure 5-18.

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From Cedergren (1989). This material is reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Figure 5-18. Study of partially penetrating cutoffs: (a) cross section and flow net for a partial
cutoff, (b) complete cutoff (minute flow through dam), (c) relationship between depth of cutoff
and seepage quantity. Note that suitable filters must be provided to prevent piping of soil at faces
A-B-C in (a) and (b).

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100-Lu foundation and partially penetrating barrier

6-1. General.

a. Information Required. Sufficient investigations are required to assess the suitability of

grouting, to prepare flow models and the design, to determine the technical procedures and
requirements for drilling and grouting, and to estimate the costs. Information should be available
on: (1) the nature and characteristics of unconsolidated materials, (2) the geologic structure,
stratigraphy, and engineering properties of rock types, (3) the orientation, attitude, and spacing of
fracture systems, (4) the fracture condition characteristics including the existence or absence of
infilling, (5) the infill material type, (6) the boundaries of differing physical zones within the
rock mass, (7) the boundaries of zones with differing permeability, (8) the locations of special
features such as faults, highly broken zones, and solution features, and (9) the position of the
water table.

b. Application of Information. Site investigation information is the basis for design and
for establishing the specific requirements for: (1) hole orientation, (2) hole depth, (3) selection
of upstage vs. downstage methods as the anticipated method(s) of operation, (4) stage length,
(5) number of grout lines, (6) initial spacing for primary holes, (7) minimum number of holes,
(8) and probable final spacing of holes. These items can only be rationally established based on
an understanding of the site geology, on the physical characteristics of the rock and its fracture
system, and on the project goals and requirements. If the exploration and testing program does
not produce an accurate assessment of the site conditions, the basic elements of the drilling and
grouting design may prove to be ineffective and may result in major changes during
construction. In addition to its use for grouting design, site information is also the basis for
determining the extent of required excavations, groundwater control requirements, foundation
preparation and treatment requirements, and site access design.

6-2. Related Documents.

a. EM 1110-1-1802, Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental

Investigations.

b. EM 1110-1-1804, Geotechnical Investigations.

c. EM 1110-1-1901, Seepage Analysis and Control for Dams.

d. EM 1110-2-1906, Laboratory Soils Testing.

e. ER 1110-1-1807, Procedures for Drilling in Earth Embankments.

f. Rock Testing Handbook.

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6-3. Planning Considerations.

a. Staged Investigations. It is quite common for investigation programs to occur in staged

sequences through an initial planning process. However, they can also result from a series of
project steps occurring over a period of time that might or might not have been directly related to
grouting issues. Depending on the nature of the project, site investigations can occur at multiple
points in the project: (1) when there is a need to evaluate potentially problematic conditions,
(2) during the Reconnaissance Phase, (3) during the feasibility phase, (4) during the PED phase,
(5) during the construction phase, or (6) as part of long-term monitoring in existing projects.
Grouting test sections, which are a special type of investigation, are normally performed in the
PED or construction phases. The type and level of investigations that are appropriate for each
phase differ, and it is essential that investigation data being acquired in each phase are
appropriate for each stage of the project. One of the most common mistakes in grouting has been
inappropriate staging of investigations, frequently resulting in unsatisfactory designs, deficient
construction documents, erroneous cost estimates, unsatisfactory end performance, and/or large
contract modifications. For those reasons, it is essential that at whatever point in the project
grouting is first considered, the first step must be a comprehensive assessment of all existing site
information and proper planning of the scope and timing of subsequent investigation phases.

b. Angle Holes. Extensive use should be made of angle holes to give the maximum
information possible concerning high-angle fractures and other geologic features that would not
likely be intersected by vertical holes. In many grouting applications, the majority of the holes
should be inclined. Typically, holes are inclined 1530 degrees from vertical. Inclinations
larger than 30 degrees are possible, but can be problematic for many types of equipment. The
inclination capability of the planned equipment must be considered. Drilling equipment and
procedures that are capable of providing the highest quality information on the nature of
discontinuities should be used.

c. Rock Outcrops. Where rock grouting is to be performed, examination and mapping of

rock outcrops is valuable for assessing joint and fracture orientation and spacing, fracture
continuity, and fracture conditions. Direct observation of outcrops, with visualization of drilling
and grouting operations to be performed, can be vital for effective design and construction.
Where geologic units of interest do not outcrop directly at the site, outcrops of the units should
still be located and examined, even if they are remote from the site. With due consideration of
the probable spatial uniformity or variability of the geologic units, remote outcrops are
sometimes as valuable as on-site outcrops.

d. Direct Exposure of Geologic Features Using Test Excavations. It is not uncommon that
geologic features that might significantly impact the design and/or execution of the project are
not readily visible for examination nor is their nature fully decipherable from normal site
investigation methods. In such cases, a highly effective technique that can be included in one of
the site investigation phases is using large test excavations to allow direct examination of the
features of interest. There is no prescribed limit on the size of test excavations; they are simply
made as large as necessary to acquire the information. In some projects, they have been as large
as several hundred feet in length and to depths of greater than 50 ft.

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6-4. Site Investigation Equipment.

a. General. Each hole that is drilled should be designed to provide the maximum possible
pertinent information. Therefore, a variety of investigative methods may be required (Table 6
1). The most common types of equipment used for subsurface site investigations are sampling
equipment for collecting soil materials and diamond rotary drills for obtaining rock cores.
However, it is becoming increasingly common to use more sophisticated methods, including
down-hole video, geophysical logging instruments, seismic and electrical resistivity surveys,
calyx holes for in-situ foundation inspection, borehole caliper surveys, and borehole deviation
surveys. It has been found that using down-hole methods in conjunction with conventional
methods can enhance the understanding of the site, improve interpretation of pressure test and
grouting data, and guide grouting operations.

Table 6-1. General guide to the selection of exploration methods.

Characteristics To Be Determined Exploration Method

Soil characterization (disturbed) Standard penetration test
Rotary sonic drilling
Drive sampling methods
Auger sampling
Test pits/trenches
Cone penetrometer test
Soil characterization (undisturbed) Shelby tubes
Piston samplers
Test pits
Soil permeability Falling head test
Constant head test
Laboratory permeability testing
Infiltration test
Bedrock characterization Rotary coring
Down-hole acoustic and optical
geophysics
Surface geophysics
Bedrock fracture spacing, aperture, Detailed line surveys
and orientation Outcrop mapping
Down-hole acoustic and optical
geophysics
Oriented core sampling

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Table 6-1. (Continued).

Extent of voided areas in bedrock Rotary coring

Destructive drilling methods
Surface and down-hole geophysics
Groundwater flow Down-hole flowmeters
Various geophysical methods
Groundwater depth Piezometer and well data
Water levels in borings
Various geophysical methods

b. Investigation of Overburden Materials. Equipment for sampling overburden materials

includes all normal methods, such as 2-in. split spoons, 3-in. split spoons, Shelby tubes, piston
samplers, and bulk samplers. Both the size and the type of sampling equipment are determined
by the particle size and density or the consistency of the materials being sampled. Denison-type
sampling tools can be used to sample mixed soil and weathered rock materials. Sonic drilling
equipment can be advantageous when it is desired to provide continuous overburden profiles and
when disturbance of samples and modification of moisture content is not an issue. Other
equipment, such as cone penetrometers or vane shear equipment, may be useful in certain situations.

c. Investigation of Rock Materials. Sonic drilling, while capable of penetrating and

recovering rock materials, generally destroys the fabric and structure of the rock and is only
recommended for detecting the location of the rock surface or in some cases for sampling highly
weathered rock where rotary coring will produce very poor recoveries. For virtually all other
applications, investigation of rock materials is usually accomplished with rock coring. In most
cases, coring equipment consists of triple-tube coring systems with a split inner barrel, which
provides maximum protection of the core and allows the core to be examined and logged in its
least disturbed condition before it is removed from the inner barrel. The cost premium for triple-
tube coring is marginal compared to the total cost of drilling, and its use is recommended because
of the quality of the cores. Many types of down-hole logging systems are available for use, and in
most cases, the systems offer multiple instrument systems. System capabilities that can be
obtained as necessary include optical or acoustic televiewers, borehole deviation survey
equipment, gamma loggers, neutron probes, resistivity probes, conductivity probes, flow meters,
caliper probes, and others. In addition to information obtained from an individual boring, multiple
borings are sometimes used simultaneously for cross-hole seismic exploration and imaging of
features of interest. Figures 6-1 through 6-7 show examples of some of the equipment and results.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 6-1. Sonic drilling samples from Mississinewa Dam, IN. From top to bottom: alluvial
soils (top two bags), highly weathered rock, and moderately weathered rock.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 6-2. Core from a triple-tube split inner barrel from Mississinewa Dam, IN, showing
excellent recovery and the intact structure of soil seams and rock materials from a highly
weathered rock zone.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 6-3. Triple-tube core in slightly weathered rock at Mississinewa Dam, IN.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 6-4. Borehole logging system for imaging the borehole sidewall and fractures at McCook

Reservoir grouting test section, Chicago, IL.

(2) Another alternative is to designate a portion of the project as a test section as the first
element of a full construction program. This alternative still offers the very significant
advantages of allowing refinement or modification of the drilling and grouting protocols at the
earliest possible time, and of providing a greatly improved estimate of costs that will be incurred
to complete the program. This approach was used at Mississinewa Dam for the slurry wall pre
grouting program. This approach can offer substantial schedule advantages due to the single
contract approach; the potential to begin certain full production elements concurrent with
completion of the test section; and a more rapid process of evaluation, assessment, and
implementation of results. Additionally, there can be cost advantages resulting from single
contractor efficiency and technical advantages in that all of the same equipment, materials,
personnel, and procedures used in the test section are carried directly into the production work.
If substantial changes in protocols or procedures are found to be necessary based on the test
section data, highly effective partnering and negotiations will be required.

(3) A contractual variation known as early contractor involvement that can be considered
when a test section is part of the full construction effort is to clearly specify a decision point for
USACE at the completion of the test section and/or other specified elements of work. The decision
point can be structured to allow USACE to either continue with the full program or to terminate the
contract (without the need to show specific cause) at that point on the basis that termination is in
the best overall interest of USACE. A specified time frame for this evaluation and decision is
required. This type of contractual structure provides a safety valve for potential events that might
occur, such as: (1) the test section disclosing conditions that differ so markedly from those
anticipated that the proposed plan and requirements are not appropriate, (2) unsatisfactory
contractor performance, or (3) the inability to successfully use the partnering process and
negotiations to accommodate required changes for the full production program.

(4) Regardless of the contractual variations that might be used, it must be recognized in
planning, scheduling, budgeting, and contracting that the restricted length of a test section, and
the experimental nature of work within it, has a significant impact on productivity and costs.
Premiums for full-scale test section work can easily be 50100% higher than production drilling
and grouting, depending on the size and nature of the program. Accordingly, both the test
section units and the associated unit costs should be separate items for measurement and
payment.

d. Circle-Grouted Test Sections. A special type of full-scale test section is one with a
circular configuration surrounding a test well. This type of full-scale test section will provide all of
the information described above and, in addition to providing the permeability reduction for each
hole series based on the pressure testing data, will also allow an evaluation of grouting
effectiveness by running pump tests before and after in the observation well. Despite their
advantages, circle-grouted test sections are relatively rare in practice for several reasons:
(1) normally, it is desired to incorporate test sections into the alignment of the project program so
that the test section expenditure directly contributes to the finished work, (2) frequently, the
working space required for a circle-grouted test section may not be compatible with the space

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available on site, and (3) the pumping well and associated piezometer installations can be damaged
by the grouting and may need to be replaced to complete the evaluation program. Circle-grouted
test sections have been used by the Jacksonville District at Cerrillos Dam. The information
pertaining to this test is located in Design Memorandum No. 4, Cerrillos Site Geology, Volume 2
of 5, Appendix C Test Excavation and Test Grouting (September 1983). A version of a circle-
grouted test section was also used at the South Florida Storm Water Treatment Area that used
different grout types, including portland cement, microfine cement, and chemical grout. Figure 6-8
shows some results of the circle-grouted test section at Cerrillos Dam.

(Courtesy of USACE Jacksonville District)

Figure 6-8. Grout results from a circle-grouted test section, Cerrillos Dam, Puerto Rico.

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e. When a circle-grouted test section is deemed to be the proper approach, the following
guidelines are suggested:

(1) A test should be made with a radius of about 25 ft, depending on the rock properties.
The grout holes drilled around the circumference of the circle should be spaced as planned for
the final grout curtain. The holes should be drilled and grouted according to the split-spacing
procedures normally followed in grouting.

(2) At least two lines of piezometers should be installed along lines radiating from the test
well, which should be drilled at the center of the circle. It is normally of most benefit for a dam
project to align the piezometer lines essentially parallel to the anticipated lines of flow from the
impounded lake. Good locations for piezometers are one inside the circle, one in the grout
curtain, and two outside the circle on each line. Pressure testing data will indicate good zones or
elevations in the bedrock to monitor. Multiple tip installations may be required.

(3) The well depth should be somewhat less than the depth of the grout holes. Pump tests
should be made before and after the grout is placed. The differences in the permeability between
the two tests are a reflection of the effectiveness of the grouting.

6-6. Supplemental Investigations During Construction.

a. Exploration During the Construction Phase. In advance of production drilling and

grouting operations, it is common to supplement prior exploration data with additional core
borings and water pressure testing. The purposes are to provide confirmation and/or refinement
to the geologic knowledge base and the design and/or to explore in more detail specific
conditions known or suspected to exist in advance of starting production operations. Exploratory
equipment and procedures are also sometimes, but less commonly, used in the grouting
verification program.

(1) When possible, it is preferable to perform supplemental explorations in advance of

production drilling and grouting because, in general, it requires different equipment and proceeds
at a different pace. Equipment for exploration is specialized, it may require special operators,
and its use will adversely affect the efficient flow of production drilling and grouting operations.
When this type of advance, limited-duration sequencing is acceptable for the project, the contract
documents can be structured along conventional unit price items such as per-foot items.

(2) If it is deemed necessary to have the on-site capacity to perform exploration at any
time in the program, the contract documents must reflect that requirement, both in the technical
specifications and in the measurement and payment sections. When the nature of the project is
such that the need for the equipment might arise at any time and the contractor must have the
equipment available at any time requested, the contract documents should be structured to
provide both a monthly rate for having the equipment available on-site, and per-foot
measurement and payment items for its use.

(3) Even after supplemental exploration is complete, every hole drilled and tested as part
of the grouting program provides additional information that should be used to improve the
understanding of geologic conditions, to identify zones and conditions that are of special concern

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and/or may require special treatment, and to verify the efficacy of the grouting program with
respect to meeting the design requirements.

b. Variable Factors. Even with thorough investigation programs and well-conceived

designs, there are variables that often require refinement throughout the course of the grouting
program or specific decisions that must be made by the contracting officer. Specifically, items
such as washing duration, grouting pressure, refusal criteria, starting mixes, and combination of
stages for grouting typically evolve as the program progresses and as the results are analyzed.
Other items, such as final hole spacing, final hole depths, and special treatment zones require
specific decisions by USACE based on an analysis of the results with respect to the performance
requirements.

c. Non-Cementitious Grouts. There are times when the desired impact of a grouting
program requires the use of materials other than cement. Applications such as structural
grouting in soil and control of strongly flowing water commonly lead the grouting specialist to
chemical or solution grouts. The following paragraphs describe commonly used non
cementitious grouts.

(1) Chemical Grouts. Often identified as simply chemical grouts, these grouts are more
correctly termed colloidal, chemical solution, or solution grouts. Commonly used solution
grouts are sodium silicate, urethane, acrylate, and acrylamide. Sodium silicate has commonly been
used for structural or water control applications. Urethanes are the material of choice for control of
flowing water in structures. Acrylates and acrylamides are highly penetrable in all mediums and
form a gel when reacted. These materials are highly effective for water control because of their
ability to set almost instantly within variable, but controllable periods of time. However, there are
disadvantages, including shrinking and swelling during wetting and drying cycles, and some real
and some perceived environmental impacts. Chemical grouts are beyond the scope of this manual.
For complete coverage, refer to EM 1110-1-3500, Chemical Grouting, Chemical Grouting and
Soil Stabilization (Karol 2003), and Practical Handbook of Grouting (Warner 2004).

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(2) Asphalt Grouts. Asphalt grouts or hot bitumen are used in special circumstances to
stop rapidly moving water, as in, for example, a large leak into a quarry from a nearby stream or
river (Figure 7-3). Asphalt is a solid at room temperature and must be heated to above 275 F
(135 C) to create a flowable, viscous liquid. The hot bitumen is pumped into the flowing water,
where it cools rapidly and thickens, forming a low-strength plug. After the flowing water is
stopped or slowed, cementitious grouts are usually employed to increase the permanence of the
application. As an alternative, hot bitumen and cement grouts can be co-injected. Co-injection
can be performed in the same hole, where mixing occurs at the bottom of the injection pipe, or
the two materials can be simultaneously injected into two holes. This method is often more
successful than the two-stage injection. When the hot bitumen is co-injected with cement, flash
setting of the cement occurs due to the high temperatures. The use of two holes to accomplish
co-injection is common and eliminates some practical problems that occur with co-injection in a
single hole. At USBR Upper Stillwater Dam, hot bitumen and cement were pre-mixed before
pumping, resulting in a higher specific gravity that prevented the mixture from floating when
injected below water. Hot bitumen projects require special care due to the temperature of the
material being injected, and they require containment of any material that spills on the ground.
Although asphalts have been used for decades, it is only in the last decade or so that new
concepts and delivery methods have made them reliable and durable.

(Courtesy of Dr. Donald Bruce)

Figure 7-3. Hot bitumen and HMG from co-injection that escaped to the surface from deep
karst.

(3) Clay Grouts. Clay grouts are inexpensive grouts created from a suspension of clay
minerals and cement. Two parts clay are typically combined with one part cement and water,
resulting in a grout that forms a weak solid. Although clay grouts have been reported to have
been used successfully in the former Soviet Union (Kipko and Williams 1993) when injected
under high pressures, concerns about long-term durability are common, and clay grouts are
rarely used in North America. They have been used with temporary success for stream

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restoration after long wall mining. Long-term successful use in North America is not
documented, and clay grout is not recommended for common applications.

7-2. Process for Selecting Grouting Materials.

a. General. Figure 7-4 shows schematics of various types of grouting applications. The
selection of suitable grouting materials requires the answers to several questions:

(1) What medium is being grouted (soil, rock, concrete, or combination, e.g., karst)?

(2) What is the purpose of the grouting (strengthening or modulus reduction, permeability
reduction, or water control)?

(3) What grouting methods can be used to achieve the purpose?

(4) How critical is the grout performance?

(5) How permanent must the grouting be?

(6) What is the rate of flow, if any, that must be stopped?

(7) What are the environmental considerations?

(8) What are the cost considerations?

b. Selection of Primary Grouting Material. After the questions above are addressed,
candidate grouting methods and associated grouting materials can easily be identified. The
primary grouting method and material should be selected to treat the majority of the anticipated
conditions. If the desired improvements or results can be achieved with more than one material,
the final selection should consider long-term durability and cost. The cost should not be based
solely on the material cost, but on the total project cost for using that material.

c. Selection of Secondary Grouting Material. More than one grouting method or type of
grout might be appropriate or necessary to achieve the goals established for a project. For
example, a grouting program in karst terrain might be developed using HMG as the primary
grouting material to permeate the rock fractures. However, LMG might also be provided to treat
open or soil-filled solution features. High-flow conditions might require the use of asphalt
grouts. A second example is a dam foundation grouting project. If the performance criterion of
the completed curtain requires a low permeability (less than 1 105 cm/sec), then achieving this
goal might require a combination of portland cement and ultrafine cement. A typical project
with a multiple-line curtain might require that the outside lines be grouted with an HMG mix
formulated with a standard portland cement and that the interior line be grouted with an HMG
formulated with a microfine cement.

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Figure 7-4. Schematic of grouting methods.

d. Guidelines for Common Grouting Applications.

(1) Rock Fracture Grouting. Applications involving grouting of rock fractures to cut off
or reduce fluid flow are the most common types of permeation grouting. Permeation grouting is
also used for mechanical applications where the purpose of the grouting is to strengthen a rock or
soil mass or reduce the potential future deformations. Littlejohn (2003) defines permeation
grouting as the introduction of grout into ground without disturbing the ground structure. Rock
grouting requires that a hole be drilled that intersects existing fractures in the rock. The fluid
grout is then pumped into a zone of rock under pressure. The expectation is that the pressurized
grout enters the fracture at the intersection with the hole and fills the network of fractures
connected to the intersected fracture in the proximity of the hole. Grout holes are typically
drilled and grouted using the split-spacing method until areas of overlapping influence are
created. Stable cementitious grouts are almost always the material of choice for routine rock
grouting applications. Figure 7-5 provides guidance on selecting the appropriate grouting
material for applications in fractured rock. On rare occasions, a solution grout might be used in a
highly specialized or critical application where a near-zero residual permeability is required.
Nearly all of the grouting between 1930 and 1990 was performed using unstable cement grouts,
but due to concerns about bleed and variable rheology, the use of portland cement stable grouts
has increased and is required on USACE projects. If the fracture size requiring filling is too

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small for penetration with portland cement, ultrafine cements with a smaller average grain size
are available.

(2) Soil Grouting. While only permeation grouting is used in rock, a variety of grouting
methods and materials are commonly employed in soil grouting. The available grouting methods
include permeation, compaction, mixing or replacement, and fracture grouting.

Figure 7-5. Grouting materials for use in fractured rock.

(a) Permeation Grouting. Due to cost considerations, permeation grouting of soil is

limited to soils that can be permeated relatively rapidly. As a rule of thumb, permeation grouting
can be considered possible for soils with less than 15% fines. This percentage is not exact and
will vary, depending on the coefficient of uniformity of the soil, the plasticity of the fines, and
the grouting material. When grouting of soils at the upper limits for fines content, permeation
will be very slow. The type of grout used for permeating soils will vary, depending on the soil
type and the application. Grouting of clean coarse sands and gravels can be accomplished with
portland cement mixes. Permeation grouting of most natural sands requires ultrafine cements or
a solution grout. The ultrafine cements have the advantage of higher achievable strength, lower
cost, and greater durability for permanent applications. At times, strength and permanence are
not crucial. For example, for soil tunnel applications, permeation grouting might be used to
minimize water infiltration and increase the stand-up time of the soils. In this case, a moderate
to low strength might be desirable so as not to impact the speed of the tunneling operation, so a
sodium silicate grout might be a better choice.

(b) Compaction Grouting. Compaction grouting requires the use of an LMG. In

compaction grouting, soil improvement is achieved by gradually injecting a growing mass of
grout, which displaces the adjacent soils and results in densification. Soil improvement from
compaction grouting is identical to applying static compaction to a fill. However, it also results
in a pattern of embedded elements of substantially higher strength, which further modifies the
behavior of the soil mass. The bearing capacity of the soil is increased, potential settlement is

Figure 7-8. Urethane grouting used to waterproof the grout cap.

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Figure 7-9. Concrete cores before and after grouting with urethane grout.

Available literature covers structure grouting in detail. Warner (2004) dedicates several chapters
to the grouting of structures. The most recent edition of the Post Tensioning Institute
Recommendations for Pre-stressed Rock and Soil Anchors should be referred to for materials and
procedures used in grouting soil and rock anchors. Henn (1996, 2003) provides guidelines for
grouting underground structures and for backfilling and contact grouting of tunnels and shafts.

(4) Karst Grouting. Grouting in karst environments can be extremely challenging due to
the wide variety of conditions that might be encountered. Fracture conditions can vary from
clean, relatively tight rock fractures, to open solution-widened fractures, to completely soil-filled
fractures. Depending on the degree of solutioning, cavities might also exist, varying in size from
small openings to large caves. The cavities might be dry or wet and open or filled. Filling
material can consist of collapsed roof rock, coarse outwash, fine-grained residual soils, or a
combination of these. Flow regimes in karst can vary from nearly stagnant to high velocity. The
multitude of conditions that might be encountered require that a grouting program in karst be
planned to permit flexibility to react to differing conditions. Grouting materials used in karst
include HMG, sanded grouts, LMG, pre-placed aggregate, flowable fill, conventional concrete,
sodium silicate co-injected with HMG, and hot bitumen combined with HMG. In flowing water
conditions, accelerators and anti-washout agents might be used in addition to standard
admixtures. Plastic disks and geosynthetic fibers have also been added to grouts to assist in
plugging large fractures. Grouting of the rock fractures and small cavities in karst are generally
consistent with any other rock grouting program, except that some higher-cohesion grouts might
be employed and that resting of stages might be performed. The difficulty increases as the size
of voids increases and as the velocity of flowing water increases. Where voids are large, the best
material to use is the cheapest material that can successfully be used to fill the voids effectively.
After the voids are initially filled, they can subsequently be tightly grouted with HMG. The
grouting specialist must consider the available drilling equipment and achievable hole sizes when
considering materials. Three-inch-diameter holes are adequate for placing HMG and LMG
materials. However, flowable fill and conventional concrete require significantly larger holes for
successful delivery. Co-injection of sodium silicate or hot bitumen and cementitious grouts are
reserved for high-volume flow conditions; their use requires an experienced contractor. These
materials are typically employed only after other grouting methods and materials have been
found or judged to be inadequate to treat the encountered conditions. Walz et al. (2003)
described case histories of successful installation of grouted cutoffs in karst, and Bruce et al.
(2001) documented grouting methods to deal with massive flows.

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The USACE has many dams located in karst.

Recent remediation projects in karst have been
completed at Patoka Lake, Mississinewa Lake
Dams in Indiana, Walter F. George Dam in
Alabama, Clearwater Dam in Missouri, Wolf
Creek Dam in Kentucky, and Center Hill Dam in
Tennessee. Most of these projects involve
composite cutoffs (Bruce and Dreese 2005), in
which grouting in combination or in advance of
positive concrete cutoffs have or will be
employed. Figure 7-10 shows a rock core obtained
from Mississinewa after grouting. Figure 7-11
illustrates various treatments for karst and large
void grouting.

(5) Large Open Void Grouting. Large open

voids requiring grouting include man-made
openings in rock, such as abandoned mines and
shafts. These are generally treated in similar Figure 7-10. HMG-filled fracture. The
fashion to voids in karst. Abandoned mines are grout is indicated in purple by
often filled to reduce the potential for future phenolphthalein.
subsidence or inhibit the flow of acid mine
drainage. Where the existing mine is crossed by a highway or pipeline, the extent of the mine to be
filled is often limited to the area in the vicinity of the surface infrastructure. This often requires
that a bulkhead be created on either side of the zone to be filled or that the material used to fill the
feature is simply placed to its angle of repose. Pre-placed aggregate followed by intrusion with
HMG, flowable fill, conventional concrete, and LMG have all been employed for treatment of
large underground voids. Complete filling with these methods is difficult near the roof of the
opening. If complete filling is required, injection of HMG near the roof might be required.

Figure 7-11. Recommended methods and materials for grouting of karst and large voids.

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7-3. Basic Elements of Cement-Based Suspension Grouts.

a. Portland Cements. Portland cement is the most widely used material in grouting.
ASTM C219 (2007), Standard Terminology Relating to Hydraulic Cement, defines portland
cement as: a hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinker, consisting essentially of
crystalline hydraulic calcium silicates, and usually containing one or more of the following:
water, calcium sulfate, up to 5% limestone, and processing additions. The term hydraulic
used in this definition indicates that the material reacts when combined with water. ASTM C150
(2012c) provides detailed specifications of the chemical requirements for each type of cement,
along with physical requirements including the fineness, setting time, and strength. The fineness
defined by ASTM is the Blaine fineness and is a measure of the specific surface area available
for reaction. This method is based on air permeability and is expressed in units of cm2/g or
m2/kg. ASTM does not specify any grain size distribution limitations or requirements. Ordinary
portland cement typically has a Blaine fineness of 300500 m2/kg and a maximum particle size
on the order of 45 microns. The Blaine fineness may be higher for Type III cement and lower
for Type IV cement where the heat of hydration is controlled, but a higher Blaine fineness does
not necessarily indicate a smaller maximum grain size. Detailed discussion of the hydration
process can be easily found in available literature. The most important items to recognize are
that the hydration process begins immediately upon the addition of water, and the hydration
process results in the creation of calcium hydroxide, which is readily soluble and will adversely
react with sulfates. Therefore, high concentrations of sulfates in the mix water or groundwater
will cause deterioration of the hydrated cement and will have a negative impact on the grout
performance. The five types of cement defined by ASTM are:

(1) Type I. This is the general purpose cement and is the most commonly available and
used type of cement in the construction industry. Type I cement produces a high heat of
hydration and is subject to deterioration from sulfate attack where moderate to severe sulfate
concentrations are present.

(2) Type II and Type II (MH). Type II provides moderate sulfate resistance and is used
when nominal resistance to sulfate is required. Type II (MH), or Type II moderate heat, is used
when a lower heat of hydration is also required. For grouting, a lower heat of hydration might be
considered in a hot environment to provide an extended set time.

(3) Type III. This is commonly identified as high early strength cement. Although not
specified as such by ASTM, Type III cement is usually the finest ground of the readily available
portland cements in terms of grain size distribution. For that reason, Type III cement should be
specified for better penetration and quicker strength gain unless low heat of hydration or sulfate
resistance is required.

(4) Type IV. Type IV provides lower heat of hydration than Type II (MH), which also
results in a slower strength gain. Type IV is rarely used in grouting unless low heat of hydration
is required due to climate or temperature-sensitive buried features. Similar properties can also be
achieved using Type II (MH) cement with supplemental cementitious materials.

(5) Type V. This type provides higher resistance to sulfate attack than Type II. Type V
cement is typically used only in severe sulfate environments.

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b. Other Types of Cements. Other types of cement and cementitious materials that may
be used include:

(1) Finely ground cementitious materials are used for achieving better penetration. These
cementitious grouts are known as ultrafine or super-fine cements. The Blaine fineness for ultrafine
cement is greater than 800 m2/kg, and the maximum particle size is on the order of 10 microns.

(2) Supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs) may be used, depending on the required
grout properties or the availability of portland cement. SCMs include natural pozzolans, fly ash,
ground granulated blast furnace slag (slag), and silica fume. Physical and chemical standards for
natural pozzolans and fly ash are provided in ASTM C618 (2012e), standards for slag are
provided in ASTM C989 (2012f), and standards for silica fume are provided in ASTM C1240
(2012b). Since SCMs are waste by-products of different processes, use should be based on
experience and on an understanding of the materials and their sources. Typically the Blaine
fineness and the maximum particle size for fly ash and slag are similar to ordinary portland
cement, but the properties may vary significantly among different sources. Silica fume is
extremely fine, with a fineness of about 20,000 m2/kg and a maximum particle size of 1 micron
(PCA 2011).

(3) Blended hydraulic cements are portland cement that is pre-blended with pozzolans or
slag. Physical and chemical standards for blended cements are provided in PCA (2011).

(4) Several other specialty cements include air-entrained cements, expansive cements, calcium
aluminate cements, plastic cements, masonry cements, rapid-setting cements, and oil well cements
(Warner 2004). These cements are not appropriate for the majority of grouting applications, but in some
specific instances their properties may be desirable and their use should be further explored.

(5) Wherever grouting must be performed, it is recommended that soil and subsurface
water conditions be assessed for the potential for alkali and sulfate attack. These conditions are
prominent in the presence of or proximity to seawater or brackish water, or where sulfates or
alkalis are present in the subsurface due to contamination or as a natural product of the
environment. Type V cement is the most resistant to sulfate attack under these conditions.

c. Mixing Water. Water is a major component of any grout mix. The minimum percentage
of water required for complete hydration of cement is 30% when expressed by weight (45% by
volume) of cement. Greater quantities of water are used in grouting than in concrete, as the water
is the carrier of the products in suspension during injection. The simplest manner to specify or
control the quality of the mix water is to require the use of potable water. Potable water can be
used in grout without any testing. Obtaining potable water on some grouting sites is not always
convenient or economical (Figure 7-12). Where potable water is not readily available,
groundwater or surface water can normally be used if proper controls are put in place.
Groundwater or surface water testing is required to demonstrate that the water meets the
requirements of ASTM C1602 (2012d), Mixing Water Used in Production of Hydraulic Cement
Concrete. The samples prepared for testing to demonstrate compliance should be a typical grout
rather than conventional concrete. Optional chemical requirements should be specified when
appropriate, such as where sulfate exposure, alkali reactive aggregate, or reinforcing steel or
anchors are present. Additionally, the specific gravity of the surface water should be tested

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regularly to document that the water quality has not changed; it should also be tested whenever a
change in water quality is suspected.

7-4. Behavior of Cement-Based

Suspension Grout.

a. General. It is widely accepted

that cementitious suspensions behave as
Bingham fluids. Some grouts also
behave as visco-plastic fluids (Weaver
1991). Figure 7-13 illustrates the
behavior of a Bingham fluid in
comparison to water, which behaves as
a Newtonian fluid (Figure 7-13). It is
helpful to think of the shear stress (or
Y-axis shown in Figure 7-13) as being a
(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)
function of grouting pressure and the x-
axis or shear rate as the flow rate of the Figure 7-12. Floating water intake for a grouting
grout. The most important aspect of a project during a flood at Mississinewa Dam, IN.
Bingham or visco-plastic fluid is that it
has a yield point or cohesion that is
equal to the minimum pressure required for the grout to move and a viscosity that is a measure of
the incremental increase in resistance to flow (i.e., additional pressure required) for a change in
the pumping rate. For some grouts, the viscosity does not remain constant as the flow rate
increases. Grouts where the viscosity or slope increases with increasing flow rate are identified
as exhibiting shear thickening. Shear thinning behavior refers to a grout for which the viscosity
reduces with increasing flow rates. Grouts for which the viscosity changes with shear rate are
identified as visco-plastic.

(After Houlsby 1990)

Figure 7-13. Bingham fluid behavior.

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b. Yield Point. The yield point defines the pressure required to start grout flowing and the
pressure at which grout stops moving (refusal) within a fracture. At any stress greater than the
yield point, grout will continue to flow in the fracture. For a constant fracture width, the rate at
which grout flows in the fracture is controlled by the pressure in excess of the yield point and the
grout viscosity. As grout moves away from an injection hole, the pressure decreases due to head
loss within the fracture. As the pressure experienced (or felt) by the grout farthest from the
hole reduces, the flow rate continues to drop.

7-5. Desired Properties of Cement-Based Suspension Grout.

a. General. According to Wilson and Dreese (1998):

The perfect grout for rock foundations of dams would have zero cohesion, since it
would then penetrate all fractures in exactly the same way as the water that we are
trying to impound. It would also have: (1) a low viscosity to permit fast penetration
rates, (2) instant set at pre-defined, controllable time intervals, (3) zero shrinkage,
(4) and a strength and durability similar to concrete. Obviously, that perfect grout
does not exist. Solution or chemical grouts come closest to meeting the properties of
this perfect grout. However, due to cost, durability, and/or environmental concerns,
cement-based suspension grouts are normally the material of choice for dam
foundation grouting.

The perfect grout cannot be developed using a cement-based grout because the resulting grout
would be a suspension and not a solution. However, the achievable desired properties of a
cement-based suspension grout are:

b. Zero bleed, so that the fractures or voids that are filled during the injection remain
filled.

c. High resistance to pressure filtration, so that the water-to-solids ratio remains constant
during the injection.

d. Water repellent, so that the grout suspension does not dissociate when injected into water.

e. Resistant to particle agglomeration due to electrostatic and chemical interactions, to

deter the development of macro-flocs (increase in grain size) from the hydration process during
the period of injection.

f. Cohesion values consistent with the desired penetration distance. A low cohesion is
desirable to maximize penetration from a given hole and limit the total drilling footage required.
In karst or very high permeability formations, a mix or mixes with a high cohesion might be
desirable to keep the travel distance within the intended treatment zone.

g. Viscosity compatible with the pumping pressures and low enough that an economical
injection rate is achieved.

h. Thixotropic, so that the grout is resistant to wash out after placement.

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i. Well-graded grain size distribution of the cured grout (a well-graded structure of the
cured grout reduces the matrix permeability and thus improves durability).

j. Long-term durability.

7-6. Unstable Suspension Grouts.

a. Introduction. The term unstable suspension grout is widely accepted to mean a grout
with 5% or more bleed.

b. Neat Cement Grouts. The simplest and most basic recipe for grout is to add cement to
water and mix them together to produce a neat cement grout. In North America, neat cement
grouts have traditionally been defined on a volumetric basis.

c. Commonly Used Additives. The majority of past projects employing neat cement
grouts did not incorporate any additives into the mix. However, in the 1980s, the U.S. Bureau
of Reclamation began to take advantage of superplasticizers to lower the water-cement ratio. It
was also fairly common at the time within the USACE to employ bentonite as an additive to neat
cement grouts to reduce sedimentation. During the mix design process, careful attention should
be given to the effects that additives like superplasticizers have on grout mixes. It is suggested
that grout mix formulations be evaluated through laboratory testing.

d. Fluid Properties. This lack of stability is evident in the rapid occurrence of

sedimentation or bleed when unstable cement grouts are not being continuously sheared, and in
their low resistance to filtration (separation of water from the solids in suspension) when under
pressure. Figure 7-1 shows the bleed that can occur for various water-to-cement (w:c) ratios for
neat cement grouts and balanced stable grouts in the static condition. Houlsby (1990) also
presents a diagram showing the percentage of bleed water from grout mixes with various water
to-cement ratios.

e. Setting of Grout. Set times for neat cement grouts depend on the type of cement and
the water-to-cement ratio. Additionally, the set time may be impacted by the amount of water
forced into adjacent fractures as a result of pressure filtration or possible water losses into the
porous rock mass. Grouts with a water-to-cement ratio by weight of approximately 1.3:1 or less
prepared with Type III cement generally set in less than 8 hrs.

f. Batching by Volume or by Weight. Volumetric batching uses the volume of material to

quantify mixed materials, typically only water and cement. For example, a 2:1 mix (w:c ratio by
volume) contains 2 ft3 of water and 1 ft3 of bulked dry cement. Conveniently, one 94-lb bag of
cement equals 1 ft3 of bulked dry material and 0.5 ft3 of solid material (absolute volume). The
standard specific gravity of cement is 3.15. Therefore, 94 lb of cement with a 3.15 specific
gravity represents 0.5 ft3 (94 lb divided by 3.15 times 62.4 lb/ft3). As a result, a 2:1 mix by
volume includes 2 ft3 of water and 0.5 ft3 of cement and will yield 2.5 ft3 of grout. Batching by
weight simply means that the weight of materials is considered instead of volume. For one 94-lb
bag of cement, the required weight of water for a 2:1 mix (w:c ratio by weight) is 188 lb (94 lb
times two). In this mix, the volume of water is 3.0 ft3 (188 lb divided by 62.4 lb/ft3) and the mix
will yield 3.5 ft3 of grout. The difference in the water-to-cement ratio given volumetric batching

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and weight batching is demonstrated by comparing these two 2:1 grout mixes. The water-to
cement ratio based on weight for the volume-batched grout is 125 lb of water (2 times 62.4 lb/ft3)
to 94 lb of cement and is 1.33. The water-to-cement ratio of the weight-batched grout is 2.0 (188
lb to 94 lb). It is important to identify whether grout mixes are based on volume or weight.

g. Grout Behavior in Rock Fractures. The relatively rapid occurrence of sedimentation

and low resistance to pressure filtration in an unstable grout results in unpredictable behavior
within rock fractures. This low resistance to pressure filtration results in the mix water
separating from the grout when the flow velocity decreases and/or when placed under a moderate
pressure. This results in changes in the grout rheology as the grouting application is in progress.

h. Water Separatin. As the water separates from the grout, it moves more rapidly through
the fracture due to its significantly lower viscosity. This reduction in water content in the grout
results in the remaining suspension becoming thicker as more and more water escapes. Figure 7
14 illustrates how unstable grouts are envisioned to behave when injected into a rock fracture.
Some authors believe that this separation of the water from the suspension results in the grout
acting first as a Newtonian fluid and then progressing to a Bingham fluid with internal friction
(Gause and Bruce 1997, Chuaqui and Bruce 2003). An alternative explanation is that the
behavior is different at any given time and place during an injection, depending on the aperture
of the fractures and the distance from the point of injection. The behavior is likely Newtonian in
finer fractures, where a filter cake forms at or near the borehole walls and only water is being
injected; Bingham behavior likely occurs in the wider fractures until such distance is reached that
the shear rate in the fracture decreases and the sedimentation process begins. Once the
sedimentation process begins in the fracture, the grout quickly develops internal friction and
refusal will develop rapidly. The effects of segregation, groundwater, bleed during the setting
process and consolidation, and fracture geometry all make the final grout properties uncertain.

Figure 7-14. Grouting theory for unstable cement grouts.

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7-7. Balanced Stable Grouts.

a. General. Admixtures can be used to improve bleed characteristics, cohesion,

penetrability, durability, and workability characteristics and therefore should be considered in
grouting projects requiring HMG. The number of admixtures and desired properties will vary,
depending on the application. Experienced specialists within USACE and private industry, and
published project data, are available to assist with preliminary mix proportioning, field mix
testing, and troubleshooting.

b. Definitions. The term stable grout was previously defined as a grout mixture that
exhibits less than 5% bleed. The term balanced grout refers to a grout mixture that is
formulated to provide the desired rheological properties that also remain constant during the
injection process. Balanced stable grouts are grouts that exhibit minimal bleed with desired
properties and a rheology that remains constant throughout the injection process since the
pressure filtration coefficient is low.

c. Commonly Used Additives and Admixtures. The use of additives in cement-based

suspension grouts can improve the rheological properties of a grout. Each additive is used to
improve one or more properties of the grout, although, unfortunately, the additive may improve
one property while adversely affecting other properties. The grout mixture proportioning should
be conducted by an individual experienced with the use of admixtures and proportioning to
achieve the required properties. Table 7-1 lists common additives and admixtures, identifies their
beneficial and adverse effects, and provides other comments pertinent to their use.

Table 7-1. Common grout additives. (After Wilson and Dreese 1998.)

Additive Beneficial Effects Adverse Effects Other Comments

Fly ash Improves grain size Increases Fly ash is a

Class C or distribution of cured grout. cohesion and waste product
Class F Inexpensive filler with can be used to and the
pozzolanic properties. increase properties vary
Can be used as a replacement viscosity. depending on
for some of the cement and the source.
reacts with the calcium
hydroxide resulting from the
cement hydration process.
Increases durability and
resistance to pressure filtration.
Bentonite Reduces bleed and increases Increases Should be
resistance to pressure filtration. viscosity and added as pre
Slight lubrication and cohesion. hydrated
penetrability benefits. Weakens grout. suspension.

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Table 7-1. Continued.

Silica Fume Fine-grained powder that Increases Difficult to

improves pressure filtration viscosity and handle due to
resistance and reduces bleed. cohesion. fineness.
Improves water repellency and
enhances penetrability.
Improves grain size
distribution of cured grout.
Viscosity Makes the grout suspension Increases At higher doses,
modifiers (diutan more water repellant. viscosity and provides some
gum)* Provides resistance to pressure cohesion. thixotropy to
filtration. the grout which
Reduces bleed. is helpful for
artesian
conditions.
Dispersants or Overprints solid particles with Depending on
water reducers a negative charge causing them chemistry Dispersants have a
(superplasticizer, to repel one another. chosen, may distinct life span.
fluidifier) Reduces agglomeration of accelerate or Working life
particles thereby reducing retard depends on
grain size by inhibiting the hydration dispersant
development of macro-flocs. process. This chemistry chosen.
Reduces viscosity and is not
cohesion. necessarily
negative.
*
Welan gum previously used.

(1) Many of the grout components identified will vary chemically from one source to another.
The only components likely to be constant are the diutan gum (previously welan gum) and the
superplasticizer. Due to the variability of the components, it is essential that a full-scale mix design
program be carried out before production grouting. This mix testing should use all the actual
components and actual mixing and proportioning equipment intended for use in the production
program, including the mix water.

(2) It is recommended that the mix testing program be started with a medium mix and
that the first mix be used to optimize the superplasticizer concentration. The superplasticizer
concentration is optimized when an increase in concentration does not change the apparent
viscosity of the grout. After the superplasticizer concentration is optimized, the thinnest mix
should be formulated to establish the percentages of bentonite and viscosity modifier required to
stabilize the mix and to provide adequate pressure filtration resistance. After the percentages of
all the admixtures and additives have been determined, the water content is then systematically
reduced to provide the range of apparent viscosities desired (Figure 7-15).

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d. Mix Proportioning. Before the use of balanced stable grouts, mixes were often defined
by the water-to-cement ratio based on volumetric batching. Additives initially derived for
concrete are proportioned based on the weight of cement used. To avoid confusion for stable
grouts, it is common to designate mixes by a letter or number. The letter or number uniquely
identifies a mix based on physical properties such as the marsh funnel viscosity, compressive
strength, pressure filtrate, or the specific gravity, and the additive dosage is defined based on the
weight of cement used. The rheological properties of HMG depend not only on the additive
dosage, but also on the chemistry of the bulk materials (cement, fly ash, silica fume, and water).
Mix designs are typically unique, so an intensive mix design program is required for each
project. In addition, whenever there is a change in bulk materials (i.e., cement from a new
supplier or a new water source) on an ongoing project, the physical properties of the new mixes
must be verified through testing, and the material proportions and additive concentrations may
require modification to provide the desired properties. Typical percentages of each common
grout component are:

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 7-15. Testing for apparent viscosity and pressure filtration.

(1) Water-to-Cement Ratio (By Weight). The starting mix should depend on the geology
and the objective of the grouting. The typical range is 3:1 (thinnest) to 0.6:1 (thickest) (Houlsby
1990, Weaver and Bruce 2007). Note that the weight of cement includes all cementitious
materials including fly ash or silica fume.

(2) Fly Ash. Fly ash is designated as Class F or Class C based on the sum of the silicon,
aluminum, and iron oxides. Typically, Class F fly ash has a lower calcium oxide (free lime)
content (less than 10%), while Class C fly ash has a higher calcium oxide content that results in
Class C being self-reactive to varying degrees. However, this is not part of the ASTM chemical
requirements, and it should be recognized that any Class F fly ash meets the requirements of

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Class C. Therefore, the class designation may be misleading if the chemical properties of the fly
ash are not verified and understood. The benefits and detriments of the fly ash may depend on
the fly ash source and should be checked if fly ash is to be used where heat of hydration, sulfate
resistance, alkali-silica reaction, or expansion are critical to the grout performance. The typical
dosage for Class F fly ash is 1030% by weight of portland cement. Typically Class C fly ash
should be less than 20% since Class C fly ash may be less beneficial.

(3) Silica Fume. The typical dosage is 510% by weight of portland cement.

(4) Bentonite. The typical dosage is 25% by weight of cementitious material. Bentonite
is added as a pre-hydrated suspension, typically hydrated a minimum of 12 hrs before use
(Weaver and Bruce 2007). When pre-hydrated bentonite is used, the amount of water in the pre
hydrated suspension must be considered in the batch calculations.

(5) Diutan Gum. The typical dosage is 0.10.2% by weight of cementitious material.

(6) Superplasticizer. The typical dosage is 1.53% by weight of cementitious material.

(7) When proportioning mixes, changing the concentration of only one or two ingredients
from mix type to mix type is of great benefit, not only to the plant operator, but also to the
inspector. This eases the burden of proportioning mixes during production and greatly simplifies
recordkeeping. In many cases, only the volume of water added to the mix may need to be
changed as mixes progress from thinnest to thickest. The thickest mixes may require additional
viscosity modifiers to provide the desired viscosity at mixable water-to-cement ratios.

e. Sequence of Mixing. The typical sequence of mixing when preparing stable grouts
with multiple admixtures is to add the water to the mixer followed by the pre-hydrated bentonite
slurry. (The bentonite slurry contains a significant portion of the mix water.) After the water and
bentonite slurry, the cementitious materials are added. This includes the cement and any
pozzolanic additives such as fly ash or silica fume. Once the cementitious materials have been
added and mixed, the water reducer or superplasticizer is added, followed by any viscosity
modifiers. Any accelerators or retarders are added at the time recommended by the material
supplier, but these are generally added last. For very thick mixes, the superplasticizer might be
added to the water before the cement. While adding the superplasticizer to the water in advance
of the cement does facilitate mixing, a higher dose (up to two times) of superplasticizer will be
required if added before the cement.

f. Other Admixtures.

(1) Retarders. Retarders are commercially available from several manufacturers. Set
times can be delayed from hours to days. Retarders are rarely used in typical grouting
applications. For projects in hot climates and where extended permeation periods are desired in
soil grouting, a retarder can be appropriate.

(2) Accelerators. Accelerators are not typically used in standard rock or soil grouting
programs. However, there are times when an accelerator might be appropriate, including
grouting in karst, tunnel grouting, and cold weather grouting. The most commonly used

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accelerators are calcium chloride and sodium silicate, both of which can have negative impacts
on long-term grout properties.

(3) Anti-Washout Agents. Viscosity modifiers such as diutan gum provide resistance to
washout. Additional resistance to washout can be achieved using commercially available anti-
washout agents. These admixtures can be employed if flowing water is encountered when using
cementitious grouts. These products are cellulose based and may have compatibility issues with
other admixtures. Consultation with the supplier is recommended before use, along with
additional mix design testing.

(4) Foaming Agents. Foaming agents are used to lower grout densities. Grouts created
using foam are often referred to as foamed grouts, aerated grouts, or controlled low-
strength material. The most common uses of foamed grouts are backfill of existing conduits for
abandonment and annular space grouting when existing conduits are sliplined. The low density
minimizes the applied load and reduces the buoyancy forces created when floating of a slip liner
must be avoided. Any application where low to moderate strength can be tolerated and
lightweight grout is advantageous is a candidate for foamed grouts. Foaming agents are readily
available in dry and liquid forms. The dry admixtures are easier to use as they are simply added
to the mixer as the final component. The wet foaming mixtures are less expensive, but require a
foam generator. The dry mixes are applicable to batch-type mixing and placements, while the
wet foaming agents are advantageous when large quantities are anticipated. Foamed grouts
should not be used where the grout will be exposed to flowing water or the environment, as these
grouts are typically less durable.

(5) Dyes/Pigments. Dyes have commonly been used in concrete, but have been rarely
used on grouting jobs. Dyes can play an important role in differentiating grouts. For example, if
a new grouting campaign is proposed on a previously grouted dam or levee, the new grout could
be dyed to distinguish it from the old grout. Dyed grouts have been used at Wolf Creek Dam for
this purpose. The standard ASTM C979, Standard Specification for Pigments for Integrally
Colored Concrete (2010d), was established to ensure that dyes are cement-compatible; all dyes
used in cement grouts should meet this standard. There are few disadvantages to the use of dyes
in grout, but the designer should consider that dye must be removed from the wastewater stream.
Dyes are available in both powder and liquid states.

g. Sanded Grouts. Sanded grouts may be employed for filling large voids or voids
without any significant water flow. See paragraph 7-1 b. (1) (c), Bulk Fillers for HMGs for
more discussion on the use of sanded grouts. If conditions encountered indicate that a grout with
internal friction is required, then provisions should be made for the use of LMG. If inexpensive
fillers are desired, then the fly ash content can often be increased.

h. Fluid Properties. The fluid properties of balanced stable grouts can be varied widely
depending on the application. For a typical grout curtain in fractured rock, a low cohesion is
desirable, and a range of apparent viscosities as measured with a marsh funnel ranging from a
low of 3540 sec to a maximum of 6070 sec would be common. A minimum 5-sec change in
marsh funnel flow time should be provided, and a 10-sec change between mixes is common for
thinner mixes. With balanced stable grouts, the various mixes are designed to achieve the
desired viscosity and cohesion. Thin mixes have low viscosity and low cohesion, while thick

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mixes have higher viscosity and higher cohesion. The injected mix is progressively thickened in
response to conditions observed in the stage, as with neat cement grouts. Table 7-2 lists example
mix designs from Penn Forest Dam.

(1) Testing was conducted for the apparent viscosities (marsh funnel flow time) and
cohesion values of the balanced stable grouts used for the installation of a grout curtain at Penn
Forest Dam, a new dam constructed in sedimentary rock. A comparison between the properties
of the Penn Forest Dam balanced stable mixes and those of neat cement grouts (water-to-cement
ratios are by weight) was performed and are presented in Figures 7-16 and 7-17 (Wilson and
Dreese 1998). The A-mix at Penn Forest Dam represents an ultrafine cement mix.

Table 7-2. Summary of mix designs for Penn Forest Dam, PA.

Item* Grout Mix Design

Mix number AH C D E F G H
W/C by wt. 1.3 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.3
W/(C+F.A.) by wt. N/A 1.8 1.6 1.45 1.2 1.1 1.1
Bentonite (% bwc) 0.0 3.7 3.7 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1
Welan gum (% bwc) 0.06 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
Superplasticizer (% bwc) 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.4 1.1
Marsh (sec) 36 38 40 43 48 53 ?
Specific gravity 1.41 1.32 1.35 1.38 1.43 1.47 1.47
Pressure filtration coefficient 0.035 0.009 0.039 0.016 0.025 0.024
*
Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.
HA-mix was an ultrafine cement mix. B-mix was not used for production.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 7-16. Marsh funnel viscosity values from the Penn Forest Dam mix testing program.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 7-17. Plate cohesion values from the Penn Forest Dam mix testing program.

(2) The other major fluid property to consider is the resistance of a grout to pressure
filtration. Pressure filtration is measured by placing the grout in a filter press and applying
pressure. The test, conducted in accordance with American Petroleum Institute Test Procedure
API RP 13B-1, measures how easily water is removed or squeezed out of a grout. A high
resistance to pressure filtration or a low-pressure filtration coefficient is desirable to ensure that
the grout rheology is constant during the injection process. The pressure filtration coefficient Kpf
is calculated as:

(3) Pressure filtration tests were also performed under the Penn Forest Dam testing
program. Figure 7-18 shows pressure filtration coefficients of neat cement grouts and balanced
stable grouts, side by side, for comparison. The standard test duration is 30 minutes. The neat
cement grouts thinner than 1:1 blow air after less than 10 minutes, indicating that nearly all the
mix water has been squeezed out of the grout. For most grouting projects, a pressure filtration
coefficient of 0.05 or less should be targeted.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 7-18. Pressure filtration coefficient values from the Penn

Forest Dam mix testing program.

i. Setting of Grout and Hardened Grout Properties. Balanced stable grouts generally have
a longer set time (whether initial gel or initial set) than neat cement grouts because the
formulation of a stable grout with a fully dispersed structure delays the hydration process. Set
times and strengths vary, depending on the water-to-cement ratio. A suite of mix designs for
grouting fractured rock might have initial set times of 1016 hrs and final set times of 1220 hrs.
The set time can be varied, depending on the purpose of the grouting program, by using
admixtures such as retarders or accelerators. The 28-day unconfined compressive strength of
typical balanced stable grouts varies from 750 to 1,500 psi. Due to the variables of the
constituents in balanced stabilized grouts, the grout can be designed to be stronger or weaker
than a neat cement grout by altering the mix proportioning.

j. Testing Grout Properties. Quality control testing is an important component of a

grouting program. The type of testing performed must be appropriate for the application, and the
testing must be frequent enough to ensure that the materials being used have been correctly
formulated. Table 7-3 lists common tests used to evaluate the rheology of HMGs and the
corresponding recommended test frequencies. Figure 7-19 shows a typical on-site laboratory for
quality control testing.

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Table 7-3. Quality control tests for HMG.

Test Test Method Equipment Frequency

Apparent viscosity API 13B-1 Marsh funnel Once per mix per day

Specific gravity API 13B-1 Mud balance Once per mix per day

Bleed ASTM C940 (2010b) Graduated cylinder Once per mix per week

Pressure filtration API 13B-1 API filter press Once per mix per week
coefficient

Set time ASTM C191-92 (2008) Vicat needle Mix testing program only

Cohesion and gel Viscometer Mix testing program only

times

Strength ASTM C942 (2010c) Grout cubes Mix testing program only

Apparent cohesion Weaver (1991), p. 152 10-10-cm steel plate Mix testing program only

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 7-19. On-site quality control testing lab.

(1) The best method to ensure a quality grout product is to have the grout producer provide
historical data analyses from past projects that indicate that the equipment, materials, and personnel
are capable of producing grout to past contract specifications. As a check, statistical analysis by
USACE personnel of the raw materials used for each batch will reveal the random (normal)
variation to be expected in batching, for example, water volume, cement weight, and bentonite
volume. This data analysis will produce the average and standard deviation, which can be used to
predict the theoretical batch specific gravity and its range due to normal variation. Although 100%

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inspection at the beginning of a project is labor and time intensive, it allows the baseline process
capability of the grout production to be established and evaluated. A capable process warrants
reduced inspection, but constant vigilance through the use of control charts to monitor the product.
With control charts, trends can be readily identified and adjustments made as necessary, including
increased inspection and testing to achieve a quality product. The goal of the process is to have the
random variation of the grout performance metrics of viscosity, specific gravity, temperature,
unconfined compressive strength, pressure filtration, and bleed consistently fall at least one
standard deviation inside the upper and lower specification limits for each test.

(2) The marsh funnel and specific gravity tests can be performed rapidly and
economically. In general, if these two tests show satisfactory results and thorough mix testing
has been performed in advance, it can be assumed that the other parameters are in compliance.

(3) Typical test frequencies would be once per day per mix type for measuring the apparent
viscosity with a marsh funnel and the grout density using a mud balance. Bleed and pressure
filtration tests are typically performed once per week. Cohesion, gel time, set times, and compressive
strengths are generally only tested once per project, depending on the grouting objective.

k. Grout Behavior in Rock Fractures. The fully dispersed structure of balanced stable
grouts, combined with the significant resistance to pressure filtration, results in a grout mix that
remains virtually unchanged during the course of the injection process. The superplasticizer
delays the cement particles from coming together, resulting in a nearly constant grain separation
within the grout over the course of the injection. The high resistance to pressure filtration assists
in maintaining a nearly constant water-to-cement ratio.

(1) Figure 7-20 shows how balanced stable grouts are envisioned to behave when injected
into a rock fracture. The consistent rheology of balanced stable grouts allows the injection
process to be both mathematically modeled and analyzed. The flow of a Bingham fluid may be
expressed as (De Paoli et al. 1992):

where:
= shear stress.
C = grout cohesion or yield point.
= dynamic viscosity.
B = plastic viscosity.
= shear rate.

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Figure 7-20. Grouting theory for balanced stable grouts.

(2) It is appropriate to consider the Y-axis of the Bingham model as pressure or resistance
to flow and the x-axis as flow rate (Figure 7-13). Evaluation of the model then results in the
following simplified explanation of the injection for a constant injection pressure in a fracture of
uniform thickness: as a grout penetrates a fracture, the head losses increase and the pressure at
the grout fringe decreases. As the pressure decreases, the flow rate decreases proportionally to
the viscosity. This continues until the pressure at the grout fringe is equal to the cohesion, at
which time refusal occurs and grout flow stops. Conclusions based on this simplified
explanation are:

(a) Cohesion controls how far a grout will travel in a fracture of a given opening for a
given injection pressure.

(b) For that same fracture aperture and pressure, the viscosity controls the flow rate and
ultimately the time required to grout that fracture.

(c) Head losses will be greater in a finer fracture than in a wider fracture. Therefore,
grout penetration distance will increase as the fracture aperture increases.

l. l. Penetrability. The Bingham flow model (Figure 7-13) shows that the penetration
distance into a fracture depends on the cohesion and the applied pressure. The penetration
distance also depends on the fracture aperture for two reasons. The first is that head loss is
greater in narrower fractures. The second is that the larger grains of the grout suspension might
clog the fracture. Lombardi (1985) developed the equations that relate the maximum radius of
penetration, the maximum volume of injected grout, and the maximum total uplift force to the
injection pressure, the grout cohesion, and the fracture aperture:

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where:
pmax = applied pressure
t = half thickness or aperture of the fracture
C = grout cohesion or Bingham yield point
Rmax = maximum radius of penetration
Vmax = maximum volume of injected grout
Fmax = maximum total uplift force.

Lombardis equations for the maximum volume of grout and the uplift pressure are of limited
practical use, as they assume uniform flow of grout radially in all directions, a uniform fracture
aperture, and a horizontal fracture. The penetration distance also assumes a uniform fracture
aperture and can generally not be used to predict the actual field penetration distance. The
equation for grout penetration distance is still highly useful because it recognizes that the
penetration distance is proportional to the injection pressure and the radius (half thickness) of the
fracture and is inversely proportional to the grout cohesion. Therefore, a low cohesion is generally
desirable for most grouting projects. However, in highly permeable or open formations, such as
karst, grouts with a higher cohesion might be desirable to minimize the grout travel distance.

(1) Lombardis equations ignore the grain size of the grout, and the implicit assumption is
that the grout being used is appropriate for the formation being grouted. Penetrability into a rock
fracture or soil medium depends on the grain size of the cement in suspension. Warner (2004)
points out that the maximum grain size of the grout is important when grouting soil because the
largest particles begin to clog the pore structure and lead to the rapid development of a filter
cake. Warner states that, in permeating rock fractures, the maximum grain size is less important
as long as the large grains are limited in number, well dispersed, and smaller than the void being
penetrated. In either case, accurate determination of the range of pore diameters and fracture
apertures is all but impossible. Therefore, an alternative method is needed to determine the
suitability of a grout mix to the formation being grouted.

(2) Naudts (1995) proposed the Amenability Theory to satisfy this need. The Amenability
Theory is based on the fact that the injection of grout is really just another permeability test using
grout as the permeant, provided, of course, that the rheology of the grout does not change during
the injection process (i.e., balanced stable grouts). If the conductivity of the formation with
water is known, it can be compared to the conductivity with grout. The problem with this
comparison is that one permeant is a Newtonian fluid with a very low viscosity, and the other is

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a Bingham fluid with a yield point and a higher viscosity. To address this concern, Naudts
defined the Apparent Lugeon value, which is the standard equation for the Lugeon value when
testing with water corrected by the ratio of the apparent viscosity of water to that of the grout.
The Apparent Lugeon value must be determined early in the grout injection (in the first minute
or two), but after flow and pressure have stabilized, the grout material quickly starts to develop
larger head losses as the penetration distance increases. The amenability is then the ratio of the
Apparent Lugeon value measured during grouting to the Lugeon value with water:

Amenability = Luapp / Luwater

where:
Q = flow rate
VMarsh of Grout = time for 1 L of grout to pass through a Marsh Cone
Peff = effective pressure
Luapp = Apparent Lugeon value
Luwater = Lugeon value with water.

(3) The amenability coefficient is an indication of the grout mixtures ability to permeate
the fractures accessed by water during the water pressure test. If the coefficient is 100%, the
grout is penetrating all the fractures accessed by water during the pressure testing. If the value is
less than 100%, the difference is an indication that some of the fractures permeated with water
are not accessible with the grout mix being used. If the amenability coefficient is low, it
provides a clear indication that a change in grout mix should be considered. The definition of
low depends on the application. If portland cements are being used, consideration should be
given to changing to ultrafine cement. If ultrafine cements are being used, a change to solution
grouts might be necessary.

(4) Other relevant grouting equations pertaining to penetrability and grain size have been
published by various authors. These include the groutability ratio (GR) (Mitchell 1981)
developed for fractured rock:
GR = width of fracture / (D95) grout
where:
(D95) grout = the 95% size of the grout particles
GR > 5 indicates that grouting is consistently possible
GR < 2 indicates that grouting is not possible.

(5) The data shown in Figure 7-21 indicate the range of particle sizes that are typical of
various grout materials. The advantage of using the ultrafine cement in fine fractures is obvious in
light of the GR defined above and the significantly smaller grain size in comparison to the portland
cements. Evaluation of the range of material sizes also indicates that fly ash should not be used with
ultrafine cements, as the fly ash particles would be the largest and would control the penetrability.

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(After Warner 2004)

Figure 7-21. Range of grain sizes of typical admixtures.

(6) Mitchell also provided the following equations for soil grouting:

N = D15soil / D85 grout

Nc = D10soil / D95 grout

where:
N and Nc = GRs for the soil.
D15soil = 15% size of the soil.
D85grout = 85% size of the grout particles.
D10soil = 10% size of the soil.
D95grout = 95% size of the grout.
N < 11 or Nc < 6 indicates that permeation is impossible.
N > 24 or Nc > 11 indicates that the soil is readily groutable.

(7) More recently, the wetability or surface tension between a grout and the medium being
grouted has been identified as a property impacting penetrability. Chapter 4 of Warner (2004)
includes an accessible discussion on the topic of wetability.

m. Balance Stable Mixes for Grouting Karstic Foundations. For projects in karstic
foundations, a suite of grout mixes that cover a wide range of rheologic properties is usually
required due to the joint and solution feature characteristics unique to this geology. For the
tighter joints and fractures, the low-cohesion, low-apparent-viscosity mixes are still desirable for

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grouting fractures that have not been widened by solutioning. However, thicker mixes with
higher apparent viscosities and high cohesion are desirable when solution-widened joints and
cavities are encountered. The purpose of the grouting program plays an important role in
defining the site-specific characteristics targeted and the mixes should be designed accordingly.

(1) USACE has numerous dam projects that have been founded on karstic foundations. Some
of the projects have exhibited distress indicators signifying problematic performance. As a result, in
some instances further investigation and analyses have led to remediation measures taken to address
foundation defects. Cut off wall construction began at Mississinewa Dam, IN in 1999 and a pre
grouting program was deemed necessary in 2000 after the occurrence of slurry loss. Table 7-4 lists the
grout mix designs for this program, and Table 7-5 lists their properties. In the year 2000, a grouting
program that consisted of a three-line curtain was performed at Patoka Dam, IL after the development
of sinkholes in the spillway in 1996. The program targeted a gap between the existing barrier cut off
walls and grout curtains in the left abutment. Tables 7-6 and 7-7 list information on the grout mix
designs and properties for the Patoka Dam, IL program. Wolf Creek Dam located in Kentucky was
constructed on a mature karstic foundation that had developed muddy flows and sinkholes at the
embankment toe in 1968. Seepage remained a problem even after the installation of grout curtains and
a partial cut off wall between the years of 1968 and 1979. Further remedial measures were warranted
with the construction of a second cutoff wall that extended from the right abutment to the concrete
portion of the dam and was preceded with pre-grouting of the bedrock from January 2007 through
September 2008. Table 7-8 lists information on the grout mix designs for Wolf Creek Dam, KY
program. A sinkhole on the upstream face of the Clearwater Dam in Missouri was discovered in
January 2003. Rehabilitation of the dam was performed in two phases; Phase 1 was started in 2006 and
was designed as a grouting exploratory program to locate and treat large solution features and pretreat
the foundation for cut off wall construction. Information gathered during Phase 1 identified an
extensive epikarst and resulted in a more intensive grouting program, Phase 1b, to treat this zone and
the underlying bedrock. Table 7-9 lists information on the grout mixes used in these two phases.

Table 7-4. Summary of grout mix designs for Mississinewa Dam, IN.

Constituent Mix B Mix C Mix D Mix E Mix F

Water/Cement Ratio (BW) 2.07 1.72 1.37 1.26 1.26
Water/Solid Ratio (BW) 1.4 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.8
Water (Liters) 115 85 85 70 70
Bentonite Slurry (Gallons) 17 17 25 25 25
Portland Cement (lbs) 188 188 282 282 282
Fly ash Type F (lbs.) 100 100 150 150 150
Welan Gum (lbs) 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.35
Super Plasticizer (ounces) 70 70 105 105 105
Yield (liters) 227 197 251 236 236
Yield (gallons) 60 52 66 62 62
1
(BW) means By Weight

2
Bentonite slurry is 8% weight of water; 1 gallon bentonite slurry contains 0.64 lb of
bentonite and 3.64 liters of water.

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Table 7-5. Summary of grout mix properties for Mississinewa Dam, IN.

Grout Mix Properties Mix B Mix C Mix D Mix E Mix F

Specific Gravity 1.38 1.44 1.53 1.57 1.57
Marsh Funnel (seconds)* 41 48 55
Flow Cone (seconds)* 14 24
Cohesion (g/mm) 0.180 0.348 0.490 0.630 0.630
1 hr 0 0 0 0 0
Bleed 2 hrs 0 0 0 0 0
3 hrs 0.5 0 0 0 0
Pressure Filtration Coefficient (m^-1/2) 0.045 0.042 0.04 0.036 0.031
Initial Gel Time (hrs:mins) 3:00 2:00 1:30 1:00 1:00
Final Gel Time (hrs:mins) 7:00 5:00 4:00 3:00 3:00
Initial Set Time (hrs:mins) 17:00 15:30 13:30 12:30 12:30
Final Set Time (hrs:mins) 22:30 19:00 15:00 13:30 13:30
Compressive Strength 7/9 days (psi) 260 360 770 920 870
* Marsh Funnel versus Flow Cone depended on viscosity of mix because thicker mixes had infinite Marsh
Funnel time, and thus flow cone results were used.
1
The compressive strength for B and C mixes are 9 day results, and for D, E, & F mixes are 7 day results

Table 7-6. Summary of grout mix designs for Patoka Dam, IL.

Constituent Mix A Mix B Mix C Mix D Mix E Mix F Mix G+ Mix G

Water/Cement Ratio (BW) 2.07 1.60 1.37 1.13 1.01 0.96 0.78 0.66
Water/Solid Ratio (BW) 1.71 1.32 1.13 0.94 0.84 0.79 0.65 0.56
Water (Liters) 140 100 80 60 50 45 30 20
Bentonite Slurry (Gallons) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Portland Cement (lbs) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Fly ash Type F (lbs) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
Silica Fume (lbs) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Welan Gum (lbs) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0
Super Plasticizer (ounces) 40 30 30 30 30 30 40 50
Yield (liters) 213 172 152 132 122 118 103 93
By Weight
Slurry is 8% by weight of water; 1 liter of slurry contain 0.17 lb of bentonite and 0.97 liters of water.
94 lb bags.

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Table 7-7. Summary of grout mix properties for Patoka Dam, IL.

Grout Mix Properties Mix A Mix B Mix C Mix D Mix E Mix F Mix G+ Mix G
Specific Gravity 1.38 1.44 1.53 1.57 1.57 1.57 1.57 1.57
Viscosity (seconds) 34 40 50 55 65 120 120 >120
1 hr 0.5 0.5 0.02 0.02 0 0 0 0
Bleed 2 hrs 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0 0
3 hr 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0 0
-1/2
Filtration Coef. (min ) 0.091 0.089 0.077 0.068 0.064 0.052 0.04 0.035
Initial Set Time (hrs:mins) 13:15 9:45 8:35 7:05 6:45 6:20 6:20 5:15
Final Set Time (hrs:mins) 17:45 12:25 10:05 7:55 7:20 7:00 6:50 5:40
3-day 160 195 240 375 475 750 810 915
7-day 190 265 460 595 725 1005 1100 1175
Compressive Strength (psi)
14-day 365 380 510 820 1060 1285 1410 1455
28-day 420 535 735 1070 1490 2560 2395 2755

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Table 7-8. Summary of grout mix designs for Wolf Creek Dam, KY.

Constituent Mix A Mix B Mix C

Water (pounds) 110.2 70.5 48.5
Water (gallons) 13.2 8.5 5.8
Bentonite Slurry Concentration BWOW (%) 10.0% 10.0% 10.0%
Bentonite Slurry (gallons) 10.3 10.3 10.3
Dry Bentonite Specific Gravity 2.7 2.7 2.7
Bentonite Slurry Water (pounds) 82.9 82.9 82.9
Bentonite Slurry Water (gallons) 9.93 9.93 9.93
Dry Bentonite (pounds) 8.29 8.29 8.29
Dry Bentonite (gallons) 0.37 0.37 0.37
Portland Cement Specific Gravity 3.15 3.15 3.15
Portland Cement (pounds) 188 188 188
Portland Cement (gallons) 7.15 7.15 7.15
Super Plasticizer Specific Gravity 1.2 1.2 1.2
Super Plasticizer (pounds) 8.37 8.37 8.37
Super Plasticizer (ounces) 107 107 107
Super Plasticizer (gallons) 0.84 0.84 0.84

Water/Cement Ratio (by weight) 1.03 0.82 0.7

Water/Solids Ratio (by weight) 0.98 0.78 0.67
Liquids/Solids Ratio (by weight) 1.03 0.82 0.71
Water/Cement Ratio (by volume) 3.24 2.57 2.20
Water/Solids Ratio (by volume) 3.08 2.45 2.09
Liquids/Solids Ratio (by volume) 3.19 2.56 2.20

Theoretical Yield (gallons) 31.5 26.7 24.1

Theoretical Weight (pounds) 397.8 358.1 336.0
Theoretical Specific Gravity 1.51 1.60 1.67

Actual Specific Gravity 1.500.02 1.560.02 1.620.02

Marsh Funnel Viscosity (seconds) 502 654 806
Bleed at 2 hours (%) 0 0 0
1/2 0.025 0.015 0.014
Pressure Filtration Coefficient (min )
Initial Set Time (hours) 8:00 8:00 8:00
Final Set Time (hours) 13:00 13:00 13:00
28-Day Compressive Strength (psi) 1,490 1,590 1,830

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Table 7-9. Summary of grout mix designs for Clearwater Dam, MO.

Constituent Mix A Mix B

Water (gallons) 21.13 18.49
Bentonite Slurry (gallons; 8% bw) 28 28
Portland Cement (lb) 376 376
Type F Fly Ash (lb) 50 50
Welan Gum (lb) 0.4 0.4
Superplasticizer (oz) 0.07 0.07
Theoretical Yield (gallons) 67 64
W:C Ratio 1.07 1.01
Specific Gravity 1.50 1.56
Marsh Funnel Time (s) 51 55
Grout Mix Designs - Clearwater Dam - Phase 1b

Constituent Mix A Mix B Mix C Mix D Mix E Mix F

Water (gallons) 26.42 21.13 15.85 13.21 10.57 8.45
Bentonite Slurry (gallons; 8% bw) 16 16 16 16 16 16
Portland Cement (lb) 198 198 198 198 198 198
Silica Fume (lb) 17 17 17 17 17 17
Welan Gum (lb) 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22
Superplasticizer (oz) 109.9 109.9 109.9 109.9 109.9 109.9
Theoretical Yield (gallons) 51.46 46.18 40.89 38.25 35.61 33.50
W:C Ratio 1.62 1.42 1.21 1.11 1.01 0.93
Specific Gravity 1.36 1.41 1.46 1.49 1.53 1.56
Marsh Funnel time (s) 38 44 53 62 80 >100
7-Day Compressive Strength (psi) 185 455 600 1,115 1,530 1,995
28-Day Compressive Strength (psi) 640 1,115 1,690 2,290 3,135 3,180
1/2
Note: Pressure filtration tests performed at the site indicated Pressure Filtration Coefficient (min ) values were
<0.02 on more than 99% of observations.

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CHAPTER 8

Overburden and Embankment Drilling Equipment

8-1. Overburden Drilling Equipment.

a. Introduction. Drilling holes for the purpose of injecting grout is a critical phase of a
grouting program and one that can present numerous challenges. Often these challenges result
from the materials that have to be penetrated, which can vary significantly across the project site
in both the horizontal and vertical directions; to the terrain that the drilling equipment must
traverse; to the environmental requirements of the drilling process; to the required accuracy and
condition of the final grout hole. Chapters 8 and 9 of this manual present the major
considerations that must be made in the selection of the equipment for drilling acceptable grout
holes at a reasonable cost and in a reasonable time.

b. General Considerations in Selection of Method. Typically, the decision about the type
of equipment to be used is left to the contractor. However, it is imperative that the project
specifications provide the requirements for the grout hole alignment, accuracy, and special
restrictions on equipment to protect the in-place conditions of the dam embankment or other
structure and underlying strata. Each of these requirements can significantly impact the selection
of drilling method. There are many types of drill rigs and many options in selecting drill tooling.
Some are developed for high production and require road-like conditions for access. Other types
of drill rigs have been developed to maximize mobility, while others have been designed for
unusual applications such as drilling on steep slopes or in confined areas. The size of drilling
equipment varies from very large track- or truck-mounted drills to small hand-held drills for use
in confined areas. On large grouting projects, specialized drill rigs or attachments might be
designed and fabricated for a specific application.

(1) Critical Versus Non-Critical Applications. Holes that are drilled through existing dam
embankments or other earthen hydraulic structures are considered critical because of the
potential for damage to the embankment materials. This damage generally results from
excessive pressure of the flushing medium, which can cause significant scour or erosion of the
boring sidewalls or can cause pneumatic or hydraulic fracturing of the embankment. Air, gas,
water, mud, or any other drilling fluid shall not be used in these critical areas, specifically, the
impervious core of the dam, and the core trench or foundation soil under the core. In addition,
drilling fluids shall not be used in portions of dams where contamination of filters or drainage
features is possible. Holes that are drilled outside the limits of the embankment core footprint
are often considered non-critical when there is no potential for damage to the embankment due to
the drilling process. A common example is drilling in coarse shell zones.

(2) Influence of Differing Material Types. Materials typically encountered during drilling
for grout holes can vary from clay cores, random fills, and rock shells in dam embankments to
boulders and running sands in natural deposits. Each of these zones or materials requires
consideration of the equipment most suitable for penetration without damaging the material
surrounding the hole. Characteristics of the different drilling methods in these various material
types are presented later in this chapter.

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(3) Sampling Requirements. Often samples are not required in the overburden since the
primary purpose of drilling through the overburden is to gain access to the underlying rock that is
to be grouted or to subsequently inject low-mobility or solution grouts into the overburden. In
addition, the site investigation borings have normally provided sampling and characterization of
the overburden materials in advance. However, if samples are required, this will influence the
drilling method to be used. As discussed in the following paragraphs, it is not possible to obtain
representative samples with some drilling methods since the material is changed significantly by
the drilling process, which may pulverize the material. Other methods permit sampling of the
return flush, which is highly disturbed. Some methods allow for retrieval of relatively intact
bulk samples.

(4) Hole Size. Hole size is typically left to the contractor, who can make the decision
based on available equipment and knowledge of the most efficient size for the materials to be
encountered. The primary factor in selecting the hole size is that the hole must be sufficiently
large to accommodate all of the subsequent drilling and grouting equipment and tools.

c. Special Requirements for Drilling in Embankment Dams. ER 1110-1-1807 provides

guidance on drilling through earth embankments, with a specific prohibition against the use of air
(including air with foam) or any other gas or water as the circulating medium. Exemptions may be
made to this prohibition (subject to approval) only in special circumstances and when all other
acceptable alternatives have been exhausted. These prohibitions are based on the primary concern
of protecting the impervious section of embankments. High air pressures used in drilling have
caused pneumatic fracturing of embankments (as evidenced by connections to other borings) and
blow outs on embankment slopes. Hydraulic fracturing of embankments can also be easily
induced when drilling with water. Drilling through coarse-grained zones of embankments, such as
the upstream or downstream shells, is usually an appropriate instance to consider an exception to
this regulation, depending on the specific locations. ER 1110-1-1807 is explicit with regards to
drilling at earthen hydraulic structures. However, designers should consider the impacts of the
drilling method if hydraulic fracturing could potentially damage other infrastructure.

8-2. Drilling Methods.

a. Introduction. Historically, there have been many methods of drilling through

overburden. These methods all have advantages and disadvantages. The selection of the drilling
method can be left to the contractor to take advantage of the contractors available equipment
and thereby achieve a lower cost. However, methods or flushing mediums that are not
acceptable should be clearly indicated in the contract documents. The method selected depends
on a number of factors, including the type of material that must be penetrated, the need to
eliminate disturbance to the overburden/embankment materials, the need to support the drilled
hole, and the need to obtain samples. Additional factors may include overhead clearances for
drilling in galleries and the ability to traverse and set up on steep terrain.

b. Hollow Stem Auger. This method consists of advancing an auger drill string through
the material. The outer auger string is essentially a casing with helical flights welded to the
outside (Figure 8-1). The bottom of the outer string is equipped with a cutting head. The inner
drill string consists of a pilot bit that extends below the bottom of the augers, a plug near the
bottom of the augers to prevent material from entering the inside of the augers, and drill rods

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extending to the drill head. Both the inner and outer strings are rotated during advancement. As
the augers are rotated, the material is removed to the surface via the rotating action of the flights.
In some cases, the inner drill string is not used during hole advancement, but this may result in
cuttings advancing inside the outer string, producing erroneous sampling and incomplete
evacuation of cuttings from the hole. The use of hollow stem augers without the inner string
installed is not recommended. Auger methods in general are satisfactory for penetrating
materials that do not contain boulders or other obstructions (e.g., see Figure 8-2). Nested
cobbles can prove difficult to penetrate, and advancement into weathered and very soft rock is
slow and may result in auger refusal at shallow penetration distances within these zones.
Various types of cutter heads and pilot bits are available and tailored for penetrating particular
materials and drilling conditions. During the drilling, the inner plug may be withdrawn for
conventional sampling. Because the joints between the auger sections tend to be loose,
maintaining the hole alignment can be difficult, particularly on non-vertical holes.

(Courtesy of Boart Longyear)

Figure 8-1. Components of a hollow stem auger system

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 8-2. Hollow stem auger system in use.

c. Driven or Reamed Casing with Cleanout. This method (referred to as the combination
method by Weaver and Bruce [2007]) advances a hole by driving or rotating a casing. The
bottom of the casing is equipped with a shoe appropriate for the materials to be penetrated. A
hardened drive shoe is used for driven casing, and a shoe with carbide teeth, diamonds, or
carbide buttons is used for rotated casing when cobbles and other obstructions are expected. The
casing may also be equipped with a reaming bit near the bottom to enlarge the hole through hard
materials to aid in advancing the casing. The casing with the appropriate shoe can be seated into
bedrock. The hole sidewall is then well protected so that the inside of the casing can be cleaned
with rotary wash drilling methods, solid stem augers, or flushing as permitted by the materials
encountered. The casing is relatively rigid so that straight, properly aligned holes can be made.
The equipment is typically mounted on a truck, track, or skid and can be relatively lightweight so
that tight clearances and steep terrain can be accommodated. The advance of the casing can be
interrupted at any time, and the casing can be cleaned to obtain conventional samples if required.

d. Slurry Supported Method. This method advances an uncased hole by rotary methods
with the hole supported by a drilling mud or slurry. The slurries form a filter cake around the
borehole, which is then supported by the pressure applied by the column of fluid against this
impervious zone. This method is typically not appropriate for most grouting projects. For a soil
grouting project, the slurry and developed filter cake negates future treatment from the hole by
permeation. When rock is penetrated, the slurry can easily be lost. Additionally, it is not
desirable to allow slurry to migrate into rock fractures intended to be grouted.

e. Sonic Drilling. This method generally consists of a dual casing that is advanced
through the overburden and in some cases bedrock formations. The tooling is advanced by
vibrations (typically 50150 Hz) induced at the top of the casing by a hydraulically driven

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oscillator. The vibrations propagate down the drill string and are induced on the material to be
penetrated. Simultaneous rotation and down forces are used to aid in advancing the hole (Figure
8-3). The vibration frequency can be controlled by the operator to maximize penetration rates.
In certain conditions, the vibration frequency can produce resonance of the drill string, which can
increase drilling penetration rates. Casings are commonly equipped with hardened shoes or
shoes with carbide inserts that permit penetration through cobbles, boulders, and rock. Typical
casing diameters range from 7.6 cm (3 in.) for the inner casing to 30.5 cm (12 in.) for the outer
casing. The inner casing (commonly referred to as the core barrel) is typically advanced ahead
of the outer casing. Intervals of 10 or 20 ft are common in materials easily penetrated. In
difficult conditions, shorter lengths may be used. In some cases, telescoping casing is used,
particularly for deep holes or in difficult drilling conditions such as highly plastic clays. A
nearly continuous representative core of the material penetrated can be retrieved from the inner
casing (Figure 6-1). Some equipment permits the use of split inner barrels with clear plastic or
stainless steel liners for sample preservation. The outer barrel remains in place during retrieval
of the inner barrel, so the borehole remains fully cased at all times during drilling. The method
can advance casing without the use of drilling fluids in most overburden formations, although
small amounts of water are commonly used to accelerate the drilling process or control heaving
sands. The larger rigs are typically truck mounted (Figure 8-4) and are not suitable for tight
clearances or steep terrain. As with most other drilling methods, all-terrain or crawler-mounted
small and large sonic rigs are available, as are small, skid-mounted and heliportable sonic rigs
for steep terrain and difficult access. Sonically drilled holes to depths of 6090 m are common
in overburden, and deeper drilling depths are possible with this method.

(Courtesy of Boart Longyear)

Figure 8-3. Schematic of sonic drill operating principle.

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(Courtesy of USACE Louisville District)

Figure 8-4. Sonic drill equipped with mast braced to permit angle drilling.

Sonic drills come in many sizes. For maximum efficiency, a large, truck-mounted sonic drill is
used when possible, with a second support truck immediately behind the sonic drill to facilitate
adding and removing tooling (Figure 8-5). In this configuration, sonic drilling requires a 21-m
long footprint to access a single hole. More mobile and accessible drills are now available,
including small tracked rigs, as shown in Figure 8-6. A significant advantage of these systems is
that little waste material is generated. The method explicitly meets the requirements of ER 1110-1
1807 if no water is used. According to the guidance provided in ER 1110-1-1807, minimal water
may be used for two main reasons in sonic drilling: (1) to facilitate the penetration in very tough
soil materials when the in-situ moisture content is not high enough to facilitate the shearing of the
material, and (2) to control heave at the bottom of the borehole. Using water for sonic drilling is
prohibited in an embankment dam in the impervious core and the cutoff trench, including
foundation soil under the engineered embankment or near sensitive areas of the dam
(homogeneous soil shells, adjacent to conduits, etc.). Using water for sonic drilling in other areas
of the dam, levee, or appurtenances shall be avoided and shall only be used as a last resort to
facilitate the penetration in very tough dry material. Users of this method are cautioned that the
quantity of water permitted to be used and the timing for injecting or placing water in the hole must
be specified. The amount of water used for any purpose shall be gravity fed to the collar of the
borehole and shall be closely monitored to avoid raising the water level in the borehole to 15 ft
above the phreatic water level in the embankment before drilling. The use of water during certain
phases of sonic drilling can subject the embankment to significant water pressures. For example,
injecting water during advancement of the outer override casing requires that the water travel up
along the outside of the outer casing in direct contact with the embankment, and is prohibited.

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(Courtesy of USACE Little Rock District)

Figure 8-5. Sonic drill with support truck.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 8-6. Track-mounted sonic rig.

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f. Single Tube Methods. These methods of drilling involve the advancement of a single
casing by driving, rotation, washing, or jacking. Single tube methods are commonly employed
in soil grouting projects where a drill string with a knock-off bit is provided. This is a common
method of casing installation for compaction grouting projects. Jacking of steel, multiple-port
sleeve pipes has also been used successfully for fracture grouting (Heenan et al. 2003). Single
tube methods installed as wash borings with water flush are not appropriate in water-retaining
embankments.

g. Duplex Methods. Several variations of duplex methods exist, all of which have the
common characteristic of an inner drill string and an outer casing that are installed
simultaneously. The flushing medium is injected through the drill string and returns to the
ground surface within the annular space between the drill rods and the casing. The drill string is
equipped with a suitable bit for the material to be drilled, and the bottom of the casing shoe can
be equipped with carbide teeth or carbide button inserts. The bits used for drilling are as
required for the formations to be penetrated and can be either rotary bits, such as a roller bit, or
percussive bits (Figure 8-7). The inner drill string may consist of drill rods, where fluid flush
evacuates cuttings to the surface, or drill rods with auger flights, where rotation of the auger and
in some cases fluid flush evacuate cuttings. When drilling mud is used as the flushing fluid,
approval will be required to use these methods in or near an earth embankment to satisfy
ER 1110-1-1807. Typically the rigs for this method are medium to heavy in weight and are track
or truck mounted (Figure 8-8). Numerous variations of the duplex drilling method have been
developed. Some of the more common duplex drilling systems currently in use are:

(1) Rotary Duplex. This method advances and rotates both drill strings simultaneously.

(2) Rotary Percussive Concentric Duplex. This method is identical to the rotary duplex
with the exception that one or both of the strings is percussed with a top-hole hammer.

(3) Rotary Percussive Eccentric Duplex. This method incorporates an eccentric bit that
drills an oversized hole to simplify advancement of the outer casing. Trade names for this
method include Odex and Tubex.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 8-7. Example duplex casing shoe and drill bit.

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(Courtesy of Moretrench)

Figure 8-8. Duplex drill installing relief wells at the toe of a dam.

(4) Double Head Duplex. This method can be the same as rotary duplex or rotary
percussive concentric duplex with the exception that the casing and the drill string are rotated in
opposite directions. The counter-rotation of the drill and casing minimizes the required torque of
the machine and provides a straighter hole than when both rotations are in the same direction.

(5) Duplex with Auger. Another variation is the use of an auger string as the inner drill
string (Figures 8-9 and 8-10). The auger can be used to remove the cuttings to the surface
without the use of flush fluids. If no flush fluids are used, this method strictly satisfies all the
requirements of ER 1110-1-1807 without having to resort to drilling mud. The system is also
more protective than most other methods, even when water is used as the flushing fluid, since the
majority of the flush water is directed up-hole and inside the outer casing, so the walls of the drill
hole are not subjected to direct water pressure from the drilling operation. Plugging the hole in
the bottom or face of the bit would increase the level of protection, as all fluids would be
maintained within the outer casing. Should the use of this system be approved in an
embankment dam as required by ER 1110-1-1807, all water discharge holes in the auger bit
should discharge up-hole within the outer casing to prevent direct water pressure on and direct
damage to the embankment material.

8-3. Casing of Holes.

a. General. Casing of holes through overburden is required if subsequent rock drilling and
grouting is to be performed in the underlying bedrock. Casing eliminates erosion of the hole
during rock drilling, washing, and grouting operations; eliminates the potential for holes to cave
in the overburden; and aids in the alignment of subsequent rock drilling. Cased holes also allow
the packer to be seated inside the casing for treatment of the soil/bedrock interface zone and the
top several feet of rock, which is often very fractured. Cased holes are also appropriate in some
solution grouting applications. In these applications, multiple-port sleeve pipe (MPSP) casing
provides grouting ports at regular intervals along the casing (Bruce 1988). The ports are covered
with a rubber gasket that expands under pressure and allows grout to flow from the inside of the
casing to the sidewall of the hole and into the soil. When the injection pressure is removed, the
gaskets contract, preventing the injected grout from intruding back into the casing. In essence

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MPSP acts as a check valve, allowing for multiple injections in a particular zone. Figure 8-11
shows an example MPSP system.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 8-9. Rotary duplex auger drill rig with dual hammers.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 8-10. Duplex system equipped with a carbide casing shoe and an inner
auger string with a carbide bit.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 8-11. MPSP; the photo on the left shows a port beneath the gasket.

b. Casing Materials. The grouting contractor can determine the size of the casing to
accommodate the tooling used for rock drilling and grouting. Obviously, more accurate holes
can be drilled with larger-diameter drill strings, but they require larger casing and more grout
backfill. The selection of casing materials is somewhat dependent on the method and depth of
drilling, as some methods use casing as part of the drilling process. This casing can be left in
place or later removed with a casing puller at the completion of grouting. It is often more
economical to support the overburden bore hole with plastic or light-gauge steel casing.
Depending on the size of the hole drilled through the overburden and the required casing size,
this casing can be flush joint or coupled pipe. In soil permeation grouting applications where
MPSP is used, plastic casing is the most common. Where LMG is to be performed in soil, it is
most common to leave the steel drill casing in place and inject grout directly through the tooling.
However, steel casing may be withdrawn at a controlled rate during placement of LMG,
depending on the length of the zone to be treated.

c. Casing Sealing. Sealing of the casing within the embankment or overburden is

necessary before drilling and grouting operations in underlying rock. Several alternatives exist
for proper isolation and sealing of the casing. In some cases, installation of a temporary drilling
casing seated a minimum distance into rock has been found to be acceptable. That minimum
distance should be clearly specified in the contract documents. If a higher level of protection is
required, such as for use in remediating a water-retaining structure, then one of the options
described in the following paragraphs should be specified. When casing is sealed within an
embankment, the procedures used shall comply with the requirements in ER 1110-1-1807.

(1) Option A. Figure 8-12 (left) shows this option. The bottom section of the casing must
have at least one port for grout injection. After a hole has been drilled the required distance into
the bedrock, the overburden casing is installed and grouted into place. The overburden casing is
grouted by setting a packer near the bottom of the hole and injecting grout so that the grout exits
the ports and travels up the annulus between the overburden casing and the drill casing or the
wall of the hole. Grout is injected through the bottom of the casing and through the ports until
grout is returned at the surface through the annulus. At this point, the drill casing can be
extracted and the grout topped off as each section of temporary or drill casing is extracted.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Option A Grout the annulus to the surface through a single port in the casing.

Option B Inflate a barrier bag, grout the annulus to the surface, and treat the interface.

Figure 8-12. Overburden casing sealing options in the non-critical sections of the dam.

(2) Option B. If specific testing and/or treatment of the soil-rock interface is required,
then alternative details must be developed. MPSPs equipped with geotextile barrier bags or
other barrier systems can be used to isolate the interface for treatment. Once the MPSP casing is
seated into rock the desired distance, a barrier bag located a defined distance above the top of
rock is inflated with grout. After the bag is inflated to isolate the interface, the straddle packer is
moved to the next port above the barrier bag and grout is injected to fill the annular space. The
ports below the barrier bag are then available for testing and treatment of the interface and top of
rock. Alternatively, the barrier bag may be located at the embankment/ foundation interface.
However, grouting of the interface would occur concurrently with grouting of the casing
annulus. This type of system is somewhat more time consuming to use, but it results in a high
level of confidence that the borehole annulus has been completely filled, and it allows
subsequent treatment of the foundation interface and uppermost portions of bedrock.

(3) Completely filling the borehole annulus and positively isolating the embankment from
the foundation are of paramount importance in remediating water-retaining structures. In many
instances, damage to the embankment has occurred during the life of the structure due to the loss
of materials into inadequately treated or untreated solution features or fractures in the foundation.
Inadequate casing grouting methods could result in a hydraulic connection to the foundation and
further loss of embankment material. Positive isolation of the embankment from the foundation

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is therefore critical. Barrier bag systems are particularly attractive in these circumstances. Once
the bag is inflated in the borehole, positive isolation is immediately achieved, and completely
filling the borehole annulus is simply a matter of raising the straddle packer system and injecting
through the next port. Inflation of the bag typically takes about 30 minutes after the hole is
drilled. (If, instead, casing grout were used as the sole method of achieving isolation from the
foundation, positive isolation would not be achieved until the casing grout sets.)

(4) If casing is being installed at a location where there is low confining stress, then it may
be necessary to seal the casing by grouting in stages to prevent hydraulic fracture and significant
loss of grout. This can be accomplished by drilling boreholes that provide enough clearance for
the use of tremie grout tubes on the outside of the casing. The grout should be allowed to reach
its initial set before the next stage can be done. Additives such as calcium chloride or other
accelerators can be used to control set times. The bottom of the augers or casing should not be
raised until the first grout stage is placed to its full height. Once it is placed, the augers or casing
can be slowly raised to the top of the grout column. The grout column should be closely
monitored and checked after each section of drill string is removed. Supplemental grout should
be placed if minor grout losses occur. Once the augers or casing reaches the top of the grout
column, the grout shall be allowed to reach initial set. Once initial set is reached, the next grout
stage can be placed and the process repeated.

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CHAPTER 9

Rock Drilling, Washing, and Pressure Testing Equipment

9-1. Rock Drilling Equipment.

a. Introduction. This chapter provides information on the basic requirements associated

with drilling grout holes in rock and discusses the various methods for drilling. The selection of
the drilling method primarily depends on the characteristics of the rock to be drilled, the hole
depth, access to the hole location, and the requirement to drill a properly aligned clean hole at a
reasonable cost and in a reasonable time.

b. Basic Requirements.

(1) Hole Diameter. Typically, the diameters of grout holes are in the range of 25 in.
with the preference of 3-in. diameter in rock. Any specific requirements for hole size should be
clearly stated in the contract documents. Depending on the application, such as drilling through
a concrete structure and into rock, a maximum hole size provision might also be appropriate to
minimize damage to the structure, such as cutting reinforcement. The selection of the minimum
or maximum hole diameter requirements, which should be site specific, is based on the hole
depths, the equipment access requirements for the subsequent grouting operations, and the need
for any special treatments, such as telescoping casing through unstable strata within the rock.

(2) Hole Orientation. Proper orientation of the drill hole begins with an accurate layout of
the hole locations at the surface. Proper alignment is enhanced by providing a stable platform
for the drill rig, an accurate setup of the rig, and monitoring of the continued correct orientation.
This is accomplished by conventional survey equipment used to confirm the proper drill layout
(Figure 9-1), electronic levels, or orientation equipment that can be attached to the drill mast.
Electronic levels with accuracies of 0.1 degrees are readily available and should be used in the
absence of other methods. Sophisticated orientation equipment can be fit to most drilling rigs
and typically consists of a sensor unit and a remote display. The sensor unit is permanently
mounted on the drill mast, and the remote display is mounted near the drill operator controls.
These devices provide the ability to rapidly and accurately set up a drill properly for alignment.
The sensor unit that is permanently mounted to the drill mast contains two digital inclinometers.
The internal inclinometers measure both dip and dump angles simultaneously. During the setup
process, mast angles are constantly being measured and displayed. This improves the drillers
efficiency and accuracy during setup, and since the display is mounted near the drill controls, the
operator is able to monitor the alignment of the mast during drilling of the hole.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 9-1. Use of conventional survey equipment to align a drill rig.

(3) Hole Deviation. Factors that affect hole deviation, typical deviations to be expected, and
impacts of hole deviation are addressed in Section 15-6. b. Historically, deviation of holes has been
determined by lowering a light to the bottom of the hole and observing the portion of the hole that is
visible at various depths. This provides only an approximate measure of the hole deviation, and
depending on the hole diameter, the light may go out of sight, even for holes that meet the alignment
requirements. Another method consists of a camera with a pendulum and compass deployed down the
hole. The instrument is stopped at regular intervals, and a photograph is taken of the pendulum and
compass, indicating the direction and dip of the hole. More accurate measurement of the hole
alignment can be obtained using more sophisticated techniques. Gyroscopes and inclinometers can be
used to accurately measure hole alignments in nearly any set of conditions and at frequent intervals.
Available borehole imaging systems, such as the Robertson Geologging System (see Section 6-4),
integrate borehole deviation surveys with imaging of the hole sidewalls. The imaging of borehole
walls and fractures combined with the measure deviation of the hole allows the strike and dip of the
fractures to be accurately calculated. Systems that use magnetic north for orientation cannot be used
inside metal casings.

(4) Hydraulic Applications. Grout holes that are drilled for the purpose of grouting rock must
be drilled with water as the flushing medium. Drilling with air as the flushing medium should not be
permitted if subsequent rock permeation grouting is to be conducted. Air can significantly damage the
formation if the hole becomes plugged even for a short time. Air can also blow dust and particles of
rock into the fractures and prevent grout penetration, particularly when there is a small amount of water
in the hole, which can combine with the dust to form a paste that then coats the fractures. Use of air
flush methods for other grouting applications such as void filling, compaction grouting, and structure-
foundation stabilization might be acceptable, since the clogging of fractures is not critical.

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c. Selection of Drilling Method. There are two basic methods for drilling grout holes in
rock: rotary drilling methods and rotary percussive drilling methods. Each of these basic
methods has variations that may be used. Rotary methods can be subdivided into high rotational
speed and low rotational speed. The rotary percussive methods can be subdivided into top-hole
rotary percussion and down-hole rotary percussion.

(1) Rotary Methods. High-speed rotary drills apply limited torque and thrust and rely on
the high-speed rotation of the bit to cut the rock. Low-speed rotary drills require large drills with
high torque and thrust to destroy the rock fabric.

(a) High-Speed Rotary. The most common method of high-speed rotary drilling is
diamond drilling. This method has long been used for drilling rock. In the past, it was
considered to be the best method because it created smooth-walled holes that made setting
packers easier, and it resulted in straighter holes. However, it has been shown repeatedly in
various tests that other methods described in this section produce acceptable grout holes at a
lower cost and generally in less time. An advantage of the diamond rotary method is that
equipment is readily available in smaller and lighter rigs, and they can easily drill to the depths
generally required for grouting. Diamond rotary holes can be drilled using destructive or
nondestructive methods. If no sample is desired, plug bits can be used. With the advent of wire
line drilling methods, plug bits are rarely used, as the area of rock requiring cutting is the total
area of the hole. Coring is generally faster than plug bits and provides the advantage that the
rock being grouted can be directly observed. Figures 9-2 through 9-4 show examples of high-
speed rotary drills.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 9-2. Truck-mounted high-speed rotary drill rig.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques.)

Figure 9-3. Track-mounted and hand-held high-speed rotary drills.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 9-4. High-speed rotary drills for difficult access and confined spaces.

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(b) Low-Speed Rotary. This drilling method employs large drills capable of installing
larger-diameter holes to considerable depth. The large down-pressure and torque applied to the
drill string and bit are used to penetrate the rock. The most common use of these drills is for
water well drilling, where air is commonly used as the flushing medium. If water is used as the
flushing medium, there is no reason that this drilling method would not be acceptable for drilling
grout production holes. However, economics and drill rig accessibility issues generally lead to
the selection of alternative methods.

(2) Rotary Percussive Methods. These drilling methods use a hammer to impart
percussive energy to the bit while the drill head imparts slow rotation. For top-hole percussion,
the hammer is mounted on the drill, and the energy is applied to the bit through the drill rods.
For down-hole methods, the hammer is installed just above the bit and is activated by the drilling
fluid while the drill head rotates the string.

(a) Top-Hole Percussion. The bottom of the drill string is equipped with a chisel or button
bit. Flushing of the hole for this type of drilling can be air, water, or drilling mud. However, only
water is permitted for grout hole drilling. Percussion drills can be truck mounted, but more often
they are track mounted. Although these rigs can be relatively lightweight, such as the familiar air
track drill, the tendency is toward heavier rigs with self-contained power packs that are more
stable during the significant vibration that occurs during drilling. The significant advantage of the
track-mounted rig is its maneuverability, especially on steep slopes. The masts for these rigs can
also typically be tilted front to back and side to side so that holes can be drilled in nearly any
direction. Since this method results in the drill string being percussed at the top, the energy must
be transmitted through the drill rods and couplings to the bit, which results in significant loss of
energy. Therefore, the achievable depth with this method is limited, and the hole orientation
accuracy decreases with increasing hole depths and decreasing tool diameters. The smaller the
diameter of the tooling, the greater the bending that occurs when impacted. A stiffener or larger-
diameter lead or starter rod (Figure 9-5) should be used to increase drill hole accuracy. Depth
limitations with top-hole percussion drills vary from drill to drill. An air-track drill (Figure 9-6) is
challenged beyond depths of approximately 18 m. Deeper depths can be realized, but production
rates drop rapidly with increasing depths. The drill in shown Figure 9-7 is limited to a depth of
about 45 m. However, the last 15 m might take as long to drill as the first 30 m.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 9-5. Top-hole percussion drill tooling. Bit is shown at top left followed by larger-
diameter starter rod, followed by traditional drill rod.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 9-6. Air-track, top-hole percussion drill.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 9-7. Self-contained, track-mounted, top-hole percussion drill

with a rod handler.

(b) Down-the-Hole (DTH) Hammer Methods. DTH hammers significantly improve

production and drill hole accuracy and are capable of drilling significantly deeper than top-hole
percussion methods. Production is dramatically improved because the hammer is located at the
end of the drill string at the bottom of the hole. This eliminates the need to transfer the hammer
impact energy through the drill string, which results in 100% of the impact energy on the bit
regardless of depth. Drill hole deviations are dramatically reduced for the same reason. There
are currently four available technologies for DTH hammer design. These include:

Direct Circulation (DC) air-driven DTH hammers use air flushing in contact with the
sidewalls over the entire length of the drill hole.

Reverse Circulation (RC) DTH hammers use dual-wall drill pipes (Figure 9-8). RC
hammers use air or air with a water mist to drive the hammer and to flush the hole. The air or
air/water mist flush for scouring the hole is returned to the ground surface through an inner rod,
which helps keep the hole cleaner by protecting the hole from the cuttings and the flushing
medium. Two RC hammer technologies are available:

The first, more common system uses a sub or oversized adaptor at the top of the hammer
to deflect the cuttings and flushing medium into the inner drill string and away from the hole. With
this RC hammer technology, the cuttings and the flushing medium are in contact with the hole
over the length of the hammer. This technology significantly reduces, but does not eliminate, hole
contamination due to the cuttings and flushing in comparison to the DC hammers. Erosion in soft
rock formations and irregular borehole sidewalls should be expected.

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(After SDS Corporation)

Figure 9-8. Details of RC systems.

The other technology for RC hammers uses a hammer body and bit with an inner open
annulus that connects to the inner drill rod. A bit shroud directs the cuttings and flushing medium
into the inner drill string right at the base of the hole. This technology reduces hole contamination
to an even greater degree, as drill cuttings have no contact with the hole sidewall except in the
event of blow by of the oversized bit. This occurs occasionally in softer rocks and broken zones
within a formation.

Neither RC system is appropriate for use in drilling holes for grouting, unless the intention
is to encounter a large void for a void-filling application. The likelihood of system clogging is

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dramatically increased with these systems and cannot be eliminated. When the system is clogged,
the high-volume, high-pressure air used for hole flushing can cause significant damage to the
geologic formation.

Dual-Fluid Drilling Systems (DFS) are a recent addition in DTH technology and are
available from Numa (Figure 9-9). The DFS consists of a hammer that is air activated, but
incorporates a center tube through the hammer body that allows 100% water to be used as the
flushing agent. Water is pumped down the center tube and out the bottom of the bit. The water
cleans the face of the bit and forces the cuttings up the annular space between the drill string and
the hole. This system virtually recreates the top-hole percussion drilling scenario described
previously that has been widely accepted in the grouting industry. The only difference (which is
a large advantage for deep holes) is that the hammer is now at the bottom of the hole. The air for
driving the hammer is exhausted between the outer casing and the inner drill string back to the
ground surface and is never in contact with the formation.

Water DTH Hammers (WH) are available from Wassara through Cubex in North America
(Figure 9-10). These hammers use high-pressure water to activate the hammer. Pump pressures
of 1,0003,000 psi and water flow rates above 70 gpm are used to drive the piston. After impacting
the piston, the water goes through a dump/diverter valve and an energy dissipation tube. The
energy dissipation tube carries the water to the bit, where it exits into the hole as the flushing
medium. Pressures exiting the bit are similar to pressures in other rotary percussive top-drive
systems. The design of the water hammer and the use of water rather than air for activation result
in a percussion rate about twice as high as other down-hole hammers, which increases productivity.
The maintenance on the hammers is relatively high, but this cost can be offset by productivity
gains on large projects with deep holes.

d. Measurement While Drilling (MWD). MWD, also known as Monitoring While

Drilling or Drilling Parameter Recording, is the recording of certain mechanical properties
during drilling of a borehole to assist in interpreting subsurface conditions. The values of
interest typically are penetration rate, torque, rotational speed, and thrust. These variables can be
used to calculate a parameter known as specific energy, which is a measure of the energy
required to penetrate a unit volume of material and is expressed in units of energy over volume.
In some cases, water flush pressure and/or flow rate may be measured and correlated with zones of
high permeability. MWD has become more common as drilling equipment has become more
sophisticated. In many cases, equipment manufacturers monitor these same parameters to gauge
equipment performance and troubleshoot problems. It is natural that these same parameters are
of interest in quantifying the conditions encountered during drilling.

(1) In a few cases, MWD has been specified for use on USACE grouting projects. One
project of interest is the Clearwater Dam Major Rehab project, where all rock drilling rigs on the
site were equipped to record drilling parameters. In general, MWD is successful in identifying
zones of fractured rock or poor rock quality. These zones often correlate well with zones of high
permeability and high grout take.

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(Courtesy of Numa)

Figure 9-9. Numa dual-fluid system schematic.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 9-10. Water-powered down-hole hammer in action at McCook Reservoir. A large drill
was used as depths exceeded 400 ft on this project.

(2) The necessity of using MWD methods on grouting projects should be evaluated during
project design. It is recommended for projects where detailed delineation of foundation
conditions or discontinuities is required. The premium paid for using drilling equipment capable
of MWD is generally minimal. However, post-processing and review of the data by qualified
persons are necessary for meaningful interpretation.

9-2. Hole Washing Equipment.

a. General. Holes must be thoroughly washed before grouting to maximize access of

grout to fractures. At the completion of drilling the grout hole, the washing operation begins by
raising and lowering the drilling tools several times a short distance and allowing the drill water
to circulate. This removes the coarser cuttings that tend to settle at the bottom of percussion-
drilled holes. However, drill water circulation alone is not adequate to properly clean the holes.
A separate hole washing step is a standard requirement after drilling.

b. Equipment. Equipment used in the washing process includes washout bits, pumps, and
hoses and pipes to inject the water. Typically hoses with a minimum diameter of 2.5 cm (1 in.)
are used for injecting water. Hose is preferred to pipe since it is lighter and can be used to a
greater depth because the washing process is often done by raising and lowering the wash
equipment by hand. The insertion and retraction of the hose can also be done more quickly than
pipe, which has to be added or removed in sections. A special washout bit is attached to the
bottom of the hose. The diameter of the bit should be similar to that of the borehole, but small
enough to permit rock fragments and cuttings to pass between the bit and the hole sidewall. The

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bit has closely spaced holes (approximately 3.2 mm [1/8 in.] in diameter) spaced around its
perimeter to permit radial flow to be directed at the sidewall, in addition to the bottom discharge.
Water pumps should be capable of supplying water at a minimum pressure of 100 psi and flow
rates at a minimum of 30 gpm at the top of the hole. Depending on the formation being cleaned,
the pressure may need to be limited to prevent damage to the rock. After a hole is completely
washed, a plug should be installed in the hole collar to prevent debris from entering the hole. If
the hole is in a depression, a standpipe can be grouted into the top of the hole and then plugged.
Figures 9-11 and 9-12 show hole washing equipment.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 9-11. Lightweight washout bit and hose for manual applications.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 9-12. Track-mounted mechanical washing system for deep holes.

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9-3. Pressure Testing Equipment.

a. General. Grout holes are pressure tested to provide information on the permeability of
the formation to be grouted, to identify highly permeable zones, to help identify unstable zones
that may require special grouting, and to evaluate the permeability reduction being achieved as
grouting progresses. The equipment for water testing is generally the same as that used for
grouting. Refer to Chapter 10 of this manual for a more detailed discussion of pumps, gauges,
flow meters, and valves.

b. Packers. Packers are used to isolate a portion of a hole for the purpose of injecting
water under pressure into the isolated area. Packers are essentially a length of pipe, smaller in
diameter than the grout hole or casing, with expandable devices attached to the pipe to create a
seal between the pipe and the grout hole. There are several varieties of packers, including
friction, mechanical, and inflatable. The type of packer recommended depends on the expected
uniformity of the hole size and whether the packer will be installed in the hole casing or directly
in the grout hole.

(1) Friction packers can only be used where the packer is seated within a grout hole
standpipe. It employs U-shaped cups or O-rings to create the seal (Figure 9-13). With the U-
shaped cups, the pressure of the water acts on the inside of the U-shape to expand the cup against
the casing. The O-ring packer creates the seal by a tight friction fit between the O-ring and the
casing. Both of these can sustain high pressure, but are subject to high wear due to the tight fit
and must be replaced frequently. Currently, these types of packers are generally used only with
MPSP and have been mainly replaced by pneumatic packers.

meter and pressure transducer pair that is not used in production and is held by Government
officials for the sole purpose of checking the calibration of production equipment.

(Courtesy of L.G. Hetager Drilling, Inc., of Punxsutawney, PA)

Figure 9-17. Manually read mechanical water meter and pressure gauges for pressure testing.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 9-18. Electronic system for flow and pressure readings

used in pressure testing.

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CHAPTER 10

Grouting Equipment for HMGs

10-1. General. There are many equipment variations available for each component of a grouting
system. Likewise, there are several ways to assemble the required components, ranging from
self-contained trailer or skid-mounted systems (Figure 10-1) that can be located immediately
adjacent to the grout hole, to individual components that are distributed across the project site
with the grout being pumped 250 m or more from a central mixing plant (Figure 10-2). Because
the number of holes to be grouted, the accessibility of the holes, the site topography, the geology,
the climatic conditions, and the size of the project will have major impacts on the selection and
layout of the equipment and system(s) used, it is best to give contractors the flexibility to
determine the best configuration and layout for their plant. USACEs role regarding this aspect
of the work should be to specify what minimum equipment capabilities are required, to designate
the contractors work limits, and to prepare USACEs construction cost estimate. These tasks
require knowledge of the equipment, coupled with assumptions regarding a practical layout for
this equipment. Adequate staging area should be provided, and the equipment capability needed
to complete the job within the schedule must be estimated. Chapter 13 of this manual provides
additional information regarding site development. This chapter describes the characteristics of
components and systems.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 10-1. Mobile grout plant capable of being moved around a site near the injection point.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 10-2. Site with a centralized mixing station.

10-2. Grout Mixers. The grout mixing equipment must be capable of thoroughly wetting all of
the particles of cement and other admixtures to create a homogeneous suspension. In the past,
paddle mixers have been used for mixing grout on some projects. These employ slowly rotating
paddles mounted horizontally or vertically in a tank. Paddle mixers alone are not satisfactory for
producing high-quality HMG and should only be used for large backfilling or void-filling
projects where incomplete dispersion of the cement particles and interruptions of the grouting are
of little consequence. Current technology for high-quality grouting with HMG employs high-
shear mixers. These are sometimes referred to as colloidal mixers, although this name is not
accurate since colloidal particles are generally considered to be less than 5 m in size, which is
smaller than most ultrafine cement particles. High-shear mixers generally consist of a vertical
conical tank with a rotor located at the base rotating at 1,5002,000 rpm. This imparts a high
shearing force to the grout as the material is forced through the rotor housing by the rotor. The
rotor then re-circulates the grout to the mixing tank. The grout re-enters the tank tangentially,
which produces a vortex that aids in the thorough cement wetting process. Figure 10-3 shows a
schematic of a high-shear mixer; Figure 10-4 shows a photograph of a rotor; and Figure 10-5
shows the vortex that forms within the mixing tank. Mixing with high-shear mixers is extremely
efficient and can be completed rapidly (~1 minute) after all components have been added to the
mixer. The high shear imparted to the grout generates substantial heat, which accelerates set
time. Therefore, mixing time should not be excessively long and must be controlled. These
mixers are capable of mixing neat cement grout mixes with water-to-cement ratios as low as
0.5:1 by volume or about 0.35:1 by weight. A minimum mixer size or capacity of 225280 L
(810 ft3) is acceptable and appropriate for most rock permeation grouting projects. A mixer of
this size can easily handle two-bag or three-bag mixes, which are common for most grouting

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 10-9. Gravity-feed admixture dispenser tanks re-filled via admixture

pumps, with a 15-L polymer tank on the left and a 200-L bentonite slurry
tank on the right with sight glasses for dosing.

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10-5. Pumps. There are numerous combinations of pumps, speed and pressure controls, and
power systems available for this important part of the grout injection system. The type of grout to
be injected, the importance of pressure control during the injection process, and the serviceability
of the pump are important considerations in selecting the correct pump. Pumps should be sized
appropriately to match the expected pressures and flow rates required for the project.

a. The two types of pumps used most often in grouting are progressive cavity and piston
pumps. Progressive cavity pumps output a nearly constant pressure throughout the grouting
process. Piston pumps output cyclic pressures with a significant pressure difference between the
maximum and minimum pressures as the valves open and close during the piston cycles. The
standard practice in North America is to require constant pressures to inject HMG for permeation
grouting, which therefore requires the use of progressive cavity pumps. In contrast to the
standard practice in North America, some grouters in Europe argue that cyclic pressures actually
improve penetration. Houlsby (1990) dismisses this claim, and North American practice
continues to require the use of constant pressures and a grout circulation line.

b. Progressive cavity or helical rotor pumps, also typically known by the trade names
Mono or Moyno, consist of a steel, helical rotor that rotates inside a double-helix stator, which is
made of a softer material such as wear-resistant rubber or nitrile. Figure 10-10 shows a cutaway
view of a progressive cavity pump. Grout enters the pump throat from the agitator and is moved
along in a screw-like motion with a positive seal between the stator and rotor. The rotor is
chrome plated, which does wear and should be re-plated before exposure of the less-durable base
metal. An advantage of the progressive cavity pump is the ease of servicing. Immediate access
to the stator for replacement is accomplished by removing a few bolts. The life of the stator is
highly dependent on the care that is given, including frequent cleaning. The maximum pressure
developed with a progressive cavity pump depends on the number of pump stages. As a rule of
thumb, each stage of a progressive cavity pump will generate approximately 85 psi. Higher
pressures are achieved when pumping higher-viscosity fluids. Lower-capacity progressive
cavity pumps can be staged in series to achieve higher pressures. The other advantage of this
type of pump is the absence of valves within the pump, which tend to wear and are difficult to
replace in other types of pumps. Many manufacturers report that their pumps are capable of
pumping slurries containing solids (e.g., sand). However, experience has shown that the pump
wears significantly faster than when pumping slurries absent of abrasive solids.

(Courtesy of Moyno, Inc.)

Figure 10-10. Cutaway section of a progressive cavity pump.

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c. Piston pumps have a piston or ram reciprocating within a close-fitting cylinder. The
pumps can be single acting or double acting. Single-acting piston pumps only pump material
when the piston moves in one direction, typically forward. Double-acting piston pumps pump
material when the piston moves in both the forward and backward directions. Grout is pulled
into the cylinder from one side and simultaneously expelled from the other end. This requires a
combination of valves at each end of the cylinder that are actuated by the grout pressure to
control the flow. Newer models of piston pumps have two pistons with a reciprocating power
source located between the pistons (Figure 10-11). The advantage of this arrangement is that the
grout only comes in contact with the face of the piston. Still, parts that come in contact with the
grout should be chrome plated to extend the life. Piston pumps can generate very high maximum
pressures in excess of several thousand psi. Some pumps also contain multiple cylinders so that
quantities of grout pumped can be quite high. Piston pumps are not generally accepted for
pumping HMG in North America. They are widely used for chemical solution grouting, in jet
grouting methods, and on drills as booster pumps to increase the water flush pressures.

d. Piston-type pumps are available in a wide variety of sizes and configurations. In these
pumps, a piston is advanced inside a cylinder, normally using hydraulics, which generates very
high output pressures. Figure 10-11 shows an example of a double-acting piston pump typically
used for sanded HMG applications. The unit is powered by an electric motor, which powers the
hydraulic system.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

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(Courtesy of Nicholson Construction Company)

Figure 10-15. Typical Grout Header.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 10-16. Grout header for manual pressure observation

and control during HMG injection.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 10-17. Header system for electronic monitoring of flow and pressure
for HMG injection.

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10-9. Circulation Lines and Equipment Arrangement.

a. Circulation Loop System. Figure 10-18 shows a typical arrangement of the circulation
lines and equipment for a circulation loop system. The grout is pumped from the agitator to the
header. Grout not needed to satisfy the demands of the hole is returned to the agitator tank.
Additional headers can be inserted in the loop if multiple hole grouting is permitted or for treating
connections between holes. The use of a return line allows excess pressure in the circulation line
to bypass the hole, eliminates wasted grout when a hole is completed, and maintains the velocity
of the grout at a high rate in the circulation line during times of low flow at the grout hole.

Figure 10-18. Grout circulation system with return. (Flow meter not
shown; see Fig. 10-17 for configuration.)

b. Direct Injection System.

(1) Figure 10-19 shows a schematic of a direct injection system. The direct system
involves pumping grout from the agitator to the hole, with no return line. The direct system has
no mechanism to control the pressure down the hole other than closing the down-hole valve. At
times of low flow the grout in the supply line basically stops moving and is no longer being
sheared. For thixotropic grouts, this can result in premature refusal of the stage or false refusal
within the grout distribution system. The direct system is commonly used by some grouters in

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Europe who use piston pumps with cyclic injection pressures. Its use is not normally permitted
in North American work.

Figure 10-19. Direct injection grout supply system with no return.

(Flow meter not shown; see Fig. 10-17 for configuration.)

(2) Hose is almost always used for HMG circulation lines. Hoses have the convenience of
being lighter and more easily moved around the site. The inside diameter should be 1.9 to 2.5 cm
( to 1 in.) for mixers in the 225- to 280- L (8- to 10-ft3) range. Smaller lines tend to clog due to
their size, whereas larger ones tend to clog because of lower velocities. The smaller diameter also
minimizes wasting of grout during the required flushing of the lines. The important consideration
is to keep the grout flowing at a reasonable velocity. In large void-filling applications, direct
injection with larger-diameter hose may be appropriate because it is unlikely that material will
remain in the lines at low velocities for significant periods of time. Connections between sections
of hose should be quick-connect unions or couplings to minimize time in disassembling the lines
for flushing and length changes. Lines should be flushed at least once per shift to minimize the
buildup of grout in the line.

10-10. Water Distribution System. Every element of grouting requires water (Figure 10-20). A
properly planned distribution system is essential for efficient operations. The system should
extend across the site and have tees and associated valves strategically located. It should also be

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located where it does not limit equipment maneuverability. A water heater or boiler might be
required if cold weather grouting is anticipated. Insulation of the water distribution line between
the pump and the batch plant should be considered for both hot and cold weather.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 10-20. Typical water distribution system with field demands.

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CHAPTER 11

Grouting Equipment for Other Types of Grouts

11-1. Other Types of Grouting. This section provides information on equipment associated with
non-HMG grouting applications. Other USACE Engineer Manuals offer complete and detailed
discussions on some of these topics and should be referenced by the practitioner. In some cases,
particularly with bitumen, the application is particularly specialized and only used on the rarest
of occasions.

11-2. Chemical Grouting. Chemical grouts, or more appropriately solution grouts, are covered in
great detail in EM 1110-1-3500, Chemical Grouting. Additional resources include Chemical
Grouting and Soil Stabilization (Karol 2003) and Practical Handbook of Grouting (Warner 2004).

11-3. Low-Mobility and Compaction Grouting.

a. General. Low-mobility and compaction grouting, while two distinctly different

applications, involve mixing, delivering, and injecting similar, if not the same, materials. LMG
is common in void-filling and karst treatment applications, while compaction grouting is a
ground improvement, displacement method typically for densification of soil or foundation
support. See Chapter 27 of this manual for additional information on compaction grouting. The
Practical Handbook of Grouting by James Warner is a valuable reference for low-mobility and
compaction grouting that provides significant additional information on the subject.

b. Drilling. Drilling methods for holes vary based on the application. For void filling and
treatment of karst solution features, nearly any drilling method can be used as long as it
successfully encounters the discontinuity and subsequently allows injection either through the
drill tooling or through casing installed after the hole is drilled. In compaction grouting
applications at shallow depths, driven casing is typically installed to the desired depth and then
cleaned out from the surface. Alternatively, sacrificial knock-off points may be affixed to the
end of the casing and driven to the required depth with the casing. Removing the points simply
entails pulling the casing upwards slightly and then tapping out the plug with a rod or weight.
Deeper holes may necessitate the use of drilled casings. The selection of the drilling method is
typically an economic consideration in low-mobility and compaction grouting.

c. Mixing. Mixing of low-mobility and compaction grout is commonly performed by one

of two methods. Centrally mixed material can be purchased from a local concrete supplier and
delivered to the site in ready-to-inject form. Mix-on-site methods include self-contained
batching trucks (essentially portable concrete plants on wheels) that deliver dry material to the
site and mix on site as needed, and smaller, self-contained mixing/pumping units that use bulk
material sources and/or stockpiles on site. Self-contained mixing/pumping plants consist of a
mixing hopper in which materials are loaded, mixed, and then fed to the loading hopper, where
mixed materials enter the pump. If centrally mixed or batch truck materials are used, they are
simply delivered directly to the loading hopper via the chute on the truck. Centrally mixed and
portable batch truck methods are appropriate for large void-filling operations or when significant
quantities are otherwise required.

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d. Pumping. LMG generally has low to moderate slump with a high concentration of fine
aggregates. The pressures required to pump this material necessitate the use of piston pumps. In
nearly all cases, these are single-acting piston pumps (Figures 11-1 and 11-2). In most
circumstances the pump has two cylinders, allowing one cylinder to fill while the other is
discharging, thus minimizing the time between pump strokes. A swing tube rotates between the
cylinders receiving the pressurized grout. On some systems a rotating paddle is located above
the swing tube to assist with loading the cylinders during the reverse stroke. High-pressure hose
or steel pipe conveys the pressurized grout to the hole. When stiff materials are pumped in this
manner, it is likely that the cylinders will not be completely full of grout before the swing tube
closes and the piston moves forward. Some percentage of the cylinder volume will then likely
consist of air pockets. Since the volume of the cylinder is known, injected volumes are
commonly measured by counting pump strokes and assuming a full cylinder. Because of the
potential air pockets, a correction factor may be required for some materials. A simple
volumetric field test usually provides adequate accuracy. Due to the high pressures and the
abrasive nature of the pumped materials, piston pumps typically require significant maintenance
and frequent rebuilds.

11-4. Bitumen Grouting.

a. General. Bitumen grouting is a specialized grouting technique normally reserved for

massive inflows that cannot be remedied using other methods. Application of this method is
therefore rare; however, several noteworthy projects where bitumen injection was successfully
used are described by Bruce et al. (2001) and Naudts (2003). In some of these cases, the inflows
to be stopped were on the order of several thousand liters per second.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 11-1. Single-acting, dual-cylinder piston pump during assembly.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 11-2. Portable, diesel-powered LMG plant.

b. Equipment. Bitumen injection requires the use of equipment that can accommodate
injected material that is on the order of 392 F (200 C), and the rapid thickening of the material
when it cools below this temperature. Therefore, the temperature of the injection equipment
itself must be maintained high enough so that the material does not cool and thicken before
injection, leading to obstructions in the delivery system. Heated bulk storage containers are
required to maintain, and in some cases elevate, the temperature of the bitumen before injection.
Conveyance systems must be heated and insulated (Figure 11-3). Given the high operating
temperature, particular safety issues must be considered. In a common application, one or more
holes of suitable diameter, typically on the order of 15 cm (6 in.) (Bruce et al. 2001), are drilled
to intersect the zone where the inflow is occurring. Pipes are then inserted to the prescribed
depth for subsequent bitumen injection. Before injection the conveyance system must be heated,
which can be done by steam injection, injection of hot oil, or the use of a heat trace (Naudts
2003). After bitumen injection is initiated, the high temperature of the product will normally
prevent rapid cooling of the casing and therefore prevent clogging. Monitoring and frequent
observation of the injection pressure at multiple locations in the injection system will provide an
indication if and where clogging is occurring in the pipe, in which case additional insulation,
heat trace, and/or an increase in the temperature of the bitumen may be necessary.

c. Methods. Large inflows suitable for bitumen grouting are commonly confined to a
particular zone or fracture within bedrock. Conditions such as limestone with solution features
that are open or partially or totally filled with unconsolidated materials are candidates for such a

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condition to develop, given the appropriate hydraulic conditions. In some cases, these features
may be prevalent throughout a site, but with only one or a few that are actively flowing.
Treating only these few bad actors may simply change the groundwater regime such that the
condition reappears through previously inactive discontinuities. An intensive drilling and
investigative program is necessary to diagnose the exact location of the water-bearing zone and
to identify other potential water-bearing zones that may become active as a result of plugging the
currently active discontinuity (Figure 11-4). A combination of exploratory drilling, temperature
surveys, and geophysical techniques may be necessary to develop a thorough understanding of
the conditions. Once these zones are identified, treatment of the inactive discontinuities should
be initiated while flow velocities are relatively low due to the active flowing condition
elsewhere. This can typically be accomplished using HMG and LMG. The intent is to confine
the flow to the active water-bearing zone while strengthening the inactive zone to prevent
reappearance of the problem. Once confined, injection of bitumen to seal off the active water-
bearing zone is initiated. It is common to simultaneously inject HMG and LMG upstream of the
bitumen injection hole. When the HMG and LMG mixes with the bitumen, the high heat flash-
sets the cement in the HMG and LMG. As bitumen cools, it contracts, which can open channels
through which the seepage can re-emerge. It is therefore common to continue injection of HMG
for some time after bitumen injection is terminated to fully fill any flow paths left due to bitumen
contraction. The quantities of bitumen, HMG, and LMG consumed in an application of this type
can be enormous.

d. Contractors and Consultants. Application of bitumen grouting is typically necessary

only when a massive inflow has been encountered. In many cases, this is an unanticipated event
that results in potentially catastrophic damage to infrastructure. Timely remediation is normally
critical. The equipment required to adequately institute a bitumen grouting program is highly
specialized and generally very large compared to the small sites that are typically available for
treating isolated discontinuities. Experience among consultants is typically not vast because of
the limited application of the method. Under these near-crisis circumstances, experienced
consultants and contractors are required, as are the best available equipment and technology.

11-4

12-1. Introduction.

a. General. The raw data collected during water pressure testing and grout injections are
pressure and flow measurements as a function of time. Processing of these data on a real-time
basis using other known parameters, such as hole depth, static elevation heads, depth to
groundwater, system head loss, and specific gravity of injected fluids, is necessary to:

(1) Determine and control the effective pressures being applied to the stage

(2) Evaluate the nature of the stages response to mix changes and applied pressures

(3) Verify that the required refusal criteria are reached

(4) Determine the cumulative volume of injection.

b. Data Compilation. The compilation of both the raw data and the calculated data
provides the record of water pressure testing and/or grouting for the stage and is normally the
basis for at least a portion of the measurement for payment activities.

c. Data Processing. The necessary real-time processing of the data required for
controlling the injection can be performed either manually or semi-manually by individual
inspectors at each hole, or it can be performed automatically by computer systems that are
centrally located and capable of managing multiple headers simultaneously.

d. Records. After completion of the stage, the stage records are analyzed to evaluate the
effectiveness of the grouting program. As with data collection, the post-processing analyses can
be performed either manually or by computer systems designed specifically for this purpose.
This chapter discusses the various types of raw data measurement systems currently available for
use with HMG injection systems. Examples are provided to describe common methods of
deploying these systems, and commonly associated equipment.

12-2. Water and Grout Injection Measurement Equipment.

a. General Recommendations.

(1) Table 12-1 lists a summary of the types and characteristics of available measurement
equipment, including both systems that have historically been used and more advanced
equipment now readily available and commonly used. Chapter 16 of this manual addresses the
choice of equipment for a particular application, along with the real-time processing and post-
processing equipment and methods that will greatly affect the accuracy of measurements, the
frequency of readings that are possible, the accuracy and consistency of detecting refusal points,
the amount of time each injection operation may require, the ability to detect uplift and discern
other important behavior during the injection, the number of inspection personnel required, the
effort needed for post-processing and generation of all final project records, and the project costs.

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The time stamping capability of the automated systems, when used in conjunction with time
stamped automated instrumentation, facilitates the evaluation of project response. For dam
safety projects, this ability can be extremely valuable and necessary for managing construction
risks.

Table 12-1. Summary of measurement equipment and accuracies.

Monitoring
Equipment or
Parameter* Technique Accuracy Comments

Water Agitator dipstick < 0.25 CF or 7 L per Accuracy depends on diameter of the
and/or grout reading volume measured agitator and plant operators attention
take to detail. Requires averaging total
(volumetric flow over test time to acquire rate.
flow)
Agitator riser Slightly better than Allows easier confirmation of
tube dipstick readings by inspector. Lessens
operator attention factor. Requires
averaging total flow over test time to
acquire rate.

Nutating disk 1.5% of rate when Significant loss of accuracy at low-

water meter new flow rates. High wear rate of
measurement components can require
frequent meter rebuild/replacement.

Magnetic flow 5% for flow rates Zero reading is zero flow. Requires
meter greater than 0.25 power supply at header or remote
L/min. 25% for lesser system with signal and power cables.
flow rates (depends on Easy to check calibration on site.
line size)

Water/ Dial-type Accurate to 1% of Various gauge ranges required.

grout gauge mechanical range. Visual Gauge calibration should be checked
pressure gauges observation required. weekly against master gauges.
Pressure spikes and Weekly calibration requirement often
fluctuations often missing or not enforced. Gauges
missed or ignored in routinely go out of calibration and
manual calculations require correction or replacement.

Electronic <0.5% of full scale Calibration on site possible, but

pressure cumbersome. Requires power supply
transducers at header or remote power with
cables.
*
After Wilson and Dreese 1998.

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(2) In general, the advantages of using the latest measurement system technologies
(pressure transducers and electronic flow meters) are so great that their use is recommended for
all projects, regardless of size and regardless of selection of the real-time processing and post-
processing methodologies and systems, which might vary by project size and application.
Proven electronic measurement equipment is readily available, and it has been found to be at
least as durable as older mechanical systems, even in the harsh environment of grouting. This
does not negate the need to frequently check production instruments with a master instrument
and to keep an adequate supply of replacement instruments on hand in the field. All instruments
supplied to the project should preferably be of the same make and model for each type of
instrument to simplify maintenance and avoid range and configuration errors.

b. Mechanical Pressure Gauges. There are a number of important considerations in

selecting gauges. The accuracy to which a gauge can be read is proportional to the diameter of
the gauge. In practice, gauges should have a minimum face diameter of 4 in. to allow easy
reading with acceptable accuracy. Although larger gauges are available, they are often less
durable than 10-cm (4-in.) gauges and are not significantly more accurate. There may be a
variety of pressures required during the grouting process, so gauges with a variety of pressure
ranges must be on hand. Gauge accuracy is generally some percentage of the full scale; gauges
should have a pressure range exceeding the pressure expected to be used in grouting, but only by
a limited amount. If the maximum pressure recommended by the manufacturer is exceeded even
for a very short duration, the gauge can be damaged. Pressure gauges should not read the grout
column pressure directly, but rather should use a glycerin-filled annular hydraulic diaphragm
(see Gauge Savers below). Gauge pressures should be indicated in pounds per square inch.
Gauges should be provided new with calibration certificates, and the calibration should be
verified on a weekly basis against a master gauge or at any time when malfunction is suspected.
Gauges that show a difference of more than 2% from the master gauge should be discarded.

(1) Gauge Guards. Grouting is a difficult environment for gauges, so the use of guards to
protect the gauges should be considered. Gauge guards are typically a metal strap, bar, or cage
that extends around the gauge to provide some protection from accidental damage. Even heavy-
duty gauges can be damaged by impact to the bezel. Gauges incorporating threaded process
connections are often broken off at the threads. For this reason, it is best to select either larger-
diameter threaded process connections or flanged process connections.

(2) Gauge Savers. Gauges are destroyed if grout is permitted to enter the gauge. There
are several commercial gauge savers available. The use of short tubes filled with grease or U-
shaped tubes filled with oil should not be permitted. The preferred design of a gauge saver is an
annular hydraulic sensing diaphragm in the grout line with the hydraulic cavity between the
grout and the gauge filled with glycerin or silicone oil. This type of gauge saver is available in
several common configurations. The apparatus can typically be quickly disassembled from the
grout line and flushed. The fluid contained in the gauge saver also acts as a pressure snubber and
helps to minimize the detrimental effects that pressure spikes have on gauges.

c. Electronic Pressure Transducers. In automated systems of grout monitoring, electronic

pressure transducers are the norm. These instruments function by generating electrical signals
(typically with frequencies in the hertz or low milliamp range or low direct current voltage) as a
linear function of their range. For example, a pressure transducer with a full scale of 1,000 psi

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and a 4- to 20-mA output will generate approximately 4 mA at 0 psi and approximately 20 mA at

1,000 psi, with intermediate readings calculated using the linear relationship. The instrument
requires a power source, which can either be integral to the header unit or provided remotely via
cable. Signals are typically transmitted to a centralized monitoring location via a signal cable or
a wireless data system. The pressure transducers are mounted on the header instead of the gauge
as the primary pressure indicator. Transducers should be provided with a readout display at the
instrument location indicating the process pressure in psi. Backlit displays are available and
useful during nighttime operations or for work in confined spaces.

d. Mechanical/Electronic Flow Meters. Flow meters can provide an accurate record of the
flow to the hole. Flow meters are usually installed on the header with the transducer. An
alternative system is to install flow meters on both the feed line and the return line. The
difference between the readings from the two meters then represents the rate of grout injection.
There are many varieties of flow meters, including those that operate by measuring differential
pressure, positive displacement, velocity, and mass flow. Flow meters that operate by measuring
material velocity include turbine, magnetic, and sonic devices. True mass-flow meters are also
available. All of these types of flow meters are available with analog signal transmitters with
linear outputs similar to those described above for the pressure transducer. Regardless of type,
the readout of the flow meter is typically provided through an LCD display at the meter, and the
data can be transmitted via cable or wireless to a central data acquisition location. Display units
should be in gallons per minute, cubic feet per minute, or liters per minute, and total volume
injected should be in gallons, cubic feet, or liters at the header. The electronic flow meters
should indicate zero flow for no-flow situations, and the totalizer should be easily reset to zero.
It is essential that electronic flow meters used in the work be known to have proven suitability
for grouting.

(1) Differential Pressure Flow Meters. Differential pressure meters measure the drop in
pressure as the fluid passes through a metering orifice or venturi. The meter must be compatible
with the properties of the fluid being measured. For example, water flows are often measured
with thermoplastic insert venturis, but grout would quickly erode such an insert. Also, the
differential-producing element must be sized appropriately for the desired flow and viscosity of
the measured fluid. Differential pressure meters are typically not well suited to grouting, where
there are often large viscosity variations in the grout mixes.

(2) Positive Displacement Flow Meters. Positive displacement meters use a rotating vane
or disk to measure the grout in discrete units, which are counted. These are not well suited for
grouts and can become inaccurate with buildup of grout on the vane or disk or with abrasion due
to the cement and bentonite in the grout.

(3) Turbine Flow Meters. Turbine flow meters measure the velocity of the grout as it
passes through a turbine. The rotational speed of the turbine is related to the flow rate. The
turbine and stator components of these meters wear quickly when used with grouts, so they are
not very suitable for measuring grout flow.

(4) Magnetic Flow Meters. Magnetic flow meters are the most common type of flow
meter used to measure the volume of HMG injected in a hole (Figure 12-1). Magnetic flow
meters are well suited to abrasive fluids such as grout because they minimally impede the fluid

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stream when the flow sensing tube is approximately the same size as the grout delivery line.
Magnetic flow meters apply a known magnetic field to the measurement area and measure the
voltage induced across the fluid as it moves through the meter. The grout needs to have a high
water content to provide the proper electrical conductance. HMG mixes typically have the
necessary water content.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 12-1. Magnetic flow meter and pressure transducer pair with LCD readouts.

(5) Ultrasonic Flow Meters. Several types of ultrasonic flow meters operate on either
Doppler or time-of-transit principles. The Doppler-type ultrasonic flow meter uses transducers
to transmit a beam of ultrasonic energy through the fluid to be measured. Particles or bubbles in
the fluid reflect the beam to a receiver. The frequency shift of the beam is proportional to the
velocity of the fluid and is calculated by the meter. The time-of-transit type of flow meter uses
ultrasonic transducers that are similar to those of the Doppler meter, but are placed on opposite
sides of the flow tube. This type of meter is not a good choice for grouting operations as it is
sensitive to scattering and absorption by particles or bubbles in the flowing fluid. For either type
of meter, once the measurement is taken, the value is transmitted as a linearly proportional
signal.

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(6) Coriolis Mass-Flow Meters. Mass-flow meters employ a U-shaped tube that is
enclosed in a sensor. The tube is the same diameter as the grout delivery line and is vibrated at
its natural frequency by a magnetic device. The U-tube vibrates at a varying frequency that
depends on the mass of the grout. The rate of these vibrations is detected by magnetic sensors on
opposite sides of the tube and converted to a voltage difference, which correlates with flow rate.

12-3. Electronic Instrument Accuracy.

a. Accuracy. With the growing prevalence of electronic measuring devices, it is important

that grouting practitioners who intend to use them understand the definitions of measurement
accuracy and how this affects their view of the actual grouting process. Accuracies for electronic
instruments are most commonly specified in one of three ways: percentage of full scale,
percentage of calibrated span, or percentage of actual reading.

(1) Full-Scale Accuracy. Full scale is the maximum reading a given instrument is
designed to read. For example, a pressure transducer may be designed for a maximum process
pressure of 1,000 psi, so its full scale is 1,000 psi. An accuracy of 1% of full scale would mean
that for any given pressure reading the accuracy is 10 psi. For an indicated pressure of 700 psi,
the actual process pressure may be between 690 and 710 psi. For an indicated pressure of 150
psi, the actual process pressure may be between140 and 160 psi.

(2) Calibrated Span Accuracy. Many instruments have the ability to span, or turn down
the maximum reading from the rated full scale. In the above example, the pressure transducer
had a full scale of 1,000 psi. If the span were turned down to 200 psi and the accuracy specified
as 1% of the calibrated span, then at any given pressure reading the accuracy is 2 psi. If the
span were changed to 500 psi, the accuracy would be 5 psi.

(3) Actual Reading Accuracy. Accuracy may be specified as a percentage of the actual
reading. For the same transducer as above with the accuracy specified as 1% of the actual
reading, at an indicated pressure of 700 psi, the actual process pressure would be 7 psi. At an
indicated pressure of 50 psi, the actual process pressure would be 0.5 psi.

b. Pressure Transducers. Transducers are available in a wide range of pressures, from

fractions of a psi to thousands of psi. The transducers maximum operating pressure or full-scale
pressure should be selected based on the pressures necessary to perform the work, but, as with
gauges, this should not be exceeded by a significant amount as the accuracy will suffer. If, for
instance, a pressure transducer with a full scale of 10,000 psi and a specified accuracy of 1% of
full scale is used to monitor grout injections at an actual process pressure of 300 psi, the
instrument would indicate that the pressure is between 200 and 400 psi and still be within
manufacturer-specified tolerances. For most HMG applications at reasonably shallow depths,
electronic pressure transducers with a maximum range of 5,000 psi provide adequate accuracy,
even at operating pressures significantly lower than the full scale. This is possible because the
typical accuracy specification for such pressure transducers is 0.1% of the calibrated span or
better.

c. Electronic Flow Meters. The accuracy of electronic flow meters is typically a function
of the velocity of the fluid in the flow tube. Typically the accuracy for magnetic meters is

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specified with respect to a range of velocities, commonly 0.31 m/s (13 ft/s) and 110 m/s (3
33 ft/s). At velocities in excess of 10 m/s (33 ft/s), the instrument will be out of range, but it may
continue to show a reading of the maximum rate. Because of the nature of their operation,
magnetic flow meters have limited accuracy when velocity in the flow tube drops below
approximately 0.3 ft/s (approximately 0.5 gpm in a 1-in. meter since the flow tube diameter is
often slightly smaller than the nominal pipe diameter). However, when permeation grouting to
absolute refusal or when flow rates are very low (such as 0.1 gpm), it is important that readings
be relatively accurate to ensure that grouting is neither terminated prematurely nor continued at
additional cost. Magnetic meters are available that will accurately measure very low-flow rates,
but since the measurement principle is based on velocity in the flow tube, the diameters of these
instruments are small (0.10.25 in.) and not practical for grouting applications since they are
easily blocked and not capable of reading higher flows when necessary. As a rule of thumb, if
HMG is to be injected, the recommended magnetic flow-meter diameter is 0.751 in. The
accuracies are likely sufficient provided that the manufacturers specified accuracy is on the
order of 1% of full scale with flow velocities greater than 3 ft/s and the instrument is freshly
calibrated. Many magnetic flow meters have accuracies significantly better than 1% of full scale
within this flow range. This should provide reasonable accuracy at refusal and adequate capacity
for measurement of high flows (above 50 gpm during pressure testing). If additional flow rate
capacity is desired, a larger-diameter meter must be selected; the accuracy near refusal flow rates
will suffer, but in instances such as massive grouting applications, this is not of concern. Since
grouting is performed over a wide range of flows, it is important that the grouting practitioner
understand when to suspect flow inaccuracies and take steps to minimize their impacts.
Specifications should require freshly calibrated meters, and meter specifications should be
provided before starting work. The maximum flow rate that the meter is capable of reading
should be specified, and injections should be conducted below that rate to avoid anomalous
readings. Calibration checks against a master, non-production meter should be specified and
conducted regularly. Since this master meter is likely to be of the same diameter as the
production units, this form of calibration check is satisfactory for low to high-flow rates. If
verification of very low-flow rates (less than 0.5 gpm) is required, then it is recommended that
this be performed on a volumetric basis by timing the volume displaced at some very low-flow
rate. It is important to note that the accuracy of a flow meter depends on the piping
configuration in which it is installed. Most flow meters, except for true mass-flow meters, sense
a representative cross section of the flow in the flow tube. Turbulence due to piping
configuration, mismatched gaskets, turns, and other configurations can cause unpredictable
measurements in derived flow measurements. It is recommended the flow meter manufacturers
installation recommendations be followed when specifying or designing flow sensing
installations and when evaluating the performance of meters in the field.

12-4. Automated Monitoring Systems. Chapter 16 of this manual discusses the levels of the
technology currently available and the records produced by automated monitoring systems. All
contractors capable of a sophisticated grouting program have proprietary automated monitoring
systems that differ widely in their capabilities; however, it is possible to design one with off-the
shelf hardware and software with relative ease. Two key factors that make this possible are
advances in computer monitoring systems, and GISs that facilitate the final display of the
grouting data that has been organized into a usable database. Common elements of all systems
include pressure transducers and flow meters, power and signal cables or wireless data

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transmission, analog-to-digital converters, computer hardware, and monitoring software (Figure

12-2). Computer and communication systems change rapidly, and prospective users of
automated monitoring systems are best served by contacting contractors or engineers who
provide these systems for information on features and performance.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 12-2. Centralized automated system for real-time processing and display for actively
monitoring and controlling injections.

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CHAPTER 13

Site Access and Site Preparation

13-1. Introduction. This chapter addresses aspects of various site preparation activities
necessary to prepare a site for grouting, and common applications of concrete platforms and
plinths as they apply to grouting operations.

13-2. Site Access and Site Preparation Equipment.

a. General. One aspect of grouting that has been given little attention, but yet is critical to
successful execution of the grouting program is site access and preparation. Detailed
consideration in the design phase must be given to these issues because the way in which they
are approached will affect many aspects of the grouting. The designer must know the physical
characteristics of the surface from which grouting will be conducted, the environmental
conditions under which grouting will be performed, and the safety issues for both the
contractors personnel and Government personnel.

b. Soil Surfaces. Drilling and grouting operations that are planned to be conducted from
soil surfaces always warrant substantial preparation. Experience has shown that special
measures will not be implemented unless specifically required by the contract documents.
Without the construction of substantial working platforms, soil subgrades inevitably become a
quagmire, resulting in unsafe working conditions, uncontrolled environmental conditions, and
substantial risk to the quality of the work. For that reason, contract documents should define the
minimum requirements for the working platform, including its minimum width, thickness, and
slope, and for its waste collection facilities. Contractors may, of course, propose something
exceeding the minimum requirements based on their operational needs.

(1) Gravel Platforms. Gravel or sand and gravel working platforms are not recommended.
They will provide stability for a brief initial period, but water penetrating into the soil subgrade
and/or choking of the surface with waste materials will rapidly destabilize the platform.
Maintaining positive surface drainage is problematic. Periodically scraping and replenishing
gravel surfaces has been found to be ineffective.

(2) Figure 13-1 shows an example of a gravel platform after a short period of use. When
initially constructed, the platform was clean, dry, and stable. Even with frequent maintenance, it
quickly reverted to the condition shown.

c. Hard Surface Platforms. Working platforms should be constructed of concrete, soil-

cement, roller-compacted concrete (RCC), or other hard, durable material. Hard surface
platforms offer advantages; they provide safer working areas, positive drainage and control of
water and waste products, easier setup of drilling and grouting equipment, improved operational
efficiency, better alignment control, hole stability at the surface, a point of fixity for casing at the
ground surface, better protection of holes during the various operations, and easy marking of
hole identification numbers. Typically, the minimum width of the platform should be
approximately 25 ft to allow equipment to pass at any location; however, if multiple grout lines
are to be constructed from a single platform, a wider platform may be warranted. The minimum

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thickness of concrete or soil-cement should be selected based on the anticipated equipment loads,
soil subgrade condition, and design life of the platform. Concrete should be placed directly on a
soil subgrade compacted to at least 95% of standard dry density. A granular base should not be
used to avoid having a raveling layer beneath the hard platform. The platform should have a
minimum cross slope of 2% to provide positive drainage and facilitate easy removal of cuttings
and waste materials. Water and waste product collection facilities such as an excavated ditch
should be located along the length of the platform. Provisions must be made for frequent
removal and proper disposal of waste products. Figure 13-2 plainly shows the benefits of a hard
surface platform, at the same site (as shown in Figure 13-1), but at a later date with a hard
platform in place. The cost of a hard surface platform is minor relative to the benefits provided.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-1. Gravel drilling and grouting platform after a short period of use.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-2. Hard surface platform after extensive drilling and grouting operations.

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d. Rock Surfaces. Most grouting for new structures, and sometimes for remedial
grouting, is performed from an excavated rock surface. Understanding the nature of the rock
surface from which grouting will be performed is essential to developing appropriate designs and
contract provisions.

(1) Rock Surface Characteristics.

(a) Groutability. Except in unusual circumstances, excavations should go to the depth at

which rock will grout readily. Rock that will grout readily will have the following
characteristics: (1) it will be sufficiently massive that the surface does not consist of easily
dislodged, small rock fragments, (2) it will not unduly ravel with equipment operating on the
surface, (3) it will support borings in an open condition without having them blocked by
detached or partially detached rock fragments, (4) it will not be so fractured as to make
management of grout surface leaks an untenable operation, (5) fractures will be open and sound
and generally free of weathered materials or infilled materials except for the occasional seam,
and (6) it will permit successful setting of packers. In general, experience has shown that when
the RQD approaches 40% or more, the rock will grout more readily, assuming that weathering
and infilling conditions are also satisfied. If it is determined that the rock surface and rock mass
does not have the characteristics to grout more readily, numerous special and costly measures
may be required. The long-term performance of the finished grouting may also be uncertain.
Measures that have been used when there was a need to perform grouting in low-quality rock
include: (1) very short stage lengths grouted with downstage techniques, (2) repeated
applications of grout to stages, (3) operating with undesirably low pressures, (4) greatly extended
washing operations, (5) extensive surface caulking, (6) redrilling of stages, and (7) many
additional holes on very close spacing. An alternative to attempting to grout rock that does not
grout readily is to construct a concrete cutoff wall through the zone.

(b) Durability. Consideration should be given to the durability of the rock surface. If the
rock is subject to air and/or water slaking, it will be subject to deterioration throughout the
course of the grouting. There are two potential courses of action for slaking conditions. One is
to place a concrete grout cap over the location where grouting is to be performed immediately
after a fresh surface is exposed and cleaned. The second option is to use standpipes grouted into
the rock and allow the slaked materials to accumulate on the surface, which will reduce the depth
of slaking that will occur. Repeated cleaning should be avoided to prevent increasing the depth
of slaking.

(c) Surface Roughness. The roughness of the excavated rock surface is a critical
consideration in successfully planning, specifying, and executing many aspects of grouting. The
actual surface roughness, when found to differ substantially from representations contained in
the contract documents, has been a source of many delays, cost overruns, safety issues, and
claims. Roughness is controlled by the site geology, and it may differ substantially between
valley and abutment areas. The primary geologic factors controlling roughness are structure,
jointing, and rock hardness. Some generalizations regarding surface roughness are:

1. The roughness of hard rock surfaces is controlled by natural asperities created by

intersecting fracture systems. Widely spaced fracture systems will create large
asperities.

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2. Soft rocks can be shaped by excavating equipment, and smoothing of the foundation
surfaces is possible to a varying extent.

3. Interbedded hard and soft sedimentary rocks will create ledgy conditions on abutments.
Also, depending on the attitude of the bedding, the attitude of excavation surfaces may
be controlled by the bedding.

Figures 13-3 through 13-7 show examples of excavated foundation surfaces with varying degrees
of roughness.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-3. Smooth foundation surface along sedimentary

rock horizontally bedded in a valley area.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-4. Rough foundation surface along sedimentary rock

bedding in an abutment area.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-5. Large-amplitude roughness resulting from a fracture system and

deep-weathered seams in metamorphic rock.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-6. Moderate-amplitude roughness in metamorphic rock.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-7. Smooth valley and abutment surfaces in sedimentary rock

sufficiently soft to permit significant smoothing by excavation.

(d) Methods to assess probable rock surface roughness include examination and mapping of
rock outcrops and quantitatively understanding the rock structure and fracture systems from
investigation data. The recommended and most direct method is to perform large test excavations
in the design phase so that the actual surface can be mapped and photographed. If surfaces are
sufficiently smooth to permit reasonable access, movement, and servicing of drilling and grouting
equipment, special measures may not be required. However, if the roughness will jeopardize
efficient and safe execution of the work or will likely lead to claims, the design and construction
documents must specify special measures required to provide reasonable access and operation.
Most commonly, the measures will be either the extensive use of backfill concrete or a thick,
continuous grout cap along the entire alignment. Figure 13-8 shows a planned solution and Figure
13-9 shows the difficulties that can occur when a planned solution is not provided.

e. Surface Steepness.

(1) Realistic assessment is required regarding the steepness of rock foundations and whether
steep slopes will be smooth, rough, or ledgy. For smooth, steep slopes, it may be possible for
equipment to access the work areas by using anchor and winch systems and providing stair systems for
workers. For rough slopes flatter than about 1 V on 2 H, unformed dental concrete and/or an unformed
grout cap is a good solution. Although contractors have attempted to use unformed concrete on steeper
slopes, this has been found to be unsatisfactory. To keep the concrete from moving downhill,
contractors may use concrete that cannot be effectively consolidated, they may avoid attempting
thorough consolidation, or they may use stay-in-place forms at frequent intervals. Each of these
techniques has been found by experience to produce negative effects, such as a highly porous grout cap
or a grout cap with many porous construction joints. Figure 13-10 shows an application where stay
forms were attempted on a 1 V on 1.5 H slope with minimal consolidation of the concrete; the results
were so poor that chemical grouting of the entire cap was necessary.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-8. Extensive use of dental concrete for grouting access on a rough foundation.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-9. Working conditions resulting from not using a planned access solution.

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(2) Therefore, for rough

slopes steeper than about 1 V on 2
H, it will be necessary to provide a
top form for the concrete so that it
can be properly consolidated
without losing it downhill, or, as an
alternative, the contractor may be
required to use movable work
platforms. Other less-desirable
alternatives include scaffold
systems or column-mounted stand
drills. Unless a fully mechanized
scaffolding system such as a
movable platform is used,
scaffolding for individual setups is
slow, often dangerous, and
potentially cannot provide sufficient
support or workspace for heavy
drills. Column-mounted stand drills
attached to pre-installed standpipes
often do not have sufficient power
to drill holes of the desired hole
diameters and the required depths,
and they may not have sufficient
rigidity to be able to adequately
control hole deviation. Figures 13
11 to 13-13 show examples of (Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)
access systems used on steep slopes.
Figure 13-10. Porous grout cap requiring chemical
13-3. Grout Standpipes and Grout grouting.
Caps.

a. General. Grout standpipes and grout caps are used separately or in combination where
required to properly conduct the work. The reasons for their use and their specific configuration
will vary depending on the application.

b. Grout Standpipes. Grout standpipes are steel pipes that are embedded in either the rock
surface or the grout cap. Standpipes are also sometimes referred to as a collars, nipples,
surface pipes, or connectors.

(1) Functions. Standpipes can serve one or more functions, depending on need: (1) they
can be used to provide a point of connection for the grout delivery lines and grout header, either
by direct mechanical connection or by providing a length of pipe for inflating a pneumatic
packer, (2) they can be used in weak or broken rock to facilitate setting of packers or to help
control surface leaks, (3) they can facilitate proper re-alignment when multiple drill setups are
required on a hole, and (4) they can serve as barriers against the entry of surface water and waste
materials into the hole.

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(Courtesy of USBR)

Figure 13-11. Ridges Basin Dam right abutment scaffolding for grouting operations.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-12. Drilling rig operating on an inclined concrete platform.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-13. Crane-supported drilling platform on a steep abutment.

(2) Usage. Standpipes are not always required. For example, they may not be necessary
when the rock surface meets the definition of readily groutable rock, provided there is not a
surface drainage issue. They may also not be necessary when a thick grout cap is used, since a
drilled hole in concrete can provide the same functions. In general, they are required in highly
fractured rock and at any location where surface drainage may contaminate the grout hole.

(3) Materials and Procedures. Standpipes should either be black or galvanized steel.
Plastic standpipes are not workable. Standpipes are grouted or concreted into place in slightly
oversize holes. Standpipes should have a minimum embedment of 2 ft and a minimum exposure
of 0.5 ft. If mechanical fittings are used, they can either be directly threaded fittings or quick
disconnects. After grouting is finished, standpipes should be cut off flush with the surface.
Figure 13-14 shows standpipes being used in an appropriate situation.

(4) Specifying. Standpipes should be specified by material, minimum length, and

minimum depth of embedment. Specifying diameter is typically not necessary, since the
requirement is that the diameter must be suitable for introduction of all equipment that the
contractor will be using; however, if rebar is present in a grout cap, a maximum diameter
specification may be appropriate to minimize cutting of reinforcement. Measurement and
payment is usually based on the number of standpipes installed. Even if the majority of work is
not anticipated to require standpipes, provisions should be included in the contract documents to
use them at selected locations where required.

c. Grout Caps. Grout caps are used in a variety of configurations for a variety of
purposes. They are not necessarily required, but their usage is quite common. Grout caps can be
used for the following functions: (1) to provide a positive cutoff in highly fractured surface rock,
(2) to act as a barrier to surface leaks, (3) to set standpipes, (4) to replace standpipes in
conjunction with pneumatic packers, (5) to provide an effective working platform on rough rock

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surfaces, (6) to provide effective environmental control, and (7) in special cases, to act as a
connector between the grouted zone and other elements of the structure.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-14. Standpipes embedded in rock for protecting holes in a wet excavation.

(1) Cutoff Caps. Grout caps are sometimes constructed to provide positive cutoffs in
highly fractured, weak, soft, or seamy rock. By definition, these conditions do not correspond to
readily groutable rock. Without a cutoff cap in this type rock, it is difficult to set standpipes or
packers in the rock, surface leaks may be nearly uncontrollable, the rock may not be able to
withstand the pressures being applied without uplifting, and it may not be possible to
successfully grout badly weathered or infilled joints. Given that near-surface rock is both the
most difficult zone to grout effectively and often the most critical zone of the foundation,
intentionally planning to reduce the amount of excavation and overcome the resultant problems
by using a cutoff cap is not generally recommended, but rather a cutoff cap may be required
when excavation to readily groutable rock is precluded. In such cases, the required depth of the
cutoff cap may be considerable. Figure 13-15 shows conditions where a cutoff cap would be
appropriate and beneficial.

(a) Shape and Dimensions. If the prime purpose of the cap is to serve as a cutoff, it
should be approximately 3 ft wide for depths up to 10 ft. Wider caps may be used when depths
exceed 10 ft. The sides of the cap should be nearly vertical to develop shear resistance against
uplift. The minimum depth of the cap should be 3 ft. Trapezoidal, triangular, and shallow slab
configurations are not acceptable because they will be uplifted from the foundation under
minimal pressure.

(b) Excavation. Cutoff caps are excavated by a suitably sized backhoe. Explosives are
generally not necessary; if the rock is sufficiently competent to require explosives, it probably
does not require a cutoff cap. In intermediate materials, it may be possible to effectively use a

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rock trenching machine, which also has the advantage of being able to excavate a narrow trench
in rock to depths up to or exceeding 10 ft. Hand-held tools, such as jackhammers or pick and
shovel, may be required in conjunction with a backhoe, but given the unit cost and production
rates, this is not practical except to assist with a few isolated problem areas.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-15. Heavily jointed rock suitable for excavating a cutoff cap.

(2) Surface Grout Caps. Surface grout caps are seeing wide usage as a multiple function
platform. Objections to initial cost are being set aside in favor of the many benefits they can
provide, both in quality and overall program costs. They are used on slaking rock surfaces to
protect rock surfaces from deterioration, on rough rock surfaces to provide efficient access and
increase production, and in almost any setting to provide better hole protection, facilitate drill
setups, reduce surface leakage problems, provide better environmental control, allow higher
grouting pressures in the upper zone of rock, and increase safety. Surface grout caps are thick,
typically on the order of 1824 in., and their width is selected based on constructability needs.
This thickness of slab allows pneumatic packers or standpipes to be set entirely within the
concrete slab, which then permits direct grout access to every fracture and to the interface of the
slab and the top of the rock. To eliminate uplift concerns, the cap slabs are normally anchored to
the foundation. Typically, anchors will consist of 10-ft-long No. 11 bars on 5-ft centers.
Temperature steel or light reinforcement in slabs is common. Treatment of construction and
contraction joints must also be considered and might vary depending on the application. Figures
13-16 to 13-18 show examples of surface grout caps.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-16. Inclined and stepped surface grout cap on a rough, ledgy
abutment of a concrete dam foundation.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-17. Smooth-surface grout cap used on a steep, ledgy, and

broken rock surface.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-18. Grout cap used on a smooth, slaking rock surface.

(3) Plinths. Plinths are a special type of surface grout cap. Plinths are usually constructed
at the upstream toe of dams, either as part of new construction or as part of a remedial program.
Plinths are physically integrated with and connected to other seepage control features in the
project. In some cases, the plinth is the logical extension of a seepage barrier. An example is a
rock-fill dam with a concrete or synthetic liner system, where the plinth acts as the connector
between the facing system and the foundation. In other cases, the plinth might serve multiple
purposes, e.g., it may provide a starter wall at the upstream toe for RCC dam facing systems, and
it may function as a surface grout cap. An advantage of plinths, even when not required strictly
for integration with other features, is that they often allow grouting operations to be removed
from the critical path. With proper safety precautions, grouting can be performed simultaneously
with other construction operations rather than being required to be performed separately in
advance. Depending on the project, this can reduce construction time by as much as a year.
Figures 13-19 through 13-21 show plinths that have been used on several projects.

13-4. Galleries.

a. General. Galleries are provided in most large concrete and RCC dams, and have
occasionally been used in earth dam construction. Galleries provide access for inspection, a location
for collecting seepage, a location for instrumentation cabling, and a means of access for grouting.
Where grouting has been initially planned to be performed from a gallery, the reasons are usually to
remove grouting from the critical path, to take advantage of the weight of the structure to use higher
pressures without fear of uplift, and/or to ensure full sealing of the structure with the foundation
surface. In reality, grouting from a gallery is both difficult and expensive due to space limitations;
there are limitations on hole orientations that can be used, and it is a difficult working environment
for the contractor. For those reasons, the preferred use is for remedial grouting activities. A plinth
and properly oriented grout holes, along with electronic monitoring systems that can detect uplift,
provide essentially the same benefits while at the same time allowing the use of large production
equipment and unrestricted access. Figure 13-22 shows a gallery within an RCC dam.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-19. Plinth allowing grouting (on left) to be concurrent with

RCC dam construction (on right).

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-20. Drilling operations concurrent with RCC

dam construction.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-21. Final grouting operations being completed as an RCC dam nears completion.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-22. Entrance to a gallery in an RCC dam reserved for drainage and remedial grouting.

b. Drilling Equipment. Drilling equipment used for grouting in galleries is similar to that
used for surface work. Typically it is electrically or pneumatically powered and configured for
low overhead clearance and narrow widths. Drilling in galleries can be particularly slow due to
the use of short drill rods (typically 5 ft or less) and the limited power of the equipment.
Traditionally, rotary coring methods are used. Grout batching equipment is typically located
outside of the gallery due to its size and environmental concerns with particulates. Batched grout

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is commonly delivered to the gallery through a circulation loop. A small agitator and grout
pump receive the batched materials and convey them to a header unit located near the hole.
Production rates for gallery grouting are on the order of 50% of similar surface work.
Sequencing of activities is critical, since often the available space prohibits the passing of even
the smallest equipment. Figures 13-23 and 13-24 show sample equipment and conditions.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-23. Low-clearance pneumatic rotary drill.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-24. Remedial grout injection. Note the crowded

conditions in this 9-ft-wide space.

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13-5. Site Infrastructure Systems.

a. General. In general, insufficient attention has been paid to the site systems that are
required for both effectively controlling the work environment and protecting the natural
environment. With proper site infrastructure systems, grouting has been performed at
temperatures below 50 F to above 130 F. Grouting is often performed on either a double-shift
basis or on a round-the-clock basis. Grouting is often performed in environmentally sensitive
areas that require protection from contamination by materials and waste products used in the
grouting process. Historically, specifications have contained minimal performance requirements
related to these items, and it is common that sufficient funds are not allocated to properly address
these items. Even in relatively temperate climatic situations, it is common for productivity to
suffer, for quality to be adversely affected, and for worker safety to be compromised. If
prescriptive specifications are used, the conditions that will be encountered and the project
requirements must be carefully considered. While it is not necessary to specify the details of site
systems that must be provided, the general nature and types of systems required should be listed.
If the Best Value selection process is used, the contractor should propose in detail both the
equipment and site layout of the equipment that will be used.

b. Environmental Control Systems. Unless specifically required, protective shelters for

storing materials and mixing grout may not be provided. It is not uncommon that the only
protection provided is a sheet of plastic over a pallet of cement. Even for the smallest projects
under the most favorable conditions, effective shelters, even if makeshift, should be provided for
equipment, materials, and operators at both the point of mixing and the injection header. On any
sizeable project, particularly where grouting will be conducted from one or more central mixing
sites, the shelters should be sufficient in size for all planned materials storage, operations, and
quality control operations. Depending on the nature of the project, it may be required to provide
shelters for the entire work area. Figures 13-25 through 13-29 show examples of environmental
control systems.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-25. Minimal sheltering limited to plastic sheeting to

cover bags of cement.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-26. Field-constructed shelter over grout mixing station.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-27. Fully enclosed and heated prefabricated shelter for materials
storage and mixing.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-28. Inside view of a fully enclosed, prefabricated shelter.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-29. Custom mobile grout headers and injection control equipment.

c. Lighting. Only rarely can grouting projects be conducted without some night
operations, and even more rarely is the lighting adequate for the work. Prescriptive
specifications should be clear on the amount of light required at each area of operations, and on
general site lighting requirements. Refer to EM 385-1-1 for all lighting requirements.

d. Access. Specifications should contain requirements for constructing stairways with

railings at all ledges and on steep slopes. In general, slopes steeper than 1V on 2H should have
stairs for access by both the contractors workers and Government forces. If the number and
length of stairways that will be required are uncertain, a simple method of covering this item is to
require stairs to be constructed the full height of both abutments. Figure 13-30 shows typical
examples of abutment stairway systems. Refer to EM 385-1-1 for all access requirements.

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Figure 13-30. Typical access stairways on abutment areas, Folsom Dam (Sacramento District).

e. Environmental Protection Systems. Drilling and grouting operations use large quantities
of water and generate considerable waste products. The environmental protection requirements for
each project need to be carefully considered, and the specifications need to be tailored to meet
those needs. In general, the contractor is normally required to exercise control over all water and
waste products by using ditches, pumps, temporary collection sumps, and sedimentation ponds. It
is not acceptable for water and waste products to be flowing uncontrolled through the work areas.
Work performed over or adjacent to water bodies require particularly stringent specifications.
Erosion and sediment control features may be required throughout the entire area of operations.
Specifications should cover in detail both the method and location of waste disposal. Maintenance
of the environmental protection systems should be covered in the contract documents. Figures 13
31 and 13-32 show project sites with adequate environmental controls.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-31. Hard surface platform with a cross slope leading

to a collection trench.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-32. Wash water and cuttings being directed to an environmental control system.

13-6. Hot and Cold Weather Operations.

a. General. Equipment for operating in hot and cold weather are special considerations.
These conditions are not obstacles to performing quality grouting or even to productivity if
proper site equipment is provided at the outset. When not dealt with properly, both quality and
productivity decline dramatically.

b. High Temperatures. Even in temperate regions, it is not uncommon for the foundation
surface to reach temperatures as high as 130 F at the peak of the summer. The temperature of
grout, measured at the agitator tank, is not permitted to exceed an upper limit, usually 90 F.
Temperatures beyond that point begin to have adverse effects. Set time is greatly accelerated,
and grout can either begin setting in the delivery lines before injection, resulting in the injection
of agglomerations of particles that will choke off fine fractures without penetration or that will
limit penetration greatly; or grout in the agitator can hydrate without setting due to the
mechanical breaking of bonds, such that poor quality, very weak grout may result after injection.
Normally, contract documents will not specify the particular means the contractor is to use to
control high temperatures, but will possibly list a group of potential remedies that may be
required. Methods that have been found to be effective include: (1) providing shade shelters for
materials and equipment, (2) using groundwater supplies rather than surface water supplies,
(3) adding ice to water supply tanks, (4) restricting grouting to night operations, (5) using water
chiller units, (6) providing a field-built water or ice bath through which grout delivery lines are
run, (7) using reflective insulation, or (8) using liquid nitrogen cooling systems.

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c. Winter Grouting. In general, winter grouting operations are more problematic than hot
weather operations. The grout temperature must be maintained at or above 40 F, and the
surface rock must be maintained above 40 F when the grout is injected and for 5 days thereafter.

(1) Rock Surface Temperature. The rock temperature must be above freezing at the time
of grout injection and for a lengthy period thereafter to prevent freezing of the grout and the
formation of voids after thawing of ice in fractures. Additionally, it must actually be maintained
at the higher temperature of 40 F for grout to set within a reasonable period of time. If winter
grouting of exposed rock surfaces is required, the surfaces can be maintained at the required
temperatures by: (1) covering the foundation with insulation blankets, with or without heating
beneath the blankets as required, (2) enclosing and heating the entire workspace to maintain
temperatures, or (3) using a surface grout cap with a thickness exceeding the depth of freezing.

(2) Grout Temperature. Grout can be maintained at 40 F or higher by using one or more
of the following methods: (1) protected, heated enclosures for materials storage and for mixing,
agitating, and pumping equipment, (2) insulated tanks and lines, and (3) heated mixing water.
Figures 13-33 through 13-36 show effective measures for project sites in which winter work was
performed without interruption.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-33. Winter drilling operations.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-34. Water heating and pumping plant.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 13-35. Winter-ready site with covered equipment storage, a fully enclosed and heated
shelter for materials and mixing plant, and a water heating system.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 13-36. Winter shelter for core logging operations.

(3) Productivity Issues. The impact of cold weather operations on productivity varies
greatly between contractors, depending on their available equipment and their experience. For
well-equipped and experienced contractors, the impact on productivity may be minimal. Other
contractors may have productivity decreases of 50% or more, and some contractors will simply
not conduct winter operations at all. While some may argue that winter operations and
productivity are strictly the contractors problem, in fact, projects with critical timelines may
require winter work. On projects where winter work is known to be likely, the project will be
better served by declaring that winter work will be required and specifying all of the winter
measures that will be necessary. The Government will make the bidders aware of the schedule
and conditions that are to be expected throughout the course of the contract.

13-7. Site Safety.

a. General. Grouting operations must be conducted in accordance with EM 385-1-1.

Beyond the normal safety issues typical of general construction, the following topics are of
particular concern on grouting projects.

b. Slips and Trips. The presence of grout and other grouting operation by-products on
even well prepared work surfaces creates slip and trip hazards. Grout should be removed
through the use of high-pressure water wash before setting. Hardened grout may be removed by
chiseling. Grout should be removed from all traffic and pedestrian areas immediately upon
spillage. Site safety in winter operations is a critical consideration. The combination of freezing
weather with a process that fundamentally uses voluminous amounts of water increases the
potential for slip and fall hazards, and for personal injury related to the handling of icy

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equipment. Leaking lines and anything less than complete care and control of discharge water
are unacceptable. Efficient and effective snow removal is required to maintain safe access to
both the site and all work areas.

c. Traffic, Signage, and Lighting. Grouting projects often involve numerous pieces of
equipment traveling frequently across a confined job site. Control of traffic is critical to worker
safety under these conditions. All ingress and egress routes and rights-of-way should be clearly
delineated in the field. A site speed limit should be identified, posted, and observed. Lighting
should be provided at regular intervals, particularly at intersections for night operations. Use of
traffic lights, flagmen, and physical barriers may be necessary to safely facilitate the work when
in close proximity to public thoroughfares. Local departments of transportation should be
consulted for particular requirements.

d. Air Quality. Batching of grout, particularly when bagged cement or flyash is used, can
present an inhalation hazard to the plant operator and nearby work force. Work performed inside
galleries, tunnels, or other locations that may or may not be considered confined spaces may
require ventilation. Methods to ensure worker safety under these conditions vary and should be
identified by the contractor before starting work.

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CHAPTER 14

Hydraulic Barrier Design

14-1. Introduction. Constructing hydraulic barriers is one of the principal applications of

grouting. In every case, the purpose of a hydraulic barrier is to alter flow rates, flow paths,
pressure distributions, and/or gradients to achieve specific and predictable results. The required
geometric configuration and permeability of the barrier necessary to achieve the design
performance objectives are project specific and can depend on a wide variety of factors and
considerations. This chapter provides a brief discussion of a variety of applications and
considerations that might be used as a basis for establishing the design performance requirements
for grouted barriers and for some of the approaches that might be required to achieve the required
performance.

14-2. New Earth Dams.

a. Flow Rate Reduction. Flow rate reduction beneath an earth dam or levee is a common
application of hydraulic barriers. The more difficult issue is establishing an acceptable residual
seepage rate. In some cases, it has been selected on the basis of what is generally considered to be
visually acceptable amounts of seepage appearing in the drains or at the toe of the dam. While this
is not a particularly rational approach, it obviously has a strong intuitive basis in that large amounts
of seepage are, in general, not good for the long-term performance of an earth dam due to potential
long-term degradation caused by flowing water. In general, flow modeling will show that
achieving an acceptable result will require a grouted barrier with a very low residual permeability.

b. A second basis for establishing the acceptable flow rate is to compare the residual
seepage rates with the entrance capacity of the drainage system. Most earth dams use both a
chimney drain and a blanket drain system. Flow through the foundation must be able to enter the
blanket drain system unimpeded and then be carried away under small upstream to downstream
gradients to the designed exit points. Otherwise, excessive heads may occur beneath the
drainage layer and redirect the flow paths to the toe of the dam without providing filtration
and/or result in piezometric levels extending above the drainage system rather than being
contained within the drain. Sand is the most common material used in the entrance layer of the
drain, and therefore its permeability and flow capacity can be the limiting factor for acceptable
residual seepage rates. It is critical that the actual properties of the drain be included in the flow
model rather than making an assumption that it will be sufficiently pervious to provide drainage
under all flow rates. When possible, it is highly recommended to have an expected drain
capacity of 10100 times that of the predicted residual seepage rate. The longitudinal capacity of
the drain (i.e., upstream to downstream) can normally be enhanced by using coarser drain fill to
provide the capacity required under small drainage system discharge gradients while still
meeting the filter criteria.

c. Protection of the Core/Foundation Interface. The interface between the core of the dam and
the rock foundation is one of the most critical zones in an earth dam, and multiple protection features
are normally used to prevent potential erosion of core material at that location: (1) intensive rock
surface treatment is normally used to eliminate interface flow channels in rock fractures that daylight
on the surface, refer to Chapter 20, Paragraph 20-2 for a discussion on blanket grouting and Figure

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EM 1110-2-3506
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20-1 for blanket grout hole layout, (2) core contact zones are often widened at that location to reduce
the risk of hydraulic fracturing in the vicinity of the interface region, decrease the probability of the
core extending over the length of exposed continuous fractures, and reduce flow velocities in any
interface defects, and (3) drains are carefully configured in that region to capture and filter any flow
that might result from minor construction defects.

d. Similarly, grouting of the interface zone must be given special attention. This zone is a
critical location, but it is also the most difficult zone to grout. Effective grouting is impeded by
the necessity of using low grouting pressures, by surface leaks that can detrimentally influence
the quality of grouting, and by having packers in rock at the top of the hole that prevent access to
near-surface fractures. Additionally, if the grouted barrier is constructed to a very low
permeability relative to the foundation materials, it will shift the boundary conditions in the flow
regime such that the full reservoir head will be applied at the upstream side of the barrier and can
increase flow gradients in that region. Accordingly, it is common to use the following measures
for the barrier in the interface zone.

(1) Expanded Width of the Grouted Zone. As noted above, a grouted barrier with very low
relative permeability will shift the location of the full reservoir head to the upstream edge of the
grouted zone. If the grouted zone is narrower than the core contact area, it functionally negates
some of the intended benefits of a wider core contact area. A narrow barrier will induce high-head
differentials over a short distance, and can increase both the erosive velocities in any foundation
defects and the potential for hydrofracturing in the base of the core. For all of those reasons, it is
common to widen the grouted zone in the top 1020 ft of the foundation to match the dimension of
the core contact area by constructing additional lines of grouting to that depth. These lines should
be grouted to the same performance requirements as the deeper portions of the barrier.

(2) Thick, Reinforced, Anchored Grout Caps. Thick, reinforced, anchored grout caps can
provide substantial benefits when grouting a highly fractured interface zone. As described
elsewhere in the manual, this type of cap provides a relatively smooth surface for easy and safe
access for drilling and grouting, and allows drainage and cuttings to be controlled, thereby
decreasing the potential for contamination of drilled holes and allowing far better environmental
controls. Thick caps can also substantially improve the quality of grouting in a highly fractured
interface zone. In the absence of such a cap, surface leaks routinely occur when blanket grouting
and grouting the upper stages of curtain holes on abutments. Grouting operations can be severely
compromised by surface leaks, which can slow production and adversely affect quality. A
common response to controlling surface leaks is to rapidly thicken the grout mix, which reduces
the permeation of the grout and can result in ungrouted finer fractures. This practice is not
recommended for this reason and other materials such as lead wool or oakum that are commonly
used to plug surface leaks are preferred. Further, in a highly fractured foundation, applications of
more than minimal pressures are difficult, and packers placed in rock can obscure the access to
fracture systems. The use of a thick, reinforced, anchored cap allows the packer to be seated in
concrete, permits the use of higher pressures, and eliminates many of the surface leaks.

(3) Pressure Distribution Control. It is relatively rare that the grouted barrier for an earth
dam would be designed with the primary goal of creating a particular pressure distribution.
However, the pressure distribution that will be created by the grouting program must be
considered and accommodated in the design of other features.

a. General. Cutoff walls have been used for remedial treatment of seepage in problematic
embankments and foundations. Slurry is a fluid used to support the earth sidewalls of an open
excavation during cutoff wall construction. It is a mixture of water and clay (bentonite or a
mineral clay) or polymer in a colloidal suspension that is only slightly more viscous than water.
The stability of a slurry-filled trench relies on keeping the slurry level sufficiently high so that it
exerts a positive pressure on the walls of the trench and on the formation of an extremely low
permeability filter cake on the trench walls to act as a membrane upon which the pressure can
act. When the excavations penetrate rock and encounter open fractures of sufficient size the
slurry can flow away freely. The critical fracture size for slurry loss in rock is not known;
however, if large enough, slurry losses may be uncontrollable, causing the trench to become
unstable and collapse. When cutoff walls extend into rock, grouting of the rock may be required
if there is a concern for loss of the support slurry during excavation of the cutoff wall. Trench
collapse when constructing cutoff walls is unacceptable. These collapses can endanger
personnel; cause equipment loss; damage an embankment section, which must then be explored,
assessed, and repaired; and create immediate and severe dam safety hazards. The slurry used
should be engineered according to the site-specific characteristics of the soils to be excavated.
The use of grouting as either a systematic and deliberate pre-treatment method or as part of a
combination solution that uses cutoff wall construction and grouting, each to its best advantage
as dictated by the foundation conditions, is becoming more common. The following paragraphs
describe the various approaches.

b. Grouting Operations as Exploration and Partial Pre-treatment for Cutoff Walls. When
the geologic conditions are largely unknown or when the final cutoff wall depth has not yet been
established, grouting can be used as an exploration tool, and as a way to provide at least a partial
pre-treatment of rock fractures. In this scenario, one line of closely spaced grout holes (i.e., 5-ft
centers) is meticulously drilled, while water testing and grouting records are obtained. Holes
should be grouted to refusal so that the maximum future benefit of the drilling and grouting is
obtained. The data and the results are used to make a final determination of cutoff wall depth,
and the records either are used to determine the required pre-grouting on a second line of

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grouting on the opposite side of the cutoff trench, or are furnished to the slurry wall contractor
for use in planning additional grouting and cutoff excavation requirements. The grouting lines
should be located outside the limits of the cutoff wall excavation so that significant obstructions
will not be created along the alignment due to the inevitable periodic loss of drilling and grouting
tooling in the holes. The lines should be located as close as possible to the wall alignment
without interfering with wall construction.

c. Grouting in Advance of Cutoff Construction. When the required depth of the cutoff is
established, advance grouting can be used as a planned, comprehensive, and systematic pre
treatment method. At Mississinewa Dam (Louisville District), where it was found that the initial
cutoff wall test sections could not be completed without uncontrolled slurry loss and trench
collapse, it was decided to pretreat the entire foundation to a prescribed Lugeon value. A
simplified analysis indicated that, if the zone in which the cutoff wall was to be constructed
consistently had a final water permeability of less than or equal to 10 Lugeons, then the slurry
losses would be manageable. A minimum grouted zone thickness extending 5 ft beyond the
limits of the proposed trench excavation was found to be suitable for this residual permeability.
During construction of the pre-grouted zone, the grouting refusal requirements were tuned by
experimentation and experience, which allowed grouting to less than absolute refusal on each
stage. After completion of the systematic grouting, the entire cutoff wall was constructed
without further incident.

d. Combined Hydraulic Barriers. Historically, a choice has generally been made to use
either a cutoff wall or grouting for remedial treatment. That concept is changing, as single
projects now often use both methods, each to its best advantage.

(1) Cutoff walls are excellent engineering solutions for treating zones that are not readily
groutable. Examples of good locations for application for cutoff walls include: within the
embankment itself, in embankment/rock interface areas, in foundation zones containing mixed
soil and rock materials or many soil-filled joints, and in areas of highly developed karst with
soil-filled features. The disadvantages of cutoff walls include their very high cost; the risk of
trench collapse; issues related to the quality and watertightness of panel overlaps; and
construction tolerance and alignment issues at depths exceeding 200 ft. The methods for
monitoring, measuring, and analyzing the overlap of cutoff wall elements and their positions in
space have greatly improved with the technological advances made in this area of construction.

(2) Cutoff walls are not necessary in zones in which the rock fractures are clean and readily
groutable. These zones can be grouted to very low residual permeabilities and can provide an
adequate barrier at substantially lower cost and lower risk. Additionally, at depth, the continuity
of grouted cutoffs tends to be of less concern because the zones they treat are intrinsically wider
due to the ability to use higher grouting pressures without damaging the formation.

(3) The optimum solution for a site that has been thoroughly explored, tested, and
characterized might consist of: (1) pre-grouting for the cutoff wall zones to a minimum verifiable
Lugeon value to minimize slurry loss during wall construction, (2) intensive grouting of deeper
zones within the foundation that require a cutoff, but that are readily amenable to grouting, and
(3) a cutoff wall in the shallower zones where grouting effectiveness may be marginal.

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14-6. Environmental Applications.

a. General. Environmental applications for grouted barriers include containment of

contaminated materials, deflection of groundwater flows around contaminated zones, and up-
gradient barriers to improve the efficiency and reduce the amount of collected water for pumping
and treatment alternatives. As with other applications, the specific performance goals for the
grouted barrier must be established by modeling the flow regime with and without barriers
having specific, realistic characteristics. The following paragraphs describe some design
considerations for environmental applications.

b. Maximum Effectiveness. Environmental applications frequently involve achieving the

best results permitted by a particular technology. In the case of grouting, there is no universal
agreement, but generally it is considered possible to construct multiple-line grouted barriers to a
residual water permeability of 1 Lugeon or less. At the Chicago McCook Reservoir site
(Chicago District, USACE), it was demonstrated in a full-scale field test that a grouted barrier
around the perimeter of an excavated storage facility for combined sewer overflow could be
constructed to a consistent residual permeability on the order of 0.1 Lugeon using balanced
stable grouts formulated with silica fume and injected to absolute refusal. Given that the
geologic conditions were very favorable to grouting and that the best technique was used, this
value is believed to be close to the limit of what can be achieved for cement-based grouts.
Limited testing on the site using ultrafine cements did not indicate improved results.

c. Compatibility with Other Design Elements. Environmental applications often include a

cutoff wall component located in unconsolidated materials. The most common type of cutoff
wall is a soil-bentonite cutoff, which typically has a width on the order of 3 ft and a barrier
permeability of 1 x 107 cm/s. When a barrier is also required in rock below the soil-bentonite
cutoff, it is desirable to have a flow impedance (i.e., equal flow under equal head) in the grouted
barrier comparable to that of the cutoff wall. Achieving impedance compatibility requires a very
low permeability grouted barrier of significant width. For example, a grouted barrier having a
flow impedance identical to that of the soil-bentonite cutoff wall described above would require
a grouted barrier with a residual permeability of 0.1 Lugeon and a width of approximately 48 ft.
Higher permeability results would, of course, require a substantially thicker grouted barrier to
achieve a comparable flow impedance.

14-7. Dewatering Flow Control.

a. General. In the majority of cases, dewatering is accomplished by wells and/or pumping

from collection sumps without the use of grouted barriers. However, there are exceptions where
grouting might be necessary or economically viable as part of a dewatering program. Some of
those exceptions might include: (1) situations where long-term flow reductions are of high
economic value (i.e., long-term quarry operations), (2) situations where there are contaminants
that create both safety hazards and/or extraordinary pumping and disposal costs, (3) thin zones of
high permeability that are readily groutable, but that are difficult to dewater through reasonably
spaced well penetrations, (4) sites where prevention of groundwater level drawdown is required
to prevent adverse effects near the site (e.g., induced settlements of structures, critical
groundwater supplies, impact on adjacent streams), (5) situations where permanent seepage
reductions along with the use of drains are needed to control both inflows and pressures, and

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(6) confined working areas where seepage inflows would substantially impede other work being
performed and where there is insufficient space for dewatering or sump facilities. It is not
uncommon for grouting to be used as a supplemental measure in localized areas where it is found
that other dewatering facilities are not adequately effective.

b. Tunnels. A special case of dewatering flow control exists for tunnels. Tunnel faces in
rock are routinely grouted, and the grouting operation functions in an exploratory role, in a face
stabilization role, and in an inflow reduction role. While it would be highly desirable to apply all
of the same design principles to creating a hydraulic barrier of defined geometry and residual
permeability concurrent with tunnel operations, it is not always possible to do so. There are
limitations on both the direction that grout holes can be drilled from a tunnel face and on the time
available for grouting due to the cycling of tunneling operations. For those reasons, it may not
be possible to drill and grout in optimum orientations from within the tunnel, nor is it possible to
grout without regard to other construction operations. Accordingly, in tunnel grouting, the
approach tends to be to empirically evaluate the results of a program without much flexibility
and then to deal with the consequences if the outcome becomes unmanageable.

14-8. Other Factors Considered in the Basis for Design.

a. General. In addition to specific technical issues related to specific applications, other

factors, described in the following paragraphs, are often considered as part of the basis of design.
Some of these factors are quantifiable, and some are not.

b. Risk and Consequences. From a dam safety perspective, risk is defined in ER 1110-2
1156 as a measure of the probability and severity of undesirable consequences or outcome. The
process for determining risk informed alternative selection should be performed as is described
in ER 1110-2-1156.

c. Cost-Benefit Analyses. In the absence of specific performance requirements

established by technical factors, flow models in combination with cost-benefit analyses can be
used to guide the grouting design requirements or to optimize the design of the grouting
program. Both the geometry and the required permeability of the grouted zone can be altered,
and approximate costs can be assigned to those variations. The geometry can be altered by
adding more grout lines. The permeability can be altered by adding more holes or more lines or
by increasing the quality of grouting. The quality of grouting can be improved by increased
levels of care, sophistication, and quality control, and by using contracting and procurement
methods that are tailored to the complexity of the work. Of the three methods for achieving
lower residual permeability in the grouted barrier, improvement of quality is generally the most
cost effective; the cost premium compared to extremely low grade work may be as little as 15
25%, while the result may be better by an order of magnitude or more. The cost increase for
adding holes and lines is proportional to the number of holes added.

(1) Completing a cost-benefit analysis involves quantifying the value of benefits received
for various grouting configurations and performance results. For example, in a pump storage
project, the value of water lost through seepage can be quantified as there is a direct cost
associated with obtaining and pumping water to the reservoir. Similarly, in environmental
applications, there can be a direct cost associated with handling contaminated water, the volume

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of which can be affected by the grouting program. Where handling inflows has a direct cost, the
benefits of reducing the long-term handling can be considered.

(2) The cost-benefit analysis should consider both the total cost-benefit ratio and the
incremental costs and benefits of various grouting program alternatives. The nature of grouting
is that each additional series of holes will have a diminishing incremental benefit compared to
earlier series. This does not imply that the additional series are not necessarily required nor of
high value. It merely recognizes that, in most cases, the incremental reductions in permeability
are less as the program progresses.

d. Long-Term Durability. All other factors being equal, long-term durability will be most
directly related to both the completeness of filling of the fracture system and the width of that
zone. Assuming that aggressive chemical attack of the grout is not an issue, most agree that
deteriorating performance of grouted barriers over a long period of time is the result of flow
through partially filled fractures. The matrix permeability of grout is extremely low and
probably on the order of that of concrete, which is approximately 1 109 cm/s. Therefore, flow
through completely filled fractures is essentially nonexistent, and long-term deterioration should
not be an issue.

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CHAPTER 15

Hydraulic Barriers: Field Procedures

15-1. General Considerations. This chapter deals with field execution of drilling and grouting
operations, techniques that are commonly used to solve typical problems that are encountered,
and field evaluation of the completed work.

15-2. Field Decisions.

a. General. Even with thorough investigation programs and well-conceived designs, there
are some variables that often require refinement throughout the course of the grouting program
and other variables where specific decisions must be made by the contracting officer.
Specifically, items such as duration of washing, grouting pressure, refusal criteria, starting
mixes, and combining of stages for grouting often evolve as the program progresses and the
results are analyzed. Other items, such as final hole spacing, final hole depths, and special
treatment zones, require specific decisions by USACE based on analyses of the results with
respect to the performance requirements.

b. Decision Making.

(1) Responsibility. Decisions regarding the grouting program are the responsibility of
USACE and occur at several levels. Daily decisions that are required for specific holes or stages
of holes must be made on site by the contracting officer and the project engineer or geologist in
charge of grouting. The decisions often must be made immediately and must consider both
technical and contractual implications. More comprehensive decisions regarding the overall
effectiveness and general conduct of the program often involve other technical and non-technical
professionals who meet regularly at the site to review progress, technical issues, and results.

(2) Basis for Decisions. Making sound decisions for grouting programs requires a
thorough understanding of the following items: site geology, the overall design intent and its
relationship to other project features, specific quantitative performance requirements for the
completed grouting, all elements of drilling and grouting theory and practice, contractual
requirements, contractor operational considerations and productivity impacts, risk assessment,
and sound interpretive procedures for properly assessing completed results. This comprehensive
skill set is obtained through long-term, successful experience. Under the best-case scenario, where
an experienced project engineer or geologist is paired with a highly knowledgeable contractor,
the grouting program will be successful. Under the worst-case scenario, where a project
engineer or geologist deficient in experience is paired with a below-average contractor, the
results can be disastrous, either from a technical or a contractual standpoint, or both.

15-3. Field Preparation Activities.

a. Project Review. One of the first items that should be undertaken is a comprehensive
project review. The purpose of the review is to thoroughly understand the factual information on
which the design was based, assumptions and interpretations that were made from the factual
information, the design intent and specific performance requirements, the means and methods

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that will be used to verify that the completed grouting will meet the performance requirements,
and the contract documents intended to facilitate the execution of the design. The review should
be critical in nature, and any issues of concern or questions should be identified and addressed
before the start of any work.

b. Analysis and Integration of Available Data. A common pitfall is that all available data
are not integrated into the project geologic database before the start of construction. In most
projects, and particularly in remediation projects, there have been multiple investigations or
studies performed at various times for various purposes. In some cases, the investigation record
can span as much as 3050 years. The engineer or geologist in charge of the grouting program
should collect all available information from the original design and construction records and
reports, investigation and testing programs, instrumentation programs, performance history,
seepage records, adjacent site conditions, and all other possible sources, and integrate it into a
single body of knowledge as it relates to the grouting program. The information should be
consolidated onto plans, profiles, sections, and performance behavior plots to facilitate the
maximum understanding of pre-grouting conditions and to aid in interpreting observations made
during the drilling and grouting program.

c. Planning of Recordkeeping and Data Interpretation Methods. Considerable planning is

required with respect to the data that will be collected, both in terms of form and content, and
how those data will be used. The contract documents will assign the respective responsibilities
for data collection and reporting, but they often do not define what happens to the data beyond
that point. Advance planning of the data management and analysis methods is essential for
successful grouting. See Chapter 16 of this manual for additional information on recordkeeping.

15-4. Equipment Checking and Equipment Calibrations.

a. General. All equipment to be used in the work must be checked to determine

compliance with the contract requirements with respect to type, size, condition, and adequacy.
All equipment calibration certificates that are required should be examined to ensure that they
have been properly and freshly calibrated before delivery to the site. It is normal to require the
contractor, in advance of starting operations, to assemble all equipment in the system and
demonstrate proper system functioning before allowing its use. The following paragraphs
describe additional special items that require field calibration.

b. Flow Meters. The accuracy of mechanical or magnetic flow meters is of special

concern. These meters are critical to accurate batching of grout mixes; they are used to
determine refusal, and are essential pieces of equipment for pressure testing, which is the basis
for evaluating the results of grouting. Mechanical flow meters have been found to be highly
inaccurate at low-flow rates. Conversely, some magnetic flow meters have been found to have
accuracies exceeding the manufacturers stated accuracy, which enables them to be reliably used
for water testing and grouting at very low-flow rates. Regardless of type, the accuracy of flow
meters used in the work should be checked frequently. See Chapter 12 of this manual for
additional discussion on flow meter accuracy.

c. Pressure Testing Equipment. Pressure testing equipment must be fully assembled and
tested to establish the pressure-flow relationship of the equipment itself. Valid pressure tests can

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only occur when pressure can be built up within the ground and when the permeability of a zone
being tested is less than the flow rate limitations at various pressures of the assembled
equipment. The equipment is tested by assembling it on a reasonably horizontal surface and
finding the limiting flow rate corresponding to each pressure setting (also known as a head-loss
curve for the injection system). If pipe is being used as the transmission line, then the test must
be performed multiple times with different lengths of pipe in the system to develop a family of
curves. If hose is used as the transmission line, only a single calibration is required since the
total length of hose in the system is a constant regardless of the depth of testing. Failure to
determine and know the system limitations can give erroneously low permeability values in
moderately permeable to high permeable materials. Figure 15-1 shows an example of a system
capacity or head-loss curve for pressure testing equipment. The line represents the limiting
boundary for flow rates at any given pressure resulting from the hydraulic characteristics of the
equipment. Valid tests can only be conducted when the combination of pressure and flow are in
the region to the left of the curve, which results in positive pressure being applied to the ground.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 15-1. Example of a limiting capacity curve for a pressure testing system.

d. Grouting System. To determine effective pressures being applied to the formation

Table 15-1. (Continued).

Disadvantages It is more expensive than upstage Low-pressure grouting used in

grouting. shallow zones.
There is a potential for heaving Drill cuttings can contaminate
surface rock when grouting without a fractures along entire length of
heavy confining load if packer is set at hole.
surface, which can be avoided by Grout may bypass packers via the
setting packer at top of most recently fracture system and re-enter hole
drilled stage. above locations of packers.
It is difficult to seal packers in
weak or highly fractured rock, and
water tests or grouting may cause
loss of hole or drill tooling.
Connections with nearby holes may
contaminate the holes before being
grouted.
Other It is common to use this method for
considerations upper zones of rock and known
problematic zones.
This method is sometimes used to
prepare site for upstage operations
(e.g., sometimes for primary and
secondary holes only, sometimes for
first two lines, but not the middle
line).

15-6. Drilling Operations.

a. Hole Layout, Identification, and Marking. Grout hole locations must be established by
survey tied to the project control points. The hole designation or identification system to be used
requires careful consideration because all records will be tied to the system that is selected. At
the time of layout, the hole identification codes are normally painted on a durable surface such as
the grout cap or the cleaned foundation rock surface. It is good practice to color code the holes
based on hole series. Markings are highly prone to degradation or obliteration, and it is common
to refresh markings during each shift whenever required. Figure 15-3 shows an example of
typical hole markings in the field.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 15-3. Typical numbering and color-coded marking scheme for grout holes.

b. Hole Alignment and Deviation.

(1) Hole Deviation. The deviation of the hole bottom from its planned location is affected by
the angle of drilling, the depth of the hole, the type and condition of drill used, the diameter and
stiffness of the drill tooling, the condition and type of bit, the accuracy of the drill setup, and the
geologic conditions. Relatively few grouting projects have included actual measurements of hole
deviations, so there is little actual data available on this topic. It has frequently been assumed that the
net effect of all of the factors affecting deviation tends to result in a relatively consistent pattern of
deviation and therefore is not of great consequence, particularly with the benefit of increased grout
travel at depth resulting from the use of higher pressures. These assumptions might or might not be
true in a given situation. Accordingly, potential hole deviation should be carefully considered in the
design process, during the preparation of contract documents, and during the execution of the work.
The functional deviation requirement for a project, particularly for seepage control, is that the sum of
the basic hole spacing and the potential deviations at any depth does not exceed the distance over which
grout can effectively travel under pressure to form a continuous barrier. In many projects, where the
depth of grouting is in the range of 100 ft or less, experience has shown that relatively little concern
exists with normal practice. At a depth of 100 ft, with a total equivalent angular deviation of 5 degrees,
the actual bottom separation of holes with a nominal surface spacing of 5 ft would be less than or equal
to 22.5 ft. Although this sounds excessive, the grout travel distance is directly proportional to the
applied effective pressure (assuming all other factors such as fracture size and grout mix are equal), so
the much higher pressure that can be used at depth should produce a result that is roughly equal or
better than when using low pressure in the top stage where the total deviation is minimal. Deviation
can, however, become critical in the following circumstances: (1) in deep holes with critical grouting

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performance requirements, (2) in holes that are intended to either intersect or avoid underground
structures or geologic features, (3) and in designs in which holes are terminated at various depths
predicated on the benefits of increased grout travel under higher pressures at depth. Figure 15-4 shows
the potential hole separation distance at various depths with differing amounts of total equivalent
angular deviation for holes intended to have a nominal 5-ft spacing.

Figure 15-4. Maximum separation distance between adjacent holes for 5-ft nominal surface
spacing and for various depths as a function of equivalent angular deviation.

(2) Inclination of Holes. In the majority of seepage control applications, it is desirable to

incline borings to maximize penetrations of multiple fracture systems. The efficiency of drilling
and grouting is often increased by increasing the inclination as much as practicable. Aside from
any potential interaction with geologic features, the planned angle of drilling affects the hole
deviation. The drill string is acted on by gravity, so angled holes tend to bend downward with
depth. Larger inclinations generally result in greater deviation with depth, sometimes resulting
in holes that are nearly vertical at their terminus. It has often been assumed that the holes will
bend or curve in approximately parallel misalignment and therefore that the deviation is not of
great consequence; however, that might or might not actually be the case and is difficult to
quantify.

(3) Drilling Method, Tooling, and Hole Size. The drilling method, along with the
diameter of the tooling, use of guide rods, and hole diameter, significantly impacts the hole
deviation. Normal top-hole percussion drills, which under favorable conditions can drill to about
200 ft deep, may deviate substantially off course by the time the hole is completed. The use of a
larger-diameter guide rod directly behind the bit, in conjunction with larger-diameter drill rods,

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will minimize deviations; however, cuttings can sometimes prevent the flushing fluid from
exiting between the rod and the borehole sidewall, with undesirable consequences. Even with
these provisions, top-hole percussion methods typically generate the largest deviations. Holes to
depths of 300400 ft can be accurately drilled by careful diamond rotary drilling or by using
down-hole hammer drills. Rotary core drilling typically is more accurate than rotary blind
drilling (solid face bit, no core recovery), and the highest accuracies can be achieved with both
rotary and down-hole hammer methods when pull-down or feed forces are minimal. It has
become common to use minimum 3-in.-diameter holes in grouting projects, which reduces
deviations and may improve access to fractures. Bit selection, rod selection, and drilling
technique all affect the deviation of the hole for any of the drill types.

(4) Drill Setup. One of the easiest items to control in the field is the accuracy of the drill
setup. Historically, a setup was generally considered acceptable when the drill was positioned
within a degree or two of its planned inclination and azimuth. Tools such as a Brunton compass,
inexpensive bubble levels, and plumb bobs generally suffice if that is the level of accuracy
required. However, digital inclinometers with 0.1 degree of resolution are now readily available,
and there is no valid reason to introduce more than 1.0 degree deviation from the planned angle
in the initial setup. Transits should be used to verify alignment of the drill in the plane of the
grout curtain or borehole azimuth. Holes should be drilled as close as possible to the marked
location, but in no case should a starting location deviate by more than 6 in. from its planned
location.

(5) Geologic Conditions. Ultimately, the geologic conditions often have the most control
on both the absolute amount of hole deviation and the consistency of the hole deviations.
Irregular rock surfaces, weak seams, alternating beds of hard and soft rock, and geologic
structure interacting with the orientation of the boring can all significantly affect hole deviation.

(6) Normal Deviations to be Expected. As noted previously, there is very little actual data
available to assess how much deviation has actually occurred in completed projects. There is a
somewhat limited consensus that even under favorable conditions (e.g., vertical holes in relatively
homogeneous materials), the equivalent total angular deviation for hole depths of 100200 ft can
easily fall in the range of 36 degrees. Complex geologic conditions, introduction of inclinations,
and/or the absence of equipment specifically designed to reduce deviations can easily result in
actual deviations significantly in excess of this range. Bruce and Davis (2005) provide an excellent
summary of measured hole deviations for various drilling methods (Table 15-2).

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Table 15-2. Summary of measured drill hole deviations.

Source* Application Method Recorded deviation

Bruce (1989) Dam anchors in rock DTH hammer and rotary Target 1 in 60 to 1 in 240;
and concrete mainly 1 in 100 or better
achieved
Bruce and Deep grout holes in Double head duplex Achieved 1 in 50 to 1 in 100
Croxall (1989) fill (average 1 in 80)
BS 8081 (1989) Ground anchors General 1 in 30 should be
anticipated
Houlsby (1990) Grout holes in rock Percussion Up to 1 in 100 at 60 m
Weaver (1991) Grout holes in rock DTH hammer 1 in 100 increasing to 1 in 20
with increasing depth (70 m)
Dry drilled percussion 1 in 6
Bruce et al. Dam anchors in rock DTH hammer Target 1 in 124, consistently
(1993) and concrete achieved as little as 1 in 400
Xanthakos et al. General in soil Drive drilling Up to 1 in 14
(1994)
Kutzner (1996) Grout holes in rock Percussion Up to 1 in 20
DTH Up to 1 in 50

Unavoidable
Rotary blind Up to 1 in 33
Rotary core Up to 1 in 100
Wireline core Up to 1 in 200
Horizontal holes in Percussive duplex Less than 1 in 100
soil
PTI (1996) Tiebacks General statement Up to 1 in 30 normally
acceptable
FHWA (1999) General High-speed rotary 2 to 5 normally acceptable
Top-drive percussion <5 to 20 in 100 depending on
depth
DTH hammer Typically 1 to 2 in 100
*
After Bruce and Davis (2005).

(7) Projects with Critical Deviation Requirements. For projects where hole deviation is
determined to be a critical issue, a drilling test section should be performed in advance of construction,
with actual deviations measured for various types of equipment and/or drilling protocols. The results of
the test section should be used in specifying equipment and procedures to be used in the project. Even

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with a test section performed in advance, it must be recognized that deviations greater than those
measured in the test section may occur on some holes when the full project is undertaken. Using test
section results to specify an acceptable maximum deviation, with the consequences of failing to meet
that requirement falling solely on the contractor, is not appropriate unless the acceptable maximum
deviation exceeds the measured results from the test section. Contract documents that contain
deviation requirements that are not clearly achievable can result in extraordinarily high drilling prices
or disputes regarding site conditions. It is appropriate to use the test section results to specify
equipment, procedures, and initial alignment accuracy. Deviation surveys can be included to assess the
actual results being achieved and to assist with determining the need for additional holes. In the
relatively rare occasions when borings must be extraordinarily accurate, such as in the proximity of
specific underground features, it will be necessary to use periodic DTH alignment surveys as a hole is
drilled, and to use special drilling equipment such as wedging and directional drilling, to correct
deviations as the hole is incrementally deepened.

(8) Deviation Surveys. When required, deviation surveys should be used as part of both
test sections and production drilling activities. Borehole deviations can be measured by a
number of different methods, each of which requires inserting some sort of instrument down the
hole. Frequently, borehole deviation measurement devices are one of many probes comprising
borehole geophysical equipment systems. Systems may be based on magnetometer devices,
gyroscopic instruments, optical methods, and/or inclinometer systems. Some devices can be
used within casings, and some cannot. Regardless of the method that is selected, it must be
capable of providing both the azimuth of the deviation and the amount of deviation at all desired
points within the accuracy desired. Measurement and payment for deviation surveys should be
tailored to fit its intended use. If, for example, deviation surveys are to be performed only at the
beginning of a project to determine that the boring means and methods are producing acceptable
deviations, then it would be appropriate to measure and pay for the surveys on a per-foot basis.
If, however, it is desired to have equipment and operators available at any time, the measurement
and payment should include a monthly cost for maintaining equipment at the site and an
appropriate unit measurement for its actual use.

c. Special Drilling Issues.

(1) Washing of Holes While Drilling. For any drilling method, a fundamental
requirement is that drill cuttings must be completely removed by a method that will prevent them
from entering the fractures that are to be grouted. For holes in fractured rock, the only
acceptable flushing fluid is water. Air flush has been found to block fractures, which
substantially reduces the effectiveness of grouting. During drilling, a flow of water must be
maintained so that the upward velocity removes the drill cuttings and other materials that may be
encountered. There is published data illustrating the combination of annular space and flow rate
necessary to produce sufficient upward water velocity to remove cuttings of various types. For
example, in a 3-in. hole, a flow of approximately 12 gpm will be required to produce adequate
velocity. Excessive flows are to be avoided in geologic formations prone to erosion. Upon
completion of the hole (or a portion of a hole), it is normal to increase the flow rate of the drill
water and allow it to continue to flow while moving the drill tooling up and down at the bottom
of the hole until no materials are being brought to the surface. The efficacy of the washing can
easily be checked in the field by measuring the hole depth at completion of the washing with the
drill and then rechecking after an hour or so. If there is only a minor difference in measurement,

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then the washing is effective. If there is a significant difference, then washing at the completion
of drilling is not effective, and either materials are settling out of suspension to the bottom of the
hole, or caving in the hole is occurring after completion of drilling. If necessary, sampling of
materials from the bottom of the hole can resolve whether the issue is one of inadequate washing
or of caving materials. For payment purposes, washing that is performed while drilling and at
the completion of drilling is normally treated as incidental to the drilling process.

(2) Water Losses and Water Gains. Water losses and water gains while drilling are two of
the most critical events that occur during drilling of grout holes. Depending on the nature of the
loss (or gain) and the nature of the geologic conditions, different actions are required. The
largest number of water losses or water gains will occur on the primary series of holes, and the
number of losses normally decreases as subsequent series of holes are drilled.

(a) Abrupt Water Loss in Rock Fractures. When 50% or more of the drilling fluid is
abruptly lost, a critical feature requiring grouting has been encountered. Drilling should stop
immediately at that point, and grouting of a special stage should be performed at that location
before drilling proceeds. Continuing to drill after a sudden loss of the returning flush water
creates a huge risk of blocking access to the fracture with cuttings, which will preclude effective
grouting of the feature. Additionally, it creates the risk of having the drill tooling becoming
stuck in the hole due to cuttings accumulating above the drill bit and around the rods. When
there is any abrupt water loss, drilling should be terminated within a foot, and the feature should
be grouted to refusal before continuing. The normal procedure is to set a single packer about 5 ft
above the point at which the water loss occurred. The locations of water losses should be
carefully recorded and plotted on the geologic profile, and the water loss occurrences should be
analyzed as the work proceeds. If repeated losses are encountered, the grouting program
functionally becomes a stage-down program.

(b) Gradual Water Loss. Inspectors must be alert for partial losses that accumulate
gradually as the hole advances. Boring logs should contain an estimated percentage of fluid return
as the hole is drilled. A gradual loss generally signals that losses are accumulating in multiple, fine
fractures. When water return has decreased to the point that cuttings are not being freely removed
from the hole, it is necessary to grout the leaky zone in one or more stages. If this condition is a
frequent issue, the grouting program functionally becomes a stage-down program.

(c) Water Loss in Open Voids. When large voids are encountered, such as in karst
environments, the technique of terminating drilling and grouting just beyond the point of water
loss might or might not be effective. Multiple cycles of short drilling stages followed by
grouting may be required. If this is not successful, drilling without return of fluid or installing
temporary casing through the feature may be the only options. It is also common to permanently
install a sleeve-port casing through these features; the casing must be of sufficient diameter to
allow drill tooling to pass through it for continued drilling, and it can then later be used to grout
the feature. Packers are seated at intervals within the sleeve-port casing, and grout is forced out
of the sleeved ports into the zone. This technique also works well in badly weathered zones and
at the soil-rock interface, where the casing may be installed in both soil and rock.

(d) Water Gains. An increase in the amount of flush water indicates artesian conditions. As
with water losses, the drilling should be temporarily halted just beyond the location of the zone. If

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the artesian pressure is sufficient to create a surface discharge, either a standpipe or pressure gauge,
as applicable for the situation, should be installed to measure the artesian head. Subsequently, the
artesian feature should be grouted as a separate stage. There are typically three appropriate
methods for grouting artesian zones. The first method requires the water-gaining stage to be
grouted to absolute refusal. After the packer is deflated and removed, the hole should be visually
monitored to determine if the water flow was stopped. The second method is similar to the first,
but involves the addition of an accelerator in the grout to dramatically shorten the set time. The
third method involves grouting the stage to absolute refusal, grouting the remaining stages above
the artesian zone in an upstage method, and if necessary filling the remainder of the hole with grout
to the ground surface. The intention is to maintain a head on the artesian zone by continuing
grouting above it. Upon completion, the hole should be visually monitored. If the water continues
to flow, a mechanical packer should be installed at the surface. It is recommended that inflatable
packers not be left in the ground until the grout takes initial set, to avoid accumulation of grout in
the packer and injection hose and the subsequent loss of the entire hole.

(3) Caving Conditions. Portions of a hole with caving conditions might or might not have
a high permeability associated with them. Regardless, when the driller detects caving conditions,
drilling should be terminated and the caving zone must be grouted to prevent losing tooling in
the hole and to prevent gradual enlargement of the hole, which would prevent packers from
sealing properly. In thick zones of caving material, it will be necessary to repeatedly interrupt
the drilling and perform grouting in short downstages. Under extreme conditions, it may be
necessary to grout through sleeve-port pipes installed entirely through collapsing zones. The
sleeve-port method has replaced an older, problematic technique known as circuit grouting.

(4) Erodible Zones. Certain geologic formations may contain soft, erodible rock
materials, unconsolidated materials, and/or soil-infilled fractures. The nature and location of
these conditions must be discerned from observation of the drill behavior and the materials
flushed from the hole. The features should be carefully logged and the information entered on
the geologic profiles. The need for special treatment of these features, and for the specific
protocols to be used must be assessed and developed in the field. In some cases, they will
require grouting of special stages, while in other cases, it may be acceptable to continue drilling
and deal with the features in later operations.

d. Inspection and Logging of Borings.

(1) Inspector Qualifications and Responsibilities. Inspection of drilling operations and

collection of data from the borings should be performed by a qualified geologist or geotechnical
engineer with prior experience in foundation grouting. One inspector is generally required for each
drill crew. When multiple drill crews are operating within a short reach, one inspector can
reasonably cover inspection of a maximum of two rigs by alternating between them at critical
points in time and by maintaining constant radio contact with the drill operators. However, it
should be expected that some logging needs must be sacrificed when one inspector is responsible
for multiple drilling operations. The drilling inspectors duties include: (1) verifying that a
particular hole is eligible for drilling according to the sequencing rules, (2) verifying that the drill is
on the correct hole, (3) checking the inclination and azimuth of the drill setup, (4) verifying that the
drilling depths are being correctly measured, (5) observing the drill cuttings, (6) determining when
drill water is lost or reduced to the extent that drilling should be stopped, (7) observing the

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behavior of the drilling equipment, (8) checking water levels in the borings, (9) observing drill
water connections to other borings or to surface discharge points, (10) making determinations as to
when washing of holes after drilling has been satisfactorily completed, (11) keeping track of items
that are to be measured for payment, and (12) preparing logs of the borings.

(2) Logging of Exploratory and Verification Borings. Exploratory and post-grouting

verification borings are normally carefully sampled, cored, and tested. They should be treated as
geotechnical investigation borings and, as such, should be carefully logged in accordance with
all requirements and recommendations contained in EM 1110-1-1804, Geotechnical
Investigations. Digital photos should be taken of all soil samples, all individual core runs, and
the filled core boxes. When triple-tube coring is used, which is recommended for all grouting
projects, the core runs should be photographed before removal from the split inner liner.
Phenolphthalein should be used for detecting grout on fracture surfaces since recovery of
relatively fresh grout can be very difficult. Logging of exploratory borings is particularly time
consuming when done correctly, so one drilling inspector should be dedicated per drill rig.

(3) Logging of Production Borings. Production borings will, in general, be performed by

destructive drilling techniques without recovery of samples. However, there will still be
substantial data collected, and it should be recorded on standard log forms. If data are collected
manually, the information to be recorded should include: (1) incremental penetration rates,
(2) the nature and character of drill cuttings from the return flush, (3) any unusual drill behavior
such as rod drops or extremely slow progress, (4) the estimated percentages of lost circulation,
(5) the connections of drill flush to the surface or to other holes, (6) any zones of caving or
difficult drilling, (7) the location of soil or highly weathered seams, (8) the water levels before
the start of drilling for each shift, (9) and the time required for washing. If drills are equipped
with devices to measure and record drilling parameters in real time, additional data such as
torque, thrust, rotation speed, and rate of advance can be recorded to provide an indication of the
relative drilling energy, which may be able to later be related to specific geologic features or
conditions.

(4) Incorporation of Data into the Grouting Program. Collection of data, whether from
exploratory or production holes, is only of value when the data are used effectively. During the
planning of the field program, careful consideration should be given to the entire information
management system, and to the effort required to execute it. At the completion of each boring, a final
boring log should be prepared. The originals of the logs should be maintained in an organized filing
system for each boring. Photos should be downloaded into the file for the boring. A copy of the
completed boring log should be provided to the staff charged with updating project geologic drawings.

15-7. Hole Washing After Drilling. Drilling costs may be on the order of 50-70% of the total
grouting program costs, and the sole purpose of the drilling is to provide access to fractures to be
grouted. For that reason, every effort should be made to maximize potential access of grout to
the fractures in the hole. Requiring that water be used as the only drilling fluid to remove
cuttings is one part of that effort because it minimizes blocking of the fractures while drilling.
However, the flushing fluid is laden with suspended solids of varying particle sizes, and all of the
fractures are exposed to hydraulic heads that tend to drive those solids into those fractures.
Accordingly, every hole should receive a separate fracture washing operation with clear water
after drilling has been completed. It has become customary to use special washing tools that are

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easily fabricated. Specifically, the critical feature is to have drilled holes in the side of the
washout bit so that washing water is directed in a radial direction to the sides of the hole. For a
3-in. hole, it is common to require a bit with a 2-in. diameter and closely spaced 1/8-in.
diameter holes, and a limited bottom discharge. Typically, it is required that the pumping
capacity be sufficient to provide 100 psi in the system measured at the top of the hole. Washing
should begin at the top of the hole and progress downward. Washing of any interval of the hole
should be accomplished by raising and lowering the washing bit in short increments, and
washing should continue until the flow is clean. This process is repeated to the bottom of the
hole. If the wash water is not returning to the surface, the hole is usually washed for a minimum
of 510 minutes. Washing is measured and paid for on a time basis, so the grouting inspector
has as much latitude as desired regarding the duration of washing required. Chapter 9 of this
manual includes photos of typical special hole washing equipment and washout bits.

15-8. Pressure Testing.

a. General. Pressure testing consists of isolating a segment of a hole by packers, injecting

water at a known effective pressure, monitoring the behavior during injection, interpreting the
results, and calculating a permeability value for that stage. The permeability unit that is
normally used is the Lugeon value, which has been found to be very convenient and is in
widespread use in grouting. The results of the test are, of course, affected by many factors,
including whether the interval of hole being tested is representative of the overall rock mass

b. For the test results to reasonably reflect the overall characteristics of the rock mass, the
holes must be oriented such that they intersect the fracture systems, a sufficient number of tests
must be performed to ensure that the rock mass is reasonably characterized, and the stage lengths
must be sufficiently short to ensure that tests are performed within zones of similar nature (i.e.,
similar fracture size and/or spacing). Grossly non-representative results and highly erroneous
interpretations can occur if these basic requirements are not met.

c. Lugeon Unit.

(1) The Lugeon value for a test stage in a hole is calculated by:

Lugeon value = water take in L/m/min (10 bars / effective test pressure in bars).

(2) In English units, the Lugeon value can be calculated by:

Lugeon value = (Q/L) (1801/Peff)

where:
Q = flow rate in gallons per minute
L = stage length in feet
1801 = conversion factor
Peff = effective pressure applied to test stage in psi.

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(3) The approximate conversion equations for Lugeon units to other common
permeability units are:
1 Lugeon unit = 1.3 105 cm/s
1 Lugeon unit = 2.6 105 ft/min.

d. Exploratory Phase Testing. Much of the exploratory phase testing should have been
performed as part of the design investigations, but it is quite common to continue or supplement that
work early in the grouting project to both expand and refine the site characterization. Specifically,
the goal of exploratory phase testing is to thoroughly define the site geology as it pertains to grouting.
This includes having a thorough understanding of the geologic formations, the geologic structure, the
fracture systems, and the permeability characteristics, particularly how the permeability varies by
formation, depth, and horizontal location. Exploratory phase pressure testing should be performed
on cored holes; it is also highly recommended to use borehole video on those holes.

(1) Stage Lengths. Exploratory phase pressure testing should be performed in short stages
to maximize the resolution of permeability variations. Long stages create an averaging effect that
may lead to an erroneous understanding of actual conditions. Normally, the maximum stage length
for pressure testing for this purpose should be 10 ft, and it may be of value to use even shorter
stages for special conditions, particularly where geologic interfaces or other special features are of
concern. Figure 15-5, which displays calculated permeabilities in the same hole for tests
performed in 10-ft and 40-ft intervals, shows the effect that stage length has on making accurate
determinations of permeability and on the understanding of the site conditions. Where a 40-ft
interval was used, the permeability profile and the interpretation of the site conditions would
differ substantially. The use of real-time monitoring systems to display pressure testing data will
significantly reduce the duration of pressure tests since the behavior of the stage and the
permeability can often be obtained with test durations of 25 minutes per stage. Under these
circumstances, and assuming the pay item for pressure testing is measured as a unit of time, the
use of short stage lengths can provide a particularly detailed permeability profile of the ground at
reasonable cost.

(2) Stepped Pressure Tests.

(a) Stepped pressure tests are tests in which the pressure is incrementally increased and
then decreased, usually in five discrete steps, with each pressure increment being a complete test.
The results for each test are plotted, usually as a bar graph. The variation of the Lugeon value at
different pressures provides much information about the nature of the fracture systems.
Specifically, the tests can clearly disclose: (1) whether the fractures are clean, fine or coarse in
nature, (2) the pressure required to lift the rock, dilate the fractures, and/or hydrofracture through
unconsolidated materials, (3) the presence of infilling or weathered materials that are prone to
being washed out, or (4) whether the fractures are prone to clogging. A sufficient number of
stepped pressure tests should be performed so that the nature of each geologic unit is understood.
The duration of testing for each step should be as required for the results to stabilize or, for non-
stabilizing increments, at least 5 minutes. Figures 15-6 through 15-11 show schematic examples
of ideal characteristic modes of behavior, along with their interpretation. With the exception of
Figure 15-9, these schematics are based on illustrations by Houlsby (1990). Note that these

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examples are also helpful in interpreting grouting behavior when Apparent Lugeon values are
being monitored on a real-time basis.

(3) When Lugeon values decrease with increasing pressure, but then increase to prior values as the
pressure is subsequently reduced, it generally indicates the presence of larger fractures with turbulent
flow, causing increased head loss in the fracture and reduced permeability at the higher pressures.

(4) When Lugeon values abruptly increase at a particular pressure increment, but then
return to a constant lower value at lesser pressures, it indicates dilation of fractures followed by a
return to the normal condition after reducing the pressure. It can also indicate reversible
hydrofracturing through void infill materials or into embankment materials. During the
exploratory phase, before production grouting is undertaken, the stepped pressure test can be
intentionally structured to achieve these results so that the pressures at which dilation begins to
occur is known. Normally, dilation is avoided in North American practice, and the dilation
pressure can be used to help establish the safe pressures for production pressure testing and
grouting.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 15-5. Effects of stage length on measured Lugeon values and interpretation of site
conditions.

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(After Houlsby 1990)

(1) Identification of Hole Connections and Surface Leaks in Advance of Grouting.

Pressure testing will allow advance identification of connections of the stage to be grouted with
other holes and with surface leakage points. This allows the contractor to assemble, in advance,
the necessary equipment and personnel that will be needed to effectively respond to these
conditions.

(2) Lubrication of Dry Fractures. Injection of water in advance of grouting will wet
fractures located above the water table. Injecting into pre-wetted fractures is desirable to prevent
rheology changes in the grout.

(3) Completion of Pre-Grouting Geologic Data. Production-phase tests on the first series
of hole, in advance of any grouting operations, provide extremely good coverage of the virgin
permeability conditions of the site. These data will confirm, refine, or alter the interpretation of
site conditions that was developed in the exploratory phase. If the conditions are found to differ
substantially, it may result in alteration of the grouting program.

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(4) Guidance on Selection of Initial Grout Mix. In most cases, grouting is always started
with the thinnest mix to be used for the project to ensure that the fine fractures are filled before
the thickening required for larger fractures in the stage. However, using a thicker initial mix may
be appropriate for some formations. Pressure testing in advance can provide guidance in those
cases where variable starting mixes are used.

(5) Verification of Suitability of Initial Grout Mix. When balanced stable grouts are being used
on a project, a calculated parameter called the Apparent Lugeon value is routinely monitored during
injection of the grout. In simple terms, the Apparent Lugeon value is identical to the Lugeon value,
except that it is calculated based on corrections for viscosity differences between grout and water. (See
Chapter 5 of this manual.) Comparison of the water-test-determined Lugeon value with the grout-
determined Apparent Lugeon value immediately after grouting has been started on a stage is an
important indicator that the grout mix is penetrating fractures properly. When the two values are
closely matched, it is clear that the grout is initially entering the fracture with nearly the same ease as
water. When the two values are badly mismatched, it indicates that grout is not freely penetrating the
fracture from the outset, and reconsideration of the mix constituents or proportions may be required.
Without monitoring the relationship of these two values, there would be no way of knowing that the
grout penetration may be inadequate until unsatisfactory end performance is discovered. This is one of
the most important reasons for routinely conducting water tests on all stages in advance of grouting.

(6) Combining Stages for Grouting. Normally, grout stages in the primary and secondary
series of holes are fixed in length, and each stage is grouted individually because the stages may
contain fractures of different sizes. However, by the time the tertiary or quaternary series of
holes are being grouted, there has normally been travel of grout into the regions around those
holes, particularly in the larger fractures. Therefore, in general, the conditions will have become
more homogenous, and open fractures will tend to consist of smaller fractures that will be
grouted to completion using only the thinnest project mixes. It is not uncommon to find
completely tight stages at that point. Pressure testing of each stage provides a sound basis for
logical decisions about combining stages for grouting in these final series of holes. When
multiple stages are found to have essentially the same Lugeon value, it is acceptable to combine
two or more of them, which may result in considerable economy in the grouting operation. The
number of stages to be combined must consider the impacts of pressure variations that will occur
from a longer, combined stage. In general, it is recommended that combined stages should not
exceed 40 ft in length. Unless pressure testing has verified the suitability of combining stages, it
should not be performed at all.

(7) Closure Analysis and Program Verification. The fundamental goal of any curtain
grouting program for a hydraulic structure is to produce a grouted zone of the desired width and
residual permeability. When those results are achieved with certainty, satisfactory closure has
been achieved. The process by which it is determined that closure has been achieved is termed
closure analysis. Closure analysis involves intense analysis and scrutiny of the data, and an
extrapolation process. Verification holes are drilled and tested after closure is deemed to have
occurred to test the closure decision and extrapolations. Much emphasis is placed on performing
very high-quality water pressure tests to calculate the permeability in every stage of every hole
series and then using those data as the principal method to determine whether the grouting has, in
fact, met the design residual permeability. It is logical to place great reliance on the pressure test

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data because the purpose of the grouting is to act as a barrier to water. Closure analyses are
discussed at length in Section 15-14.

f. Pressure Washing. Pressure washing is a special operation, but it is included under

pressure testing for three reasons: (1) the need for pressure washing usually becomes evident
while performing pressure testing, (2) the same equipment is normally used, and (3) payment for
pressure washing is usually made under the pressure testing payment item. Pressure washing
should only be conducted under the guidance of a qualified person.

(1) Determination of Need. Pressure washing is normally performed when a pressure test
indicates that there is a connection from the stage being tested to one or more other holes and
when the discharge is muddy, indicating an erodible seam of material. When that occurs, the
pressure testing operation is extended as necessary in an attempt to remove the materials from
the fracture. Under ideal conditions, the operation continues until the flow from the discharge
points is clear.

(2) Efficacy of Pressure Washing. In general, the efficacy of pressure washing has been
found to be low. Removal of material will cease when the flow velocity in the fracture, which is
controlled by the rate of water injection, is insufficient to carry the material to the surface.
Unless extraordinary measures are taken, it is more likely that a somewhat limited rat hole
erosion will be the result. The visual results may be deceptive because even a small amount of
suspended solids in the wash water will give the appearance of effectiveness, and the flow will
eventually become relatively clear as the limits of erosion are reached. When it is absolutely
critical to remove materials from a seam, the following may be required: closely spaced holes
(i.e., 1.25- to 2.5-ft centers), the use of high-capacity pumps to increase the rate of water
injection, and periodic injections of air with the water to maximize the agitation. Water
pressures used during pressure washing must be controlled to prevent hydrofracture or erosion
damage to the soil-rock interface.

(3) Alternatives. Effective treatment of erodible seams is critical for the long-term
performance of the grouting. While pressure washing should always be included in the treatment
program, other alternatives are also available.

(a) Excavation of Seams. Whenever possible, the excavations to the surface from which
grouting is to be performed should extend below the depth of erodible seams. While designers
are often tempted to limit excavation based on a perceived cost savings, this is normally a false
economy compared to the potential costs of unsatisfactory long-term performance.

(b) Intensive Grouting. Even though the majority of problems can be prevented by
additional excavation, there may still be seams that cannot be reached by that measure. Pressure
washing, though known to be problematic, should still be conducted as effectively as possible.
This measure should, however, be accompanied by intensive grouting of the seam without
relaxation of refusal pressures or criteria. This may require many more holes and may result in
repeated hydrofracturing of the seam, making one think that normal refusal will not eventually
be met. However, the repeated hydrofracturing, coupled with closely spaced holes, will result in
confinement of the seam and/or mechanical and chemical alteration of the materials to the extent
that it will eventually be grouted to the same criteria as normal fractures. Due to the potential for

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structural damage, hydrofracturing shall not be considered appropriate for remedial grouting in
existing dam or levee foundations unless measures have been taken to provide a very high level
of confidence that the seams that are being hydrofractured are completely isolated from the
foundation and embankment soils.

15-9. Injection Pressures.

a. General. The radius of spread of grout is controlled by the fracture size, the cohesion
(actually Bingham yield point) of the grout, and the injection pressure. The rate of flow of grout
into the fracture is controlled by the size of the fracture, the viscosity of the grout, and the
injection pressure. Both the radius of spread and the rate of flow are directly proportional to the
injection pressure, so higher grouting pressures are beneficial in increasing the extent of the zone
of treatment and in decreasing the time to accomplish that treatment. The only issue, therefore,
is establishing safe grouting pressures to be used in treatment. Other activities, such as pressure
washing and water pressure testing, have the potential to damage the embankment by using
pressures that are too high and should always be performed at pressures less than the established
safe grouting pressure.

b. Uplift vs. Dilation. Safe injection pressures for rock are pressures that will not lift or
separate fractures to the extent that they are irreversibly locked into a more open position. This
locking open of fractures is termed uplift, although it could conceivably occur on fracture
planes other than the nearly horizontal planes that are normally visualized. Dilation is similar,
but is reversible. Dilation might or might not occur as a first indication of uplift.

(1) Uplift. Uplift is to be carefully avoided, both during water pressure testing and during
grouting. By definition, it permanently increases the permeability of the rock mass by resulting
in an irreversible movement of rock. If it occurs during water pressure testing, as a minimum it
will require repair by more extensive grouting. Depending on the horizontal and vertical extent
of the rock movements, which will generally not be known except by installing numerous check
holes, it may damage already completed portions of the work. Similarly, uplift during grouting
may damage adjacent areas of work already completed and will require extensive effort to
determine the extent of damage and the amount of regrouting necessary to repair the damage. It
is easier to cause uplift during injection of water than during grouting because water injection
can generate larger forces at an equivalent pressure. One of the greatest concerns in grouting is
causing uplift that is undetected and therefore not repaired, resulting in unsatisfactory
performance.

(2) Dilation. Dilation is the temporary and reversible opening of fractures by fluid forces.
Dilation can be the first stage of uplift developing, but it can also be a separate phenomenon
representing elastic deformation of the rock mass. The fractured and ungrouted rock mass has a
bulk modulus of elasticity affected, in part, by the presence and nature of the fracture system. It
is possible to cause detectable and recoverable deformation of that rock mass by applying
pressure. In European practice, many consider dilation to be highly desirable because it can
improve penetration of grout into very fine fractures, resulting in better fracture filling when the
pressures are reduced and the rock closes on the grout that has been placed. The most serious
issues are the practicality of monitoring dilation effectively and ability to absolutely differentiate
it from uplift. United States practice has, in general, not embraced the concept of intentional

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dilation of fractures. Even if the deformations are recoverable, they may still damage previously
grouted sections and potentially any overlying existing structures. Dilation may have valid
application in specific situations, such as for formations containing numerous, but very fine,
fractures, which preclude entry of normal grout mixes, requiring the use of low viscosity, but
more expensive solution grouts or extraordinary long amounts of time at very slow injection
rates. However, dilation should only be undertaken on a production basis after being carefully
evaluated and proven in a full-scale, highly controlled test section.

(3) Monitoring Uplift and Dilation. Until recently, monitoring the occurrence of dilation and
uplift has been neither practical nor effective. Surface monitoring for uplift is cumbersome, time
consuming, and, in general, insufficiently accurate and/or timely to be of much practical value. Detection
of dilation has not normally even been considered. Currently, with the advent of extremely accurate
pressure transducers and flow meters, balanced stable grouts, and computer monitoring, both dilation and
uplift are easily detected on each stage on a real-time basis within seconds of initiation. Figure 15-12
shows an example of a stage record that exhibits the opening of a fracture under pressure followed by
closing of the fracture after the pressure is reduced. The dilation, which in this case was interpreted as the
beginning of uplift (as opposed to elastic dilation within the rock mass), occurred 25 minutes into the
grouting under a relatively minor pressure increase. As the pressure was gradually reduced, the dilation
gradually closed, followed by abrupt closure at about 55 minutes.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 15-12. Grouting record with dilation that closed on reduction of pressure.

c. Effective Pressure. Regardless of how safe injection pressures are determined for a
project, it is important to accurately know the actual pressure that is being applied to a water
pressure testing or grouting stage. For that reason, the effective pressure that is being applied
should be calculated for each stage. In the past, it has been common to simplify the calculations

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and not account for every factor that enters into the calculation. The widespread use of
computers in grouting projects now makes that simplification unnecessary, and it is
recommended that calculations include correction for all factors to bring the accuracy into the
same range as the accuracy of other operations. The effective pressure is usually calculated at
the midpoint of the stage, but for long stages it may be necessary to calculate and check the
effective pressure being applied at both the top and bottom of the stage. The effective pressure
applied at any point in the hole at any given time is calculated as:

Effective Pressure = Transducer or Gauge Pressure + Static Head of Grout or Water

Static Head of Groundwater Dynamic Losses

and is illustrated in Figure 15-13. When very low pressures are required, it is common to use
gravity grouting from the agitator without applying any pump pressure. In that condition, the
effective pressure is calculated as:

Effective Pressure = Static Head of Grout + Agitator Head

Static Head of Groundwater Dynamic Losses.

If this pressure exceeds the maximum allowable pressure for the stage, then an agitator must be
provided at approximately the elevation of the ground surface at the collar of the grout hole. For
additional information on calculating effective pressures, see Appendix B.

(1) Static Head of Grout. The static head of grout is the pressure applied by the column of
grout in the hole measured from the elevation of the pressure gauge to the elevation of the point
of interest. The static head of grout varies based on the density of the grout mix. One foot of
water head is equivalent to 0.433 psi (the density of water is 62.4 lb/ft3, divided by 144 sq in./ft2,
yields 0.433 psi/ft of head). The static head of grout equals 0.433 psi/ft times the elevation
difference between the pressure gauge and point of interest times the specific gravity of the grout
mix. In the case of a water pressure test when water is the injected fluid, the specific gravity
equals 1.

(2) Groundwater Head. When the groundwater level is above the point of interest, it
applies a pressure that must be accounted for in the calculation. In this circumstance, the
groundwater head is calculated as the pressure created by the difference in elevation between the
groundwater level and the point of interest times 0.433 psi/ft. Groundwater levels across the site
are normally known from the exploration phase work, but the levels should be verified or
checked before a water testing or grouting operation is performed. When groundwater levels are
located at or below the point of interest, then the groundwater head is zero.

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Figure 15-13. Schematic illustrating effective pressure calculation. (Flow meter

not shown; see Fig. 10-16 for configuration.)

(3) Dynamic Head Losses. When fully automated monitoring is being used, it is normal
to also include a correction for dynamic head losses. The dynamic head losses are the pressure
losses that occur in the system and that vary according to the characteristics of the fluid being
pumped (cohesion and viscosity) and the rate of pumping. Including dynamic losses is important
for the water pressure tests because high rates of pumping may be involved. For grouting, the
dynamic head loss may be very high at high pumping rates, depending on the viscosity of the
grout. Thicker mixes will generate higher head losses. On projects where multiple grout mixes
are used in a stage, there is a transition period where there will be some of two mixes in the grout
lines and the correction for dynamic head loss may be somewhat inaccurate. Near refusal, the
cohesion plays a more important role, since the amount of pressure required to initiate movement
of the fluid through the system is cohesion controlled. This initiating pressure is often referred to
as the head-loss intercept. The head-loss intercept for water is zero. Including the dynamic
head losses for grout is significant in assessing the initial grouting behavior of the hole.
Dynamic losses, whether for water or for various grout mixes, are determined by fully

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assembling the equipment, pumping the fluid through the system with a free discharge condition,
and developing curves showing flow rate versus pressure for each fluid. Figure 15-14 shows an
example of a dynamic loss curve for one specific grout mixture.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 15-14. Illustration of grout head-loss graph.

(1) Direct Measurement. For projects where an accurate measurement of the effective
pressure is desirable, such as dam remediation, it is possible to measure the pressure directly in
the stage being grouted. During remedial grouting for Wolf Creek Dam in 2012, a down-the
hole pressure sensor with a gauge saver was incorporated into the packer assembly and provided
real-time measurement of the pressures at the top of the grout stage. The measurement assembly
proved to be reliable and functioned for over 1000 stages. This method measures the actual total
pressure and eliminates the need for estimating dynamic losses. The inaccuracies associated
with the transitions between different grout mixes are also eliminated. The effective pressure
can be determined by subtracting the measured groundwater pressure before grouting from the
total pressures measured during the grouting. When using direct measurement, it is
recommended to also estimate pressures using the conventional methods for redundancy.

d. Rules of Thumb. Rules of thumb have been established for safe grouting pressures in
soil and rock. Weaver (2000) presents a good summary of the rules of thumb. On recent USACE
projects, maximum safe grouting pressures have been established as 0.5 psi/ft for the overburden
soil thickness and 1 psi/ft for depth into rock. These rules of thumb were developed based on
experience. The weight of the material over the zone being grouted was the primary consideration

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when developing the rules of thumb (USACE 1984). If these guidelines are followed, then the
pressure applied to the grouting stage will be less than the weight of the overlying materials, thus
preventing lifting or heave. An additional margin of safety is afforded by the strength of the
rock. However, factors such as depth to the water table, sloping ground conditions, discontinuities
that cause lower in-situ ground stress, and defect connections to the soil were not considered.
Blindly using rules of thumb can be dangerous, especially when grouting through existing
embankment dams where defects in the rock are connected to the foundation soils and low
confining stress conditions are present. A review of numerous past grouting projects performed by
USACE and the Bureau of Reclamation (Patoka, Mississinewa, East Branch, Wolf Creek, Hop
Brook, John Martin, Norfolk, Allatoona, Hartwell, Oologah, Alvin Bush, Abiquiu, Efaula,
Dworshak, Libby, Clarence Cannon, Longview, Morrow Point, Flaming Gorge, Hoover, Heron,
Kortes, Hungry Horse) indicates that these rules of thumb have not been applied consistently and
were often misunderstood. The grouting pressures ranged from 0.5 to 2.0 psi/ft of depth. On some
projects, the guidelines were interpreted to be the required pressure rather than the maximum. On
other projects, only the gauge pressure at the top of the hole was used, with no regard for the
additional pressure from the static head of the grout column. Sherard (1973) documents numerous
cases where dams were damaged from drilling or grouting operations. USACE grouting projects
with incidents of damage or hydrofracture include Red Rock Dam, Kentucky Lock, Patoka Saddle
Dam, Center Hill Dam, Wolf Creek Dam, Addicks Dam, and Barker Dam.

(1) Safe Pressures for Soils. Grouting pressures should be maintained lower (with a
margin of safety) than the pressure that could cause unwanted damage or hydrofracture. There
are many theories and models proposed in the literature to estimate borehole fracture pressure in
soils and rocks. For soils, a review of measured data in the published literature from field and
laboratory studies indicates that the borehole fracture pressure (Pf) can be approximated by the
sum of the minor principal total stress (3) plus the undrained strength.

(2) This seems relatively simple, but there is a lot of uncertainty involved in estimating the
confining pressures under dams. The minor principal stress is a function of the geometry (dam slope),
abutment configurations, the smoothness or irregularity of the soil-rock interface, the differential
settlement, the soil density, the overconsolidation ratio, the pore pressures, the soil strength, k0,
Poissons ratio, etc. Many of the geometric features of a dam, such as embedded conduits and concrete
walls, result in confining stresses that are typically much lower than equivalent depths in flat ground
conditions. Numerical stress analysis using finite element or finite difference software can be
performed to parametrically evaluate the range of confining stresses that may be present under a dam or
other structure. Some simplifying assumptions will need to be made, and ranges of parameters that are
difficult to measure (such as Poissons ratio and k0) will need to be estimated.

(3) When grouting through existing dams and levees, the following practices are
recommended:

(a) Avoid grouting through dam or levee cores when possible.

(b) Consider doing a numerical stress analysis when proposing grouting through or near
areas that are known to create low confining stress.

(c) Only use gravity grouting in the soil or soil-rock interface.

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(d) Isolate embankment and foundation soil with protective casing and grout bags.

(e) Backfill borings, casing, or piezometers only with gravity grouting.

(f) Proceed with single-stage backfilling unless the groundwater table and the undrained
strength are both low.

(g) Carefully monitor backfill grout. If significant losses occur, use multistage backfilling
with an accelerator to minimize production impacts.

(h) Perform downstage grouting using only gravity through the interface zone.

(i) Evaluate the geology carefully. Use a borehole televiewer to determine the extent and
continuity of rock fractures.

(j) Use this information to determine the depth of gravity downstages.

(k) Only apply pressure above gravity when the foundation soil is reliably isolated.

(l) Limit the applied pressures. There is rarely a need to exceed pressures equivalent to
the water to the top of dam.

(m) Use real-time measurement of grouting parameters, including DTH pressures in the
stage being grouted.

(n) Address allowable grouting pressures, hydrofracture potential, and grouting

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 15-19. Termination of grouting without reaching refusal at a predetermined maximum

stage injection quantity of 1000 gallons. There were four mix changes without any indication of
approaching refusal. The rapid thickening was based on early stage response.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 15-20. Abrupt refusal of a low Lugeon stage after a second mix change. The decision to
thicken was based on time management of the stage and the extremely slow rate of approaching
refusal under Mix 2.

a. General. Specification of a refusal criterion must be carefully considered when

preparing bid documents. Therefore, borrowing what has worked on another job is not
recommended. Items to be taken into account include: What is the purpose of the grouting? Is it
to be standalone or supplemental to subsequent barrier wall construction? What is the desired
resulting permeability? How variable is the geology (for example, will close-order holes be
necessary regardless of the grout takes on more widely spaced holes)? How many grout lines are
planned? How large is the grout job? What are the consequences of a less-than-perfect grout
job? Additional factors may also be considered. Given all this and the inherent variability of

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geology, this task is not easy or straightforward. Equating any refusal criterion, no matter how
stringent, to a resulting permeability during the planning and design phase is rough at best. In
practice, a specified refusal criterion must be coupled with the judgment of the construction staff
gained during actual execution of the work on a hole-by-hole basis. This approach is particularly
effective when coupled with the automated systems described in Chapter 12 of this manual.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 15-24. Standpipe arrangement for unstable grouts equipped with a bleed valve.

b. Historical Criteria. Historically, there have been many definitions of the point at which
a stage is considered to have been grouted to refusal. In some cases, the definitions are based on
reaching a certain rate of grout take or reaching zero measurable take. Sometimes the definitions
incorporate rates of take that vary with the applied pressure, and in some cases, they use a rather
more complicated approach in which grouting can be terminated while there is still take
occurring at the maximum pressure, but no measurable take at some specified reduced pressure.
Additionally, the time frames over which these items are to be measured differ from source to
source, depending on whether grouting is to continue for a minimum specified amount of time
beyond the point of reaching the refusal criterion. Further, some sources differentiate refusal
criteria based on whether the work is considered to be a critical hydraulic application.
Obviously, all of the criteria are also subject to the accuracy of the method of measurement.
Based on a review of various historical criteria, using some assumptions about the accuracy of
measurements, it appears that until recently the point of refusal has been defined as when the rate
of grout take was somewhere between 0.10 and 1.5 gpm, which represents a variation by a factor
of 15. More commonly, the range has likely been between 0.1 and 1.0 gpm, a variation of one
order of magnitude. Holding times after reaching the defined point of refusal have typically
ranged from 0 to 15 minutes.

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c. Current Trends. The tendency over the last 20 years, and particularly within the last
decade, has been to use more stringent refusal criteria. Given the capabilities of the automated
systems, this approach has become more straightforward and reliable. While refusal has
historically been defined by a limiting flow rate, the power of the automated systems and
borehole imaging makes it possible to use other criteria. The effective pressure, grout mix
properties, fracture characteristics, and stage length all influence the volume, penetration
distance, and flow rate.

(1) Performance. Performance is wholly controlled by the residual permeability that will
exist after grouting is complete. The residual permeability obviously depends on the efficacy of
the fracture filling, which, in turn, is very dependent on using low refusal criteria.

(2) Durability. The durability of the grouting is greatly affected by the completeness of
the fracture filling. A total absence of flow channels after grouting is completed produces a
more effectively grouted zone.

(3) Economics. The entire purpose of grouting is to treat the foundation to the extent
necessary to provide the desired reduction in permeability at the least cost. This depends on
numerous factors other than the refusal criterion, which is difficult to quantify with precision. In
some geologic environments and for some grouting applications, applying a stringent refusal
criterion will provide the greatest economy. This makes sense in these cases because, by the
time a stage is reaching the point of refusal, virtually all of the program costs have been incurred
and the additional effort may affect overall program costs by only as little as 25%. However, in
some (notably karst) geology, or when the purpose of the grouting does not require an
exceptionally tight foundation, this extra 25% represents an unnecessary expenditure; on larger
jobs, it can amount to several million dollars and a longer construction schedule.

d. Refusal Criteria Recommendations.

(1) Low-Tech Monitoring and Control. For those relatively few projects still using low
levels of technology for both grouting mixes (i.e., unstable grouts) and for monitoring and
control of injection (i.e., dipstick and gauge technology), Houlsby (1990) offers a simple yet
effective solution in which he recommends that refusal be defined as the point at which there has
been no measurable take at the desired pressure within a 15-minute period. He also recommends
that the full pressure should then be maintained for an additional 15 minutes, which, in effect,
provides an additional 15 minutes of grouting. After grouting is terminated, the injection valve
is closed and the pressure is maintained until excess pressure naturally bleeds off. Assuming that
measurements are as accurate as possible for the equipment being used, the flow rate at the
defined point of refusal is probably in the range of 0.100.15 gpm. Since grouting is specified to
continue for 15 minutes beyond that point, the actual rate of take at completion is often less than
that value. Based on information interpreted from a variety of sources, it is estimated that
multiple-line curtains grouted with this criterion can routinely achieve a grouted zone
permeability of less than 5 Lugeons, provided all other aspects of the design and execution are of
high quality.

(2) High-Tech Monitoring and Control. Aside from the many other benefits of using
state-of-the-art monitoring and control technology, the use of pressure transducers and flow

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meters substantially improves the accuracy of measurements while allowing much earlier
detection of when designated refusal points are reached. Therefore, the technology permits
grouting to lower refusal criteria with confidence, and the additional time required to reach
refusal is largely or completely offset by more rapid detection. This results in the ability to
create less permeable grouted zones at little or no premium in cost. At the Chicago Districts
McCook Reservoir Test Grouting Program, where extremely low residual permeability was
required and careful evaluations of accuracy were performed, it was found that real-time
observation of injection rates as low as 0.05 gpm was practical. Below that flow rate, pressure
variations made further resolution impractical. In that case, the refusal point was defined to
occur when the 0.05-gpm flow rate was observed for 5 minutes, at which point the injection
valve was closed and the pressure held for 15 minutes or until the excess pressure dissipated.
Post-construction testing indicated that grouting with balanced stable grouts in conjunction with
state-of-the-art monitoring and control produced a barrier with a residual permeability of 0.1
Lugeon. It is estimated that multiple-line curtains grouted with these materials, technology, and
refusal definition can routinely achieve a grouted zone permeability of 1 Lugeon or less,
provided all other aspects of the design and execution are of high quality. For this project, an
extremely low residual permeability was required because of environmental considerations that
may not be relevant on other projects. It does, however, show the capability of the modern
systems.

15-12. Routine Problems During Grouting.

a. Surface Leaks. Surface leaks of grout are normal on most grouting projects, and they
can be difficult to deal with. The potential for surface leaks can be greatly reduced by
establishing the depth of foundation excavation below highly fractured zones and by using
substantial surface grout caps. Where foundations are not of the best quality, placing a thin layer
of slush grout mixed to a volumetric water/cement ratio of 0.5 over the fractured surface can be
quite effective in limiting the number of leaks. Regardless of frequency, sufficient manpower
and materials must be on site to handle leaks when they occur. Surface leaks are typically
managed by one of the following methods:

(1) Self-Sealing Leaks. Some leaks will be sufficiently small that no action is required.
Grout may flow from them for a period of time, and the leaks may stop without intervention.

(2) Caulking. Leaks that continue without reduction can be caulked using a variety of
materials, including wooden wedges, oakum, or bits of cloth that are forced into the cracks. On
occasion, the materials are soaked in sodium silicate to help initiate setting of the grout behind
the temporary barrier. Leaks should not be caulked until the grout coming from the leaks is the
same consistency as the grout being injected. Caulking is often problematic because leakage
points may move during caulking or because the condition of the leakage points is not amenable
to being caulked effectively. Injection rates can be decreased while caulking if required, but
injection should not cease.

(3) Choking with Thick Mixes. For surface leaks that cannot be brought under control
with other means, it may be necessary to progressively thicken to very thick grouts and/or reduce
pressure. If leakage does not cease with those measures, then grouting should be terminated for
a period of time, followed by regrouting after the grout has had time to take at least a thixotropic

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set. When any of these methods are used, it should be assumed that grouting of the rock mass in
that zone has not been effective, and additional holes must be drilled and grouted to whatever
extent necessary for verification of effective treatment. The method of choking surface leaks
using thick mixes should only be used when all of the methods described in Section 14-2. d. (2)
are unsuccessful.

b. Hole Communications. Another common event that must be dealt with is

communication that occurs between holes due to intercommunication of a fracture network of
sufficient size that the grout will travel from the hole being injected to one or more adjacent
holes. This is not desirable because it may not be readily obvious that it is occurring, and it can
result in blinding of fractures by grout in the second hole without the benefit of application of
pressure needed to ensure good injection. In a grout curtain program that is appropriate for the
geologic conditions, the primary hole spacing will be sufficient to make this a rare occurrence. If
primary holes are too closely spaced for the conditions, it can occur many times. Pressure testing
will often, but not always, identify the presence of communications that must be handled.
Equipment and personnel must always be available to properly deal with communications. The
normal treatment may be to install a packer assembly with a pressure transducer and flow meter
in the communicated hole at the top of the stage being grouted in the first hole and inject grout
either into both holes simultaneously or individually. It is common to leave one hole open until
after undiluted grout appears to be exiting the hole. If communications are still found to exist,
the packer in the second hole is moved up one stage dimension, and grouting on both holes is
resumed. This procedure may result in successive communications, and it is normally a
requirement to have sufficient equipment on hand to deal with at least three holes concurrently.

c. Excessive Takes. On occasion there are stages that show no signs of progressing
toward refusal, even after going to the thickest mix and injecting a substantial quantity of that
mix. When that occurs, it is highly likely that the hole has intersected a long, wide fracture and
that the grout is traveling a considerable distance. In that case, excessive injection may have
little benefit for performance. An exception is that, in karst geology, a very large feature might
exist that will require complete filling. In that case, extensive injections may be appropriate, or it
may be necessary to change from a high-mobility to a low-mobility grout. The Government
Grouting Engineer should make the decision for the appropriate action after careful consideration
of the available geologic and water test data.

15-13. Other Special Issues.

a. Impact of Grouting on the Groundwater Regime. Before construction of a grouted

barrier, there will be a groundwater flow regime that has reached equilibrium with the geologic
conditions and the boundary conditions controlling that flow regime. Constructing a low-
permeability barrier within that regime will progressively alter that regime; the potential
consequences, both during and after construction, must be thoroughly understood in advance. A
simple example is a grouted barrier constructed across a valley for new dam construction, where,
quite commonly, there may be a relatively uniform flow field in the rock, with flow down the
valley. As the barrier is constructed, it should naturally cause a rise in groundwater levels on the
upstream side of the grouted zone. This effect may be delayed because the initial response to a
partially completed curtain can be a flow concentration through fractures in the uncompleted
portion of the work. As the barrier is brought to completion, artesian conditions may develop

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where none existed previously, and it may increase the amount of water that must be handled by
the sites dewatering system. Provided proper data are available for design, the expected results
at various stages of construction can be reasonably predictable, and the design of the dewatering
and water diversion systems should take this into account. In other geologic and boundary
condition situations, the impact can be more complex.

b. Impact on Dewatering Systems, Drains, and Instrumentation. The distance that grout
will travel in the fracture system depends on the size and interconnection of the fractures, the
characteristics of the grout mixes, the pressures used in grouting, and the duration over which
grout is injected. Aside from the impact that grouting will have on groundwater regimes and the
potential increase in the amount of water that must be handled by a dewatering system, the
grouting always has the ability to adversely affect the performance of dewatering systems,
drains, and instrumentation. Under worst-case conditions, they can be rendered totally
ineffective. Accordingly, the contract documents should always anticipate these possible effects.
Preventive measures include locating dewatering wells and instrumentation beyond the
anticipated travel limits of the grout and never drilling or constructing drains until after grouting
has been completed. As a guide, it is desirable that dewatering wells and instrumentation be
located a distance away from the line of grout holes that equals or exceeds the primary hole
spacing. Even with that precaution, the contract documents should include provisions for
compensation of the contractor for replacement of dewatering wells and instrumentation that are
rendered ineffective by the grouting process. If there are existing drains within that distance, it
should normally be assumed that they will likely be damaged and will require replacement.

15-14. Closure Analyses and Program Verification.

a. Closure Analysis. Closure analysis, in the most basic terms, involves maintaining data
of one form or another for pressure test results and grouting results for each stage tested and
grouted. At the least sophisticated end of the spectrum, which is a minimal manual program, the
records are limited to writing pressure test results and grout takes on a profile and making
qualitative judgments regarding whether the program is complete or not. At the most
sophisticated end of the spectrum, there will be scaled color plots of the results on a profile, with
the different hole series shown on different CADD layers; multiple plots of pressure test data and
grout takes by hole series, with each plot representing what has been determined to be similar
geologic conditions, which may be further subdivided by horizontal station and elevation if
found to be appropriate; and statistical analyses. Chapter 16 of this manual includes a variety of
examples of closure diagrams and analyses.

b. Pressure Test Data. If grouting is to be designed at all, then the design must be based
on the goal that the grouting will produce a particular value of residual permeability in the
grouted zone. Therefore, the only way the grouting results can be verified to meet the design
intent is by applying permeability-based closure standards. For that reason, pressure test results
form the backbone of the closure analyses for critical hydraulic structures. When plotted by hole
series for similar geologic zones, they show the sequential evolution of decreased permeability
resulting from the grouting. A weakness in this approach comes from the fact that water
pressure testing precedes grouting. Therefore, the water pressure test data must be extrapolated
to estimate the residual permeability after grouting of the final series of holes. When balanced
stable grouts are being used, the Apparent Lugeon values that can be measured at the beginning

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of grouting of each stage can be compared to the water pressure test Lugeon. If there is good
agreement, the initial Apparent Lugeon can also be used to extrapolate residual permeability. To
confirm the extrapolated residual permeability, water pressure tests should be performed in
verification holes after the final series. It is logical to place great reliance on the pressure test
data because, in fact, the purpose of the grouting is to act as a barrier to water.

c. Grout Takes. Despite primary reliance on water pressure tests for verification of
performance, the measured grout takes are also fully used. The takes are plotted in a similar
manner and examined in parallel with the pressure test data. Before the widespread use of
balanced stable grouts, it was conventional wisdom that there was poor correlation between
water pressure tests and grout takes. The generally vague correlations that were observed to
exist are certainly related to both the variation in grout rheology during the injection period and
the difference between the rheology of various grout mixes and that of water. This issue may
have also been compounded by a myriad of other factors that relate to how the work was actually
being executed, to the grout mixes being used, and to the spectrum of geologic conditions.
While there is still no reliable correlation available for general use, the following statements are
generally true: (1) better correlations have been found to exist with the adoption of balanced
stable grouts, (2) fairly good correlations are possible within a specific geologic unit for
particular mixes, (3) a vast amount of data are being collected from projects where all of the
work was carefully executed, (4) and it is possible that general correlations of value may
eventually evolve.

d. Common Errors In Closure Analyses. A number of common errors can contribute to

incorrect performance or interpretation of closure analyses:

(1) Inappropriate Averaging. It is common in closure analyses to use averaging to assess

closure over a particular region of the grout curtain, whether that region is defined by a geologic
unit (or interface of units) and/or by horizontal and/or vertical limits. For example, it is certainly
possible to average the results over the entire project using all the data without regard for any
differentiating factors, and, surprisingly this often produces a well-behaved closure plot. This
practice may be acceptable after all the appropriate regions have been individually analyzed and
brought to proper closure, but it is inappropriate if that first step has not occurred.

(2) Misunderstanding of the Basic Site Geology. Some of the most egregious errors may
arise from not having a sound understanding of the basic site geology and, in particular, the
relationship of grout holes intersecting the geologic features and the fracture systems. For
example, closure analyses on well-fractured rock tend to work very well because the fracture
system is penetrated frequently, and because there is good communication between fractures.
Conversely, rock that is massive and with few fractures may have fracture spacings that will not
be penetrated by each series of holes. For example, the fractures may be penetrated by only
some of the primary and secondary holes, and penetrated by most of the tertiary holes. In that
scenario, it may result in a closure analysis showing higher average tertiary test values than the
prior series of holes.

(3) Analyses of Inappropriately Sequenced Work. Closure analyses tend to work well on
normally sequenced work, whether performed in an upstage or downstage mode. Closure

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analyses become very difficult to reasonably prepare and interpret when work is performed out
of sequence or in multiple modes.

(4) Lack of Accounting for Every Anomaly. Each anomaly is potentially significant and
should be accounted for in the closure analysis in one way or another. Aside from any averaging
that is performed, the results for every hole need to be carefully scrutinized individually.

(5) Lack of Sufficient Verification Holes. Closure based on permeability criteria requires
interpolation and extrapolation, unless the work is so critical or conditions require that split-
spaced holes be extremely close together. Typically, the permeability is assumed to decrease
between the grouted holes, but the extent to which this residual permeability remains depends on
the physical characteristics of the site and the closure criteria and grouting protocols followed.
Although closure criteria are the numerical determinants of when grouting is to be finished, the
success of the program is determined by a combination of:

(a) An evaluation of the records of the production grout holes.

(b) The performance of the final series of grout holes during water pressure test and grouting.

(c) An evaluation of verification hole testing and grouting (if necessary).

(d) Observations and evaluation of instrumentation and seepage monitoring associated

with the structure.

(6) The number, depths, and location of verification holes vary with the number of grout
holes, the extent of grout curtain(s), and the number and locations of critical areas of the
structure. The number and design of verification holes should be based on conditions, and these
holes should not be arbitrarily placed within the alignment of the curtain. Because most grout
holes are not typically cored, documented/logged, or tested to the same level as verification
holes, verification holes may be best located in critical areas, especially where grouting did not
proceed as expected, either because grout takes were large or because they were lower than
expected. If anomalous grout or water pressure test results occur and are significant enough to
consider placing a verification hole in the vicinity, the depth and alignment should be optimized
to try to intercept the geologic features that may be responsible for the anomaly (if known or
suspected.) It is preferable to extend the boring slightly beyond the area where the anomaly is
observed to account for the inherent variability in geologic characteristics. A rudimentary
estimate for the number of final verification holes is in the range of 510% of the number of
holes in the final series of split-spaced holes, with the understanding that site-specific conditions
should be the determining factors rather than the results of a rule-of-thumb approach. The
number of verification holes is often established during the contract development to determine a
budgeted cost, but the contract should allow the Contracting Officers Representative to adjust
the locations, number, and depth wherever practical.

(7) Seepage monitoring, whether at springs, galleries, or relief wells, should be performed
before grouting and, where possible, throughout a years seasonal variations to establish baseline
conditions. Although continued monitoring during larger grouting projects provides an ongoing
measure of performance, it is also important to correlate the observations with the baseline and

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the seasonal fluctuations that may have occurred before grouting, and to note significant weather
events that may have occurred around the time of the observations. The size and scope of
seepage analysis will vary by necessity from project to project.

(8) Instrumentation, specifically piezometers, provide data that can be used to assess the
performance of grouting, both during grouting and as a reservoir fills. The type and placement
of piezometers should be carefully considered. Where there is a risk that grout could seal off,
limit or destroy their usefulness, fully grouted vibrating wire piezometers are recommended. As
with seepage analysis, baseline data are essential in evaluating the subsequent data. Correlating
piezometric data with the sequence of grouting and with seasonal (or significant variations in)
weather is important in determining the manner in which grouting has altered and controlled
seepage. Abrupt increases in piezometric levels may indicate that a larger or more extensive
permeable area has been successfully treated, whereas gradual increases may be more often
associated with the treatment of smaller, more disseminated features that contribute to the
permeability. Abrupt increases in piezometric level may have stability repercussions and should
be brought to the attention of those involved in the design of embankments or structures that may
be impacted.

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CHAPTER 16

Hydraulic Barriers: Records and Reports

16-1. Introduction. This chapter contains examples of various project records required for
grouting and provides guidance on selecting and instituting recordkeeping methods pertinent to
grouting programs. Automated grouting activities and equipment will generate a lot of
information. Although the Governments rights concerning information gathered or generated
by contractors are defined in Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) Part 27 and Defense FAR
Part 227, the specifications should reinforce and emphasize these rights and clearly define the
formats in which the information is to be supplied. Some of the data gathering is achieved
through proprietary software or equipment. Contractors are entitled to protection of these trade
secrets, but the Corps should have sufficient information on the internal workings to evaluate the
validity of the outputs. Confidentiality agreements between the Corps and contractor have been
used and may be sufficient to satisfy this concern. One should not assume that the information
will be made available in a usable format if it is not required in the specification of contractor
submittals. It may also be appropriate for the Corps to require access to the raw data outputs
from the contractors equipment to provide the greatest assurance of quality.

16-2. Purpose of Records.

a. General. Grouting programs demand an intensive and detailed recordkeeping process.

Records are required not only for tracking pay items and quantities, but even more importantly,
for verifying that project goals are being achieved.

b. Assessment of Results. Grouting results for hydraulic applications are evaluated through
a combination of indirect means, such as estimates based on extrapolations of water pressure test
data and grouting data, supplemented by direct assessment using post-grouting permeability
testing; and measurement of project performance regarding instrumentation and measured seepage,
compared to a pre-grouting baseline. Direct testing, which is performed in verification holes, is
used to validate the reasonableness of the extrapolation procedures and the estimated results.
Except in the most critical of applications, direct verification of all work is generally not
practicable due to cost. The number of verification holes will vary, but it is common to have one
verification hole for every 50200 ft of barrier length. These spacings result in directly testing
only on the order of 2.510.0% of the barrier. Therefore, continuous scrutiny of the records and
evaluation of the grouting program as the work progresses are necessary to identify locations
where anomalies have been encountered, where additional work is definitely required, where
estimated results suggest that the residual permeability might be larger than desired, where target
permeabilities have been achieved, and where verification testing is appropriate. Detailed
recordkeeping throughout the course of the project is necessary to achieve this goal.

c. Quantity Tracking. As with any other contracts that include unit price pay items,
tracking of quantities is necessary to process invoices, to prepare contract modifications, and to
track the financial health of the contract. Many of the records required for project assessment
and technical documentation described herein contain pay item quantities. Depending on the
complexity of the contract, solicitation method, and specific type of work performed, additional
quantity tracking records might be required.

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d. Equitable Adjustments. Equitable adjustments on grouting projects are common due to

the nature of the work, changes in the grouting program and procedures that may be found to be
necessary or advantageous, site conditions that differ from those represented in the contract
documents, and certain solicitation methods. Detailed project records are essential for evaluating
and fairly resolving contractor requests for equitable adjustments.

e. Communication of Interim Results to Others. On most projects there is a need to be

able to communicate grouting results to other parties on an ongoing, real-time basis. The other
parties interests might be technical, schedule, contractual, or financial. The basis for providing
the needed information is the basic project records. However, for the information to be of value,
the records must be translated into summary documents that are clear and easily understood by
all. With the advent of advanced data management and analysis tools, it is common that the
results take graphical form. These legitimate needs for information require that all project
records be maintained up to date at all times, and also require that the resources be kept available
to produce the summary documents on demand and distribute them in appropriate media.

f. Project Completion Reports. On most civil work projects, a completion report is

required. Detailed grouting project records aid in the completion of these reports. Summary
analyses produced throughout the course of the work are particularly useful when preparing a
completion report.

16-3. Records Keepers. On grouting projects, both the contractor and the Government are
responsible for keeping records. The contractor is typically tasked with generating certain
records, the details of which must be outlined in the contract documents. The required records
typically include drilling logs, water testing and grouting logs, quality control logs, etc. The
contractor may also be tasked with performing other duties, which could range from generating
simple summary sheets for particular tasks (e.g., a summary of water test results for a recently
completed section of curtain), to creating detailed project reports including the contractors
independent analysis and interpretation of the conditions encountered and results of the work
performed. Ultimately, the Government is responsible for project decisions and is therefore
responsible for its own interpretation of data or at least approval of interpretations. If the
contractor is not tasked with keeping records of sufficient detail to allow analyses on the work,
the Government must do so with its own forces. If the majority of the records are generated by
the contractor, Government personnel need not keep records of individual work items (e.g.,
water testing logs for individual stages). However, Government personnel should keep a daily
record of the work performed in sufficient detail to spot check the contractors records.
Depending on the nature of the project, it may be necessary for Government personnel to keep
more detailed records and, in some cases, to produce all technical records.

16-4. Recordkeeping Methods. Traditional recordkeeping methods for grouting projects

consisted of volumes of hand-written field reports, summary records, and hand-drawn profiles
and sections. These records are time consuming to produce, and in many instances the field copy
is the only copy available. Computer technology, in particular spreadsheets and databases, has
proven to be an invaluable tool for grouting projects. The ability to track running totals of
contract quantities and project technical data in electronic format lends itself to query reporting
methods that can produce accurate and specific information. Contractors using sophisticated
computer grouting systems may come equipped with such databases, spreadsheets, and queries.

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If such levels of technology are not specified for the project, an adequate number of Government
personnel will need to be assigned to manage, analyze, and maintain project records.

16-5. Information Dissemination. Work activity reports generated by the contractor, including
all technical and pay item data, should be provided to the Government on a daily basis. The
contract documents clearly specify the content of the documents that the contractor will provide,
including the interval, number of copies, and format. Hard copy reports are the norm, but
electronic data transmission has certain advantages, particularly if Government personnel are
tabulating information in spreadsheets and databases. If electronic copies of daily reports, or
portions thereof, are required, the contract documents should clearly state the documents (and
electronic formats) that are required.

16-6. Pre-Contract Information. Before award of the grouting contract, significant effort has
typically been expended to investigate, research, and design the project. The information
generated as part of this design process can prove invaluable during the production grouting.
These records could include the original design and construction documents, previous project
completion reports, subsurface investigation and laboratory testing data, core photographs,
bedrock mapping and discontinuity data, instrumentation readings, and geophysical
investigations. Much of this information would likely be documented in the solicitation
documents, although sometimes in a summary format. Typical grouting contract drawings
would include a plan view of the site that shows the grout hole locations and other pertinent
grouting information. Profiles and sections cut through and along curtain locations typically
provide the best avenue of conveying existing site information. This information could include:
(1) investigative drilling boring logs and interpreted conditions, (2) permeability test results,
(3) locations where drilling difficulties such as weathered zones, water losses, or solution
features were encountered, (4) and grout hole locations, designations, spacing, and inclinations.
On-site Government personnel in charge of the grouting program should request copies of all
information that could provide insight into the site conditions. When the contractor is providing
sophisticated grouting information management systems, this information can be incorporated
into the system as part of the start-up operations. However, in that event, the Government must,
as part of the contract documents, define the specifics of the information to be incorporated.

16-7. Reporting and Technology.

a. Technology Levels. Grouting records and recordkeeping methods can vary

significantly, depending on the type of grouting being performed, and from project to project,
depending on the level of technology specified for the work. The specified recordkeeping
methods could be as simple as hand-written logs or as sophisticated as web portals containing
interactive, electronic files providing project-specific, custom, graphical summaries of all data
and results. The following paragraphs discuss the three recognized levels of grouting technology
for rock permeation grouting and summarize the records that should be kept for each level.

(1) Level 1Dipstick and Gauge Technology. This technology is the basic level required
for rudimentary recordkeeping. It is referred to as dipstick and gauge technology because
volumes are typically measured with a graduated dipstick placed in the agitator and pressures are
manually read from a dial pressure gauge. Readings are typically obtained every 515 minutes.
Automation is completely absent with this technology, and all field records are manually

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generated by inspectors in the field. An improvement in technology at this level would include
the addition of electronic flow meters and pressure transducers (along with the use of balanced,
stable grouts). These instruments provide instantaneous readouts of flow rate and injection
pressure at the instrument location. However, no transmission or recording of the data is
provided, and all water pressure testing and grouting records are still manually recorded. At this
level, the contractor provides few records beyond quantity information, and the vast majority of
the recordkeeping tasks are the responsibility of the Government. Under the best circumstances,
adequate inspection staff is available to fully cover all field inspection tasks, and the data
collected is manually entered into spreadsheets and databases for further analyses. This work is
time consuming, laborious, and frequently subject to human error. All pay items are manually
tracked, and as-built grouting profiles are manually updated.

(2) Level 2Data Collector and Display Technology. Level 2 technology consists of
automated data collection and display units for recording flow rates and pressure. These units
record field instrument data at a frequency typically between 2 and 15 s. At the low end of this
level, the units simply consist of data recorders that log injection flow rates and injection
pressures at the instrument locations and display the data as they are obtained. More advanced
units at this level automatically correct the data for head losses and gains as necessary to
calculate the effective injection pressure and other parameters such as the Apparent Lugeon
value and cumulative grout take. In either case, the data are automatically recorded by the
system and displayed in real time, typically at a central monitoring location. With this level of
technology, hard copy plots of injection rate, injection pressure, and other parameters calculated
by the system and plotted versus time are easily obtainable either automatically or with minimal
manipulation. The raw data used to generate the hard copies is also readily available and should
be transmitted to the Government. In some cases, pay items such as injection time and volume
of material injected are tabulated by the system. After the data collection is complete, all other
project records, including data input for subsequent analyses and as-built grouting profiles, are
manually entered and manually generated.

(3) Level 3Integrated Systems Technology. This level of technology represents the
current state of the art in grouting monitoring and evaluation. In fully integrated systems, all
field instruments are monitored in real time through a computer interface; all necessary
calculations are performed automatically; grouting quantity information is tabulated and
summarized electronically; program analyses are conducted automatically by the system using
numerous variables; and multiple, custom as-built grouting profiles are automatically generated
and maintained in real time. This level of technology provides the most reliable and highest
quality project records with minimal operator effort. Since all data are in electronic format, these
systems lend themselves to customization of project records for specific project needs and
sharing of project data with remote experts. Features that may be included in fully integrated
systems include: (1) automatic tagging of data with geologic units, (2) graphical stage records
showing mix changes, (3) 3-D representations of data, (4) CADD fully integrated with the data
collection and database systems, (5) easily customizable displays to provide the most effective
graphical representation of data and results, (6) creation of project-specific, custom drawing sets
illustrating the relationships between one or multiple variables, (7) a broad range of database
query functions for analysis of results and work planning, (8) automatically generated closure
plots with user-defined limits based on geologic units or specified horizontal and vertical limits,

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(9) electronic links to project data including boring logs, drawings, and photos, and (10) full on-
site capability to produce any desired output product within minutes.

b. Applicability of Technology Alternatives. Level 1 technology is applicable for very

small projects of limited scope, projects in which unstable cement grouts are being used, and
projects that do not involve constructing critical hydraulic barriers. Level 2 technology is
applicable for small projects (i.e., up to $1 million in size) using balanced stable grouts where
extensive analyses and reports are not expected to be required. The performance of Level 2
technology can be boosted by dedicating additional human resources such as staff exclusively
assigned to data entry, data analysis, and on-site CADD capability. Level 3 technology is
applicable for medium to large projects where comprehensive recordkeeping, complex analyses,
and extensive reporting on a real-time basis are desired as the norm. Due to developments in the
technical capabilities of GIS with mature graphic depiction, the current trend is to develop the
data management system using this technology.

16-8. Production Records.

a. General. Regardless of the complexity of the project and the level of technology
specified for performing the work, certain core field records are always required for adequate
documentation. The contract documents should clearly specify the reporting requirements for
each activity record that is required and mandate the inclusion of example reports meeting the
requirements in the proposal or as a separate submittal before production. Government
personnel should review the example records the contractor provides to ensure that they comply
with the specifications and conform to the projects intent. The following paragraphs describe
production records in detail.

b. Drilling. Three basic types of drilling operations are common on grouting projects:
overburden drilling, rock drilling, and exploratory drilling. Exploratory drilling documentation
procedures should be conducted in general accordance with EM-1110-1-1804, Geotechnical
Investigations, and should use the USACE standard ENG Form 1836. Overburden and rock
drilling logs should be documented using either ENG Form 1836 or other record formats
submitted by the contractor and approved by the Government. At a minimum, drilling records
should include: (1) basic hole data such as the hole designation, inclination, and total drilled
depth; (2) specifics regarding the drilling method and tooling such as top-hole hammer rotary
percussion, 3-in.-diameter hole, soft rock button bit, and drill steel size, (3) details regarding the
response of the materials to the tooling advancement such as soft rock, hard rock, and tool drops,
(4) the color of wash water or cuttings if no samples are being obtained, and (5) special
conditions such as water losses, artesian conditions, and voids. The types of data recorded on the
drilling log may vary, depending on the type of equipment used and the level of detail required.
The contract documents should specify the drill logging and recordkeeping methods required to
satisfy the intent of the contract. These methods could take the form of hand-written drill logs
prepared by the drill operator, logs prepared by Government staff, typed logs using ENG Form
1836 and prepared by a registered geologist or engineer provided by the contractor, or drill logs
prepared using software that is GIS compatible. The drilling log should include all applicable
pay item quantities specific to the particular drill hole. Figures 16-1 and 16-2 show completed
example drilling logs.

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collar, and head-loss factors, allowing the Lugeon value to be calculated automatically in real time.
The effective injection pressure and calculated Lugeon value are also plotted in time history format
along with the raw field instrument data. The information manually recorded on the paper field log
using Level 1 systems is input into a computer interface at Levels 2 and 3 before testing the stage
and is populated onto the hard copy trend plot for the test. Figure 16-4 shows an example Level 3
or high Level 2 stage water testing record. Regardless of the level used, it is important to make
provision for remarks concerning unusual conditions or activities that help to explain what
occurred during the injection, including grouting.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 16-4. Stage water pressure testing log from a Level 3 or high Level 2 system.

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e. Grout Batching. Grout batch logs are typically produced manually by the batch plant
operator. The records required are minimal and consist of the mix type and the time of mixing
and transfer to the agitator tank. If grout in the system exceeds the maximum allowable time
before injection and requires disposal, the batch log should note the approximate volume of grout
wasted and if a system cleanout was performed. Automated batching allows for the production
of more detailed records, such as the weight or volume of individual ingredients added during
mixing. Both records provide sufficient data for reconciliation of grout material quantities if
compensation for individual ingredients is a requirement of the contract. Figure 16-5 shows an
example of a manual grout plant log.

f. Grout Quality Control. Documentation of the quality control tests performed during
initial mix design testing and production grouting is necessary to ensure that the grout properties
are in compliance with the contract requirements. Testing results could include compressive
strength of cured grout cubes, grout viscosity, specific gravity, bleed, and pressure filtration.
The quality control logs should note the date, time, testing agent, grout mix tested, time batched,
and test results. Figure 16-6 shows an example grout quality control log.

Figure 16-5. Grout plant batch log.

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Figure 16-6. Grout batch quality control log.

g. Grout Injection. A majority of the inspection, logging, and recordkeeping effort is

associated with producing detailed grout injection logs. The format of these logs is similar to
that of the water testing log except that the injection fluid consists of grout rather than water and
tracking of grout mix changes is required. For Level 1 systems, the injected mix type is recorded
manually on the field log. On some automated systems, the injected mix type may be recorded
as an additional time history plot on the hard copy log. The total volume of grout injected and
the total injection time should be recorded on the log. Figure 16-7 shows an example grout
injection record produced by automated methods. Grout stage logs should include the allowable
pressure for the stage along with the input assumptions for the calculation of the estimated
effective pressure.

h. Specialty Records. Specialty exploration, testing, or other production activities

required for a project require appropriate, specific documentation. These activities could range
from simple tests such as falling or constant head permeability testing to borehole deviation
surveys, borehole sidewall imaging, and down-hole or surface geophysical testing methods
where the records produced are limited by the available processing software. The contract
documents should clearly state the reporting requirements of the specialty testing records.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 16-9. Detailed geologic profile being developed as part of grouting.

c. Pressure Testing Graphs and Grouting Profiles. Graphical representations of the water
pressure testing and grouting results provide an excellent summary of where high-permeability
zones were encountered and where areas of more extensive treatment, as evidenced by the
volume of grout placed, is required or was performed. The intent of the profiles is to evaluate
correlations from the water pressure testing and grouting information, and other available data
such as locations of geologic units, depth of weathering, water loss, and connected zones, and to
generally provide an overall view of the conditions encountered and work performed. Hand-
drawn profiles may be produced to illustrate such information, but they require significant effort,
and the final product often appears as a confusing mix of numbers and lines that often do not
easily convey the conditions encountered. Computer drafting programs produce a more flexible
and professional-looking product, and the layering capability of the software allows for selective
display of the plotted data that greatly simplifies the visual correlation of various data sets.
Figure 16-10 shows an example of a hand-drawn profile. Figures 16-11 and 16-12 show
examples of computer-generated profiles.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 16-10. Hand-drawn profile containing all progress and results on a single sheet.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 16-11. Computer-generated profile showing water pressure testing results

with scaled color coding.

Figure 16-14. Closure report graphs produced using spreadsheets

and statistical functions.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 16-15. Closure report histogram summarizing the frequency of measured Lugeon values.

Zone 1 Water Testing Closure Analysis - A Line

50 Primary
41 Secondary
Ave. Lu. per Stage ( Lu)

40 Tertiary
36
Quaternary
30
22
20

12
10

Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

Figure 16-16. Closure plot for water testing.

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Zone 1 Grout Take - A Line

800
Primary
Ave. Gr. Take per Stage (L)
690
700 Secondary
600 Tertiary
467 Quaternary
500
400

300 222
158
200
100

0
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

Type of Holes

Figure 16-17. Closure plot for grout take.

Closure Analysis - A Line

100%
Percentage of Water Loss in Zone 1 (% )

Primary
80% 76% Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary
60%

40% 33%
27%

20%
4%
0%
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 16-18. Closure plot for the percentage of stages with water loss during drilling.

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562

560

558

556

554

552

550

548 Primary
546 Secondary
544 Tetriary
542 Quaternary
540

Figure 16-19. Water level profiles upstream of a barrier indicative of changes in

piezometer readings after the completion of each series of holes.

Zone 1 Grouting Time - A Line

Grouting Time per Hole (mins.)

400
356 Primary
350
Secondary
300 Tertiary
240
250 Quaternary

200
150
150 117
100
50
0
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

Type of Holes
(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 16-20. Closure plot for grouting time per hole.

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45
LUGEON VALUE
40 41
36
35

30
22
25 19
12
20
15 6
15
1 QUATERNARY
10
1 TERTIARY
11
5
1 SECONDARY
5
0

A-LINE PRIMARY
C-LINE
B-LINE

(Courtesy of T. Flaherty, P.G.)

Figure 16-21. Closure plot for multiple lines (work sequence was A-Line, B-Line, C-Line).

Closure Analysis
A-Line: Bay 8 to Bay 17
35
30 715
Lugeon Value

25 710
20 700
15 690
10 680
5 670
0 660
AP AS AT
650
Hole Series 640
(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 16-22. Closure analysis by hole series and by elevation of center of stages.

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Water Testing Closure Analysis - A Line

Ave. Lugeon per Stage (Lu)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Primary
561.4-552.9 Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary
552.9-544.3
Elevation (ft)

544.3-535.6

535.6-527.0

527.0-518.3

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 16-23. Closure plots by vertical elevation and hole series.

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CHAPTER 17

Grouting in Karst Environments

17-1. General. Karst formations are three-dimensional landscapes that develop within and over
soluble rocks. Karst features are the result of mildly acidic water acting on soluble rock such as
limestone, dolomite, gypsum, and anhydrite. Over geologic time, the acidic water dissolves rock
surfaces, and flowing water within the rock fracture system enlarges the fractures. Eventually, it can
form extremely complex, heterogeneous conditions within the overlying soils, along the bedrock
surface, and within the rock that can be problematic for the construction of structures of all types.

17-2. Dissolution Rates and Their Impacts on Grouting Approach.

a. Limestone and Dolomite. The rate of dissolution of limestone and dolomite is normally
quite slow. While effective treatment of existing dissolution features might be essential in
structural foundation grouting applications, ongoing dissolution of rock is of no practical
consequence over the life of the structure in normal environments where flow gradients are low.
Until relatively recently, the dissolution of limestone or dolomite and the enlargement of
fractures beneath dams were also considered to be processes that occurred so slowly that it was
not a major issue over the life of a dam. However, numerical modeling studies of fracture
systems under high gradients now suggest that it is possible for active dissolution to be of
sufficient magnitude to produce unacceptable seepage rates well within the life of a dam
(Romanov et al. 2002, 2006). Although many factors are involved, the initial open fracture size
is a key parameter affecting dissolution rates. Studies by James and Kirkpatrick (1980) suggest
that the smallest fracture size that might be significant for progressive dissolution to occur in
limestone is in the range of 0.5 mm. The erosion of infill material far outweighs the concern for
additional dissolution over the life of the project.

b. Gypsum and Anhydrite. Gypsum and anhydrite formations are less common than
limestone and dolomite, but they are subject to highly significant active dissolution during the
useful life of structures. In gypsum, it has been estimated that cavities on the order of 1 m can be
created in a 100-year period (Waltham and Fookes 2002). Additionally, the smallest initial open
fracture size that is significant for progressive dissolution to occur is less than for limestone and
dolomite and is on the order of 0.2 mm for gypsum and 0.1 mm for anhydrite.

c. Grouting Implications.

(1) Importance of Grouting Fine Fractures. The potential for ongoing dissolution during
the useful life of a dam is a serious factor for its long-term performance. The practical
implication is that intensive grouting of the entire fracture system is critical. The importance of
properly treating small fractures should not be overlooked or overshadowed by the presence of
more dramatic features. Normal cement grouting has the ability to fill the critical fracture sizes
in limestone, dolomite, and gypsum, and if properly performed, it will prevent progressive
dissolution. Sealing the smaller critical fractures in anhydrite would require ultrafine cements,
chemical grouts, or cutoff structures as an alternative to grouting.

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(2) Refusal Criteria. A second grouting implication is that the grouting refusal criteria
should be based on achieving absolute refusal when the trend plot for the stage supports this
action. The use of criteria that permit termination of grouting before that point can result in
residual permeabilities that may affect the long-term performance of the dam.

(3) Termination Depth for Grouting. Careful consideration must be given to the
termination depth for grout curtains in soluble rock. Whenever possible, the curtains should tie
into zones with a hydraulic conductivity comparable to the completed curtain. If that is not
possible, the potential long-term effects of seepage beneath the bottom of the curtain must be
carefully evaluated and considered.

17-3. Karst Areas, Profiles, and Features.

a. Karst Regions. Karst topography develops in predictable limestone and dolomite

regions in the United States. Figure 17-1 shows a map of the distribution of cavern areas in the
United States. Table 17-1 lists the major karst areas along with the general characteristics of each
region.

(From EM 1110-1-2908, Engineering and Design Rock Foundations.)

Figure 17-1. Karst areas of the United States.

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Table 17-1. Summary of major karst areas of the United States.

Karst Area* Location Characteristics

Southeastern South Carolina, Rolling, dissected plain, shallow dolines, few caves;
Coastal Plain Georgia tertiary limestone generally covered by thin deposits
of sand and silt
Florida Florida, southern Level to rolling plain: tertiary, flat-lying limestone;
Georgia numerous dolines, commonly with ponds; large
springs; moderate-sized caves, many water filled
Appalachian New York, Vermont, Valleys, ridges, and plateau fronts formed south of
south to northern palaeozoic limestones, strongly folded in eastern part;
Alabama numerous large caves, dolines, karst valleys, and deep
shafts; extensive areas of karren
Highland Rim Central Kentucky, Highly dissected plateau with carboniferous, flat-
Tennessee, northern lying limestone; numerous large caves, karren, large
Georgia dolines and uvala
Lexington- North-central Rolling plain, gently arched; lower palaeozoic
Nashville Kentucky, central limestone; a few caves, numerous rounded shallow
Tennessee, dolines
southeastern Indiana
Mammoth Cave- West-central Rolling plain and low plateau; flat-lying
Pennyroyal Plain Kentucky, carboniferous rocks; numerous dolines, uvala and
southwestern collapse sinks; very large caves, karren developed
Kentucky, southern locally, complex subterranean drainage, numerous
Indiana large disappearing streams
Ozarks Southern Missouri, Dissected low plateau and plain; broadly arched lower
northern Arkansas palaeozoic limestones and dolomites; numerous
moderate-sized caves, dolines, very large springs;
similar, but less extensive karst in Wisconsin, Iowa,
and northern Illinois
Canadian River Western Oklahoma, Dissected plain, small caves and dolines in
northern Texas carboniferous gypsum
Pecos Valley Western Texas, Moderately dissected low plateau and plains; flat-
southeastern New lying to tilted upper palaeozoic limestones with large
Mexico caves, dolines, and fissures; sparse vegetation; some
gypsum karst with dolines
Edwards Plateau Southwestern Texas High plateau, flat-lying cretaceous limestone; deep
shafts, moderate-sized caves, dolines; sparse
vegetation

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Table 18-1. (Continued).

Black Hills Western South Highly dissected ridges; folded (domed) palaeozoic
Dakota limestone; moderate-sized caves, some karren and
dolines
Kaibab Northern Arizona Partially dissected plateau, flat-lying carboniferous
limestones; shallow dolines, some with ponds; few
moderate-sized caves
Western Wyoming, Isolated small areas, primarily on tops and flanks of
mountains northwestern Utah,
ridges, and some area in valleys; primarily in folded
Nevada, western and tilted palaeozoic and mesozoic limestone; large
Montana, Idaho, caves, some with great vertical extent, in Wyoming,
Washington, Oregon,
Utah, Montana, and Nevada; small to moderate-sized
California caves elsewhere; dolines and shafts present; karren
developed locally
*
From EM 1110-1-2908, Engineering and Design Rock Foundations.

b. Karst Physical Features. Karst features within any given region are extremely variable,
and both the nature of features and the distribution of features can vary greatly even within the
limits of any given project site. The nature and size of karst features that might be present are a
function of many factors associated with particular formations, including their age, chemical
composition, structure, climatic region, prior exposure or protection, fracture system, and
hardness. The following paragraphs describe common types of karst features that might be
present and of concern. (Not all of these features are necessarily present on any given site.)

(1) Undetected Overburden Voids. Voids can exist in the soil above the bedrock surface
with no visible surface expression. Water flowing into or through fractures at the bedrock
surface has the ability to gradually remove materials, and the soil can form an arch above the
point of initial material loss. With time, the void will gradually enlarge through cycles of
wetting, drying, and incremental collapse.

(2) Overburden Sinkholes. Sinkholes, also termed dolines, are closed depressions in the
overburden above the rock and are the expression of material loss into the fracture system.
Sinkholes can be broad and shallow or abrupt and steep; they can form gradually or suddenly;
they can be uniformly distributed over an area or they might follow specific trend lines or trend
zones; and their bottoms can extend to the rock surface or be contained within the overburden.
The maximum diameter of sinkholes that can form is generally related to the depth to rock.
Figure 17-2 shows various sinkhole types.

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(From Waltham and Fookes 2003, with permission from the Geological Society, Piccadilly, London.)

Figure 17-2. Sinkhole types.

(3) Loose and/or Wet Overburden Zones. In some karst environments, it is common to
find moderately dense soil materials overlying loose and/or wet overburden zones above the rock
surface. These zones may also contain voids and/or remnants of solutioned rock. These
sometimes occur between rock pinnacles, but they can also extend for a considerable distance
above the rock surface. These zones are a result of material loss into solution cavities in the
immediately underlying bedrock.

(4) Pinnacled Rock Surfaces. Carbonate rocks can develop a profile with an abruptly
changing depth to the contact between the residual soil and the weathered rock surface. Jagged,
pinnacled rock surfaces develop due to weathering along nearly vertical fracture systems. The
pinnacled surfaces can be closely spaced and frequent, or they may occur as somewhat isolated
features.

(5) Detached or Semi-Detached Rock Masses. Depending on the nature and extent of
weathered fracture systems, detached or semi-detached rock masses can exist in the foundation.
Under extreme conditions, they can behave as floating boulders or as very weak ledges of
material.

(6) Large Variations in Top of Rock Level. Aside from containing pinnacled rock
surfaces, some sites can also exhibit areas where the top of rock level varies dramatically on a

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larger scale. There might not be any visible surface indications that these large variations in
depth to rock exist.

(7) Soil-Filled Fracture Systems. Infilled or partially infilled fracture systems are
common in karst. The infilling materials can consist of insoluble weathering residue or materials
that have been transported into the fractures. Possible materials include stiff clay seams, soft
clays, silts, sands, and rock detritus.

(8) High-Permeability Fracture Systems. Even in the absence of discrete cavities, bedrock
in karst regions normally contains high-permeability fracture systems. The permeable fractures
may have highly preferential orientations with strong interconnections to other fractures.

(9) Cavities. Cavities form in the bedrock through long-term dissolution widening of
specific fractures, joints, or bedding planes. Lesser fractures feed water to these larger fractures
through the fracture system interconnections. Cavities can range from small individual features
to extremely large interconnected systems. Cavities can contain all types of materials including
collapsed rock.

c. Karst Feature Illustrations. Some of the most useful aids in understanding and
appreciating the range of features that can be encountered in various karst environments are
schematics and photos. Table 17-2 and Figure 17-3 show an engineering classification of karst,
and Figure 17-4 shows a schematic of a karst profile. Figures 17-5 to 17-25 show many kinds of
karst environments.

Table 17-2. Engineering classifications and characteristics of karst types, best viewed in
conjunction with Fig. 17-3.

Ground
Karst class* Locations Sinkholes Rockhead Fissuring Caves investigation Foundations
kI Only in Rare Almost Minimal; low Rare and Conventional Conventional
Juvenile deserts and NSH <0.001 uniform; secondary small; some
periglacial minor permeability isolated
zones or on fissures relict
impure features
carbonates
kII The Small suffusion Many small Widespread in Many small Mainly Grout open
Youthful minimum in or dropout fissures the few meters caves; most conventional, fissure;
temperate sinkholes; open nearest the <3 m across probe rock to 3 control
regions stream sinks surface m; check drainage
NSH = 0.001 fissures in
0.05 rockhead

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Table 17-2. Engineering classifications and characteristics of karst types, best viewed in
conjunction with Fig. 17-3.

kIII Common in Many suffosion Extensive Extensive Many <5 m Probe to Rafts or
Mature temperate and dropout fissuring; secondary across at rockhead; probe ground
regions; the sinkholes; large relief of <5 opening of multiple rock to 4 m; beams;
minimum in dissolution m; loose most fissures levels microgravity consider
the wet sinkholes; small blocks in survey geogrids,
tropics collapse and cover soil driven piles to
buried sinkholes rockhead;
NSH = 0.051.0 control
drainage
kIV Localized in Many large Pinnacled; Extensive large Many >5 m Probe to Bored piles to
Complex temperate dissolution relief of 5 dissolutional across at rockhead; probe rockhead or
regions; sinkholes; 20 m; loose openings, on multiple rock to 5 m with cap grouting
normal in numerous pillars and away from levels splayed probes; at rockhead;
tropical subsidence major fissures microgravity control
regions sinkholes; survey drainage and
scattered abstraction
collapse and
buried sinkholes
NSH = 0.52.0
kV Only in wet Very large Tall Abundant and Numerous Make individual Bear in soils
Extreme tropics sinkholes of all pinnacles; very complex complex 3 ground with geogrid;
types; remnant relief of >20 dissolution D cave investigation for load on
arches; soil m; loose cavities systems; every pile site proven
compaction in pillars galleries pinnacles or
buried sinkholes undercut and on deep bored
NSH >>1 between chambers piles; control
deep soil >15 m all drainage
fissures across and control
abstraction
*
After Waltham and Fookes (2003)

Table 17-2 provides outline descriptions of selected parameters; these are not mutually exclusive
and give only broad indications of likely ground conditions that can show enormous variation in
local detail. The comments on ground investigation and foundations are only broad guidelines to
good practice in the various classes of karst. NSH = rate of formation of new sinkholes per km2
per year.

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(From Waltham and Fookes 2003, with permission from the Geological Society, Piccadilly, London)

Figure 17-3. Schematics of karst classifications. Typical morphological features of karstic

ground conditions with the five classes of karst (Table 17-2). These examples show horizontal
bedding of the limestone; dipping bedding planes and inclined fractures add complexity to most
of the features and also create planar failures behind steep cliff faces. The dotted ornament
represents any type of clastic soil or surface sediment.

Figure 17-7. Karst profile at a Pennsylvania quarry wall in folded limestone.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 17-8. Near-surface weathering conditions in Pennsylvania limestone.

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Figure 17-9. Limestone exposure at Mississinewa Dam (Louisville District).

Figure 17-10. Cambrian dolomite outcrop at Clearwater Dam, Missouri (Little Rock District).

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Figure 17-11. Cambrian dolomite outcrop at Clearwater Dam, MO (Little Rock District).

Figure 17-12. Near-surface vertical feature at Center Hill Dam (Nashville District).

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Figure 17-13. Near-surface soil-filled cylindrical features at Center Hill Dam

(Nashville District).

Figure 17-14. Outcrop exposure downstream from the right abutment at Center Hill Dam
(Nashville District).

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Figure 17-15. Isolated dissolution features along the structure at Wolf Creek Dam
(Nashville District).

Figure 17-16. Isolated near-vertical dissolutioning along the structure at Wolf Creek Dam
(Nashville District).

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Figure 17-17. Large expanse of minimally dissolutioned rock at Center Hill Dam
(Nashville District).

(After Ritter 1978.)

Figure 17-18. Plan and section schematics of cave type features.

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Figure 17-19. Elliptical tube cave features at Center Hill Dam (Nashville District).

Figure 17-20. Entrance to Robert Hall Cave, a fissure-type cave near Patoka Lake Dam
(Louisville District).

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Figure 17-21. Geologists field map of Robert Hall Cave near Patoka Lake Dam (Louisville

District).

Figure 17-22. Triangular dissolution feature in the foundation of Mississinewa Dam, treated at
the time of original construction (Louisville District).

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Figure 17-23. Triangular dissolution feature in the excavation sidewall of Mississinewa Dam,
treated at the time of original construction (Louisville District).

Figure 17-24. Foundation treatment of a network of caves and dissolution channels at Wolf

Creek Dam as part of original construction (Nashville District).

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 17-25. Deep dissolution feature beneath the original foundation of Clearwater Dam. The
foundation rock profile shows locations where large intersecting dissolution features crossed the
foundation and were treated during original construction. Note that the deep feature was small
immediately below the rock foundation, but expanded to large size at depth. The deep feature
delineation is based on remedial grouting results.

d. Epikarst.

(1) An additional geologic concept that is gaining widespread use and acceptance,
particularly in hydrogeologic applications, is the term epikarst. While numerous definitions
vary considerably, epikarst is generally agreed to be a karst subsystem composed of the
uppermost zone in certain karst profiles that can be differentiated from the rest of the rock mass
on the basis of a number of special characteristics. The thickness of the epikarst zone varies
considerably, but it is commonly estimated to be between a few meters and 1015 m thick.
Compared to the underlying rock mass, the epikarst zone has a more closely spaced network of
fissures. Its hydraulic conductivity can be high and more spatially homogeneous than the rock
mass below, which is characterized by more widely spaced fractures between rock blocks.
Porosity is typically significantly greater than in the bulk rock located below. Epikarst allows
rapid infiltration and can result in detainment or storage of infiltration water. The epikarst
funnels water to points of concentration, facilitating the creation of deeply penetrating collector
structures.

(2) In the Clearwater Dam cutoff wall pre-grouting program (Little Rock District) in
Missouri, the epikarst zone was identified as part of the karst system that required treatment by
grouting. Despite the high soil content within this weathered zone, permeabilities were
determined to be high. During installation of overburden casings, frequent and total loss of

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drilling water occurred. Additionally, it was found that large quantities of grout were required
during the overburden casing grouting operation. Based on these conditions, it was determined
that separate grouting of the epikarst was required, and it was accomplished using sleeve-port
grouting methods using three-port pipe sections in the epikarst and single-port pipe sections in
the soils above the epikarst. The thickness of the epikarst zone in each hole was defined on the
basis of several drilling characteristics, including occurrence of water losses, mixed soil and rock
materials as indicated by intermittent percussion operation of the drilling equipment, and rapid
advancement of the drill tooling in weathered rock. The thickness of the epikarst was typically
2030 ft, and its hydraulic conductivity was often in the range of 50100 Lugeons. Figure 17-26
shows an epikarst exposure at Clearwater Dam.

Figure 17-26. Clearwater Dam epikarst exposure (Little Rock District).

17-4. Investigation and Characterization of Karst Sites.

a. General. Primary engineering issues for structures in karst areas include providing
adequate long-term support for structure foundations, protecting structures against the possible
loss of soil beneath or adjacent to structures, and providing hydraulic barriers for dams. General
procedures for site investigation and site characterization are contained in EM 1110-1-1804,
Geotechnical Investigations, and EM 1110-1-2908, Engineering and Design Rock
Foundations. EM 1110-1-1802, Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental
Investigations, provides additional guidance on other methods. These manuals also provide
some specific information related to investigation of karst sites and the efficacy of certain
methodologies. However, there are no simple guidelines for investigating sites in karst areas.
The intensity of the investigation and the methodologies used must take into account the specific
characteristics of the local formations and must be consistent with the nature and importance of

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the structure. In general, investigations in karst areas will be more intense and may use a much
wider range of investigation methods than at other types of sites. However, it is also the nature
of karst settings that the residual uncertainty after exploration will still be substantial.
Frequently, the exploration data are not interpreted as having specifically defined all critical
features, but instead are interpreted as having been adequate to define the types of features that
are present at the site and that might be found at any location. Designs that can accommodate
these types of features are then selected.

b. Down-Hole Cameras. The extensive use of down-hole cameras on several USACE

projects (Clearwater Dam, Missouri; Portuguese Dam, Puerto Rico; and Wolf Creek Dam,
Kentucky), combined with coring and water pressure testing, has proven to be extremely useful
in understanding the conditions within the rock masses and in guiding how the grouting can best
be performed. Figure 17-27 shows typical rock core collected from a grouting project. While
collection and hands-on examination of the core are extremely useful, the information available
by direct down-hole examination of the rock and fracture systems, as illustrated in Figures 17-28
through 17-38, is being found to be of extraordinary value.

Figure 17-27. Typical rock core from limestone with dissolution features (Little Rock District).

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Figure 17-28. Clearwater Dam at shallow depth into rock (Little Rock District). The vertical
scales are meters. Note the relatively clean, high-angle fractures and dissolutioning along
bedding and as vugs.

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Figure 17-29. Clearwater Dam at moderately shallow depth into rock (Little Rock District). The
vertical scales are meters. Note the very large feature on the right photo.

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Figure 17-30. Clearwater Dam at substantial depth into rock (Little Rock District). The vertical
scales are meters. Note the extent of soil infilling in the left photo and the approximately 1-m
feature in the right photo.

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Figure 17-31. Clearwater Dam at moderately shallow depth into rock (Little Rock District). The
vertical scales are meters. Note the significant dissolution feature.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 17-32. Clean bedding plane fracture at Wolf Creek Dam,

Leipers formation. The vertical scales are feet.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques.)

Figure 17-33. Multiple bedding plane fractures with localized soil filling at

Wolf Creek Dam, Leipers formation. The vertical scales are feet.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques.)

Figure 17-34. Weathered and partly infilled bedding plane fracture at

Wolf Creek Dam, Leipers formation. The vertical scales are feet.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques.)

Figure 17-35. Bedding plane fractures at 0.1- to 0.2-ft intervals at Wolf Creek Dam
Leipers formation. The lower fractures are infilled. The vertical scales are feet.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 17-36. Virtual core (four views; see compass at top of each core) showing large, soil-
filled bedding fractures at Wolf Creek Dam, Leipers formation. The vertical scales are feet.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 17-37. The same fractures, as shown in Fig. 17-36, but showing conditions before
washing (left photo) with high-pressure radial water jets and after washing (right photo) of
fractures. The vertical scales are feet.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 17-38. Clean 1-ft feature at Wolf Creek Dam, Leipers formation.

The vertical scales are feet.

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17-5. Grouting for Improving Foundation Support.

a. General. Grouting performed with the intention of either providing or enhancing

foundation support has been used in a wide variety of situations for both shallow and deep
foundations. Within the three-dimensional influence zones in the soil and rock that carry the
applied pressures, grouting can serve one or more functions. These functions can include:
(1) filling near-surface fractures to reduce the potential for water-induced soil migration beneath
the structure, (2) filling open rock fractures to consolidate the rock mass and thereby increase its
bearing capacity, and (3) compacting and/or displacing and replacing weak materials with grout.
In some cases, grouting is used to permit the use of shallow foundations instead of deep
foundations such as micropiles, driven piles, or caissons, which, in their own right, can be highly
problematic and very expensive to construct in karst environments. In other circumstances, it is
used as a supplemental measure for deep foundation systems. The following paragraphs give
examples of applications for foundation support. In some instances, multiple methods are used.

b. Cap Grouting. Cap grouting refers to a treatment method performed with the intent of
filling voids and sealing openings only at the rock surface (Warner 2004). Borings are typically
advanced only to the rock surface or sometimes to a very shallow depth of penetration into the
rock. The goal is to fill existing cavities and open fractures at the interface to eliminate existing
voids in the soil and to prevent soil from entering the fracture system in the future. The intent is
to create a continuous barrier at the soil-rock interface. Sowers (1996) suggests that this
treatment is most applicable for sites where there is a widespread soft zone with numerous small
erosion domes and few or no rock pinnacles. Grout mixes range from ready-mixed concrete or
mortar to LMG to sanded HMG mixes to thick neat cement HMG. Grouting is normally
performed on a split-spaced grid pattern. Applied pressures range from gravity heads to
pressures approximately equal to the overburden pressure, and grout can be injected either to
refusal or to predetermined volumes. Initial hole spacings are typically on the order of 1030 ft.
Final hole spacing is typically on the order of 510 ft or less to reasonably assure overlap and
coverage. Cap grouting can be an attractive alternative where foundation conditions are
generally favorable for shallow foundations, but additional precautions are desired. This method
can also be used to treat large areas beneath structures where structure loads might be carried by
deep foundation systems, but where floating floor slabs are vulnerable to sinkholes. The efficacy
of the treatment generally cannot be determined because of insufficient data about treated vs.
untreated sites.

c. Consolidation Grouting. Consolidation grouting of a rock mass within a predetermined

region of concern is sometimes performed for heavily loaded spread footings constructed on
questionable rock. It has also been used as a supplemental measure beneath deep foundation
elements when conditions are unreliable or suspect, as an alternative to constructing the deep
foundation elements to great depths, or as an alternative to reducing the design load capacity of
the deep foundation elements.

d. LMG Ground Improvement. LMG improvement of soil and rock has been used to permit
construction of spread foundations on soil and on rock in karst areas with conditions that would
normally be considered unsuitable for that type of foundation. Gomez and Cadden (2003) describe
three recent projects where this approach was successfully used. While the grouting process used
was similar to compaction grouting methodology, LMG ground improvement in karst involves

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different mechanisms and goals because of the geologic conditions. LMG injections into rock
offer the following potential benefits: strengthening the rock mass, improving the consistency of
the rock mass, densifying weathered rock materials, and filling some joints and voids. LMG
injected into rock will typically not result in significant sealing of fractures that might carry water
and soil. LMG injection into soil foundations results in a more complex, composite behavior that
involves creating a mass of soil and grout with increased strength, stiffness, and uniformity within
the zone of stress influence. This is accomplished by constructing uniformly distributed grout
inclusions within the soil mass that fill voids, displace soft materials, and act as vertical
reinforcement and load distribution elements. The result is a zone of treatment that is stronger,
stiffer, and less compressible. While these benefits can be intuitively understood and appreciated,
ascribing specific improvement parameters for karst sites is not really possible. For the sites with
injections in soil, Gomez and Cadden report that grout injections were in the range of 3.33.9 ft3 of
grout per foot of hole, but they indicate that injection volumes in karst are often in the range of 35
ft3 per foot. Split-spacing methods are used, with the primary hole spacing in the range of 1015 ft
and with a final hole spacing in the range of 45 ft. Termination of grouting for any given stage is
based on reaching refusal pressure, observing surface displacement, and/or attaining injection of
specific volumes at lower than maximum pressures.

17-6. Karst Features and the Performance of Dams.

a. Introduction. The performance spectrum for dams on karst foundations ranges from
successful, to dams that developed extreme leakage problems, but that were remediated, to dams
that were never able to successfully store water. Certainly, karst-related problems at dams are so
common that they have become notorious as the source of numerous, serious, and costly long
term performance and safety issues. One of the most historically interesting projects was Hales
Bar Dam on the Tennessee River. It was privately constructed between 1905 and 1913 for
hydroelectric power and was located about 33 miles downstream from Chattanooga. The
foundation for the dam was Mississippian-age Bangor limestone. Over 25 years of study, it was
found that the Bangor limestone contained numerous clay-filled cavities and open interconnected
solution features. Between 1905 and 1910, three different construction contracts were
terminated due to the difficult foundation conditions. Ultimately, a fourth contractor completed
the project on a time and materials basis. Shortly after completion, excessive leakage developed
at one of the abutments, and attempts were made to treat the leakage by surface plugs on the
riverbed. In 1919, drilling and grouting from the gallery commenced using hot asphalt injected
into the foundation voids. More than 2,900 yd3 of asphalt was injected, and by 1922 it appeared
that leakage control had been successful. By 1929, the leakage gradually increased to levels
approximately the same as existed in 1919. By 1939, which is when the structure was
assimilated into the TVA system, seepage was estimated to equal about 10% of the entire river
flow. In 1941, the TVA began installing a cutoff trench comprising 750, 18-in.-diameter lined
secant piles extending more than 100 ft below the riverbed. This cutoff was supplemented with
another barrier located immediately upstream comprising diamond-drilled holes on 10-in.
centers filled with asphalt. A third barrier, constructed downstream of the first two, was
composed of 13-in.-diameter secant piles filled with concrete along with 3-in.-diameter grouted
holes between the secant piles. Construction of this triple cutoff barrier was completed in 1945.
In April 1963, TVA announced that Hales Bar Dam would be abandoned due to increasing

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leakage and the need for larger locks. Nickajack Dam was constructed between 1964 and 1967
to replace Hales Bar Dam, and the remnants of Hales Bar Dam now lie within Nickajack Lake.

b. USACE Dams on Karst Foundations.

(1) The USACE owns and operates 610 dams that serve navigation, flood control, water
supply, irrigation, hydropower, recreation, environmental enhancement, and combinations of these
purposes. In 2005 and 2006, the Corps performed an initial screening of more than 130 dam
projects that were believed to represent the highest potential risk. Subsequently, within this group
of 130 dams, the USACE identified six dam projects that were judged to be critically near failure
or have extremely high life and/or economic risk. These six dam projects rose to the level of
national priority for funding, studies, investigations, and remedial work. Interim risk reduction
measures were implemented at each of the six dams. Three of the six dams having the highest risk
and priority are earth dams on karst foundations: Clearwater Dam in Missouri, Wolf Creek Dam in
Kentucky, and Center Hill Dam in Tennessee. Immediately preceding action on these projects,
major cutoff projects were constructed at the abutment and emergency spillway area of Patoka
Dam and across a substantial length of Mississinewa Dam, both of which are located in karst areas
of Indiana and had experienced seepage-induced performance problems. A cutoff wall has been
completed at Clearwater Dam and at Wolf Creek Dam. A cutoff wall at the Center Hill Main Dam
and an RCC berm at the Center Hill Saddle Dam are currently in construction. Many of the
USACE embankment dams are founded partly on excavated and treated rock surfaces and partly
on overburden materials. Where the foundations are on rock, the foundation treatment programs
normally included cleaning out karst features at least within the limits of the cutoff trench, placing
backfill concrete on all or a portion of the foundation, and backfilling the features with either
compacted soils or concrete. Grouting was also normally performed beneath the treated rock
foundation. However, often the grouting was relatively ineffective compared to current practice
and often consisted of vertical holes (which potentially missed vertical fractures and joints) that
sometimes went to insufficient depth and/or were grouted with mixes and methodologies that are
not considered today to be the most effective practice.

(2) The vast majority of grouting currently performed by the USACE is for remediation of
seepage problems at existing dams. In some instances, grouting is the only solution that is
applied; in other instances, extensive pre-grouting is used to facilitate construction of cutoff
walls. Recently, combined solutions are being used, with cutoff walls providing long-term
protection in some portions of the foundation and grouting providing long-term protection in
other portions. In these combined solutions, the grouting program is used to define the required
depth for the cutoff wall, provide pre-treatment for construction of the cutoff wall, and act as the
sole long-term protection beyond the limits of the cutoff wall.

c. Typical Problems and Hazards Created by Karst Conditions at Dams. In most cases,
performance problems at dams on karst foundations are related to seepage. It is relatively rare
for structural issues to be the primary problem. Typical problems and hazards include:

(1) Excessive rates of seepage.

(2) Excessive pore pressures and/or adverse distribution of pore pressures.

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(3) Internal erosion of the embankment and/or foundation materials.

(a) Internal erosion due to backward erosion and piping or stoping of embankment and/or
foundation materials, internal erosion of the embankment into the foundation, or internal erosion
due to scour at the abutments can result in the formation of unknown cavities within cohesive
soils or the creation of soft, loose zones in non-cohesive materials that weaken the structure both
hydraulically and structurally. Surface expressions of loss of materials can include the formation
of sinkholes, lateral deformations, and/or settlement.

(b) The problems created are often concealed and may not be detectable by visual
inspection. In many cases, diagnosing the long-term health of the structure relies on extensive
instrumentation systems monitored over a long period of time to detect gradual changes.
Whenever changes in behavior are detected, whether gradual or abrupt, it is clearly a sign that
the site and conditions are actively deteriorating. Even with extensive instrumentation systems,
problematic changes may not be detected because of the location of the instruments with respect
to the karstic features, which tend to be unpredictable.

(c) A separate but related type of problem for new reservoirs is the potential for
unacceptable loss of water from the reservoir through avenues other than leakage through the
dam foundation itself, such as the abutments and reservoir rim. The potential for this type of
problem must be separately examined by obtaining a thorough understanding of the regional
groundwater regime before construction and assessing the changes that will likely occur upon
filling of the reservoir.

17-7. Field Drilling and Grouting Issues in Karst Features.

a. There are numerous issues that make grouting in karst difficult. The following
paragraphs briefly summarize these issues.

b. Soil/Rock Interface Zone. The soil-rock interface zone can be particularly problematic.
The nature of the issues will vary, depending on whether the interface zone is a compacted
embankment on a prepared rock foundation or whether it is natural overburden overlying the
original rock profile.

(1) Compacted Embankment/Prepared Rock Foundation Interface. Problematic

conditions are less common when properly compacted embankment materials were placed over
an excavated and treated rock foundation. In these cases, weathered rock materials will have
been removed, and there will be a distinct interface between the embankment materials and
sound rock. Drill casings can be seated a short distance into the foundation rock (i.e., 13 ft).
The primary issues are treating any soft or loose embankment zones and protecting the
embankment materials during drilling and grouting operations.

(2) Natural Soil/Rock Interface Zones. When embankments have been constructed on
natural overburden materials rather than on prepared rock foundations, the drilling and grouting
problems are normally more numerous. There can be pervious zones within the overburden;
there might be loose, soft zones of material near the rock interface resulting from loss of
materials into the rock; and there can be an extensive transition zone of mixed soil and rock

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materials with voids and/or soft infilling that have high permeability and that cause grout hole
stability problems. These materials must be treated and at the same time protected from induced
damage during drilling and grouting operations.

c. Water Losses During Drilling. Water losses during drilling are extremely common
when grouting karst sites, particularly in the early portions of the program. When water losses
occur, it is necessary to stop drilling and grout the loss area as a special stage before proceeding.
Failure to do so can result in the loss of equipment in the hole, and in contamination of the
fracture system with drill cuttings, which can subsequently prevent effective grouting. As an
alternative to constant production interruptions due to water losses, downstage grouting is often
performed in karst formations. Figure 17-39 illustrates the pattern of water losses by hole series
that occurred on a small segment of the Mississinewa Dam pre-grouting program.

d. Rod Drops/Cavities. Rod drops during drilling can be common on karst sites. Drops
are identified by the driller and/or inspector, and they can indicate the intersection of a soil-filled
zone or cavity. Unless these locations are examined with a down-hole camera, the nature of the
feature causing the rod drop will be extremely uncertain. Even with a camera, it may not be
clear whether a feature has been penetrated along its margin or whether it has been penetrated at
a more representative location. Hole collapse can be a common problem where rod drops occur.

e. Hole Interconnections. Interconnection of grout holes can be common if the hole

spacing of the initial series of holes is not sufficiently wide. In general, interconnections are
undesirable because they can result in contamination of fractures at the connected holes and can
prevent effective grouting from the adjacent holes. Interconnections might or might not be
readily apparent when injecting grout into any given hole. For example, the interconnection can
result in an adjacent hole being slowly filled with grout without the grout rising all the way to the
surface, and the filling of the adjacent hole might not be detected until a later time. In other
cases, multiple hole interconnections can occur, which makes handling the interconnections a
difficult field process. Figure 17-40 shows hole connections that occurred on a small segment of
the Mississinewa Dam pre-grouting program.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming and Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 17-39. Water loss locations at Mississinewa Dam in a cutoff wall test section. Water loss
symbols are color coded and vary by hole series.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming and Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 17-40. Hole connection diagram at Mississinewa Dam in a cutoff wall test section.

Arrows indicate the origin and extent of hole connections.

f. Non-Penetrated Dissolution Features. The probability of penetrating dissolution

features is directly related to the hole spacing and hole pattern being used. In almost every case,
it should not be assumed that all dissolution features have been directly penetrated. Therefore,
grouting of many dissolution features must be done through connecting fractures. These
connecting fractures are often smaller features, so the rate of grout injection can be entirely
controlled by the flow capacity of the fractures feeding the larger dissolution feature. One

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indicator of this condition can be when low Lugeon zones accept large quantities of grout
without appearing to be heading toward refusal. The grout should be thickened very cautiously
and in small increments, with large quantities pumped between thickening points to prevent
reaching refusal in the smaller fractures without properly grouting the larger dissolution feature.

g. Features with Hydraulic Conductivity Exceeding the Capacity of Water Testing

Equipment. It is essential to know the pressure and flow characteristics of the equipment being
used for water pressure testing. In the course of performing pressure tests, the test becomes
invalid whenever the combination of injection rate and injection pressure approaches the
operating curve for the injection system. At that point, the injection of water is system limited,
and the Lugeon value of the stage cannot be determined.

h. Infilled Seams in Rock. Soil-infilled seams are one of the most problematic issues in
karst grouting. The borehole walls can be washed using wash probes with high-pressure radial
jets, but the actual depth of washing into the joint is likely to be limited. During pressure testing,
additional infilled material can be removed, but the removal of material will cease when an
opening is created that has a capacity equal to the injection capacity of the equipment. In
general, therefore, it is not possible to completely remove infilled soil with normal operations.

(1) If deemed necessary, it is possible to create washed channels that continuously

connect from hole to hole if a group of closely spaced holes is drilled (i.e., 2.5 ft or less) and
adjacent holes allow washwater to exit. The efficacy of the washing can be improved by
periodic injections of air into the wash water. Subsequently, the entire group of holes must be
sequentially pressure grouted (i.e., grout is injected into one hole until fresh grout returns from
other holes and then grout is applied under pressure into those holes). The potential benefit of
this approach is to create at least a small continuous barrier of grout from hole to hole within a
particular seam.

(2) In the absence of the washed channel approach, which is rarely used, infilled seams
are grouted to absolute refusal using normal techniques with considerable uncertainty about the
mechanism of refusal. What is known empirically is that it was brought to refusal under applied
pressures. The applied pressures should exceed the expected service heads. It is common that
there will be episodes of hydraulic fracturing in the soil seams in this process, as indicated by a
buildup of pressure followed by pressure drops. Although hydrofracturing carries a negative
connotation in most grouting, this is considered a beneficial process, and it has been
demonstrated on many projects that refusal can be reached after a series of hydrofracturing
episodes. These methods have a rather high potential to cause damage, so they are not
recommended when working in or under existing dams or similar critical structures.

17-8. Grouting Concept Mechanisms and Reliability of Grouting in Karst.

a. Concept Mechanisms. Various mechanisms are believed to occur during grouting of

karst features, depending on the nature of each type of feature. The reliability and confidence in
grouting as a long-term barrier also differs with the feature types.

(1) Clean Fracture Systems. Wherever regions of the site are composed of clean fracture
systems or dissolution features, it should be expected that grouting can be brought to a

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satisfactory conclusion. Provided best practices in all operations are used, there is no reason to
expect that the fractures cannot be effectively filled with grout or that grouting will not provide
satisfactory long-term service. Figure 17-41 shows a large clean fracture that was completely
filled with grout in a core extracted at depth from the foundation of Mississinewa Dam in
Indiana.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 17-41. Large, clean fracture in limestone completely filled with grout.

(2) Infilled Fracture Systems. Significant uncertainty exists regarding the long-term
performance of grouting in fracture systems that have soil infilling, whether that occurs in a near-
surface transition zone or at depth within the rock mass. It has been demonstrated on several
projects (Patoka Lake Dam, Mississinewa Dam, and Clearwater Dam) that the grouted zone can
be brought to refusal at the desired pressures, which may be one to two times the service heads
that might be imposed by the reservoirs. Pressures used should be low enough to prevent
damage when working under existing structures. The long-term effect of reservoir pressure on
infilling has resulted in degradation of neat cement grout treatments in the past. The longevity of
the modern procedures is yet to be proven although following current day best practices is
expected to provide superior durability.

(a) Simultaneous mechanisms that are believed to occur during drilling and grouting
operations in these regions of the foundation include filling of open fractures, partial removal of
infilled materials, displacement of soft materials, densification of infilled materials, and
hydrofracturing of infilled materials. These mechanisms are believed to work together to
provide stability under applied gradients, the time reliability of which is unknown. Filling of
clean fractures limits water access to the grouted zone and provides confinement to infilled
fractures; partial removal and displacement of soft materials may provide compartmentalization
of the infilled fractures; densification may increase resistance to piping; and hydrofracturing can

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provide both compartmentalization of infilled materials and a chemical improvement in clayey

materials. The effectiveness of any of these methods is uncertain.

(b) Hydrofracturing may be one of the more important elements of this combined
mechanism. Zuomei and Pinshou (1982) reported effective grouting of extensive karst caves
filled with soft clay and fine sand at the Wujiangdu Dam project in China. Applied reservoir
heads were up to 540 ft. Grouting was accomplished using HMG mixes under very high
pressures, and hydrofracturing was observed. Extrusion of soft clays was also observed during
field operations, with soft clay sometimes oozing from holes adjacent to the hole being injected.
After grouting, specimens were removed from grouted caves, with the following observations
and conclusions: clay samples contained a closely spaced network of grout lenses, with the
volumetric ratio of grout to total volume of the samples on the order of 57%; clay strength was
increased within the grouted zone; grouted clay samples tested under high gradients up to 500
showed no tendency for seepage failure; and a layer of grout was found to exist around the cave
boundary between the cave walls and the clay. It was concluded that the hydrofracturing process
can provide barriers with sufficient strength and stability to resist high water pressures. Zuomei
and Pinshou (1982) recommended beginning the injections near the center of the feature and
working outward rather than using a normal split-spacing procedure as a means of keeping
extrusion paths open.

(c) At Patoka Lake Dam (Louisville District, USACE), Walz et al. (2003) reported
observing frequent hydrofracturing during grouting of infilled fractures and modifying the
closure criterion based on those field observations. Specifically, grouting was performed at
heads well in excess of the maximum reservoir service heads that might occur. Closure was not
considered to be achieved until water testing of the verification holes indicated that design
Lugeon values had been achieved and that no further hydrofracturing was possible at the
designated grouting pressures. It is important to note that the Patoka grouting work was not done
on the dam or through any embankment material, but was on the abutment and spillway section
where higher pressure was less critical.

(d) At Mississinewa Dam (Louisville District, USACE), pre-grouting performed for a

cutoff wall included successfully grouting some large solution features using HMG and sleeve-
port pipes. Hydrofracturing was part of the mechanism, and it was possible to bring the stages to
refusal at the required pressures. Figure 17-42 shows a sample of sandy soils with
phenolphthalein indicating the extensive presence of grout.

b. Reliability. In summary, a high degree of long-term reliability can be expected when

clean karst features have been properly grouted. For infilled features and fractures, the long-term
reliability is still uncertain despite some encouraging results on certain projects. There are
unresolved long-standing concerns that soil-filled seams and features will either extrude or
gradually be washed out over a long period of time under high heads. For that reason, in many
cases, grouting is not relied upon as a sole long-term solution in these zones.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming.)

Figure 17-42. Soil sample from a sleeve-port grouted zone, with grout presence indicated by
phenolphthalein and recovered grout lenses.

17-9. General Protocols for Remedial Drilling and Grouting in Karst.

a. General. Following are recommended protocols for planning and conducting effective
remedial drilling and grouting in karst environments. These general protocols are based on
procedures that evolved on recent USACE projects where grouting objectives in karst have been
successfully met. While there are undoubtedly valid exceptions to any element in the protocol
due to particular circumstances and applications, it provides a general outline that should
facilitate success in remedial grouting.

b. Site Subdivision. Sites are often non-uniform in character. Every effort should be
made to identify regions within the foundation that are believed to be similar or different so that
appropriate grouting methodologies can be established for each region. Boundaries of similar
regions might be related to specific formations, but they can also vary within individual
formations as a function of either depth or spatial location. Differing areas can be extensive in
size, or they can be isolated within an otherwise relatively homogeneous rock mass.

(1) Site Subdivision by Karst Characteristics. The fundamental nature of karst feature
development is that it originates from a well-distributed network of small fractures and generally a few
larger ones. Over geologic time, the larger fractures can become major dissolution features due to flow
concentration by their action as a drain for the smaller features. This is not meant to imply that the flow
capacity of the smaller network of fractures is small, as it can, in fact, be enormous. However, there are
often relatively isolated large features or regions containing a network of large features that will need to
be identified and treated with special measures and techniques. The locations of these features can
often be identified well in advance by analysis of lineaments and topographic features.

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(2) Subdivision by Depth of Infilling. Another important subdivision discriminator is the

depth of soil-infilled fractures. Below the depth of infilling, complete filling of the fracture
system with grout is readily possible, which results in the ability to achieve minimal residual
permeability that should perform well over the life of the structure. Above the depth of infilling,
special measures are normally required to achieve effective, long-term performance. These
measures can include extensive pressure washing effort, more closely spaced holes, more lines of
grouting, and intentional hydrofracturing of the soil infillings. In combination, the measures
would remove more of the infilled materials, contain and compartmentalize the remaining soil
materials, and reduce gradients across the zone. Another common alternative is to install a
cutoff wall through the depth of infilling.

c. Final Hole Spacing, Number of Grout Lines, and Performance-Based Verification. All
other factors being equal, grouting in karst will be more effective with increased numbers of
holes and increased numbers of grout lines. The minimum number of lines that should be
considered for temporary applications such as pre-grouting for cutoff walls is two, and the
maximum final hole spacing should be 5 ft. Three to five lines should be used in permanent
applications. Locally, wherever adverse conditions are encountered, both the number of lines
and the number of holes per line should be intensively increased. The key element that
ultimately controls the program is performance-based verification. The required Lugeon value
for the grouted zone must be established in advance, and a sufficient number of verification holes
into the grouted mass must show that the required performance has been achieved.

d. Overburden Drilling, Hole Casing, and Sleeve-Port Grouting. Drilling through

embankments must be accomplished using equipment and methods consistent with the
requirements of ER 1110-1-1807. Methods that have successfully been used include sonic
drilling and rotary duplex systems. If continuous sampling is required and some sample
disturbance is not an issue, sonic drilling methods are very effective. Rotary duplex equipment
does not provide continuous sampling, but standard penetration sampling equipment can be
introduced at any time. Recovered soil samples should be logged and examined for loose, soft,
wet zones that indicate damage associated with piping. A pocket penetrometer is recommended
for quantifying the consistency of the materials. Any pervious soil zones should also be
identified, and the thickness of highly weathered transition zones must be determined. The
overburden or epikarst drilling should continue until it penetrates a minimum of 2 ft into sound
rock materials. The casing installed in the hole should be solid pipe in zones not requiring
grouting (i.e., dense embankment soils or dense overburden soils without pervious lenses) and
sleeve-port casing pipe in all other areas (i.e., soft soil zones, pervious zones, and all transition
materials). Installation and grouting of all overburden casings and any sleeve-port grouting of
the overburden, epikarst and transition material stages should be completed in advance of rock
drilling and grouting to protect the embankment and/or overburden materials. If desired, barrier
bag systems can be used on the sleeve-port pipe to isolate the sleeve-port stages. Figure 17-43
illustrates a typical overburden sampling program, and Figure 17-44 shows sleeve-port casing for
installation in required zones.

e. Initial Hole Spacing in Rock. The initial hole spacing of holes drilled in rock should be
such that a minimal number of connections occur between holes. In general, a minimum primary
hole spacing on the order of 80 ft or more is recommended.

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Figure 17-43. Overburden sampling program with a sonic drill at Wolf Creek Dam
(Nashville District).

Figure 17-44. Sleeve-port casing to be installed in overburden and soil-filled dissolution features
at Mississinewa Dam in Indiana (Louisville District).

f. Downstage Grouting and Upstage Grouting. The number of water losses, hole
interconnections, and hole collapses that occur in an early series of holes will normally be
substantial. Since the procedure for dealing with water losses is to terminate drilling and grout
the water loss zone as a separate stage, the grouting program functionally becomes a downstage
drilling and grouting program until the frequency of water losses is minimal. Redrilling
collapsed holes also functionally results in downstage grouting. Additionally, protection of the
base of embankment dams during drilling and grouting is of primary concern, and better
protection can be provided by downstage grouting at least a certain distance beneath the

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embankment. For those reasons, the following protocol is recommended for rock grouting
beneath existing embankment dams:

(1) After the installation and grouting of all overburden casings and any sleeve-port
grouting of the overburden, epikarst, and transition material stages, downstage drill and grout
two stages in every hole on each line. This will provide maximum protection for the base of the
embankment.

(2) After completing the first two downstages on all lines, downstage drill and grout holes
using a normal line sequence and series until a hole spacing of 20 ft is achieved.

(3) If conditions permit, upstage drill and grout the remaining series of holes.

g. Stage Lengths. Stage lengths of 10 ft are recommended for the first two stages in rock
and should not be more than 1520 ft below that depth where downstage drilling and grouting
are used. Long stages will result in grouting being controlled by the characteristics of larger
features and may preclude effective grouting of smaller ones. Ultimately, grouting of the smaller
features is equally critical for minimizing flow through the interconnected fracture system.
Where upstaging is used, the final stage length for grouting will be determined by the results of
water pressure testing. It is common to combine stages, provided they have similar Lugeon
values. However, because of the maximum allowable injection pressures for a particular stage or
depth interval, not more than two stages should be combined.

h. Pressure Washing. When pressure testing data indicate that washout of material is
occurring during the test, the pressure testing should continue until flow stabilizes, which may be
at the capacity of the equipment.

i. Use of Down-hole Cameras. It is recommended that a down-hole camera be available

on site at all times. The camera should be used frequently in the early part of the program as an
exploration tool, and whenever needed to examine locations of water loss, rod drop, and soil
seams, and locations where the capacity of the pressure testing equipment is exceeded.

j. Starting Grout Mixes. Except where camera examination clearly dictates otherwise,
grouting should always be started with the thinnest mix being used on the project.

k. Thickening of Grout Mixes. Thickening of grout mixes should be done cautiously and
gradually. Adjustments to the grout mix shall be directed based on guidance from the
Government dependant on pressure and flow data acquired, recorded, and analyzed by the
automated system.

l. Inability to Reach Refusal at Thickest HMG Mix. In some stages, there will be an
inability to reach refusal even after pumping large quantities of the thickest HMG mix. In most
cases, this will occur in stages where the fracture or feature permeability was so high that
Lugeon values were not able to be determined during pressure testing operations. Assuming that
cameras were not used to evaluate the conditions within the stage, a conclusion of probable
failure to reach refusal should be determined to exist only when very large quantities of grout
have been pumped into the stage and when it is clear that no reduction in the Apparent Lugeon

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value is being achieved. If the Apparent Lugeon value is declining even minimally, pumping
should continue without interruption. If operations are being conducted in the blind (i.e., without
the use of down-hole cameras), the conditions will generally be completely unknown, and there
is little rational basis for determining an injection volume at which grouting should be
temporarily suspended. If cameras have been used, there may be a more logical basis for setting
a maximum injection volume. Regardless, at a certain point of non-progress, it is normal to
suspend the injection, allow sufficient time for the grout to take an initial set, and then attempt to
re-inject the stage. This intermittent grouting process may be performed multiple times as
necessary to reach refusal. Where this process has been required, additional closely spaced holes
should be drilled and grouted in the entire area to verify completion of the grouting process.

17-10. Treatment of Large Cavities and Caves.

a. General. It is common that large cavities will be partially filled with residual clays, silt,
sand, and/or rock debris. Cavities can be highly irregular in dimension and alignment, and they
may have substantial or limited continuity. Accordingly, treatment of each large cavity or cave
that is encountered is essentially a sub-project of its own that requires careful formulation of a
design, an execution plan, and a verification program. While a wide array of methods, materials,
and techniques have been used, they ultimately share some common characteristics:
(1) exploration of the feature and preparation of a design and execution plan, (2) initial filling
and/or blocking of the cavity using materials and methods that are compatible with cavity size,
flow, and head conditions, (3) intensive conventional grouting after initial filling, and
(4) verification.

b. Exploration, Assessment, and Design. Whenever a large feature is encountered that

cannot be effectively grouted by HMG and normal grouting methods, the feature should be
explored extensively to determine its size, alignment, and condition so that an effective treatment
program can be designed and executed. Assessment of condition includes determining the extent
and nature of infilling materials, evaluating the size and type of interconnected fractures,
understanding how the feature is affecting the local flow regime, and assessing flow velocity and
flow rate through the feature. After the feature has been characterized, the design requirements
must be established in terms of the physical extent of treatment required and the performance
requirements for the treatment program. In some cases, the intent might be to create a barrier of
limited dimensions, while in other applications, it may be desirable to maximize the physical
extent of treatment. The design and field approach must also consider how the treatment will
alter the flow regime during and after treatment, as it must be successful under the initial flow
conditions and under higher heads and higher velocities that may develop at interim points in the
treatment. Treatment materials and methodologies must be consistent with the conditions and
the performance requirements for the design. When high-flow rates are present with discharge
points in environmentally sensitive areas, careful consideration must be given to the
environmental controls that are workable with the chosen design.

c. Cleaning of Cavities in Advance of Treatment. More frequently than not, large cavities
are not cleaned before treatment despite the obvious desirability of doing so. Where cleaning has
been performed, it is normally accomplished through arrays of closely spaced holes (i.e., 2.53
ft), with air and water being injected in pairs of holes and with one or more of the other holes
being left open for venting the washed materials (Milanovic 2004). The process is difficult, and

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the efficacy of washing can be low, depending on the extent and nature of materials within the
cavity. Cleaning is rarely performed on projects involving seepage remediation beneath existing
dams due to concerns about destabilizing what may be an already fragile situation, and due to
concerns about possible damage to the dam itself.

d. Initial Filling of Cavity and/or Construction of Cavity Flow or Grout Containment

Barriers. Depending on the nature of the cavity, the flow and head conditions, and the intent of
the design, various courses of action can be considered, including initial filling of the cavity
and/or construction of one or more barriers intended to either reduce flows through the cavity
and/or provide containment for subsequent grouting operations. Various reference sources
(Houlsby 1990, Weaver and Bruce 2007, Warner 2004, Milonovic 2004) describe a wide array
of techniques and materials and provide numerous case histories for this phase of the treatment
program. Under emergency conditions, it is considered acceptable to use anything that can be
placed down the hole that will temporarily stop the flow sufficiently to proceed with grouting.
Under non-emergency circumstances, it is preferred to consider the materials more carefully so
that the cavity plug does not contain materials that would be objectionable or detrimental to the
long-term quality. Materials and/or systems that have been used are:

(1) Concrete with anti-washout agent.

(2) Low-mobility grout with anti-washout agent.

(3) Sanded HMG mixes with anti-washout agent.

(4) HMG mixes with co-injection of sodium silicate.

(5) Hot bitumen with co-injection (or immediate subsequent injection) of HMG.

(6) Urethane grouts. For large void filling, it is desirable to inject the urethane grout into
pre-placed gravel.

(7) Gravel and/or rock materials.

(8) Grout-inflated geotextile bags attached to pipes penetrating the cavity.

(9) Secant piles constructed with casings that create overlaps when successfully drilled.

e. Note that the order of the listed Materials and/or systems does not indicate preference
for one method over another. Some clearly have applicability to smaller openings; others are
applicable to large cavities. Combinations of materials might also be appropriate. Chapter 18 of
this manual provides additional related discussion on this topic.

f. Final Grouting and Verification. The sole purpose of the initial filling program
described above is to prepare the zone for final grouting with HMG, which is necessary to both
complete the process and provide the best assurance of long-term performance. Grouting should
be intensive, with as many holes as necessary. All holes should be grouted to absolute refusal
under the normal maximum program pressure. Numerous verification holes should be used to
directly check the quality of the completed work.

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CHAPTER 18

Grouting Under High-Head and/or High-Flow Conditions

18-1. Introduction. Certain challenging natural or man-made seepage conditions are difficult to
remedy using standard grouting methods. In many instances, high-head and/or high-flow
conditions are emergencies that require immediate attention. In these cases, innovation and
experience provide the best chance of success. This chapter provides examples of situations
where high-flow and/or high-head conditions might be encountered and of methods that have
been employed to address such situations.

18-2. High-Flow and/or High-Head Conditions.

a. General. Certain geologic formations, particularly karst and evaporites, lend themselves to
the development of potential seepage paths that can convey enormous amounts of water under a
relatively low head. Underground construction such as tunnels, shafts, and mines can extend to great
depths and encounter features within the rock that apply extremely high heads and convey large
volumes of water into the structure. Above-ground construction such as dams and quarries may
induce or encounter high-flow and/or high-head situations. The following paragraphs describe some
of the circumstances and mechanisms under which high heads and/or flows may develop.

b. Karst Formations. Dissolution-enlarged fractures and large, open dissolution features

such as caves within karst formations can be problematic to treat. The proximate permeability of
these features may be many orders of magnitude higher than the typical permeability of the
formation. These features can extend for long distances, act as an internal drain within the
formation, interconnect with surface water sources, and have the capacity to convey enormous
amounts of water. Structures that might encounter these types of situations in karst include
nearly all forms of above- and below-ground construction. High-flow conditions are quite
common and well documented in karst.

c. Underground Construction. Seepage inflows into below-ground construction can be

particularly problematic. Deep, below-ground structures run the risk of encountering joints or
other features within the rock that convey seepage at very high heads. Pressures may be on the
order of hundreds of pounds per square inch, depending on the depth of the structure and the
location of the water table, and even small joints and fractures within the rock may convey large
amounts of water under these pressures. Seepage into underground structures can be disastrous,
requiring extraordinary efforts to address and sometimes resulting in abandonment of the
structure. Seepage into salt mines is particularly troublesome, since the inflowing water rapidly
dissolves the salt, sometimes resulting in a runaway situation that cannot be remedied. Claims
on tunneling projects are often the result of excessive seepage into the excavation during
construction (Figure 18-1).

d. Above-Ground Structures. Above-ground structures, particularly water-retaining

structures, can induce problematic high flows or high heads. Situations that might contribute to
such circumstances include: (1) leaky sheet pile joints in cellular cofferdams (Figure 18-2),
(2) joints in dam galleries or concrete monoliths, (3) honeycombed or unconsolidated concrete in
power houses, intake structures, or locks, and (4) alkali-silica reactions induced cracking in

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structures. The number of potential mechanisms that could contribute to a high-flow and/or
high-head condition in above-ground structures is nearly limitless.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 18-1. Seepage through rock bolt drill holes into a rail tunnel during rehabilitation.

(Courtesy of Cianbro and Colonial Pipeline Company)

Figure 18-2. Seepage under and through a cellular cofferdam structure driven by approximately
20 ft of head.

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18-3. Categorization of Conditions. Evaluation of the particular flow and pressure conditions to
be remedied is necessary for proper selection of the treatment methods. These conditions can
generally be divided into three distinct categories.

a. High Head, Low Flow. As noted above and elsewhere in this manual, even tight joints
or fractures may convey large quantities of water. However, compared to flows discussed
elsewhere in this chapter, these flow rates are considered low. Conditions such as these are
common in below-ground construction at moderate to great depth. A single small fracture or a
network of small fractures hydraulically connected to a water-bearing zone can result in
significant head and therefore flow to the structure. The gradient into the structure can be
extremely high, as pressures just beyond the face or wall of the structure can be at full
hydrostatic pressure and rapidly dissipate to atmospheric pressure as the seepage enters the
structure. The result may range from a high-velocity, pressurized stream of water to a slow seep,
depending on the ability of the fracture network to supply seepage to the entrance point. Heads
can be on the order of hundreds of psi, and flows may range from a seep to hundreds of gallons
per minute.

b. High Flow, Low Head. Conditions such as these are common in karst at relatively
shallow depths. Since the permeability of a dissolution feature may be several orders of
magnitude greater than the parent material, the feature may behave as an infinite drain from a
limited supply. Therefore, the head driving the flow will likely be low, but the amount of flow
may be extremely high. Heads may be negligible (under pre-treatment conditions), but flows
might be on the order of hundreds or thousands of gallons per minute. After successful
treatment, substantially higher heads might develop upstream from the treatment zone due to
elimination of the flow path.

c. High Head, High Flow. These conditions are typically the most difficult to treat. They
have been encountered in quarries located in karst environments adjacent to surface water
sources. Large, open joints in rock abutments at dams can apply the full reservoir head and
convey enormous amounts of water downstream. A relatively large fracture or fractures, or a
conduit connected directly to an unlimited water supply, is required to generate these conditions.
Flows may be on the order of thousands of gallons per minute, and the pressure is limited only
by the driving head generated by the supply.

18-4. Assessment of Conditions.

a. General. The features or mechanisms that contribute to the seepage condition must be
known to adequately design treatment measures and implement the measures in the field. In
some cases, there might be obvious field evidence regarding the source of the seepage (Figure
18-3). In other cases, the source of the inflow may ultimately never be determined because of its
tortuous path or because it may not be possible to investigate certain locations. The properties
that ultimately control the design of the remedial grouting method are the geologic and/or man-
made conditions, the flow rate, and the driving head.

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(Courtesy of Dr. Donald Bruce)

Figure 18-3. Source of major inflow into an adjacent open pit quarry excavation through a
solution feature.

b. Geologic and/or Man-Made Conditions. Previous information such as structure

drawings, inspection reports, construction photographs, reconnaissance photographs, geologic
reports, site investigations, and site characterization reports should be reviewed for any
indication of the possible seepage path. It is unlikely that there will be a general consensus
among practitioners regarding the exact seepage path simply by review of this information.
Even if there is a high level of confidence in the data, additional investigations should be
conducted for confirmation. Numerous methods may be employed, including drilling of
exploratory borings, pressure testing at short stage intervals, down-hole camera logging,
geophysical methods, groundwater temperature measurements, groundwater chemistry and pH
measurements, and dye tracing.

c. Flow Quantity and Driving Head. Seepage quantities and piezometric heads should be
measured at the discharge location and within the recharge area. Weirs can be erected to
measure large discharges and can be instrumented to so that real-time flow rate measurements
are available. Other sources of flow measurements include the pumping rate from a dewatering
system and borehole flow meters. Piezometric heads can be obtained from exploratory drilling,
nearby wells, and the elevations of nearby surface water. The installation of automated
piezometers in exploratory holes and nearby wells allows real-time measurement of groundwater
levels before, during, and after the remediation.

18-5. Common Treatment Methods.

a. General. The treatment methods described below involve temporarily stopping the
flow, followed by construction of a long-term, and (one would hope) permanent, solution.
Temporary flow stoppage is typically the more difficult task and requires innovative techniques,

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while the permanent repair typically involves more conventional grouting methods such as LMG
and/or HMG.

(1) Temporary Flow Stoppage. Temporary flow stoppage is required to enable construction of
the permanent plug, which is typically LMG and/or HMG or the construction of a bulkhead. Many
methods have been employed, some of which are discussed in the following paragraphs. Essentially,
the only requirement is to stop the flow, effectively, quickly, and cost effectively.

(2) Upstream Entrance Control. Whenever the upstream entrance source of water is well-
defined and accessible, blocking the flow at that point can be highly advantageous.
Geomembrane systems installed over a properly prepared surface can greatly reduce or eliminate
problematic flows.

(3) Blocking Agents. Injection of cement grout with a high concentration of blocking
agents has been effective on some projects. There are commercially available products that can
be added to cement grouts during mixing. However, nearly any available material that can be
pumped and that provides some blocking properties may be used. A review of notable grouting
literature (Warner 2004, Weaver and Bruce 2007, Houlsby 1990) indicates that the following
materials have been used as blocking agents: sawdust; wood shavings; almond husks; ground
walnut shells; newspaper; scrap plastic; synthetic fibers including polypropylene, nylon,
polyethylene, and polyolefin; plastic tabs and punchings; plastic grocery bags; feed grains; bran;
straw; cornstalks; cane fibers; grass; clay; sand; gravel; shredded rubber; perlite; and plaster. In
some cases, the injection of grout in combination with one of these materials is intended to be the
permanent repair; however, more commonly it is intended to create a temporary flow blockage.
Temporary blocking agents might or might not prove suitable for the flow and head categories
described above. Some experimentation may be required to determine what form of blocking
agent will be effective or to evaluate whether the blocking agents will work at all.

(4) Batten Bars and Plates. Batten bars and plates have been used when the seepage
entrance point is confined to a relatively small area or defect. High-head, low-flow conditions are
most amenable to this method. Common applications include rock fractures in tunnels and
underground construction and leaking joints in concrete dams. The method involves anchoring or
jacking steel plates against the seeping surface. Gasket material between the plate and seeping
surface can be employed to develop a nearly watertight seal, provided the plate is anchored
sufficiently such that the developed head does not extrude the gasket. In many cases, valves
installed on the plate at regular intervals allow the seepage to pass through during plate installation.
After being installed, the valves are closed, and pressure behind the plate will increase until
equilibrium is reached, which might result in the development of additional seepage exits at other
locations. Grouting is conducted by injection through the valves or by drilling additional grout
holes equipped with blow-off preventers to intersect the feature. If treatment of the primary defect
results in re-emergence of the seepage at secondary locations, the same methodology can be
employed. Numerous applications of the method at varying locations may be required to achieve
the desired result. After grouting, the plates can either be removed or remain in place. The
procedure described above constitutes the construction of both the temporary flow stoppage
measures and the permanent plug; therefore, it is unlikely that additional methods will be necessary
provided that unsatisfactory seepage conditions do not reappear.

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(5) Structural Plugs. TM 5-818-6, Grouting Methods and Equipment, describes two
methods for constructing a structural plug within features conveying water at depth. The first
method involves drilling closely spaced, cased holes though the feature. The casings are grouted
or concreted and left in place, and then a secondary series of cased holes is drilled such that they
overlap the primary holes. The casings must be of a material other than steel to permit the
drilling of the secondary holes. The result is a series of fully penetrating overlapping casing
columns that greatly reduces the conveyance capacity of the feature. Cement grouting is then
initiated upstream. This method may be suitable for any of the high-flow conditions described
above. The second method of constructing a structural plug involves introducing inflatable
geotextile or barrier bags into the feature attached to lengths of pipe. The bags are pumped full
of grout or mortar until they expand and contact the adjacent bag or feature sidewalls, thereby
greatly reducing flow within the feature. After the inflation grout achieves its set, additional
grouting is initiated upstream. Construction of barrier bag systems may not be possible if
extremely large features or high heads are encountered, because the bag could be torn free from
the injection system.

(6) Bitumen. Injecting hot bitumen is the most common method for stopping high flows
with or without high head. Bitumen grouting is discussed in detail in Chapter 11 of this manual.

(7) Polyurethane Grouts. Naudts (2003) describes the growing use of polyurethane grouts
in combination with cement grouts for treatment of high flows and high heads. Polyurethane
grouts have controllable set times that can be varied from seconds to minutes (Weaver and Bruce
2007). They are also expansive when unconfined, with some reports noting expansion of 30 times
the injected volume (Warner 2004). The abilities to expand and rapidly set are greatly beneficial
under most high-flow, high-head circumstances. For additional information on polyurethane
grouts, refer to EM 1110-1-3500, Chemical Grouting, Warner (2004), and Naudts (2003).

(8) Set Accelerators.

(a) The primary difficulty in using cement grouts to control high-flow situations is the
rapid expulsion of the grout from the target feature before setting. In these instances, the use of
set accelerators can provide great benefit. The set times are highly variable, depending on the
accelerator and the dosage. In some cases, flash set can occur, which can be beneficial when
grouting a flowing water condition, but can also be catastrophic for equipment. Weaver and
Bruce (2007) identify several accelerators, some common and some uncommon, and describe in
detail both the beneficial properties they impart and the drawbacks of their use.

(b) The two most common accelerators are calcium chloride and sodium silicate. Calcium
chloride is typically proportioned in the range of 16% by weight of cement; 2% is a common
dosage (Weaver and Bruce 2007). Both Weaver and Bruce (2007) and Warner (2004) note that
higher concentrations have been known to reduce set times to as little as a few minutes, and in
some cases, flash setting can occur. Sodium silicate is another accelerator that can be used to
control set times. Warner (2004) notes that cement-sodium silicate grouts are very effective where
water is moving through the host deposit. Weaver and Bruce (2007) note that sodium silicate in
concentrations of less than approximately 20% by weight of cement causes the cohesion of the mix
to rise initially, but then remain constant until initial set. Concentrations above approximately 20%

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may cause flash set. Table 18-1 (from Warner 2004) shows a range of sodium silicate
concentrations and the approximate set times and associated applications for such mixes.

Table 18-1. Range of approximate grout set times for cement-sodium silicate grouts.

Cement-Silicate
Ratio by Volume* Time of Set Typical Usage
1:1 110 s Controlling flowing water
10:1 110 min Controlling flowing water and limiting grout mobility
30:1 1020 min Compounding rapid-setting cement grout
50:1 3060 min
*
After Warner (2004).

(c) In the application for water control where very fast set times are desired, the potential for
grout flash setting in the mixing, pumping, and injection equipment is a real hazard. In these
instances, it is common for the two prime components (grout and sodium silicate) to be mixed
immediately after the components exit the injection equipment. This can be accomplished in one
of two ways: injection of the two component into separate, but adjacent boreholes into
aggressively running water such that the high water velocity mixes the components; or twin-stream
mixing where both components are injected through a multi-conduit packer and mix immediately
at the base of the packer. Some authors note that the fast setting of cement grouts may produce a
weak and brittle grout and that a more substantial plug must be constructed upstream.

b. Permanent Plug Construction. As noted above, temporary flow stoppage is necessary

simply to allow construction of the permanent plug. Typically HMG and LMG are used in
constructing the permanent plug, but in some cases concrete and flowable fill may be injected,
followed by grouting. The issues with respect to construction of the permanent plug include the
required length of plug necessary to resist blow-out or extrusion from the induced head
upstream, and the required level of seepage reduction necessary to achieve the desired results. In
some cases, relatively high levels of residual seepage may be acceptable so tight grouting of the
plug may not be necessary. On the other hand, if only minimal seepage is desired, multiple rows
of grouting adjacent to, beneath, and upstream of the permanent plug may be required.

c. Other Considerations. One practical matter to consider is that the temporary plug is, as
its name denotes, a short-term measure. Construction of the permanent plug should be initiated
immediately after stoppage of flow to take best advantage of the circumstances. In some cases,
the temporary flow stoppage may have a short life span and may quickly deteriorate, resulting in
exponentially increasing flow rates. Depending on the head driving the seepage, after the
temporary plug is installed, a rapid rise in piezometric levels might occur. As a result, adjacent
structures could be adversely impacted and seepage outbreaks may occur at other locations.
These potential impacts require that frequent and sometimes continuous monitoring and
inspection of the site features be conducted. Real-time monitoring systems can reduce the
manpower requirements for these efforts. If seepage outbreaks do occur, they require quick
decision making and flexibility from both the engineer and contractor.

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CHAPTER 19

Special Considerations for Cutoff Wall Pre-Grouting Programs

19-1. Introduction.

a. Cutoff Walls. Cutoff walls have become an important tool for remediating seepage
problems at dams. Bruce et al. (2006) report that since completion of the Wolf Creek Dam
cutoff in 19741978, approximately 30 such projects have been completed in North America
using a variety of techniques and materials, including concrete diaphragm walls constructed
either in panels or as secant pile structures, soilcrete walls constructed by deep soil mixing
equipment, and soil-bentonite walls. In the majority of applications, the purpose of the cutoff
wall has been to reduce seepage occurring either through the dam embankment or through
pervious soils beneath the embankment. These types of cutoff walls typically terminate either at
the top of rock or at a short penetration distance into rock.

b. Cutoff Wall Depths. A small number of walls have had the primary purpose of
reducing seepage occurring at substantial depths within the underlying bedrock. Most
commonly, these projects are concrete cutoff walls located at karst sites (Mississinewa Dam in
Indiana, W.F. George Dam in Alabama, Beaver Dam in Arkansas, Clearwater Dam in Missouri,
Center Hill Dam in Tennessee, and Wolf Creek Dam in Kentucky) or at sites with other types of
permeable rock (Fontenelle Dam in Wyoming and Navajo Dam in New Mexico).

c. Cutoff Walls in Fractured Rock. When cutoff walls are intended to penetrate fractured
rock, special technical issues arise due to the potential for sudden loss of slurry through fractures
or cavities in the rock. Such slurry losses can result in trench collapses endangering and/or
damaging the embankment, creation of safety hazards for personnel, and potential loss of
equipment. When these conditions and risks are known to exist, it has become common to use a
systematic pre-grouting program in advance of cutoff wall construction. This chapter discusses
some of the general aspects of cutoff walls and provides guidance on some of the special
considerations involved in systematic pre-grouting programs.

19-2. Aspects of Cutoff Wall Construction and Performance.

a. General. Cutoff walls have been installed with verified satisfactory verticality and
continuity to depths of at least 223 ft using clamshells, 280 ft with secant piles, and 402 ft with
hydromills (Bruce et al. 2006). Clamshells are suitable for unconsolidated materials, secant piles
are better suited for hard rock conditions, and hydromill panel walls are best suited for soft to
moderately hard rock. Technological advancements in this method are increasing the
capabilities of the equipment and the rock strengths that can be excavated. Figures 19-1 through
19-3 show the clamshell and hydromill excavation equipment used for constructing the cutoff
wall at Mississinewa Dam.

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Figure 19-1. Hydraulic clamshell and hydromill machines at Mississinewa Dam (Louisville

District).

Figure 19-2. Cable-operated clamshell for overburden excavation at the Mississinewa Dam
cutoff wall (Louisville District).

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Figure 19-3. Hydromill cutter wheels for limestone excavation at the Mississinewa Dam cutoff
wall (Louisville District).

b. Excavation Stability. Stability of cutoff wall excavations is primarily the result of

maintaining an adequate head of bentonite slurry in the excavation at all times. In soils, the
bentonite slurry penetrates a short distance into the soils and forms a low-permeability skin on
the side walls of the excavation, which acts as a membrane upon which the slurry exerts a
stabilizing pressure. The depths of penetration are reported to range from 1 to 3 in. in sand, 3 to
6 in. in sand and gravel, and up to 12 in. in gravel (EM 1110-2-1901). No data are known to
exist that relate rock fracture size to slurry penetration distance or slurry loss rates. Equations for
analyzing trench stability during excavation under various soil and groundwater conditions are
contained in EM 1110-2-1901, Seepage Analysis and Control for Dams. It is not uncommon for
the excavation factors of safety to be quite low. Excavation stability can be enhanced by limiting
the size of each excavation such that arching effects provide stability. Maintaining proper slurry
levels at all times is critical to the excavation stability, and uncontrollable loss of slurry will
commonly cause trenches to collapse.

c. Cutoff Wall Construction Issues. Cutoff walls are often termed positive cutoffs
because they are designed to be continuous, interconnected elements constructed of low-
permeability materials. Under ideal conditions, the concrete elements provide their barrier
function independently of the foundation conditions. However, experience has shown that
satisfactory construction requires skill and care in every aspect of the operations, and even under
those circumstances, there can be constructability and performance issues. Besides simple
geometric misalignment, other issues that have been identified in cutoff wall construction, both
in dams and in urban excavation retaining structures, include:

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(1) Uncontrolled Slurry Loss in Embankments. Uncontrolled slurry losses have occurred
during construction of cutoffs in embankment dams. Such slurry losses can occur in low-stress
zones that exist in the embankment and at locations where the embankment has been damaged
by prior seepage. The slurry loss in these situations is attributable to hydrofracturing, which can
induce cracking of the dam over large regions.

(2) Uncontrolled Slurry Loss in Rock. Uncontrolled slurry losses have occurred during
construction of cutoffs in pervious foundation rock. Such slurry losses occur when the fracture
size is such that the slurry, with or without suspended solids, is not capable of blocking the
fractures.

(3) Trench Collapse or Enlargement Due to Extremely Poor Ground Conditions. As

indicated previously, the factors of safety for slurry trench excavation are normally not high, and
the ability of the trench to be supported is a function of soil type, soil properties, and slurry
characteristics. However, zones or strata can be encountered where the factor of safety is
inadequate, and trenches can collapse.

(4) Segregation of Concrete. Mix design and field control of concrete mixes are critical to
prevent segregation, honeycombing, and other defects in the cutoff wall. These types of defects
have been observed in projects where subsequent excavation has exposed the slurry walls and
where post-construction exploratory drilling of the wall was conducted.

(5) Soil or Slurry Inclusions Within Panel Elements. The occurrence of soil and/or slurry
inclusions can be highly significant if they completely penetrate the panel elements. Inclusions
can occur as a result of local soil sloughing and/or disruption in the flow of fluid concrete during
panel construction. Soils particularly prone to creating inclusions include weak silts, weak silty
clays, and highly fissured over consolidated clays.

(6) Vertical Panel Joints. Vertical panel joints are a recognized source of cutoff wall
leakage. Depending on many factors related to the construction process, the rate of leakage can
range from minimal to severe. Under best practices, where the joint surfaces are thoroughly
cleaned while fresh bentonite slurry is circulated, leakage may be minimal due to a thin layer
(i.e., < 1 mm) of contaminated bentonite on the joint surfaces. Under less ideal conditions,
bentonite seams of up to in. have been found to exist at panel joints (Bruce 2007). Systematic
cleaning of the these joint surfaces with specially designed brushes proved to be very effective at
Wolf Creek Dam in Kentucky.

d. Performance Efficiency. In 1986, EM 1110-2-1901 indicated that the experienced

performance efficiency of concrete cutoff walls, determined in terms of head reduction
efficiency, was on the order of 90% or better for properly constructed walls. Flow rate reduction
efficiency was not reported. No additional data are available on recent projects nor is there an
update available on the long-term performance of the walls constructed before 1986.

19-3. Systematic Pre-Grouting Programs for Remedial Cutoff Wall Projects.

a. General. When remedial cutoff walls are to be constructed through embankments and
into permeable foundation rock, systematic pre-grouting programs have been found to provide

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significant benefits beyond reducing the possibility of slurry loss. This section discusses the
various functions that the programs can serve.

b. Embankment Characterization. One high-value function of systematic pre-grouting

programs is intensive exploration. Normally when a remedial cutoff wall is being considered,
the embankment is either known or suspected to be damaged, but neither the extent nor the cause
of damage is fully known. Closely spaced grout holes (i.e., 5-ft centers or closer) drilled through
the embankment and into the rock allow identification of damaged zones in the embankment
and/or problematic ground conditions that might adversely affect cutoff wall construction.
Advance knowledge of the conditions allows the selection of appropriate contingency or
supplemental embankment preparation measures.

c. Soil/Rock Interface Characterization and Treatment. Systematic pre-grouting borings

provide thorough characterization of the soil/rock interface zone, including its nature, variability,
and permeability, all of which are important in cutoff wall construction.

d. Rock Characterization. Systematic drilling, pressure testing, and pre-grouting of the

rock foundation is the most comprehensive method for determining the required depth of the
cutoff wall, determining zones where grouting is acceptable as the sole long-term solution, and
nearly eliminating the risk of slurry loss during subsequent excavation into the bedrock.
Systematic pre-grouting can also provide immediate emergency benefits to the project far in
advance of construction of the cutoff wall.

e. Composite Barrier Action of Grouting and a Cutoff Wall. An additional benefit of

systematic pre-grouting is that it will promote a combined barrier action, resulting in higher
effectiveness and a longer service life. Grouting and cutoff walls can both have defects, but it is
substantially less likely that the defects will occur at the same locations. Therefore, grouting can
either impede or prevent flow at cutoff wall defects, and the cutoff wall in turn can reduce stress
on grouted zones (see Figure 19-4).

Figure 19-4. Pre-grouting for the Mississinewa Dam cutoff wall.

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19-4. Basis of Design.

a. General. The basis of design for pre-grouting programs for cutoff walls is essentially
identical to the design of other grouting programs. The physical dimensions of the zone to be
grouted and the required permeability of the grouted zone must be appropriate for the desired
performance.

b. Slurry Loss Prevention. No published information appears to exist that provides specific
guidance on the size of rock fractures in which slurry loss cannot be controlled. At Mississinewa
Dam (Louisville District), a simplified analysis indicated that if a completely grouted zone having
a residual permeability of 10 Lugeons or less extended 5 ft beyond the walls of the slurry trench,
the slurry loss rate would be manageable for the infrastructure system being used on that project.
The calculation was based on a simple Q = kiA model for the proposed panel size with adjustments
for slurry density and viscosity. The calculation essentially modeled a panel excavation filled with
clean slurry. On the Mississinewa project, pre-grouting was not included in the original contract,
but was found to be necessary when, shortly after the foundation rock was penetrated, the test
section area could not be completed without sudden and complete loss of slurry. The 10-Lugeon
criterion was adopted for the project, and after pre-grouting, the concrete cutoff wall was
successfully completed without any further incidents of slurry loss. Grouting to a residual
permeability of less than 10 Lugeons would have been possible, but it was not required since the
cutoff wall depth had been predetermined and it was decided to extend the wall down to the full
depth of required treatment. Final hole spacings varied between 5 and 10 ft, depending on the area,
and less than absolute refusal was found to be acceptable to achieve the 10-Lugeon result.

c. Composite Barrier Action and Composite Barrier Systems. Where pre-grouting is

being used to define the depth of the cutoff wall or as the sole treatment in certain zones of the
foundation, or when pre-grouting is desired to provide composite barrier action in concert with
the cutoff wall, the design approach is slightly different. The required dimensions and the
residual permeability must simultaneously satisfy the needs of a permanent grouted barrier and
also slurry loss requirements in the cutoff wall zone. In general, this will lead to a tighter
grouted barrier system, often in the range of 15 Lugeons. Additionally, all holes should be
grouted to absolute refusal.

19-5. Number of Lines, Hole Spacing, and Line Spacing.

a. General. It is highly desirable to minimize drilling within the proposed footprint of the
slurry trench excavation and within the zone of expected drilling deviation. The loss of drill
tooling in the excavation area is the primary concern. Whenever possible, drilling in that region
should be limited to verification holes performed after grouting is believed to be complete.
Drilling risks are substantially reduced after pre-grouting is complete.

b. Number of Lines. Experience to date indicates that, in most cases, one line of grouting
on each side of the cutoff wall location is required to produce a suitable grouted zone for cutoff
wall construction. At Mississinewa Dam, one element of the grouting test program was to
evaluate whether one line would suffice or not. It was found that two lines were in fact
necessary. Where cutoff wall depths are extremely deep and line spacings are wide due to the
wall depth and allowances for drilling deviation, it might be necessary to include an additional

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line of grouting within the proposed excavation area if indicated by the verification hole results.
However, it is preferable to try using higher grouting pressures and longer grouting duration to
maximize grout travel rather than to add an interior grout line.

c. Hole Spacing. Holes must be spaced sufficiently close to intersect all fractures at a
sufficient frequency that grout will penetrate at least the half distance between the penetration
points. Where special features, such as dissolution features, are known to exist, both the size and
the frequency of the features must be considered in determining hole spacing. The efficacy of
any given hole spacing can only be evaluated through extrapolation of closure results and
verification testing.

d. Line Spacing. The line spacing should be the minimum necessary to prevent hole
deviations from entering the footprint of the proposed excavation (e.g., see Figure 19-5). Wide
spacing of lines creates a risk of an improperly grouted zone between the lines, with a potential
to cause slurry loss along the axis of the dam. When line spacings are in question, it is
recommended that a tighter spacing be used initially, along with borehole deviation surveys, to
determine the actual extent of deviation. If the initial spacing results in penetration of the
excavation space, the line spacing should then be increased.

Figure 19-5. Pre-grouting lines for the Mississinewa Dam cutoff wall (Louisville District).

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19-6. Grouting Pressures. Grouting pressures for systematic pre-grouting are established using
guidelines provided elsewhere in the manual, with the exception that the refusal pressure should
be checked to ensure that it substantially exceeds the excavation slurry pressure that will be
applied. Pre-grouting for cutoff walls will involve grouting of zones containing mixed materials
or infilled fractures that are not particularly favorable for grouting. Grouting pressures are
applied for a very brief time, whereas slurry pressures might be applied for days or even weeks
in a particular panel. Accordingly, it is recommended that holes be grouted to refusal at least
twice the applied slurry pressure, provided that it is otherwise safe to do so. Careful
consideration must be given to the potential to cause damage using these methods when working
in or under existing dams or similar critical structures. Higher pressure multiples, when possible,
are desirable. The slurry pressure used in the calculation should be based on the maximum
density of slurry that is permitted.

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CHAPTER 20

Blanket Grouting and Consolidation Grouting

20-1. Introduction.

a. General. Blanket grouting and consolidation grouting are terms that describe grouting
programs that are performed over relatively broad areas and to relatively shallow depths for the
purpose of improving the properties of rock. While these terms are sometimes used interchangeably,
Weaver and Bruce (2007) and Warner (2004) recommend drawing a clear distinction between
the two terms because their purposes and methods differ substantially. This manual recognizes
and follows the recommended differentiation based on these definitions:

b. Blanket Grouting. Blanket grouting is defined as shallow, off-curtain grouting

performed beneath dams to decrease permeability, reduce flow velocities, and/or redirect flow
lines away from critical areas. Functionally, it is an integral extension of the grout curtain.

c. Consolidation Grouting. Consolidation grouting is defined as grouting performed to

improve the mechanical properties of rock foundation materials. While consolidation grouting
might also alter the hydraulic conductivity, its primary function is to beneficially alter the
behavior of the rock mass under applied loads.

20-2. Blanket Grouting.

a. Applications. As described above, blanket grouting is an integral extension of the grout

curtain for dams. It is a common and normally recommended element for embankment dams,
but it is also often used for upstream portions of concrete dam foundations. Figure 20-1 shows a
layout for blanket grouting from Portugues Dam, Jacksonville District, USACE.

(1) In embankment dam applications, the lateral extent of blanket grouting is normally the
width of the core contact area unless further extension is warranted to protect other zones of the
embankment. The most vulnerable portion of earth dams is normally the core contact area, and it
is often the most difficult zone to treat. Blanket grouting the entire core contact area of
embankment dams substantially increases the level of protection for the core by decreasing flow
rates and flow gradients. If the full width of the core contact area is not blanket grouted, the
grout curtain will produce full hydrostatic heads at its upstream limit and can induce very high
gradients at the base of the core. Under some circumstances, this can result in hydrofracturing of
the embankment at that location or erosion of embankment material resulting in the potential for
loss of core material into the downstream fractured rock.

(2) In concrete dam applications, the benefit of blanket grouting is enhanced seepage
reduction rather than internal erosion protection. Typically, the blanket grouting zone will
extend from the grout curtain upstream to the heel of the structure. This zone is sometimes
treated after the concrete dam has been constructed so that the blanket grouting can be performed
under higher pressures while simultaneously filling fractures in the rock foundation and grouting
the contact between the concrete and the rock.

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Figure 20-1. Blanket grout hole layout from the Portugues and Bucana Rivers Project,
Jacksonville District, USACE.

b. Depth of Treatment. The required depth of blanket grouting is determined by

evaluating the geologic conditions and assessing the potential risks and benefits for a particular
structure. The depth can be as little as one stage, which would result in treatment of 1015 ft of
rock, but for large dams that have problematic foundations or contain extremely sensitive core
materials, it might consist of multiple stages extending to depths of 30100 ft. Even on smaller
structures, more than one stage depth may be of value if a particularly high-permeability zone
exists at shallow depth. Blanket grouting should always be included in seepage models for the
dam to evaluate both its overall effect on behavior and the benefits of various vertical and
horizontal treatment zones.

c. Materials, Means, and Methods. Blanket grouting should be viewed as an integral

extension of the grout curtain, and as such, the intensity of grouting; the materials, means, and
methods used (balanced stable grouts, absolute refusal, etc.); the degree of care and control
exercised; and the level of verification should be identical to those used for the curtain.

d. Sequencing. Normally, it is preferable to complete blanket grouting in advance of the

curtain grouting. This sequence will reduce difficulties in curtain grouting and may facilitate the
use of higher pressures in the curtain construction.

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20-3. Consolidation Grouting Principles and Basis of Design.

a. General. The intent of consolidation grouting is to fill open fractures to improve the
structural properties of the rock mass. It can be used to reduce deformations associated with
closing of fractures under applied loads, it can be used to treat locally fractured zones and
thereby homogenize the foundation, and it can be used to fill fractures for the purpose of
reducing movement of rock blocks that might otherwise loosen during excavation and/or
tunneling operations. Consolidation grouting can also be used for foundations in karst areas to
increase the level of assurance of adequate foundation support. The enhancement value of
consolidation grouting depends on the rock mass conditions. Greatest benefit will occur in
highly fractured rock masses with a predominant number of open joints.

b. Deformations in Fractured Rock. Rock masses are composed of intact blocks of rock
separated by fracture discontinuities. Under applied stress, the rock mass behavior is governed
by the interaction between the intact blocks and the discontinuities. As a result, fractured rock
masses seldom behave as an ideal elastic material, and the stress-strain responses are typically
not linear. The total vertical deformation of a fractured rock mass under applied load consists of
an initial non-linear strain (represented by the initial tangent modulus), reflecting the effects of
discontinuity closure, followed by a linear elastic deformation (elastic modulus). The modulus
of deformation, which is a representation of total combined strain at any given stress level, is
determined from the slope of the secant line on the stress-strain curve between zero and some
specified stress. EM 1110-1-2908, Rock Foundations, provides illustrations of these components
and provides much more detail on deformation behavior, and it describes numerous test methods
and empirical methods for estimating the in-situ deformation modulus. It also provides guidance
on circumstances when it might also be necessary to consider lateral deformation in analyses.

c. Basis of Design. The basis of design selected for any particular application will be
determined by the geologic conditions, the load intensities, the sensitivity of the structure, and
the criticality of the structure.

(1) Small Non-Critical Applications. Consolidation grouting for many routine

applications may be non-critical, but it is used as a precautionary measure or to increase the level
of confidence that foundation conditions will be both suitable and uniform. Typical applications
include improvement of localized zones of highly fractured rock and treatment beneath
individual foundation elements. In these types of applications, the cost for treatment is relatively
low for the level of protection provided, and the basis for design is often intuitive rather than
analytical.

(2) Critical Applications. Critical applications can include large concrete dams, intake
towers, and structures containing movable features such as lock and flood control gates. In these
types of applications, the basis for design can be extensive testing, including in-situ deformation
tests, finite element deformation and stress analyses, and properly scaled field pilot tests to
measure the benefits produced by consolidation grouting. Guidance on approaches to these
elements is contained in EM 1110-1-2908.

(3) Intermediate Applications. Intermediate applications fall between the non-critical and
critical applications. Intermediate applications include those situations where the cost of

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consolidation grouting is sufficiently high that a purely intuitive basis is insufficient for making a
decision on whether to grout, but where either the size or the sensitivity of the project is not
sufficient to substantiate the time and effort required for the comprehensive process used for
critical applications. Concrete dams less than 100 ft in height commonly fall into this category.
For intermediate applications, it is common to estimate the rock deformation modulus based on
empirical methods that are related to one or more rock quality or rock rating system, calculate
the differential settlements, and compare them to allowable values for the type of structure to be
built. If it is found that the differential settlements are clearly tolerable, then consolidation
grouting is not required. If it is found that the estimated differential settlements approach the
point of concern, a second iteration is performed by assuming the fractures to be grouted,
adjusting the rock rating parameters accordingly, estimating a deformation modulus for the
improved condition, and recalculating differential settlements.

d. Evaluation of Impact on Flow Behavior. In most applications, consolidation grouting

does not have the potential to create negative impacts. However, that is not necessarily true for
dams, particularly when consolidation grouting is performed on the downstream side of the core
trench in embankment dams or downstream from the grout curtain in concrete dams. Although
the intent of the consolidation grouting might only be structural alteration of the rock mass, it
will, in fact, alter the hydraulic conductivity and the seepage flow paths. In concrete dam
foundations, it can render a planned drainage system ineffective unless the drains extend well
below the grouted zone. In earth dam foundations, it can block seepage from entering the
blanket drain system and direct seepage to exit at the downstream toe. Whenever consolidation
grouting is being considered for dams, the consolidation grouting zone must be included in the
seepage model so that the effects are clearly understood and the design properly accommodates
those effects.

20-4. Consolidation Grouting Equipment, Materials, and Methodology.

a. Grouting Equipment. The equipment for mixing, handling, and placing consolidation
grout is the same equipment normally used for HMG.

b. Mixes. The grout mixes used for consolidation grouting are normally either balanced
stable grouts or neat cement grouts. Although neat cement grouts generally develop a higher
compressive strength and have a shorter set time, either type of mix would normally suffice, and
the choice of one versus the other is predominantly based on the project size and type rather than
on specific property differences. For example, on a dam project where balanced stable grouts are
being used extensively in a hydraulic barrier application, it would be logical to use the same
grouts for consolidation grouting. On a foundation improvement project where the only activity
is consolidation grouting, it might be more logical to use neat cement grouts to limit execution
complexity. Where neat cement grouts are used, the starting mix should not be thinner than a 2:1
water-cement ratio (by volume). If it is found that thickening is routinely required during the
grouting, the starting mix should be changed to a 1:1 water-cement ratio.

c. Staging. Grouting can be performed using either upstage or downstage methods as

required by the foundation rock conditions. Stage lengths of 1015 ft are recommended.

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d. Water Pressure Testing. Water pressure testing is normally not used in consolidation
grouting programs.

e. Pressures and Refusal. Grouting pressures should be similar to those used in curtain
grouting. Stages should be grouted to absolute refusal and then locked off at the desired pressure
and held for 15 minutes or until all measurable pressure has dissipated in the stage.

f. Hole Patterns. Holes are drilled and grouted using the split-spacing method. Primary
hole spacings are commonly on 40- to 80-ft centers, and final hole spacings are typically on 5- to
10-ft centers, depending on closure.

g. Closure. The determination of satisfactory closure is based on records of grout take

evaluated in a manner similar to curtain grouting. Verification holes should be used to confirm
closure extrapolations.

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CHAPTER 21

Grouting Considerations for Conduits

21-1. Introduction. Grouting is conducted within or adjacent to conduits for a wide variety of
reasons, ranging from treatment or repair of the conduit to complete abandonment. Described in this
chapter are common conduit grouting applications and special considerations that pertain to conduits.

21-2. Annular Space Grouting.

a. General. Annular space grouting occurs in many applications. The scope of annular
space grouting discussed in this chapter is limited to grouting the annular space between a liner
(also commonly referred to as a slip liner) and an existing host pipe. Similar applications can
include the grouting of the annulus between host and primary conduits in micro-tunneling and
pipe jacking applications. However, in those applications, the annulus is commonly not grouted
to facilitate future replacement of the primary conduit, if replacement should become necessary.

b. Applications. Slip lining of conduits is a trenchless pipe replacement method. Liners

are commonly installed in existing conduits as a remedy for deterioration of the host pipe.
Liners also can be used to improve the hydraulic capacity of an existing conduit. The space
between the host pipe and liner is typically grouted to restrain the liner, prevent seepage between
the conduits, and strengthen the liner system.

c. Liner Materials. The most common liner materials in slip lining applications are high-
density polyethylene (HDPE) with fused joints, HDPE with mechanical joints, structural steel
pipe, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Cured-resin-impregnated felt liners (inversion lining) and
folded and formed PVC liners have been used in conduit repair; however, grouting of these liners
is not required. The type and size of liner will dictate the methods used for injecting grout into
the annulus.

d. Grout Materials. Materials used for annular space grouting are similar to those used in
other HMG applications. Like other HMGs, zero bleed should be a design requirement. The
only other concern specific to the grouting of annular spaces is the density of the injected
material. Liners must be restrained from movement during injection. The movement is due to
the buoyant forces imposed on the conduit during grout injection. In essence, the liner floats
within the injected grout before setting of the grout. The amount of force necessary to provide
restraint depends on the displacement volume and the density of the grout. Denser grout results
in a higher buoyant force, so larger restraints are required at more frequent intervals.

(1) To minimize buoyant forces on conduits, many designers specify that foamed grouts
be used (Figure 21-1). The addition of a closed cell foam to the grout during the mixing process
results in a lower-density material. Grouts with specific gravities less than 1.0 are easily
achieved. Compressive strengths are typically suitable for most applications, but should be
verified by testing. The only concern with regard to using such low-density material is the
ability to displace water in the annulus. If the specific gravity of the injected material is less than
that of water, the grout will float on top of any water in the annulus, resulting in areas of

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incomplete filling. Unless a dry annular space can be guaranteed, it is recommended that all
grouts used for grouting of annular spaces be formulated with a minimum specific gravity of 1.1.

(2) For slip lining of a conduit for structural repair, the strength of the grout may be an
important consideration. Grout strength can vary widely, depending on the mix. It is
recommended that, if a specific minimum grout strength is required, a performance-based
specification should be used to make best use of the contractors resources and experience.
Frequent casting of grout cylinders is necessary for verification of the production work. The entire
annular space between the HDPE or steel liner and the existing conduit should be grouted. This
decreases the possibility of point loads on the liner and adds strength to the composite system.

(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 21-1. Double-drum paddle mixer with a cement auger feed and foaming
device (lower left).

e. Grouting Methods. Annular space grouting is typically conducted using one of two
methods. If the pipe is accessible, the interior of the liner can be equipped with injection ports
such that the grouting is performed from inside the liner. The limiting liner size for performing
this work depends on equipment and labor access, and a conduit approximately 3 ft in diameter
is generally considered a lower limit. For smaller conduits, or conduits that otherwise prohibit
direct access, slick lines are used. Slick lines are injection conduits fixed to the exterior of the
liner before liner insertion. They allow the grouting to be performed from outside the conduit.

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(1) Injection Port Method. Threaded couplings or ports are installed through the pipe
liner to facilitate grout injection into the annular space using these couplings. Grouting is best
accomplished in lifts. Grout injection should begin at the ports located on the liner invert, then
progress to subsequently higher ports on the liner. When grout return is observed at the 45
degree ports above the invert on each side of the invert, then the grout injection proceeds at these
ports until return is observed at both springline ports. Next, grout is injected at the ports located
at the springline until return is observed at the ports 45 degrees above the springline. Then
grouting commences at the ports 45 degrees above the springlines and continues until return is
observed at the pipe crown. Finally, the grout is injected into the port on the pipe crown. For
each lift, grouting should begin at the downstream end of the conduit and proceed upstream.
After grouting operations have been completed, a pipe plug can be installed in the threaded
coupling. For steel liners, the plug may be welded and ground flush with the liner surface.

(2) Grout should be pumped at pressures not exceeding 10 psi at the injection ports. All
valves and ports should remain in the open position such that any trapped air or water is
expelled. Rings of grout ports should be spaced at approximately 40-ft intervals. The designer
should determine the required number and location of all ports and actual grouting pressures to
be used. The procedure above results in five levels of injection: invert, 45 degrees above invert,
springline, 45 degrees above springline, and crown. For very large conduits, more frequent
injections may be required, and conversely, for smaller conduits, a minimum of three injection
points is recommenced (invert, springline, crown). The pipe liner position, circularity, and shape
should be monitored during grouting operations.

(3) Slick Line Method. In this method, grout pipes (typically 11.5 in. in diameter) are
fixed to the crown of the liner before installation. This can be accomplished using extrusion
welding techniques and HDPE grout pipe and liner pipe. For steel liners, steel injection pipe
welded to the steel liner can be used. For other systems, a suitable pipe mounting system must
be selected such that slick lines are not displaced and damaged during liner insertion. Figure 21-2
shows an example of grout lines extrusion welded to an HDPE liner. The designer will need to
determine the required number and length of each grout pipe. The number of grout pipes
required for a particular lining application is a function of the diameter of the pipe and the
expected length of grout travel after it leaves the end of the grout slick line. A rule of thumb
assumes about 2530 ft of grout travel from the end of the grout pipe. For example, if a conduit
150 ft in length is to be lined, four grout pipes (120, 90, 60 and 30 ft in length) would be needed
to grout the annular space. The first injection would take place at the downstream bulkhead, so
five injections would be necessary.

(4) Bulkheads are placed around the annular space of the slip liner at both ends of the
conduit to contain the grout (Figure 21-3). The bulkheads must be secured in place and sealed so
that no grout will leak during grout injection. Air vent bleeder systems are installed through the
bulkheads near the crown of the existing conduit at both ends. This is to prevent air, bleed water,
and any displaced water from being trapped within the annular space. Air vents should be a
minimum of 150% larger than the injection slick lines. If the air vent becomes obstructed, grout
injection must be stopped because the liner may collapse.

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(Courtesy of FEMA)

Figure 21-2. Grout pipe slick lines extrusion welded at the crown of an HDPE liner.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 21-3. Downstream bulkhead with slick lines and air vents at a slip lining project.

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(5) Pressure injection of grout into the annular space starts at the downstream end of the
HDPE slip liner at the downstream bulkhead port and progresses upstream. As grout is injected,
air will be forced out the vent hole at the downstream bulkhead. After thick grout is observed at
this location, the vent should be plugged. Air will then vent through the slick lines and upstream
bulkhead vent hole. After the theoretical volume required to fill the annular space up to the first
slick line is injected, plus a safety margin of approximately 10%, the downstream bulkhead
injection port is plugged and injection then continues at the next slick line. Another clear
indication that grout has reached the next slick line is when air is no longer displaced from that
slick line. This process is repeated until thick grout is observed at the upstream bulkhead vent
hole, which indicates that the annulus has been filled.

f. Pressure Consideration. Control of the injection pressure and the pressure induced on
the liner is particularly important in slip lining applications. If excessive pressures are used, the
liner may collapse under the load. The liner manufacturer should be consulted regarding
pressures on the liner.

21-3. Voids Adjacent to Conduits.

a. General. It is not uncommon for voids or areas of low density to develop adjacent to
conduits. These conditions are typically the result of seepage flowing along the conduit or
leaking conduit joints. In some cases, seepage and void development may be a result of poorly
compacted backfill. If these conditions require remediation, grouting is generally the only
method available short of complete conduit replacement.

b. Seepage Paths. In the case of seepage through joints or along the conduit, grouting can
result in the formation of new seepage paths. If the structure is of critical nature, such as a
penetration through a water-retaining structure, a filter is recommended at the downstream end of
the conduit if one is not already present. The design and details of this filter are described in EM
1110-2-1913, Design and Construction of Levees; EM 1110-2-2902, Conduits, Culverts and
Pipes; and EM 1110-2-2300, Engineering and Design General Design and Construction
Considerations for Earth and Rock-Fill Dams.

c. Grouting Voids. Grouting voids along a conduit is often not 100% effective. The best
results are achieved if the conduit is accessible and grouting can be performed from inside the
conduit. Figure 21-4 shows the drilling of a grout hole from the interior of a conduit. If the
conduit is not accessible, grouting must be done from the embankment surface. Intercepting the
voids becomes more problematic, and the filling of all the void spaces along the conduit cannot
always be verified.

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(Courtesy of FEMA)

Figure 21-4. Drilling a grout hole inside a conduit

d. Grout Mixes. High- and low-mobility cement grouts and chemical grouts are used
depending on the conditions. HMGs will generally only permeate void areas or areas of
sufficiently high permeability to accept cement grouts. Pressure must be controlled to prevent
hydraulic fracturing of the embankment materials. If it is necessary to densify the materials
surrounding the conduit, low-mobility grouting should be considered. The greatest concern with
low-mobility grouts is the possibility that the conduit could be damaged by the high injection
pressures. Vigilant observation of injection pressures is therefore necessary. It is also possible to
jack or lift a conduit using low-mobility grouts, so monitoring of the structure may also be necessary.
In some cases, this jacking action may be desirable to move the structure back to its original
location. Chemical grouts have been used to treat voids adjacent to conduits; however, due to the
high cost of materials, their use is often limited to treating cracks and leaking pipe joints.

e. Drill Hole Patterns. Holes drilled from inside the conduit may be located similar to
hole patterns used for annular space grouting. Figure 21-5 shows a typical detail for ring
grouting. Additional holes located between production holes can be used to verify the
effectiveness of grouting. Grouting for filling of voids may require several series of holes to
ensure complete filling. Drilling methods must be selected based on the materials to be drilled.
Typically, small rotary percussion or diamond rotary drilling methods are appropriate. Diamond
rotary methods allow for the cutting of steel reinforcement in concrete pipes. For above-ground
work, holes are generally drilled parallel to the conduit alignment and offset some distance from
the outside edge of the conduit. It is particularly important that the location of the conduit be
known with certainty and that the layout of the drill holes and the alignment of the drill tooling
are verified by survey or other appropriate means. Treating voids near the crown of the conduit
requires that drill holes be stopped just above the crown of the pipe. This requires accurate
conduit and drill hole collar elevation information, which necessitates the use of accurate
surveying methods. Drilling methods appropriate for drilling through embankments are
described in ER 1110-1-1807, Procedures for Drilling in Earth Embankments.

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(Courtesy of Chicago District.)

Figure 21-5. Typical ring grouting detail from a contract drawing.

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21-4. Grouting Cracks and Leaking Joints.

a. General. Chemical grouts include sodium silicate, acrylates, polyurethanes, lignins,

and resins. Polyurethanes are most commonly used to repair leaking joints and cracks in
conduits. Properties and applications of chemical grouts are described in EM 1110-1-3500,
Chemical Grouting, but their use as it pertains to grouting conduits is briefly discussed here.

b. Sealing Cracks. Sealing of cracks and leaking joints in concrete conduits is a common
application for chemical grouts. The concern with respect to these leaks is the loss of
embankment materials through seepage into the conduit. If the problem goes unnoticed and the
conduit is relatively shallow, sinkholes may develop above the conduit. Under the worst of
scenarios, the seepage may result in the development of the preferential flow path along the
conduit, which could result in an uncontrolled release from a water-retaining structure.

c. Procedure. The procedures for sealing joints and cracks in conduits with chemical
grout are similar to methods for other crack repair. Generally holes are drilled at a close spacing
and appropriate angle to intercept the crack or joint. Chemical grout is injected, sealing the
crack. This method can generally only be applied to conduits that provide access to personnel.

21-5. Pipe Abandonment.

a. General. Pipes are abandoned for several reasons, including deterioration,

obsolescence, and changes in loading conditions. Abandonment includes water supply wells,
industrial pipelines, sewers, pipelines beneath levees, and spillway and outlet works conduits in
embankment dams.

b. Abandonment of Wells. After a well has served its purpose and the decision has been
made to abandon it, the well should be sealed for safety reasons, and to prevent pollution of
groundwater resources in the area. Grouting the well from the bottom of the well screen to the
top of the well casing is an effective means of sealing the well. The procedures for sealing a well
by grouting are described in USACE EM 1110-3-161, Water Supplies, Water Sources (1984).

c. Abandonment of Industrial Pipelines and Sewers. Often when an industrial pipeline or

sewer is abandoned, the pipe remains in place. If there are environmental or structural concerns,
the pipeline should be filled with concrete or grout. Abandoned pipelines used to transport
hazardous or contaminated materials at hazardous waste sites have been sealed using concrete
and grout.

d. Abandonment of Conduits in Embankment Dams and Levees. Spillway and outlet

works conduits in embankment dams and levees are sometimes abandoned due to deterioration
or changes in loading conditions. If an embankment or levee is raised, an existing conduit may
not have the strength to withstand the new loading condition. It may be technically feasible and
cost effective to leave the conduit in place and to fill it with grout rather than to remove it.
Removal likely would require lowering the reservoir, excavating the embankment fill, and then
replacing the fill. The advantages of leaving the conduit in place must be weighed against the
concerns of possible seepage paths, which could cause future problems, and continued conduit

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deterioration. Where a new levee is to be constructed, an existing pipeline in the foundation may
be abandoned if the measures outlined in EM 1110-2-1913 are followed.

(1) Inspections and Condition Surveys. The decision to repair, strengthen, line, or
abandon an existing conduit should be based on an evaluation using an inspection and condition
survey. When the decision has been made to abandon the conduit and seal it in place, the results
of the inspection and condition survey should be used in developing the scope of work. For
example, if the inspection and condition survey results indicate the presence of voids outside the
conduit, if seepage is detected flowing through joints or cracks in the conduit or along the
outside of the conduit, or if a filter is not present at the downstream end of the conduit, the
design must address these issues. If grouting the conduit must be done from the embankment
surface, the exact location of the conduit must be known, and this information should be
available from the survey. Chapter 9 of Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Technical Manual 484, Conduits through Embankment Dams, gives information about
conducting inspections and condition surveys of both accessible and inaccessible conduits.

(2) Access for Grouting. Sealing the conduit with grout is most easily accomplished and
achieves the best results if the conduit is accessible from the upstream or downstream end. If
neither end of the conduit is accessible, it is likely that holes for grout injection will have to be
drilled from the embankment surface. Additionally, if not directly accessible, a bulkhead must
be constructed at the upstream end by drilling and grouting from the embankment surface. When
this is necessary, a boring is advanced through the embankment directly above the conduit where
the bulkhead will be constructed. The boring is drilled into the conduit and grout pipe is
extended to the mid-height of the conduit. Low-slump materials such as concrete or low-
mobility grout are then pumped into the conduit and the bulkhead is constructed. Bulkheads can
be constructed from a wide variety of materials if direct access can be gained.

(3) Cleaning the Conduit Before Grouting. The existing concrete surfaces against which
grout will be placed should be free of any deleterious materials, including roots, sediment,
mineral deposits, dust, laitance, loose or defective concrete, curing compound, coatings, and any
other foreign materials. Section 9.6 of FEMA Technical Manual 484, Conduits through
Embankment Dams, provides guidance on cleaning conduits. Sediment and debris should be
removed from the conduit invert. If the conduit is accessible, projections such as bolts should be
cut off or ground smooth with the interior conduit wall.

(4) Grouting. Grouting can be conducted in a wide variety of ways. Applications such as
slick lines mounted to the invert of the pipe may be appropriate. Bulk filling from the invert of
the downstream bulkhead until grout is observed at the vent hole in the upstream bulkhead may
also be appropriate. In some cases, complete filling of the pipe may not be necessary, in which
case stiff, minimally flowable materials such as concrete or low-mobility grout may be used.

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CHAPTER 22

Void Filling

22-1. Introduction. This chapter addresses various types of void-filling applications such as
mine voids, voids that develop beneath structure foundations, voids associated with abandoned
tanks and similar structures, and other subsurface voids. Chapters 17, 21, and 24 of this manual
contain other information specific to voids associated with those types of features.

22-2. Basic Considerations for Void-Filling Operations.

a. General. The design and execution of any void-filling operation must carefully
consider the source that caused formation of the void, the purpose and requirements of the void
filling, any secondary effects that might result from the void filling, and control of grouting
pressures.

b. Source of Void Formation. Voids can form in response to a broad variety of subsurface
conditions. Common conditions include underground mining, structure undermining related to
seepage and piping, and limestone sinkhole subsidence. In some cases, grouting can arrest
ongoing void formation and restore foundation support. However, in many other cases,
particularly those associated with structure undermining related to seepage and piping, grouting
of the voids might restore foundation support, but rarely will it remedy the cause of the void or
prevent new voids from forming. In those circumstances, other measures are usually required to
address the fundamental conditions that caused the void to form.

c. Purpose and Requirements for Void Filling. The intended purpose and the
requirements for void filling must be clearly understood and established as part of the design. In
particular, the completeness of the required filling is a basic consideration. For example, a
purely structural application might require high-strength materials and adequate contact of the
foundation with the grout, but it might or might not require perfect filling. Conversely, for
hydraulic structures, complete filling is normally essential, and effective grouting might require
multiple applications with different types of grout materials.

d. Secondary Effects. Void-filling programs must consider the potential secondary effects
that might occur as a result of grouting. Specifically, grouting might increase the loads on the
foundation materials beneath a structure, or in the case of pile-supported structures, it might
increase loads carried by the piling. Void filling can also alter groundwater and seepage flow
regimes, which might have unintended consequences in nearby areas. For example, where void
filling is undertaken in limestone sinkhole areas, it is not uncommon for new sinkholes to form
in adjacent areas. Grouting can also damage subsurface drainage systems and instrumentation.

e. Grouting Pressure Control. Extreme care must be taken in establishing the grouting
pressures to be applied, particularly where grouting is being performed under slabs or other
foundation elements. It is common that grouting pressures will be low, based on calculation of
the pressures at which uplift of the structure would be expected to occur. Vent holes are often
required, both for verification of grout filling and for limiting pressures.

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22-3. Common Applications.

a. Mine Voids.

(1) Abandoned mines have a long history of causing subsidence and hydrologic problems
ranging from acid mine drainage to alteration of surface water and groundwater flow regimes.
The Wyoming communities of Rock Springs and Glenrock were built above abandoned mines.
Subsidence necessitated grouting of the underlying mines (Holmquist et al. 2002). A similar
situation occurred in Plum Borough, Allegheny County, PA. Coal mining beneath this
community began before World War II using the room-and-pillar method. The abandoned mine
was grouted when subsidence threatened over 200 homes (Pennsylvania Organization for
Watersheds and Rivers 2002). In Guernsey County, OH, the eastbound lanes of I-70 collapsed
as a result of an underlying abandoned coal mine. The repair included grouting the abandoned
mine, which stabilized the area, and constructing a land bridge (Ruegsegger and Lefchik 2001).
Figure 22-1 shows one mode of underground mine subsidence.

(From Crowell 2010, courtesy of Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey.)

Figure 22-1. Mechanics of underground abandoned mine subsidence.

(2) Abandoned mine tunnels often discharge water that is highly acidic or that contains
pollutants. In Pennsylvania, for example, it is estimated that there are thousands of miles of
streams having waters that are polluted by abandoned mine drainage. Grouting has been used to
seal the tunnels with a complete filling or a substantial plug. As part of the current permitting
process, many new mines are required to have an abandonment plan for the time when mining
activities will cease. These plans often include grouting. Figures 22-2 and 22-3 show grouting
in an abandoned mine.

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(Courtesy of Hayward Baker, with permission from ASCE.)

Figure 22-2. LMG injection into a mine void.

(Courtesy of Hayward Baker.)

Figure 22-3. Time-lapse photos showing the advancement of LMG injected into a tunnel.

b. Structure Underpinning. During the life of a structure, voids may develop in the
foundation as a result of flowing water, fluctuating groundwater levels, seismic activity, or other
mechanisms. Whatever the cause, it is usually necessary to re-establish contact between the
foundation of the structure and the underlying soil or rock. Large voids caused by flowing water
have frequently occurred beneath concrete spillways and lock and dam facilities. Spillways and
outlet works having inadequate terminal cutoff walls have been undermined. High-velocity
flows adjacent to training walls have undercut wall foundations. In all of these cases, the voids
required grouting. Figure 22-4 shows a thin-slab, chute-type spillway structure at an earth dam
where the extent of undermining and damage had progressed to the point at which grouting was
no longer possible.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 22-4. Extensive network of large voids beneath a spillway slab, which necessitated
demolition and construction of new spillway.

c. Special Applications. There are several additional applications where grouting has
been used to fill large voids, two of which are described here. The first example involves the
case in which large voids have developed in earth embankment dams or their abutments. These
voids can be the result of mechanisms such as seepage, flood discharge, and deteriorating
timbers left in the dam. Filling of these voids may require special field techniques and materials.
For example, if the voids are entirely within the embankment fill, the grout mix may need to
exclude cement so that the fill is not brittle and is more compatible with the original embankment
soil. Extreme care must be exercised in injecting the grout so that hydraulic fracturing does not
occur within the embankment or on the slopes. The grout is often injected by gravity flow to
prevent damage. When seepage is known to be the cause of the void, other measures must
normally be implemented to prevent the void from re-forming. A second example of a special
application is the grouting of abandoned large tanks at waste disposal sites. These tanks were
used to collect waste solutions and sludge. Substantial volumes of grout, on the order of
thousands of cubic meters, may be required. The purpose of the grouting is to provide structural
stability and eliminate safety hazards. Typically these tanks still contain contaminants that must
be stabilized and encapsulated. The grout mix must be designed to cure in the presence of these
contaminants and have long-term chemical compatibility. Underwater placement is often
required, and placement is typically accomplished over a long period of time.

22-4. Investigations.

a. General. Of primary importance in void filling is delineation of the void extent. In

many situations the only evidence of the void is structure or ground subsidence. Records may be
minimal or nonexistent, and direct observation of the void may not be possible. Various
investigation techniques must therefore be employed.

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b. Abandoned Mines. Mining operations in abandoned mines ended decades ago, and the
available information about these mines is often limited, inaccurate, or nonexistent. The
underground geometry must therefore be determined by investigation and exploration. All shafts
and mine entry points should be determined. The mine floor and the ceiling elevations, slope,
width, and direction of tunnels should be modeled. This is useful in planning field operations
and in locating grout injection points. Often these mines are inaccessible or access is unsafe.
Geophysical surveys and down-hole video cameras can be valuable resources for obtaining
information. Abandoned mines often have large open areas and also rubble mounds of rock, soil,
and other materials. These rubble mounds affect the grouting program, so their locations and
geometry should be determined to the extent practical. The site investigation must include a
study of the regional hydrogeology and hydrology. This is particularly important if one of the
objectives of the grouting program is to address abandoned mine drainage. However, even if the
only concern is subsidence, grouting an abandoned mine will affect groundwater flow regimes
and also could affect surface water flow. Grouting will alter existing flow paths. Geophysical
surveys may provide information about groundwater flow paths when access to the mine is not
possible. Section 5 of the FHWA publication Manual for Abandoned Underground Mine
Inventory and Risk Assessment provides detailed information on conducting site investigations.
EM 1110-1-1802, Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental Investigations,
should be used in planning a geophysical survey.

c. Voids Beneath Structures. As noted previously, sometimes the only evidence of a void
is subsidence. With respect to structures, this can be evidenced by tilting, cracked, or displaced
walls, slabs, foundations, or other structural elements. In the case of hydraulic structures,
abnormal flow or head behavior such as locations where water is either being lost from the
structure or entering the structure often indicate the presence of undisclosed voids. Investigation
of a structure void should begin with mapping and a survey of the structure to determine the
affected limits. Further investigations may be conducted by drilling holes through the structure
and measuring the thickness of the void beneath. Drilling should continue in a radial pattern
from the presumed center of the void until the outermost limits have been identified. Holes
beyond the void limits may be appropriate to determine if other problematic and unforeseen
conditions are present. Observation of the void is possible by using inexpensive pan-and-tilt
down-hole cameras. Geophysical methods such as microgravity may also be useful in
combination with drilling methods.

22-5. Design Considerations.

a. General. The design of the grouting program includes determining the appropriate mix
for the void and the environment into which it will be injected, and for the required functional
characteristics of the grout.

b. Mix design. The mix design depends on the feature being grouted. The variables are
the proportions of water, cement, aggregates and additives and the desired properties of
flowability, aggregate type, set time, and strength. Numerous materials ranging from HMGs to
stiff concrete may be employed.

(1) High-Mobility Grout and Sanded Grout. Recommended HMG materials and mixes
are discussed in detail in other chapters of this manual. HMG may be used to tighten certain

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areas for seepage control in mine plugs or fill small voids beneath structures. The vast majority of
mine void-filling operations use concrete, flowable fill, or low-mobility grout.

(2) Low-Mobility Grout. LMG is discussed in other chapters of this manual. The two
greatest concerns with respect to LMG in void-filling applications are the flow characteristics
and strength. The water-to-solids ratios may need to be varied to provide appropriate flow
characteristics, and additional cement may be required, depending on the service load of the
LMG column.

(3) Concrete. Discussion of concrete mix designs is beyond the scope of this manual.
Lean concrete mixes typically provide adequate strength in most void-filling applications. The
consistency of the material can range from highly flowable to stiff with zero slump. Stiffer
concretes are typically employed when minimal travel is beneficial.

(4) Flowable Fill. Flowable fill is a controlled, low-strength material consisting of water,
cement, fly ash, and aggregate. Much of the published information about flowable fill pertains to
fills that may later be excavated, so the water/cement ratios are high and the corresponding
compressive strengths are on the order of 100 psi. The main purpose of flowable fill for void
filling is to provide adequate support for the overlying materials or structures. Care must be
exercised in determining the required compressive strength and the appropriate water/cement
ratio. The recommended slump range for flowable fill used for filling large voids is 28 in. Mix
design guidelines are published by the American Concrete Institute in Controlled Low Strength
Materials (CLSM), Report No. 229, and the Portland Cement Associations Cementitious Grouts
and Grouting, 1990.

c. Other Material Considerations. In selecting the physical properties of the injected

materials, consideration must be given to the size of the voids to be grouted and the environment
into which the material will be injected. Short set times may be appropriate. Penetrability of the
injected mix must be considered. Dilution and segregation must be considered for underwater
applications.

(1) Aggregates and Penetration. Manufactured aggregates contain angular particles,

which decrease the flow characteristics and penetrability of a mix. Manufactured aggregates also
tend to clog the injection pipes. Natural sand aggregates consist of rounded particles, which
increases the flow properties and penetration of the mix. For penetration of rubble mounds in
mines and small voids, only natural aggregates with a maximum particle size of 0.5 in. are
recommended. Manufactured aggregates in concrete, flowable fill, and LMG are appropriate if
the intention is to construct discrete column elements within the void.

(2) Set Time. Set times must be compatible with the volume of material to be injected
and adjusted based on the pumping rate. In mine void-filling applications where large volumes
are to be injected, typical pumping rates vary between 5 and 30 yd3 per hour, depending on site
conditions. If the intention is to inject several hundred cubic yards of material from a single
location, the set time obviously must be compatible with the pumping rate.

(3) Underwater Grouting. In the case of waterfront and hydraulic structures, it may be
necessary to place grout or concrete under water. Special precautions need to be taken in the mix

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design and placement. If placed under water, the mix should be designed in accordance with the
provisions of Chapter 10 of EM 1110-2-2000, Standard Practice for Concrete for Civil Works
Structures, and EM 1110-2-2002, Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Structures. When placed
under water, the grout mix must be highly flowable and must be resistant to water dilution and
segregation. Water-reducing admixtures and an admixture to minimize the washout of cement
and fines are often added. For underwater placement of concrete, it is desirable to have a mid
range slump. A high-slump grout increases the potential for water dilution. A low-slump mix is
very stiff and has poor flow characteristics. Flowability is very important for consolidation since
mechanical vibration may not be possible.

(4) Form and Reinforcement Design. Forms for bulkheads and for underpinning foundations
must be designed to withstand the pressures that may be induced during the injection or placement of
the grout or concrete. The forms also must be designed such that they do not move under the pressures
induced by the grout or concrete once placement is complete. For underpinning foundations that are
under water, forms require installation by a diver. Additional guidelines are given in EM 1110-2-2002.
Since underpinning of foundations may result in significant load transfer to the injected materials,
reinforcement of the grout mass using pre-embedded rebar may be necessary.

22-6. Field Methods.

a. General. The methods used to drill and inject grout or other materials for void-filling
purposes are highly varied. In general, the only requirement is to economically and fully fill the
void. While some methods are common between mine and structure voids, the materials chosen
generally differ and therefore many of the field procedures also differ. The following paragraphs
discuss field methods common to most void-filling applications, and those methods specific to
mine voids and voids beneath structures.

b. Common Field Methods. The following methods are common to most void-filling
operations.

(1) Drilling. Nearly any hole drilling method is allowed. Air flush is specifically
prohibited in permeation grouting applications due to the potential for clogging of fractures and
hydrofracturing embankment materials. However, provided that no damage is anticipated as a
result of air flush, there is no compelling reason for it not to be allowed in drilling holes for void-
filling operations.

(2) Underwater Injection. It is important that the specification for injecting the grout
under water require that the grout pipe initially be placed as low as possible. As grout begins to
flow, the end of the grout pipe should remain in the freshly placed grout. With this procedure,
the grout will displace the water in the void, minimizing the potential for the grout to be diluted
or the fines separated.

(3) Refusal and Pressure. In grouting of abandoned mines, refusal is defined as no grout
take at constant pressure for 5 minutes. The pressure is usually low, but it should be sufficient to
provide complete grouting of the feature. When underpinning below-water structures where
forming is required, it is best if the grout or concrete placement can be observed by a diver or an
underwater camera. If the form is open, there is no refusal since grout will flow out of the form

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when the void has been completely filled. Where forming is not required and the void space is
confined, refusal is defined as stated previously. Injection pressures are typically low and should
be selected conservatively. The greatest concern is jacking of the structure or overlying
materials. Gravity grouting methods are commonly employed with higher-slump materials.

(4) Monitoring. Underpinning should be monitored visually or using a camera if possible.

In the case of grouting confined void spaces, it will be necessary to rely on refusal data. Site
monitoring should be conducted during the grouting of abandoned mines. Existing conditions
may change, or new conditions may develop during construction. For example, grouting may
unintentionally cause new subsidence. The development of a construction monitoring plan is
discussed in more detail in Section 9 of the FHWA publication Manual for Abandoned
Underground Mine Inventory and Risk Assessment.

(5) Verification Programs. In most applications, confirmation borings should be

conducted to verify that the void is completely filled. These borings should be accurately located
and logged. If any voids are encountered, the voids should be grouted. Depending on the extent
of the void, a grid pattern similar to that used in consolidation grouting programs may be
appropriate. Subsequent series of holes fundamentally become verification holes into which
additional materials may be injected if conditions warrant.

c. Mine and Large Void-Filling Methods. The following methods and procedures are
generally applicable to mine or large void-filling operations.

(1) Hole Spacing. Hole spacing for injection grouting mines is usually designed based on
a pilot program. Published information about completed projects shows hole spacing for the
production grouting typically ranging from 30 to 40 ft. In projects where flowable fill was used,
the maximum hole spacing was approximately 300 ft; however, such a large spacing should only
be considered if conditions are extremely favorable for complete filling. Hole spacings are
considerably less on the majority of projects. Verification holes located between primary
injection sites should be required, particularly where larger-than-anticipated quantities were
injected or where observations indicate incomplete filling.

(2) Injection Methods. In large void-filling applications, the quantities of materials

consumed may be enormous. The use of gravity grouting methods and stiff materials
necessitates the drilling of large-diameter holes. Other conveyance systems include cased holes
affixed to piston-type pumps.

(3) Slump Considerations. The mix for grouting abandoned mines can be highly variable,
depending on the application, and multiple mix types may be used. For grouting large voids, a
low-slump mix is typically used; however, voids within rubble mounds of soil and rock are
substantially smaller, and a higher slump may be necessary to achieve the necessary penetration.
The mix may have to be adjusted quickly whenever rubble mounds are encountered or when
changing from grouting rubble mounds to grouting large voids.

(4) Spatial Considerations. To minimize the possibility of incomplete filling inside a

mine or large void, it is recommended that the grouting begin on one edge of the mine and

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proceed across the void area to the opposite side. If possible, areas of lowest elevation in the
profiles of tunnels and shafts should be grouted first.

d. Structure Void-Filling Methods. The following methods and procedures are generally
applicable to the filling of voids beneath structures.

(1) Hole Spacing. The hole spacing for injection grouting of voids beneath structures
generally depends on the extent of the void to be treated, the geometry of the structure and void,
and the flow characteristics of the injected medium. Voids beneath structures are generally
smaller than voids encountered in mine works; however, this does not necessarily indicate fewer
holes for proper treatment. Grid patterns similar to those used in consolidation grouting
programs may be appropriate, and hole spacings on the order of several feet are common. This
relatively close hole spacing is necessary to provide assurance that no voids remain beneath the
structure. Hole sizes are typically on the order of 13 in. in diameter. For underpinning slabs or
other relatively thin concrete, thin-walled diamond rotary core drills are typically used because
they are capable of cutting through embedded reinforcing steel.

(2) Injection Methods. Injection is typically accomplished using the methods specified
elsewhere in this manual for HMG. Both mechanical and pneumatic packers are appropriate. In some
cases, a single injection hole may be used, with relief holes spaced at regular intervals (Figure 22-5).
The relief holes are equipped with valves. When thick grout discharges from the hole, the valve is
closed, which forces the grout to travel to the next relief location. Similar to grouting of other voids, it
is recommended that grouting begin at the lowest part of the void and progress upward.

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(Courtesy of Advanced Construction Techniques)

Figure 22-5. Grout holes for injection of HMG to fill a void beneath conduit.

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CHAPTER 23

Pre-stressed Rock Anchor Grouting

23-1. Introduction.

a. General. This chapter provides an overview of the methods and materials used in
grouting pre-stressed rock anchors. Since 1974, there have been five versions of the Post
Tensioning Institutes (PTIs) anchor Recommendations document, which guides practice in
all phases of rock and soil anchor technology on a national basis (Bruce and Wolfhope 2007).
The contents of this chapter are consistent with the most recent version (2004) and may therefore
be regarded as the current state of practice in the United States.

b. Anchor Construction. In the simplest terms, rock anchor construction involves five
distinctly different processes: drilling the hole, waterproofing the hole, placing the tendon,
grouting the tendon, and stressing and testing the anchor. This chapter discusses only the
grouting-related processes that relate to pre-stressed rock anchors, namely waterproofing of the
hole and grouting of the tendon.

c. Relevant References. Other relevant manuals related to other types of rock

reinforcement, applications for pre-stressed anchors, and/or the design and construction of rock
anchors of various types include:

(1) Engineer Manual 1110-1-2907, Rock Reinforcement, 15 February 1980.

(2) Engineer Manual 1110-1-2908, Rock Foundations, 30November 1994.

(3) Engineer Manual 1110-2-2200, Gravity Dam Design, 30 June 1995.

(4) Engineer Manual 1110-2-2901, Tunnels and Shafts in Rock, 30 May 1997.

(5) Engineer Manual 1110-2-2100, Stability Analysis of Concrete Structures, 1 December

2005.

Some of these documents reference earlier versions of the PTI anchor recommendations.

23-2. Basic Elements and Terminology.

(22) Unbonded Anchor: An anchor for which the free-stressing length remains
permanently unbonded to the surrounding grout, ground, or structure.

(23) Upward-Sloped Anchor: Any pre-stressed anchor inclined greater than 0.1 rad
(5 degrees) above the horizontal.

c. Bonded, Partially Bonded, and Unbonded Tendons. The designer determines if the
free-stressing length shall be fully bonded, partially bonded, or unbonded to the surrounding
ground or structure. Generally, the free length will remain unbonded after stressing, except to
satisfy specific structural requirements. Fully bonded free-stressing lengths force the anchor to
strain with the structure. Unbonded free-stressing lengths allow a more flexible performance of
the anchor, and the averaging of structure strains results in less load change in individual
anchors. Partially bonded free lengths provide redundant load transfer at the anchorage while
leaving a certain amount of unbonded free length (Figure 23-2).

(1) Fully and partially bonded anchors require that grouting be accomplished in two
stages, the first to grout the bond zone and the second to grout the free length after the anchor has
been stressed, tested, and locked off.

(2) Partially bonded free-stressing lengths can be created by terminating the bondbreaker
at some depth below the anchor head and limiting the primary grout to a level below the top of
bondbreaker. This upper bond length is then bonded to the structure by secondary grout.

23-3. Grouting for Anchor Construction.

a. General. Grouting is used at two times in anchor construction: to waterproof the

anchor hole (more accurately referred to as borehole pre-grouting) and to seal the borehole of
the tendon assembly. The latter operation may also contain the subsidiary phase of topping up
the borehole after the main grouting of the tendon assembly to compensate for any sagging of the
grout into the rock mass and/or any minor bleed of the grout contained within the sheath.

b. Anchor Grouting. Rock anchors are invariably gravity grouted and as such
correspond to Type A installations as defined by the FHWA (2000). Pressure grouting through
the casing as it is withdrawn (Type B installation) is used in cohesionless soils, and Types C and
D, which involve post-grouting through sleeve pipes (tubes manchette), are not applicable in
rock conditions and are not described further in this chapter. It might be noted, however, that
Type D principles have been attempted in very weathered argillaceous rock masses as a means to
enhance bond capacity, but these efforts have been concluded to be ineffective.

c. Borehole Pre-grouting. Permanent anchors that are bonded into rock must be first
subjected to a water pressure test before the insertion and grouting of the tendon assembly.
Derived from rock fissure grouting theory and based on the amenability of such fissures to Type
I/II grouts, the criterion that triggers the need for pre-grouting is a water loss in excess of 10.4 L
(2.75 gal) (for the entire hole or zone of a hole) at an excess hydrostatic pressure of 5 psi over a

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period of 10 minutes. It is held that a water loss in excess of this criterion indicates a situation in
the tested zone whereby the tendon grout could be lost during placement. This would reduce the
rock/grout surface contact area (and hence the bond capacity) and compromise the integrity of
the corrosion protection as it relates to the integrity of the grout coverage.

(From PTI 2004)

Figure 23-2. Partially bonded tendon.

(1) The U.S. criterion for bond zone permeability is stricter than the criteria employed in
other countries (Bruce and Wolfhope 2007). However, since it may be argued that other aspects
of corrosion protection in the United States have historically been inferior to those in other

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countriesan example being that, until 1996, there was no requirement to have a protective
sheath around the bond zone steelthen this conservatism has undoubtedly been a saving grace
in terms of long-term anchor performance. On most projects, it is prudent and instructive to test
(and pretreat if necessary) the anchor borehole in three distinct zones: the bond zone, the
dam/rock interface, and the entire hole. The first two require the use of a down-hole packer.
This apparent intricacy will, in fact, prove cost effective by potentially reducing pre-grouting,
redrilling, and subsequent water testing activities, and by enhancing the understanding of the
permeability of the whole system.

(2) Water pressure testing and pre-grouting in rock anchor boreholes are typically
conducted only for permanent applications such as dam stabilization. For anchors installed in
soils, or for anchors in rock that are purely temporary, pre-grouting would be needed only in
extreme circumstances. Conversely, in any project where systematic borehole interconnection
occurs, where there are artesian conditions, or where an especially voided rock mass is
encountered, pre-treatment by grouting should be regarded as a standard defense, regardless of
the design life.

(3) Following pre-grouting, and before the grout has reached an in-situ strength in excess
of the surrounding rock mass (typically 1872 hrs after pre-grouting), the anchor hole is redrilled
using an appropriate drilling method. The hole is then subjected to a second water test using the
initial permeability criterion unless the initial pre-grouting volume take has been less than 120%
of the theoretical hole volume. In most cases, one pre-grouting event is sufficient to seal the
borehole effectively so that it will pass the subsequent water test. However, it is not unusual to
encounter occasions when additional pre-grouting operations are required. In a minority of
cases, a second, and even a third, pre-grouting operation will be necessary. The site-specific
characteristics of the rock mass in the bond zone dictate the need for additional pre-grouting.

(4) Very careful analysis of the correlation between water test results and grout takes is
essential to understanding the nature of the rock mass system and hence its ability to consume
cement grout from the tendon grouting operation. If a bad failure on the water test is followed
by a relatively large volume of pre-grout, one can confidently assume the presence of large
fissures in the rock mass. The subsequent redrilling and water testing will thus provide a guide
as to the efficiency of the pre-grouting and the need for a second phase of treatment. In these
cases, it is common to pre-grout with a thicker mix, or even a sanded mix. Conversely, even a
bad failure, followed by minimal grout consumption (i.e., less than 120%), will be indicative
of a myriad of small fissures that, though collectively water permeable, will not permit cement
grout particles to enter. In this case, the hole may or may not pass any subsequent water test, but
further regrouting and redrilling would be futile and unnecessary; the rock mass is grout-tight, so
no loss of tendon grout will subsequently occur.

(5) The following is a general guide to pre-grouting in various conditions:

(a) Normal Conditions. In this case, which is found in the majority of projects, the hole has
simply failed the water test and the regional geology does not indicate the likelihood of massive
voids. Pre-treatment is typically conducted with a neat cement grout (water-to-cement ratio [WCR]
= 0.51.0 by weight, depending on the designers feel for the fissure apertures). The pressure may
be from gravity only (i.e., grout applied by tremie, full height) or via a down-hole packer sealed

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above the bond zone to, say, 0.5 psi/ft of depth. (In strict contradiction to the goals of curtain
grouting, rock anchor pre-grouting is only intended to seal the area immediate to the borehole, not to
infiltrate for relatively large distances radially away from the hole.) Grout volumes up to five times
the theoretical borehole volume may be anticipated. Only one event is typically required, even
though it may be anticipated that the subsequent water test may fail by a narrow margin.

(b) Artesian Conditions. It is unusual to encounter true artesian conditions in rock

anchoring, especially under existing operating dams. However, it is common, and indeed
predictable, to encounter water coming out of anchor holes when these holes are commenced at an
elevation below that of the lake, and when drilling has reached the dam/rock contact or some highly
permeable zone close below it (Figure 23-3). Drillers tend to refer to such emissions as artesian.
This is a difficult situation that must be dealt with efficiently and on a hole-by-hole basis. A
packer is placed above the zone encountering inflow. Using the typical neat cement grouts
described for normal conditions, above, injection is conducted through the packer at a pump
pressure equivalent to the artesian pressure plus the target effective pressure (e.g., 0.5 psi/ft).
During injection, the mix may be thickened or otherwise abruptly modified (in its rheology or
hydration) if there is no reduction in the Apparent Lugeon value within the first 20 minutes of
pre-treatment. Upon refusal, the grout must be allowed to set with the injection pipe closed off
and the packer in place. Clearly, site-specific selections must be made to facilitate this, such as
the use of disposable, drill-through packers or a cap equipped with a shut-off valve that is
closed on completion of grouting the hole.

(Courtesy of Dr. Donald Bruce.)

Figure 23-3. Conditions in which excess water pressure

can be encountered.

(c) Voided Conditions. Certain geological terrains such as karstic limestone can
contain voids or extremely weathered zones of great vertical and/or lateral extent. Pre-grouting
of such conditions is essential for the proper placement and performance of anchors, and it may
often have to be conducted two or more times in descending stages simply to allow the anchor
borehole to be drilled to the target depth. The use of neat cement HMG may be uneconomical
and wasteful in these circumstances. One alternative is to use a sand-cement mortar with

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injection under gravity head pressure. However, contractors dislike using such mixes in their
typical HMG plants due to the greatly increased rate of wear they generate. Despite their good
rheological (i.e., high internal friction) and strength qualities, sand-cement grouts are now rarely
used, but are still considered an option. Another alternative is to use true LMGs in such extreme
conditions. As discussed in Chapter 7 of this manual, these grouts are of concrete-like
consistency with low slumps (typically < 4 in.) and very high internal friction. They require the
use of concrete (as opposed to grout) pumps and can be delivered in Ready-Mix trucks, not
requiring colloidal mixing. They are also easy to dose with admixtures and other materials,
including accelerators, anti-washout agents, or polypropylene fibers.

d. Tendon Grouting. The grouting means, methods, and materials involved in sealing the
tendon assembly into the pre-sealed borehole are relatively straightforward in principle, even if the
geometric complexity of contemporary high-capacity tendons demands extra attention to detail in
practice. The performance criteria for the grouts and the grouting processes are simple and logical:

(1) The grout must be pumpable, stable, durable, penetrative, and of sufficient strength to
transmit bond stresses.

(2) The injection process must ensure complete filling of all target spaces (inside and
outside any corrugated protection), the effect of this must be measurable and verifiable, and the
operation must not cause distortion or distress to any component (e.g., the closed-end corrugated
sheath) of the tendon assembly. Quantification of these parametric requirements is provided in
Section 23-4.

(3) For tendons of relatively low capacity and short length, it may prove advantageous to
pre-grout, under factory conditions, the tendon into the protective corrugated sheath. This
operation, which also must be done with special care, is described in Section 23-5.

23-4. Anchor Grouts and Their Properties.

a. Materials. Grouts used for pre-grouting anchor boreholes and grouting the tendon
assembly for high-capacity pre-stressed rock anchors are invariably cement based. Furthermore,
as described in Section 23-4b below, they tend to be simpler in composition than the suites of
high-performance grouts now used for routine rock mass grouting. The most common
component materials are:

(1) Cement.

(a) Cement grout is made from Type I, II, III, or V portland cement conforming to ASTM
C150 (2012c). Blended cements (conforming to ASTM C595 [2013e]) and oil well cements are
typically neither necessary nor used for anchors. Also, mineral additives (fly ash, ground
granulated blast furnace slag, and silica fume) have not been used in anchor grouts to date, even
though they have the potential to provide certain technical benefits in the fluid and set phases.
They are more commonly used in grouts for post-tensioning ducts.

(b) The ground is considered aggressive to Type I portland cement if the water-soluble
sulfate (SO4) content of the soil exceeds 0.10% by weight. Sulfates can attack portland cement

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grout. The intensity of sulfate attack on cement grout is assumed to be the same as for concrete.
Type II portland cement is used if the sulfate content is between 0.1 and 0.2%, and Type V
cement is used if the sulfate content exceeds 0.2% or if nearby concrete structures have
experienced sulfate attack. However, there have been no recorded anchor failures resulting from
chemical attack on portland cement grout.

(2) Water. The water used in the grout must be potable (suitable for public consumption)
and free of injurious quantities of substances known to be harmful to portland cement or pre
stressing steel. If potable water is not readily available, local water can be used provided the
water is tested to assure that it is not detrimental to the tendon or grout. It must meet the
requirements of ASTM C1602 (2012d).

(3) Aggregates. Aggregates, if used, must meet all of the requirements of ASTM C33 (2007)
except for gradation. Aggregates, if used inside a sheath, should have a maximum size of 1 mm
(0.04 in.). Historically, aggregates have been used only for drill hole pre-grouting and for grouts in
large-diameter anchors formed by augering. The shape and gradation of the sand particles strongly
influence the rheology of the grout and therefore its pumpability and homogeneity. Aggregates can
improve the overall performance of grouts for certain purposes, but their impact on mixing, pumping,
and placing, as well as their effect on equipment, should be carefully considered from an operational
viewpoint when considering their overall cost-effectiveness.

(4) Admixtures. Admixtures must be in accordance with ASTM C494 (2013d) and PTI
(2004) and can be used to modify rheology, improve stability, vary hydration rates in fluid
grouts, and increase strength and durability in set grouts. Their use must be approved by the
Government, based on successful prior use and/or specific tests. Admixtures are not routinely
needed, but may prove beneficial or even essential in certain circumstances.

(a) In any multi-component grout mix formulation, all additives and/or admixtures should
be supplied by the same manufacturer to avoid potential problems with chemical incompatibility
between the components. Furthermore, all admixtures must be compatible with the cement and
other admixtures, if used, and must not cause any short- or long-term damage to the grout or any
tendon component. Admixtures must be used in strict conformance with the manufacturers
recommendations.

(b) Expansive admixtures may be used only in grouts that fill sealed encapsulations,
trumpets, anchor covers, or, in some applications, for secondary grouting and inside a sheath.
Expansive admixtures should not be used in the bond length. For inert-gas-forming materials, the
level of vertical height change must be no greater than 2% in up to 3 hrs (ASTM C940 [2010b]).
Expansive admixtures are only effective when used in a confined space (i.e., a sealed encapsulation
or trumpets) and are not necessary to achieve bond capacity in rock. Expansive admixtures
achieve expansion by generating gas. In an open anchor drill hole, the expansion occurs upwards,
and the resulting grout and its corrosion protection potential may actually be weakened.

(c) Accelerators should not be permitted in tendon grouting operations, but they may be
considered for borehole pre-grouting under certain exceptional conditions (e.g., highly
permeable ground or rock masses or dynamic water flows), as noted in Section 23-3.

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(5) Pre-Packaged Grout. Pre-packaged grouts must conform to the requirements in PTI
(2004). Their use is very rare in large anchor projects.

b. Properties.

(1) Grouts for Pre-Grouting. Grouts used for pre-grouting are designed to block off
fissures and other permeable features intersected by the borehole in the quickest and most cost
effective manner. They may also be relied on to impart mechanical strength to the borehole wall
and the rock mass immediately surrounding it. As noted in Section 23-3, the performance goal is
therefore radically different from that of contemporary HMGs used for rock mass grouting: the
latter grouts are designed to penetrate as far as practical away from the point of injection, and a
ground strengthening contribution is rarely required. In contrast, pumpability (< 100 seconds
marsh), setting time (< 4 hrs), and short-term strength (say 2,000 psi at 24 hrs) are the prime
properties of grouts used for pre-grouting. Depending on the actual conditions encountered, anti-
washout or accelerating admixtures may be required, while sand may also be advantageous.
Therefore, a low-pressure filtration coefficient (< 0.040 min.1/2) and minimal bleed (< 5%) are
not as important, especially given that the inherent instability of such grouts will result in water
being expressed from the grout even under gravity head conditions, thereby facilitating the
grouts ability to satisfy the in-situ goal of pre-grouting by limiting penetration.

(a) Neat pre-grouts range in WCR (by weight) from 0.5 to 1.0, and when sand is used, its
ratio to cement is typically up to 1 (by weight).

(b) Admixtures are used in the standard proportions of HMGs (see Chapter 7 of this
manual), while bentonite is never used, since it reduces the initial rate of strength gain and
improves pressure filtration stability, neither of which is desirable in this application.

(2) Grouts for Tendon Assembly Grouting. In all cases, the tendon assembly should be
placed and grouted in the borehole as soon as practical after the borehole has been proved, by
water testing, to be of acceptably low permeability. The grout placed around the tendon
assembly (such as the corrugated ducting used as corrosion protection, and the individual epoxy-
coated strands) must have minimal bleed (preferably zero), good fluidity (marsh cone < 60
seconds), reasonable working time (< 4 hrs), and strength compatible with the design
assumptions and project needs. These grouts have the combined roles of transferring the load
from the tendon assembly to the rock and acting as an integral part of the corrosion protection
system. In this regard it is common to specify a minimum unconfined compressive strength of
3,000 psi at stressing and/or a 28-day strength of at least 6,000 psi. To satisfy these criteria,
tendon grouts are predominantly neat cement grouts with a WCR (by weight) not exceeding
0.45. Figure 23-4 shows design guidance, while the data shown in Figure 23-5 provide further
justification for the use of relatively low WCR grouts (i.e., minimal bleed and high strength).

(3) Only in special conditions such as for very high ambient temperatures or long
pumping distances is an admixture included to modify rheological or hydration characteristics.
These grouts are also very durable, as they must be, since they are an integral part of the overall
corrosion protection system.

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(From Littlejohn and Bruce 1977. Courtesy of Dr. Donald Bruce.)

Figure 23-4. Strengths for various water-cement ratios.

(From Littlejohn and Bruce 1977, Courtesy of Dr. Donald Bruce)

Figure 23-5. Effect of water content on cement grout properties.

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(4) Grout placed inside the encapsulation generally has the same minimum performance
requirements. The contractor must demonstrate, before commencing work on site, that the grout
design, batching, and placing techniques will ensure a stable, flowable grout that will not
segregate when placed in a watertight duct. Recent research indicates that bleed and segregation
can occur in long tendons in grout placed in a hydraulically closed system. It may prove
necessary to use multi-component grouts inside such encapsulations to ensure that appropriate
grout performance parameters can be met. Pre-grouting of encapsulated tendons must be
conducted on an inclined, rigid frame or bed by injecting the grout from the low end of the
tendon.

(5) Care must be taken to ensure that excess differential grout pressures acting on the
encapsulation do not damage, distort, or displace it. Cutting of windows in the sheath or
omission of the end cap to allow equalization of interior and exterior grout levels must not be
permitted. This applies regardless of whether the duct is pre-placed or placed simultaneously
with the tendon.

(6) Multiple lifts of grouting may be required in cases where the encapsulation is grouted
in the hole before tendon placement. This will typically involve the use of numerous grout tubes
placed around the encapsulation and terminating at different elevations. This procedure applies
typically only in long, multi-strand tendons where the encapsulation could be damaged during
installation by the weight of the strands (Figures 23-6 and 23-7).

(Courtesy of Dr. Donald Bruce)

Figure 23-6. Corrugated ducts being prepared before insertion into pre-grouted and
waterproofed anchor holes at Gilboa Dam, NY. Note the multiple tremie tubes attached to the
outside of the ducts to allow external grouting to be accomplished in several stages.

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Figure 23-7. Corrugated duct being inserted into the prepared anchor hole at Bluestone Dam,

WV (Huntington District). The numerous external tremie tubes are clearly visible.

(7) The in-situ grout can be weakened if diluted with groundwater before setting. The rate
of strength gain of grouts cured at very low in-situ temperatures will be reduced. Special grouts
are available for low-temperature applications, even for installations in permafrost. When
aggregates or non-potable water are to be used and will be in direct contact with pre-stressing
steel, the constituent materials used must be such that the acid-soluble chloride ion content of the
grout does not exceed 0.08% by weight of portland cement as measured by ASTM C1152
(2013a), Standard Test Method for Acid-Soluble Chloride in Mortar and Concrete. Neat cement
grout mixed with ASTM C150 (2012c) cement and potable water does not need to be tested for
chemistry.

(8) Since materials and material combinations vary from location to location, the chloride
ion content should be determined by independent analysis of the combined materials used at the
site before grouting operations begin.

(9) Table 23-1 refers to two classes of corrosion protection and emphasizes the critical
role played by the grouting in this regard.

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Table 23-1. Corrosion protection requirements.

Corrosion Protection Requirements

*
Class Anchorage Free-Stressing Length Tendon Bond Length
I Trumpet Corrosion-inhibiting, Grout-filled encapsulation, or
Encapsulated Cover if compound-filled sheath Epoxy-coated strand tendon in
Tendon exposed encased in grout, or a successfully water-pressure
Grout-filled sheath, or tested drill hole
Grout-encased, epoxy-coated
strand in a successfully
water-pressure-tested drill
hole
II Trumpet Corrosion-inhibiting, Grout
Grout- Cover if compound-filled sheath Polyester resin in sound rock
Protected exposed encased in grout, or with non-aggressive
Tendon Heat shrink sleeve, or groundwater
Grout-encased, epoxy-coated
bar tendon, or
Polyester resin for fully
bonded bar tendons in sound
rock with non-aggressive
groundwater
*
After PTI (2004).

(a) Class I Protection. A Class I protection system encases the pre-stressing steel inside a
plastic encapsulation filled with either grout or a corrosion-inhibiting compound. Class I
protection is often referred to as an encapsulated tendon or double-corrosion-protected
tendon. An epoxy-coated strand tendon grouted into a drill hole that successfully passes the
water pressure test satisfies the requirements for a Class I protection system.

(b) Class II Protection. A Class II protection system encases the pre-stressing steel over
the free length and relies on the cement grout to protect the pre-stressing steel along the bond
length. Class II protection is often referred to as a grout-protected tendon or a single
corrosion-protected tendon.

23-5. Grouting Equipment and Operations.

a. General. The details of grouting equipment and operations for rock anchors must be
addressed with care, since the result of the process on the construction of such vital structural
elements is not directly observable in place.

b. Grout Equipment and Mixing. Mixers, storage tanks, and pumps must have adequate
capacity and must be sized to allow continuous grouting for an individual anchor in less than
1 hour. As a minimum, grouting equipment consists of a mixer, a storage tank, and a pump,

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along with the associated pressure gauges, flow meters, and hoses. On large projects, cement is
provided in bulk in storage silos and weigh batched into the mixer (Figure 23-8).

(Courtesy of Dr. Donald Bruce.)

Figure 23-8. Typical grout batching plant being fed

by bulk cement from a silo at Gilboa Dam, NY.

c. Neat Cement Grouts. Neat cement grouts, with or without admixtures, must be mixed
on site with colloidal mixers. The use of paddle mixers should be prohibited. Colloidal (i.e.,
high-speed, high-shear) mixers provide superior cement hydration efficiency and uniformity
relative to other types. They permit grouts of lower water-cement ratio to be quickly hydrated,
and they provide grouts of superior stability, rheology, and set properties. Water and admixture
measuring devices (batchers) are used to ensure accurate proportioning of grout ingredients. The
accuracy of batching must be sufficiently controlled to assure that the water-cement ratio of the
grout is within 5% of the target value. The accuracy of the dosage rate for admixtures should be
within 10% of the target value.

(1) The grout must be continuously agitated until pumped, and it must be used within 30
minutes after the mixing begins unless hydration control admixtures are used.

(2) The storage tank must be kept at least partially full at all times during injection.

d. Site-Mixed Sanded Grouts. Sanded grouts require mixers and pumps built for grouts
containing fine aggregates. When heavily sanded grouts are to be used (e.g., for pre-grouting),

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then paddle- or drum-mixed grout may be acceptable, provided adequate fluid and set
performance has been previously demonstrated. Non-colloidal mixers should contain a screen
having clear openings of 6 mm (0.25 in.) maximum size to screen the grout before its
introduction into the storage tank. The screen must be inspected periodically during grouting
operations. The presence of lumps of cement on the screen may indicate incomplete mixing and
may result in blockages during injection.

e. Ready-Mixed Sanded Grouts. Sanded grouts for pre-grouting may be mixed at a

Ready-Mix plant and delivered to the site by truck. Special attention must be paid to ensure that
unmixed lumps are not permitted to be injected.

f. Temperature Considerations. During grouting operations in high ambient temperature

(above 100 F [38 C]), the temperature of the grout should not exceed 90 F (32 C). If it is
unavoidable that the temperature of the grout exceeds 90 F (32 C), then special precautions
such as the use of suitable admixtures should be taken to control flash set. Grout for anchorage
covers and trumpets must be placed when the temperature of the anchorage is expected to remain
above freezing for 48 hrs. Grouts compatible with the pre-stressing steel and formulated for
below-freezing applications can be used with the designers approval.

(1) Several techniques can be employed to reduce the temperature of the components
quite effectively at the job site. Careful shading to keep the dry materials out of the hot sun has
been found to be effective. The temperature of the dry materials should be taken with a probe
thermometer and recorded, as the dry components are largely responsible for the temperature of
the mixed grout due to the volume of the mixed ingredients. Ice added to the mixing water can
also reduce the temperature of the freshly mixed grout to a level low enough to avoid flash set.

(2) Freezing of the grout must be prevented for a period of 48 hrs or until the grout has
reached an unconfined compressive strength of 800 psi. Freezing of grout in drill holes is rarely
an issue; grout used to fill trumpets and stressing pockets could be exposed to freezing
temperatures, however.

g. Finishing Work. For two-stage grouted anchors, the free-stressing length must also be
filled by tremie grouting, and the transition tube, if required, must also be filled completely with
grout.

(1) Pre-packaged grouts, neat cement grout with expansive admixtures, or multistage grouting
operations may be required to ensure that the anchorage cover or trumpet is completely filled with
grout (or corrosion-inhibiting compound). The importance of efficiently grouting the zone
immediately under the top anchorage cannot be overstated. Of the few corrosion-induced anchor
failures actually recorded, the majority have occurred on tendons otherwise unprotected at this location
(FIP 1986), generally caused by insufficient attention to detail during design and/or construction.

(2) Filling the stressing pocket, if applicable, with non-shrink grout completes the anchor
construction work.

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23-6. QA/QC for the Mixed Grout.

a. General. The level of grout testing depends on the service life of the anchor, prior
experience with the grout mix, and the type of specification for the project. Figure 23-9 depicts
the minimum QC programs requirements for grouts, the level of which are determined by the
designer. The designer may offer to waive the need for project-specific tests if the contractor can
document the acceptability of the proposed mix designs via relevant and comparable studies
conducted for prior projects using the same materials. Such preliminary acceptance should be
conditional upon successful results from the pre-production or production field tests.

(From PTI 2004)

Figure 23-9. Minimum recommended levels of grout QC programs.

b. Pre-Production Lab Tests. Pre-production lab tests are conducted in a testing

laboratory. Compressive strength tests are performed in accordance with ASTM C942 (2010C)
for grout cubes or ASTM C39 (2010a) for grout cylinders. The wet density of the grout is
determined using the API Mud Balance Test (API 13B-1) or ASTM C138 (2013b). Bleed tests
are performed in accordance with ASTM C940 (2010b). As far as possible, the mechanical
means of test sample mixing, the materials, and the curing environments must be the same as for

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the production mixing. The program should be conducted and analyzed within a time frame that
does not adversely impact the contract schedule.

c. Pre-Production Field Tests. Pre-production field tests are conducted using the
equipment and materials proposed for production work under typical ambient conditions. The
location of these field tests may not actually be the job site. The purpose of these tests is to
provide a quality and parameter baseline against which to judge the results from production
testing. Compressive strength, wet density, and bleed tests are performed using the standard
methods listed above. In particular, the rate of strength gain over a period of at least 7 days must
be demonstrated. The contractor may proceed with the construction only after the designer
approves the results of the tests.

d. Routine QA/QC During Production. Figure 23-9 shows the minimum requirements for
routine QC testing during production. Compressive strength testing, when required, need not be
repeated after the initial phase of testing, provided:

(1) There is no significant change thereafter in materials, equipment, or conditions.

(2) A regular program of fluid grout testing is conducted to verify the correct specific
gravity (and hence water-cement ratio), as shown in Figure 23-10.

(From PTI 2004.)

Tunnel Grouting

24-1. Introduction. Grouting is used in tunnel applications for one or more of the following
purposes: reducing groundwater inflows, strengthening the surrounding soil/rock mass to
facilitate tunneling, controlling ground subsidence, and enhancing soil/rock-structure interaction.
This chapter provides a limited overview of the various grouting techniques commonly applied
to tunneling. Henns (1996) Practical Guide to Grouting of Underground Structures and
Warners (2004) Practical Handbook of Grouting Soil, Rock, and Structures are recommended
resources for supplemental technical information and guidance. Chapter 25 of this manual
discusses remedial grouting to reduce water inflows into existing tunnel structures.

24-2. Applications.

a. General. Grouting in tunnel applications may be performed before, during, or after

completion of tunnel excavation. Depending on its intended purpose and access issues, grout
holes may be drilled from the ground surface, from within the tunnel, or both. A wide variety of
grouting techniques can be applied to soil, rock, or mixed face conditions, depending on the site
conditions and outcome desired. Table 24-1 lists grouting techniques that are commonly
employed along with their general application to tunneling in both soil and rock.

b. Soil Grouting Techniques.

(1) Jet grouting involves the use of high-pressure jets of cement grout discharging
perpendicular to the direction of hole advance. The high-velocity jets simultaneously excavate
and mix the grout with the in-situ soil to create soilcrete columns. Jet grouting can be used either
from within the tunnel or from the ground surface, as shown in Figures 24-1 and 24-2.

(2) Compaction grouting, as discussed in Chapter 27 of this manual, is the process of

injecting very stiff, mortar-like grout at high pressure and in a controlled manner for the purpose
of densifying the soil around the injected mass. In soft ground tunneling applications, compaction
grouting is commonly used from the ground surface for settlement control (Figure 24-3).

(3) Permeation grouting in soil involves the injection of either cementitious or chemical
grout into the pore spaces of soils to reduce seepage and/or improve the soil. Permeation
grouting is typically performed before tunnel excavation. Injection holes can be horizontal or
inclined from within the tunnel or from the ground surface (Figures 24-4 and 24-5). The soil
particle size (grain size distribution) of the host formation will dictate the type of grout used.
Figure 24-6 shows a soil groutability chart indicating the general suitability of cement and
chemical grouts for various soil gradation bands.

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Table 24-1. Grouting techniques and their general application to tunneling.

Grouting Techniques General Applications

Soil Jet grouting Reduce seepage

Improve strength
Settlement control

Compaction grouting Settlement control

Permeation grouting Reduce seepage

Improve strength

Hydrofracture grouting Improve strength

Settlement control

Rock Consolidation grouting Reduce seepage

Improve strength

Permeation grouting Reduce seepage

Contact grouting Void filling-structure interaction

(From Henn 1996, with permission from ASCE.)

Figure 24-1. Jet grouting within a soft ground tunnel.

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(From Henn 1996, with permission from ASCE.)

Figure 24-2. Jet grouting from the ground surface for a soft ground tunnel.

(From Henn 1996, with permission from ASCE.)

Figure 24-3. Compaction grouting from the ground surface for a soft ground tunnel.

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Figure 24-4. Permeation grout fan array from a tunnel heading.

Figure 24-5. Permeation grout parallel array from the ground surface.

(Courtesy of Hayward Baker)

Figure 24-6. Soil groutability based on soil particle size.

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(4) Hydrofracture grouting, which is covered in Chapter 28 of this manual, involves the
injection of a high-mobility stabilized cement grout at a pressure sufficient to induce tensile
failure of the soil, resulting in the formation of grout lenses within the soil. These pressurized
lenses of grout densify the soil by plastic deformation in the vicinity of the lenses and also
reinforce the soil mass due to the higher strength of the grout in comparison to the soil.
Hydrofracture grouting is used to compensate or offset settlements experienced during soft
ground tunneling. Hydrofracture grouting is typically conducted from the ground surface along
the tunnel alignment similar to the compaction grouting process shown in Figure 24-3.

c. Rock Grouting Techniques.

(1) Consolidation grouting strengthens rock masses and reduces permeability by filling
open fractures and other discontinuities within the rock mass. Consolidation grouting may be
performed before tunnel excavation to improve the in-situ rock mass conditions (Figure 24-7) or
after tunnel excavation in areas of poor rock quality or to remediate excessive seepage (Figure
24-8). A combination of pre- and post-grouting can also be employed, as shown in Figure 24-9.

(2) Permeation grouting for water control in rock tunneling operations is most often
performed in advance of tunneling through probe holes performed from the tunnel heading
(Figure 24-10). Probe holes are drilled ahead of the tunnel during advancement. If the probe
holes detect excessive groundwater inflows, additional drilling and permeation grouting is
conducted ahead of the excavation. As with grout curtain construction, secondary holes are
drilled following the initial series of drilling and grouting to verify the effectiveness. If the
secondary holes again detect excessive groundwater inflows, a second phase of permeation
grouting is performed. The process is then continued until an acceptable level of inflow is
achieved.

(3) Contact grouting is employed to fill the annular space between tunnel liner materials
and the excavated rock surface. This is also commonly referred to as backpack grouting.
Contact grouting is performed to provide uniform contact and structure interaction with the
formation, to fill voids that might otherwise result in relaxation or raveling of the host formation,
and/or to reduce seepage into the tunnel or eliminate seepage paths along tunnels.

(a) Selection of methods and materials used in contact grouting depend on the size of the
annular space to be filled, on the size and frequency of planned grout holes, on the presence of
water, and on the purpose (i.e., need for strength, seepage reduction, or simply bulk fill). Typical
grout materials may consist of: cement grout with or without aggregates, fly ash, bentonite, or
other additives to facilitate placement; cellular (foamed) grout; flowable fill; or chemical grouts.

(b) Grout hole patterns and sequencing vary, but normally begin with grout placement in
the lowest portion of the tunnel. Grout is placed under pressure and forced upward, with grout
holes at higher elevations used as vents and for verification of complete filling. As grout
emerges from pre-drilled vent/grout holes at higher elevations, packers can be used to seal those
holes, allowing grouting to continue from lower elevations until grout emerges from vent/grout
holes in the uppermost portion of the tunnel. Figure 24-11 shows the grouting sequence used for
contact grouting in the rehabilitation of an existing horseshoe-shaped tunnel that contained large
void spaces behind the original tunnel lining and shoring system.

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Figure 24-7. Pre-consolidation grouting ahead of tunnel excavation.

Figure 24-8. Post-consolidation grouting behind tunnel excavation.

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Figure 24-9. Combination of pre- and post-consolidation grouting.

(From Warner 2004. This material is reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

Figure 24-10. Probe hole/grout hole drilled in advance of tunneling.

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Figure 24-11. Sequence for contact grouting a horseshoe-shaped tunnel.

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CHAPTER 25

Grouting of Concrete Structures

25-1. Introduction. Grouting with cementitious or chemical grouts can be employed to repair
and/or fill cracks, joints, and voids. Cementitious grout is used when grouting between first and
second stage placements of concrete and contraction joints, which are provided in the
construction of concrete gravity dams and lock walls on USACE projects. This chapter provides
a limited overview of the materials and general procedures. Recommended resources for
supplemental technical information and guidance include: EM 1110-2-2002, Evaluation and
Repair of Concrete Structures (1995), Practical Handbook of Grouting: Soil, Rock, and
Structures (Warner 2004), Practical Guide to Grouting of Underground Structures (Henn 1996),
and ACI 224.1R-93, Causes, Evaluation and Repair of Crack in Concrete Structures, Design of
Gravity Dams (USDOI 1976), Grouting Construction Inspector Training (USDOI 1991).

25-2. Materials.

a. General. Crack or joint repair and void filling can be performed by gravity filling or
injection under pressure. Materials and methods for repairing cracks or joints and filling voids
are highly dependent on the size of the opening(s) and the purpose of the repair. Openings less
about 1/8 in. can be repaired with neat cement grout. Both portland cement and ultrafine cement
have been used. For larger openings, sand can be incorporated into the mix. Chemical grouts
can be used for small openings and have been used to repair cracks in concrete as narrow as
0.002 in.

b. Cement Grouting. Portland cement grouting of cracks and joints is effective in treating
water infiltration and as structural filler. However, it is not used to structurally bond cracked
sections. The general principles of grouting discussed elsewhere in this manual are applicable to
repairing cracks with cementitious grouts. Cementitious grout mixes can include cement, water,
and sand (depending on the size of the opening being repaired or filled). Water-cement ratios
should be minimized to increase strength and reduce shrinkage. Water-reducing agents and other
admixtures are commonly used to modify the properties of the grout mix, as discussed in Chapter
7 of this manual. Balanced stable grout mixes can be used to eliminate bleed potential.

c. Chemical Grouting. Chemical grout formulations are effective in most crack and joint
repair applications and environments. Chemical grouts can be used to treat water infiltration,
structurally bond cracked sections, or provide structural filler. Chemical grouts are discussed in
detail in EM 1110-1-3500, Chemical Grouting. For the general purpose of crack repair in
concrete structures, chemical grouts typically include epoxies, urethanes, and acrylates,
depending on the specific application and environment. Epoxy resins are often used to repair
structural cracks due to their high bond strength. Urethanes and acrylic-based grouts are
primarily used to control water infiltration or to provide filler material.

25-3. General Procedures. The following general procedures are typically employed for both
cementitious and chemical grouting for crack and joint repair in concrete structures. The above-
listed references provide more detailed.

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a. Cleaning the Crack and Concrete. Vacuuming is recommended to remove debris,

because cleaning by blowing with compressed air may force loose material deeper into the crack.
Flushing with water, acid solutions, or solvents has been used. However, any potential
detrimental effects of using these liquids, including potential incompatibility with the intended
grout material, must be thoroughly investigated. Some chemical grouts require pre-flushing with
water to activate the product.

b. Sealing the Exposed Crack. In some applications, it can be beneficial to seal the
surface expression of the crack before grouting. Depending on the crack size and anticipated
grouting pressures, surface sealing may be accomplished with water-resistant tape, special
sealants, cement paint, batten bars and plates, or epoxy grout.

c. Installing Grout Ports. Grout ports are typically installed at intervals adjacent to and on
both sides of the crack or joint to be repaired, as shown in Figure 25-1. Holes are typically
angled to intersect the crack or void at depth. All grout ports should be installed before grout
injection. Some types of ports can be used for monitoring grout travel during grout injection
(Figure 25-2).

Figure 25-1. Diagram of crack/joint repair hole spacing.

Figure 25-2. Backfill grouting operations to fill voids under the downstream parabolic spillway
slab at Barker Dam outside of Houston, TX (Galveston District). Holes were drilled on 10-ft
centers, and injection pressures were controlled by the manifold at the injection point. A
circulating system was used to verify the volume of voids being filled with cementitious grout.

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d. Mixing and Injecting the Grout Material. For crack or joint repair on vertical surfaces,
grout injection should begin at the lowest elevation and continue until grout appears at the next
entry port above or exiting the crack adjacent to the next higher port. The lower injection port
can then be capped, and grouting can proceed at successively higher ports until the crack is
completely sealed. For crack or joint repair on horizontal surfaces, grout injection should
proceed in the same manner, starting at one end and proceeding continuously to the other.

25-4. Grouting Contraction Joints or Between First and Second Stage Concrete Placements.
Mass concrete structures such as concrete gravity dams, high arch dams and lock walls are
typically constructed in blocks separated by contraction joints. In dam structures, the contraction
joints are vertical, extend from the foundation to the crest of the dam, and are normal to the axis
while in lock walls, the monolith joints run perpendicular to the length of the wall. Contraction
joints are used to facilitate construction, accommodate embedded metals and machinery, reduce
damage and control cracking caused by shrinkage stresses, and permit secondary backfilling or
placement of concrete. Contraction joints are grouted in concrete gravity and high arch dams to
bind the individual blocks together so that the structure acts as one monolithic mass. This same
grouting procedure, which is performed on lock walls between the gate monoliths and the
adjacent downstream monoliths to transfer the stresses imposed by the water load on the gates, is
intended to alleviate cracking of the concrete around the gate machinery.

a. Methodology.

(1) During construction of the first stage concrete placement, or the first block, a metal
seal is in embedded in the joint face. The metal seal is then extended into the second stage
concrete placement in the adjacent block and will serve to contain the grout within the joint later
when grouting is performed.

(2) A system consisting of supply pipes, return pipes, and vent pipes are installed within the
area of the seals. The system configuration depends on the number of lifts that will be performed
in the grouting process and the design of the structure (Figures 25-3 and 25-4). Special care should
be taken to ensure that the piping system is clear, leak-free, and properly anchored before the
secondary placement or the placement of the adjacent monolith block. Monolith joint grouting of
lock walls is typically conducted for the entire cross-sectional area of the wall, whereas for high
dams, it is desirable to grout from the foundation up in 50- to 60-ft lifts and preferably uniformly
across the length of the dam. Before the start of grouting, the system is checked for any leakages
by running water through the system so that leaks may be treated or caulked. However, it is not
unusual for additional leakages to occur during grouting and provisions should be in place to
address and treat any breakouts. Usually, a grout mix of 2 to 1 w:c by volume is used to start the
grouting and is thickened to a 1 to 1w:c by volume until the return exhibits the same consistency.
When grouting has progressed to a point of approximately 75% complete, the mix may be
thickened to a 0.8:1 or 0.75:1 w:c by volume mix. Pumping is continued until the desired pressure
is reached and the supply header valve is closed. Grouting is considered to be complete when the
maximum pressure is held for 30 minutes. Contraction joint grouting should be performed only
after the mass concrete of the monoliths has adequately cured and has cooled to the desired
temperature so that the joint space has reached its maximum.

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Figure 25-3. Metal seals inserted in the face of the first concrete placement and extended into
the adjacent monolith, or second concrete placement to contain grout within area to be grouted.

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Figure 25-4. Typical grout piping system for a lock wall monolith joint.

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Figure 25-5. Contraction joint piping system at Theodore Roosevelt Dam, AZ.

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25-5. Instrumentation for Detecting Structural Movement. When repairing cracks or joints or
filling voids in existing structures, it is important to use pressures that are low so as to not cause
any movement or uplift of the structure. During grouting operations, the structure should be
instrumented and monitored so that any potential movement can be readily detected (Figures 25
2 and 25-6). Should any movement be identified, the grouting operations should be terminated
and the procedures re-evaluated to avoid any damage. The type of instrumentation used and the
complexity of the monitoring system should be based on site-specific details such as the grouting
methods being used, the location of the repair work with respect to the structure, and the type of
structure being repaired. Crack displacement and uplift devices can be installed with a minimum
of effort and can be monitored in real time as the grouting is performed.

Figure 25-6. Crack displacement devices installed at the spillway wall and parabolic
slab at Barker Dam west of Houston, TX (Galveston District). The instruments were
monitored in real time during grouting to ensure that there was no movement or
displacement of the walls and slab.

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CHAPTER 26

Vibration Control Near Grouting Operations

26-1. Introduction. Vibrations near grouting applications can be a consideration on certain

projects. It is not uncommon that vibration-inducing operations such as excavation occur
concurrently with grouting or after grouting has been conducted. While little information is
available regarding tolerable vibration levels for grout, a significant amount of information,
including guidelines, is available for tolerable vibrations in the vicinity of concrete and various
types of structures. Included in this chapter is a brief discussion of the types of vibrations
induced during construction, typical vibration thresholds used for structures and concrete, and
recommended vibration thresholds for grouting projects. While it is recognized that other
construction activities might induce potentially damaging vibrations on a local scale, this chapter
concentrates on vibrations associated with blasting activities.

26-2. Other Information Sources. The information contained in this chapter is in no way
comprehensive with respect to vibrations. The topic is complex, and USACE has made
considerable efforts to publicize guidelines for blasting-induced vibrations. That information is
not repeated here. The following USACE publications provide more detail for grouting
practitioners who have concerns about blasting-induced vibrations: EM 1110-2-3800,
Systematic Drilling and Blasting for Surface Excavations; EM 1110-2-2901, Tunnels and Shafts
in Rock; and EM 385-1-1, Safety and Health Requirements. Additional publications of value
include the Blasters Handbook and Four Major Methods of Controlled Blasting by E.I. du Pont
de Nemours and Company, Inc., Rock Blasting and Overbreak Control by Calvin J. Konya, and
Rock Blasting by U. Langerfors and B. Kihlstrm.

26-3. Types of Vibrations. Vibrations can be divided into three subcategories: Transient,
Steady-State, and Pseudo-Steady-State. See Figure 26-1 (Wiss 1981).

a. Transient. Transient vibrations are single events. The vibration decreases rapidly with
time. Examples include vibrations induced by impact pile driving and blasting.

b. Steady-State. Steady-state vibrations occur continuously. The magnitude of the

vibration is generally constant with time. Examples include vibrations induced by vibratory pile
driving equipment and large, stationary machinery.

c. Pseudo-Steady-State. Pseudo-steady-state vibrations are relatively random in nature.

The magnitude of the vibration varies with time. Examples include vibrations induced by impact
hammers and large excavation equipment.

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(Wiss 1981, with permission from ASCE)

Figure 26-1. Types of construction vibrations.

26-4. Variables in Vibration Problems.

a. Numerous variables in vibrations contribute to the complexity of the problem. The

variables of interest in evaluating vibration problems (these are discussed in various texts)
include: (1) the amount of energy causing the vibration, (2) the range or distance from the
source to the point of interest, (3) the attenuation properties of the ground conditions, (4) the
frequencies of the vibration, (5) the natural frequency of the structure at the point of interest, and
(6) the corresponding acceleration, velocity, amplitude, and strain induced by the vibration at the
point of interest. Many of these variables are derivatives of others, such as velocity, which is the
integral of acceleration with respect to time, or strain, which is proportional to velocity. Figure
26-2 shows the relationship between many of these variables.

b. Since many of the vibration variables are related, and for simplification purposes, a
maximum velocity is typically specified as a threshold for limiting damage. The velocity
generally specified is the peak particle velocity (PPV), which is the vector sum of the velocities
measured along three axes (radial, vertical, and tangential). The frequency of the vibration is an
additional consideration. As vibration frequencies approach the natural frequency of a structure,
resonance can occur, greatly amplifying the strain induced on the structure. Additionally, studies
have indicated that lower-frequency vibrations may induce damage at relatively low PPVs,
whereas structures may tolerate higher PPVs at higher frequencies. For more information
regarding vibration frequencies and the natural frequencies of structures, refer to U.S.
Department of the Interior RI 8507, Structure Response and Damage Produced by Ground
Vibration from Surface Blasting. Figure 26-3, which defines the safe blasting vibration criteria
for houses from RI 8507, illustrates these effects.

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(From Langerfors and Kihlstrm 1963, this material is reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

Figure 26-2. Nomogram showing the relationships between frequency (f), acceleration (a),
vibration velocity (v), and amplitude (A); e.g., if f = 100 c/s and A = 0.025 mm, then v = 15 mm/s
and a = 1 g.

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(From U.S. Department of the Interior RI 8507)

(2) The equation from Chapter 7-3a(11) of EM 1110-2-3800 relates the tensile stress of
concrete to the maximum PPV that will induce cracking:
v = /
where:
v = particle velocity for failure, fps.

= failure tensile strength, psi.

= mass density, lb sec2/ft4.

c = propagation velocity, fps.

can also be defined as:

t = c u
where:
t = allowable tensile strength (taken as 10% of the unconfined compressive strength),
lb/ft2.
= mass density = 150 lb/ft3.
c = seismic velocity of concrete, taken as 10,000 ft/s.
u = maximum particle velocity, ft/s.

26-6. Grouting Considerations.

a. General. Very limited information exists with regard to tolerable vibration limits for
grout or grouted structures. However, given the ever-increasing prevalence of grouting in
construction and new methods using grouting materials (jet grouting, soil mixing, etc.), it is an
important consideration. Additional research and case studies on the subject will greatly aid in
the determination of safe vibration levels that allow for economical excavation by blasting
adjacent to grouted structures and foundations. It might be found that neither the vibration
criteria for buildings and structures nor the criteria used by various organizations for concrete are
directly applicable to grouting.

b. Grouting Application Considerations. The allowable extent of vibration depends on the

purpose of the grouting application (e.g., seepage control, structural support, reduction of
discontinuity volume), the ability or lack thereof to physically inspect areas where damage may
occur, and the costs of remediation if damage were to occur. In applications such as dam
foundation grouting, the grout is placed with the intent of eliminating all discontinuities.
Cracking and displacement of grout placed into discontinuities are obviously undesirable in
seepage control applications. If extensive vibration damage were to occur, the level of effort
required to fully investigate and remediate the damage may equal the original cost of the curtain
itself. In contrast, drilling and blasting techniques are common in the tunneling industry, and in
many cases, grouting in advance of blasting is conducted at the face. Given the proximity of the
grouted zone to the blasting, it is obvious that large vibrations are induced in locations where
grout has been recently injected. However, in this application, the consequences of vibration
damage may be minimal in that one of the primary functions of the grout is to fill spaces between
rock blocks to prevent movement, and cracking of the grout would not impair that function.

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Further, if the tunnel grouting also has a flow control function, any leakage into the tunnel as a
result of blast damage is directly observable and can be remedied at minimal cost and effort.
Potential problems in tunnel applications can also be reduced by using high-strength grouts and
accelerators and by grouting multiple excavation rounds forward of the face.

c. Grout Strength Considerations. Assuming that tolerable vibrations for grout are
proportional to those for concrete with respect to unconfined compressive strength, it is apparent
that the strength of the grout may be an important consideration when specifying maximum
PPVs. When grouting techniques induce mixing of grout with native materials, such as in soil
mixing and jet grouting, the strength of the resulting mixed mass is likely to be more important
than the strength of the grout itself. Table 26-3 shows a range of unconfined compressive
strengths from balanced stable grouts for a recently constructed grout curtain. Table 26-4 lists the
calculated range of u values (maximum particle velocities) obtained by using the equations given
in Section(2) 26-5.c(2). As can be seen, a wide range of PPVs are calculated based on the
strength of the grout, which changes with time, and the mix type, since thicker grouts have lower
WCRs and therefore higher strengths. Even at 28-day strengths, the thinnest grouts may crack
when subjected to PPVs in excess of 2 in./s using the above criteria. Note that this calculation
was intended for use in evaluating the potential for cracking in massive concrete structures, and
therefore it may not be entirely applicable to grout. Also note that the data in Table 26-4 do not
include a safety factor, so the calculated values would be threshold values that, when exceeded,
would lead to a likelihood of cracking.

d. Previous Study. On one USACE project, the proximity of blasting and the induced
vibrations on the grout curtain were evaluated; excavation operations for the core at the Tioga
Dam left abutment on the Tioga-Hammond Lakes Project (Baltimore District) were not
completed until after grouting of the foundation. Mechanical excavation and pre-split blasting
were used to remove rock ledges and weathered bedrock and to achieve the finished foundation
grade in the core after completion of the grouting operations. This prompted concern that the
vibrations induced by these operations, particularly blasting, had damaged the curtain. A
verification program was initiated that included redrilling and regrouting 11 previously drilled
and grouted holes. Because rapid refusal was encountered upon regrouting of the holes, the
conclusion was that the curtain was intact. The magnitude of vibrations induced by the blasting
are not noted in the Review of Abutment Treatment report.

Table 26-3. Range of unconfined compressive strengths for various balanced stable grouts from
a recent USACE project.

Compressive Strength (psi)

Mix type Mix A Mix B Mix C Mix D Mix E Mix F Mix G+ Mix G
3-day 160 195 240 375 475 750 810 915
7-day 190 265 430 595 725 1005 1100 1175
14-day 365 380 510 820 1060 1285 1410 1455
28-day 420 535 735 1070 1490 2560 2395 2755

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Table 26-4. Range of calculated maximum particle velocities for grout using the above equation
derived from EM 1110-2-3800.

Calculated Max. Particle Velocity (PPV) in in./s from EM 1110-2-3800

Mix type Mix A Mix B Mix C Mix D Mix E Mix F Mix G+ Mix G
3-day 0.9 1.1 1.3 2.1 2.6 4.2 4.5 5.1
7-day 1.1 1.5 2.4 3.3 4.0 5.6 6.1 6.5
14-day 2.0 2.1 2.8 4.6 5.9 7.1 7.8 8.1
28-day 2.3 3.0 4.1 6.0 8.3 14.2 13.3 15.3

26-7. Recommendations Specific to Vibrations and Grouting.

a. General. While little information exists regarding vibration-induced damage to

grouting applications, it is possible to observe certain criteria that will minimize, if not eliminate,
the potential for damage to a grouted structure.

b. Unset Grout. Whenever possible, it is preferable that no blasting be allowed until at

least 3 days after any injected grout has taken initial set. The reason for this recommendation is
twofold. First, blast waves may induce high pore-water pressures in groundwater. These pore
pressures may result in movement and shifting of the unset grout, causing windows and defects
in the curtain. Second, it minimizes the potential damage to the grout, since the grout will have
obtained some nominal minimum strength before the blast.

c. Peak Particle Velocities. In the absence of other information, a maximum allowable

PPV of 0.5 in./s as measured at the point of the grouting application is recommended. This
recommendation is based on:

(1) RI 8057, of the U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines, which recommends
this as a maximum safe limit for plaster, which is not unlike a weak grout.

(2) This value corresponds well with the conservative values noted in the Swiss Standards
in Table 26-1.

(3) For the grout strength tests, Table 26-3, and the calculation results presented in Table
26-4, the findings represent a safety factor of approximately two against development of cracks
in weaker grouts.

d. Site-Specific Data. If blasting is of critical importance with respect to a particular

grouting project, and if the two activities cannot be sequenced such that grouting is conducted
after blasting, the project may warrant a detailed on-site investigation and testing program to
develop site-specific vibration criteria higher than those noted above. If such an investigation is
conducted, it is recommended that vibrations be monitored both at the ground surface and below
the ground surface to the full depth of grouting. This can be accomplished by installing
monitoring devices into several boreholes within the curtain alignment. Several test boreholes

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should be drilled and grouted at locations and in conditions similar to the production curtain.
Pressure testing of the redrilled boreholes with accurate flowmeters and gauges should be
conducted after subsequently more intensive blasts. The threshold for damage would be
evidenced by the PPV above, in which increased borehole permeability was noted. It is
recommended that a safety factor be applied to any site-specific threshold.

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CHAPTER 27

Compaction Grouting

27-1. Introduction.

a. General. Compaction grouting is the process of injecting very stiff mortar-like grout at
high pressure and in a controlled manner for the purpose of densifying the soil around the
injected mass. Compaction grouting has been in use for nearly 50 years and is currently widely
used throughout North America and other countries. The Practical Handbook of Grouting Soil,
Rock, and Structures (Warner 2004), one of the most comprehensive references on this topic,
provides a history of the technology and practical guidelines for the use of compaction grouting.
Numerous case histories are also presented in this reference. This chapter presents some of the
critical aspects to be considered in compaction grouting design and construction. Warner (2004)
is a recommended resource for supplemental technical information and guidance.

b. Function. When proper materials, equipment, and procedures are used, the injected
grout mass displaces and compacts the surrounding soil, as shown in Figure 27-1. Functionally,
compaction grouting is essentially a static compaction process. When properly executed,
compaction grouting results in the formation of a columnar mass. Figure 27-2 shows a properly
injected compaction grout mass that was extracted for verification.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 27-1. Injected grout mass displacing and

compacting surrounding soil. Figure 27-2. Extracted columnar-
shaped compaction grout mass.

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27-2. Applications. The primary benefit of compaction grouting is densification of loose, in-situ
soils or man-made fills. Therefore, it can be considered for geotechnical applications requiring
increased bearing capacity and/or improvement of settlement characteristics for both
preconstruction site improvement and mitigation of problems at existing facilities. Compaction
grouting has also been applied as a ground improvement technique to mitigate liquefaction
potential and control surface settlement during construction of soft ground tunnels. Compaction
grouting is widely used to improve soils adjacent to or underlying existing structures because it
can be accomplished in areas of limited access with small drilling rigs and remotely located
mixers and pumps. It is therefore often performed in close proximity or even inside existing
structures requiring foundation treatment. This technique is used for improving subsurface
conditions underlying both shallow and deep foundations to improve bearing capacity, mitigate
settlements, or reduce liquefaction potential. In some cases, it has been used to increase the
lateral resistance of soils adjacent to deep foundations.

27-3. Design Considerations.

a. Subsurface Conditions. As with all geotechnical ground improvement techniques, a

thorough understanding of the subsurface conditions is required. The in-situ vertical stress must
be sufficient for densification to occur without uncontrolled heave at the ground surface.
Insufficient confining pressure will limit horizontal displacement and therefore limit
densification. Compaction grouting is most effective in free-draining granular soils. In saturated
soils, pore pressures increase during grout injection as a result of ground displacement, which in
turn limits densification. In these conditions, the applied injection rate must be slow enough to
allow excess pore pressure to dissipate and densification to occur. Saturated fine-grained soils
and sensitive clays are also prone to the loss of shear strength due to remolding. Compaction
grouting is therefore not typically performed in saturated and near-saturated low-permeability
soils because the slow pumping rate and/or time required for pore pressure dissipation is not
economical. Figure 27-3 shows a typical range of soils considered suitable for compaction
grouting. Large rocks, boulders, or other obstructions that inhibit the installation of casings for
compaction grouting are also problematic.

b. Treatment Zone. The depth and lateral limits of compaction grouting treatment should
be established based on appropriate stress distribution theory under the loaded area for which
improvement is desired. Consideration must also be given to the post-treatment condition,
because the compaction grout material may substantially increase the weight of the treated zone
and the density of the surrounding soils. The strata below the proposed zone of treatment should
be analyzed to confirm that they can support the increased load of the treated zone.
Improvement to greater depths may be required.

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(Courtesy of Hayward Baker)

Figure 27-3. Typical range of soils suitable for compaction grouting.

c. Hole Angles. Holes should generally be vertical, as inclined holes create greater heave
forces at lower pressures and therefore limit grout quantities. However, due to access
constraints, holes are often inclined to improve soils underlying existing facilities. If inclined
holes are necessary, the angles should not exceed 20 degrees from vertical to limit the surface
area over which uplift is applied at the surface.

d. Hole Spacing. Compaction grout hole spacing is typically on a grid pattern of 612 ft.
According to Warner (2004), Although grout hole spacing is soil specific, 1012 ft has proven
to be an optimal spacing when the pumping rate is within a range of 1 to 2 ft3 per minute.
Primary holes are installed initially, with split-spaced secondary holes installed to measure the
degree of improvement and provide final tightening.

e. Basis of Design. Property improvement arises from an increase in density. A number

of design parameters, such as shear strength, settlement parameters, and liquefaction potential,
are functions of soil type and either total density or relative density. Therefore, the basis for design
can be consideration of the total volume change required to produce the desired total density (unit
weight) or relative density of the improved mass. Clearly, the compaction grout elements themselves
also interact with the soils in other beneficial ways due to vertical reinforcement effects. However,
in the absence of full-scale field tests, detailed analyses, and extraordinary field control and
verification programs, these secondary benefits are normally not considered in the design. When
total unit weight is the basis for correlation of design parameters, the required percent displacement
volume within a given soil mass can be calculated using the following equation (Byle 2003):

where:
Vd = percent displacement volume required
f = final desired total unit weight
o = initial in-situ soil unit weight.

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The volume of compaction grout required for the mass to be treated can then be estimated based
on the percent volume required times the volume of material to be treated.

f. Sequence and Staging. Compaction grouting should begin at the perimeter of area to be
treated and should work progressively toward the interior. In this manner, the outer treated area
provides the benefit of confinement and hence enhances densification. Grouting should be
performed on primary holes first, followed by a secondary grid pattern, and tertiary if needed.
Compaction grout injection is done in incremental stages typically 12 ft in length and may be
performed working from the bottom of the treatment zone upward (upstage) or from the top down
(downstage). Upstage grouting is the most economical; however, downstage grouting may be
required at shallow depths. At shallow depths (e.g., less than 15 ft), there will likely be insufficient
vertical stress to provide confinement and avoid heave at the ground surface. Using the downstage
method, compaction grout injection is first accomplished at shallow depths. Subsequent stages are
then injected below, after drilling through the hardened upper stages. In this manner, the
completed upper stages provide additional vertical stress and confinement for lower stages, thereby
allowing higher pressures and greater densification. Warner (2004) gives further practical details
on the procedures of upstage and downstage compaction grouting and their applications.

g. Pumping Rate. A pumping rate of about 12 ft3 per minute is normally considered to
be optimum. Greater amounts of compaction grout can be injected at lower pumping rates,
thereby increasing the densification. High pumping rates should be avoided, as pore pressure
builds up and requires tighter hole spacings to achieve the same result as that achieved by lower
pumping rates and wider hole spacings.

27-4. Materials. Compaction grout typically consists of aggregate containing non-plastic fines,
cement, and sufficient water to provide a stiff, but pumpable mix. Figure 27-4 shows extruded
compaction grout material. Figure 27-5 shows a preferred aggregate gradation band. As the
chart shown in Figure 27-5 indicates, considerable fines are required for pumpability. However,
the inclusion of clay-sized particles should be avoided. Experience and demonstrations have
shown that the inclusion of clay-sized particles or other additives may improve pumpability, but
they can cause the compaction grout material to behave as a fluid, thereby increasing the
potential for hydrofracturing of the soil and loss of control of the grout mass. Coarse-grained
particles should be rounded, as angular particles will negatively impact pumpability. Cement
content typically ranges between 6 and 12%. Since the purpose of the compaction grout is to
densify adjacent soils, grout strength is typically not an important mix parameter.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 27-4. Stiff mortar-like compaction grout material being extruded through casing.

(After Warner 2004)

Figure 27-5. Preferred aggregate gradation band for compaction grout.

27-5. Equipment.

a. General. Equipment for drilling, mixing, and pumping compaction grout material are
discussed in Chapter 11 of this manual. The following paragraphs discuss some important
special aspects relative to compaction grouting.

b. Casing. Flush joint casing with a diameter of 2 in. is commonly used. Casing lengths
of less than 5 ft are common and facilitate handling during withdrawal. With standard stage
lengths of 2 ft, casings longer than 5 ft result in unmanageable stick-up during upstage grouting.
The casing and joints (threaded or welded) must be strong enough to withstand the substantial
forces of installation, grouting pressure, and withdrawal. Installation may be by drilling or

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driving. However, a tight fit in the hole is required to develop enough friction to resist upward
movement during grout injection. Withdrawal is typically accomplished with extraction jacks
(Figure 27-6).

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 27-6. Casing withdrawal using extraction jacks.

c. Pumps. Pumps for compaction grouting should be positive displacement piston types
capable of pumping at various rates on the order of 0.53 ft3 per minute at continuous pressures
of up to approximately 1,000 psi.

d. Mixers. It is preferable to mix compaction grout material on site, as commercial batch

plants do not normally maintain stockpiles of aggregate meeting the gradation band depicted in
Figure 27-5. Mixing on site may be accomplished with any commonly available equipment that
will uniformly blend the materials.

e. Delivery Lines, Valves and Fittings. Delivery lines should consist of high-pressure
hose or rigid pipe. Gauge savers should be supplied, and wide sweep bends should be used
instead of standard pipe fittings to facilitate flow of the stiff mix. Figure 27-7 shows the
configuration of the delivery lines at the connection to a compaction grout casing.

27-6. Procedures.

a. General. As previously discussed, compaction grouting may be performed upstage or

downstage. Upstage grouting is typically more economical and is used for most common
applications. Downstage grouting may be required in areas of shallow overburden depth where
confinement or additional vertical stress is needed. The following paragraphs discuss the basic
procedures for upstage and downstage grouting.

b. Procedure for Upstage Compaction Grouting.

(1) Install the compaction grout casing to the bottom of the treatment zone by drilling or
driving. If installed by driving, a sacrificial knock-off point is required.

(2) Raise the casing 12 ft and inject grout to the predetermined stage refusal criteria.

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(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 27-7. Large-bend radius at a connection to a compaction grout casing.

(3) Continue incremental casing withdrawal and compaction grout injection to the top of
the treatment zone.

c. Procedure for Downstage Compaction Grouting.

(1) Drill an oversized hole to the top of the treatment zone and install the compaction
grout casing in the oversized hole.

(2) Grout the casing in place by filling the annular space with neat cement grout.

(3) Drill through the casing, advancing the hole for the first stage of compaction grouting.

(4) Inject compaction grout to the predetermined stage refusal criteria.

(5) After the grout has set, drill through the grouted zone, advancing the hole to the next
stage. Continue compaction grouting and drilling through the grouted zone until the last stage is
completed at the bottom of the treatment zone.

d. Refusal Criteria. Stage refusal criteria for compaction grouting projects must be
established based on site-specific conditions and improvement goals. Ideally, refusal criteria will
be established based on a review of the results of a test section or during the early stages of
production grouting. Typical refusal criteria are:

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(1) Heave/Movement. Ground heave or structure movement is reportedly the most

common refusal criterion, and grouting is typically stopped at the first observation of movement
at the ground surface. Surface heave as a result of compaction grouting can damage the site and
existing structures. Furthermore, little additional densification occurs once surface heave is
initiated. Surface heave or structure movements of 1/32 in. have been specified as the refusal
criterion for compaction grouting.

(2) Injected Volume. In cases where the soil to be improved is relatively uniform,
attainment of a specified grout injection volume per stage may be used as a refusal criterion. The
specified grout volume may be calculated (or estimated) based on the improvement desired as
noted in Section 27.4.

(3) Pressure Criterion. A maximum or sustained pressure criterion can be established, but
should be based on data collected from a test program or during the initial stages of compaction
grouting. Maximum pressures on the order of 1,000 psi for a period of 3 minutes have been
specified. Warner (2004) also reports that most soils are efficiently compacted at sustained
pressures on the order of 350500 psi. Because pressure is directly related to the pumping rate,
when a maximum or sustained pressure criterion is used, it is important to ensure that a constant
pumping rate is observed for the pressure criterion to be valid.

27-7. Monitoring.

a. Movement. Monitoring of ground surface heave and structure movement is essential to

prevent site and/or structure damage. Figure 27-8 shows surface heave and cracking during
compaction grout injection. Movement monitoring should extend to a perimeter of about 30 ft
around the point of injection and may be accomplished by various means, from simple
observations to automated data collection and alarm systems, depending on the sensitivity of the
site and structures that may be impacted.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 27-8. Ground surface heave and cracking during compaction grout injection.

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b. Measurements. Monitoring and evaluating the grout quantities, injection rate, and
pressure during the progress of the work are key components of the success of a compaction
grouting project. Ideally, data are collected automatically by instruments with direct input to a
computer system. This data acquisition and manipulation system allows for real-time evaluation
of the work in progress so that modifications can positively impact both the cost and quality of
the work. Measurements should include the quantities injected for the various stages in each
hole, the rate of injection, and the injection pressure during each stage. Monitoring and
maintaining the grout consistency is of utmost importance to prevent the grout from becoming
too fluid.

27-8. Verification.

a. General. The improvement achieved by compaction grouting can be assessed by

reviewing the grouting records, including injection rate, pressure, and volume. Secondary
grouting locations should show less grout injected at higher pressures due to the higher density
achieved by the primary grouting locations. Also, observations and records of drilling or driving
compaction grout casings may also be used to assess increases in density.

b. Excavation and Extraction. Excavation and extraction of compaction grout columns at

test locations have been used to compare the design volume of the compaction grout column to
the actual volume achieved. Figure 27-9 shows the actual dimensions of an extracted compaction
grout column compared to the design dimensions.

(Courtesy of Gannett Fleming)

Figure 27-9. Actual dimensions of an extracted compaction grout column compared to the
design dimensions.

c. Other. Other methods of verifying the improvement achieved by compaction grouting

include performing pre- and post-improvement density testing using standard penetration, cone
penetrometer, dilatometer, or pressure meter testing.

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CHAPTER 28

Hydrofracture Grouting

28-1. Introduction. Hydrofracture grouting is the process by which grout is injected at pressures
sufficiently high to induce intentional tensile failure of the ground. The intended result may be
densification of the formation, permeability reduction, foundation strengthening, and/or
mitigation or prevention of settlement. This chapter discusses applications and mechanisms of
hydrofracture grouting, the means and methods that have been successful on previous projects,
and several case histories.

28-2. Complexity of Terms.

a. General. The term hydrofracture grouting is often used to describe various methods
of grouting both soil and rock. For purposes of this manual, hydrofracture grouting is defined as
the application of low- to medium-viscosity grouts at high pressures, typically in fine-grained
soils, for the purpose of hydraulically inducing tensile failure and corresponding grout
propagation. The same process can be applied to rock, which is a common practice in Europe.
The general theory in rock suggests that the application of high pressures opens existing fractures
that previously were not accessible to the grout while simultaneously closing some non-injected
fractures. High pressures also create new fractures and maximize the potential for fully grouting
all discontinuities. While many authors, particularly those in Europe, are proponents of
hydrofracture grouting in rock, this practice has generally not been adopted or accepted in the
United States. Historically, the U.S. grouting community has viewed hydrofracturing in rock
during grouting, which is normally described as uplift, as an event that must be prevented out
of concern that it will damage areas where grouting has previously been completed or create new
potential flow paths where none previously existed. A limited recent exception to this
perspective that is gaining some acceptance is the concept of allowing or actively promoting
hydrofracturing in soil-filled zones within rock or in mixed soil-rock materials, particularly when
grouting in karst environments, as discussed in Chapter 18 of this manual.

b. Compensation Grouting. The term compensation grouting is often confused with

hydrofracture grouting. Compensation grouting is a general term used to describe the procedure of
injecting grout materials beneath or adjacent to structures to compensate for settlement. This
settlement is often a result of strain caused by material loss or soil deformations associated with
excavations or nearby tunneling. In nearly all cases, compensation grouting is performed in soils.
Hydrofracture grouting is a method sometimes used to perform compensation grouting. Table 28-1
lists several methods that can be used in compensation grouting practice (Rawlings et al. 2000).

c. Discussion. All of the above methods, with the exception of permeation grouting, are
typically applied reactively when movement in a structure is observed. The injections are meant
to maintain the structure at its present location. However, these applications may be used after
settlement has occurred to re-level or jack foundations or structures back to their original, pre
disturbance locations. Permeation grouting is covered in detail elsewhere in this manual.
Compaction and intrusion grouting are similar applications with different materials. Intrusion
grouting uses thick, HMG, whereas compaction grouting uses mortar-like, low-mobility grout.
Chapter 27 of this manual provides additional information on compaction grouting.

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Table 28-1. Applications of compensation grouting.

Term Method Application in Compensation

Permeation Injection of low- to medium-viscosity This method is generally limited to
grouting. grouts at low to moderate pressure for conditioning or solidifying ground
the purpose of permeation. conditions before application of
other compensation methods.
Hydrofracture Injection of low- to medium-viscosity Injected materials compensate for
grouting. grouts at high pressures for the purpose materials lost as a result of local
of hydraulically inducing tensile failure excavations.
and corresponding grout propagation.
Intrusion Injection of high-viscosity grouts at high Injected materials compensate for
grouting. pressures for the purpose of materials lost as a result of local
displacement, while also inducing excavations.
limited hydrofracturing in soils.
Compaction Injection of mortar-like grout at high Injected materials compensate for
grouting. pressures to displace soils. materials lost as a result of local
excavations.

28-3. Principle Theories and Terms.

a. General. Proper application of hydrofracture grouting requires an understanding of the

principles related to fracture development and propagation in the subsurface. While not
understood in great detail due to the difficulties associated with inspecting the completed work
and inherent heterogeneities in ground conditions at different sites, the principles outlined in the
following paragraphs are generally agreed upon by the grouting community.

b. Fracture Propagation. The propagation of the fractures depends on the state of stress
within the ground. In an underconsolidated or normally consolidated soil, the vertical effective
stress is greater than the horizontal effective stress. In theory, when hydrofracture grouting these
types of materials, the initial fracture that propagates is vertical. In subsequent re-injections at
the same location, the stress state of the soil is progressively altered, and the angle of the
fractures moves from vertical toward horizontal. The process continues until the fracture is
horizontal and available deformation within the soil mass has been maximized. At this point,
heave or lifting of the mass may begin. In reality, ground conditions are often not homogeneous
to the extent that initial vertical propagation is guaranteed. The presence of localized zones of
differing stress states and incipient cracks, fissures, or other planes of weakness will all alter the
orientation of the fracture planes.

c. Rawlings et al. (2000) note the following regarding fracture propagation. The fluid
pressure causes tensile failure within the ground and a new fracture is initiated or an existing
closed discontinuity opened. Grout fills the discontinuity and the fissure propagates in the
direction of minimum resistance. In theory, this is the direction of major principal stress, but in
practice it is usually controlled by anisotropic factors in the ground (e.g., bedding in soils, fracture

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orientation in rocks). The authors further note that in overconsolidated soil conditions, the initial
fracture propagates in a nearly horizontal direction. Bernander (2004) notes that grout propagation
typically follows the interfaces between stiff and softer structures, such as along the soil/rock
interface or the interface between soft and stiff strata. He also notes that large, hard obstructions in
the ground, such as boulders or foundations, are commonly encapsulated by a layer of grout. For
additional information of fracture propagation, see Grouting in Sedimentary and Igneous Rocks
with Special Reference to Pressure Induced Deformations by Bernander (2004).

d. Pressure.

(1) For hydrofracture grouting to be effective, tensile failure of the soil is necessary. In
contrast to permeation grouting, where pressures are intentionally kept low to prevent
hydrofracturing, higher pressures are necessary to intentionally induce hydrofracturing. In
general terms, the stronger the medium and the deeper the point of injection (i.e., high
overburden pressure), the more pressure will be required to induce hydrofracturing. The
pressure required to induce hydrofracturing is often referred to as the frac or claquage
pressure. Claquage roughly translates in English as an artificial fracture induced by hydraulic
pressure. Hence, the terms frac grouting and claquage grouting are normally
interchangeable with hydrofracture grouting.

(2) Sometimes the frac pressure also depends on the method by which the grouting
operation is performed and may exceed the pressure required to cause tensile failure of the
ground. In many circumstances, sleeve-port pipes or tube--manchette pipes are used. These
casings are installed in the ground, and the annulus between the casing and the borehole sidewall
is backfilled with grout. The pressure necessary to open the sleeves and break through the casing
grout may exceed the pressure necessary to induce tensile failure of the soil. In these cases, a
short-duration application of very high pressure is necessary to open the sleeves and break
through the grout, followed by a reduced-pressure application to propagate the hydrofracture.

e. Fracture Width. The fracture width generally depends on the viscosity of the injected
grout. Thin grouts typically result in a network of fine, grout-filled fractures. Thicker grouts
typically result in thicker grout lenses, but at less frequent intervals. The fracture width also depends
on the ground conditions and may vary as multiple injections are conducted in the same zone.

f. Penetration. The penetration distance of a hydrofracture-induced grout lens depends on

the ground conditions and the applied pressure. Bernander (2004) divides the ground conditions
into confined and unconfined conditions. Confined conditions exist at depth in both soil and rock.
Bernander states that penetration in confined conditions depends on the local deformations in the
mass as a result of the grout pressure applied. Unconfined conditions exist at shallow depth and
extend into rock to a depth approximately equal to the depth of soil cover above the top of rock
(Bernander 2004). Provided that the applied grout pressure is appreciably greater than the
overburden pressure, there is no practical limit to the penetration distance in unconfined conditions.
For the purposes of this manual, the grouting of soil is assumed to be an unconfined condition.

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28-4. Ground Improvement Mechanisms and Applications.

a. General. Because hydrofracture grouting improves ground conditions, it lends itself to

many applications. In addition to the uses in compensation grouting noted above, the following
paragraphs discuss other beneficial properties imparted by the method.

b. Densification. Similar to compaction grouting, the application of hydrofracture grouting

can densify subsurface strata. The principle is similar to compaction grouting in that hydrofracture
grouting induces high local stresses near the point of grout penetration. Both methods rely on
plastic deformation of the soil to achieve the densification. The difference between the two
methods is that hydrofracture grouting induces multiple fractures in varying directions with small
incremental plastic deformations along each fracture, while compaction grouting induces larger
plastic deformations locally around each injection point. In both techniques, the maximum
possible degree of densification is controlled by surface heave, which occurs when the existing
overburden pressure is exceeded by stresses created in the soil during the application. The
maximum densification possible varies in the two methods because of the differing stress
conditions created in the soil mass due to the differences in the techniques. Densification is only
effective in soils that are free draining in response to the grout pressure applied.

c. Soil Strengthening. The premise of hydrofracture grouting is to inject grout under

pressure, causing tensile failure of the soil or opening of pre-existing fractures, resulting in the
injection of grout lenses within the soil. These pressurized lenses of grout densify the soil by
plastic deformation in the vicinity of the lens and also reinforce the soil mass due to the higher
strength of the grout in comparison to the soil (soil strength is commonly measured in pounds per
square foot; grout strength is measured in pounds per square inch, an increase of two orders of
magnitude). The result of the multiple injection process is a network of grout lenses in all
directions, each of which has caused densification; the network leaves in place a skeleton of
stronger material, which strengthens the entire soil mass. Quantifying this benefit can, however,
be problematic due to uncertainty about what has occurred beneath the ground and due to strain
compatibility issues for the grout versus the soil.

d. Chemical Changes. In addition to strengthening as a result of a network of grout lenses,

hydrofracture grout has also been reported to result in chemical changes to clay soils. Zuomei and
Pinshou (2004) report that hydrated lime, which is liberated as a result of the reaction of cement
with water, reacts with carbon dioxide in the clay. This reaction forms calcium carbonate, which
enters the clay structure under osmotic action, increasing the resistance to pipe and slaking.

e. Permeability Reduction. One clear advantage of hydrofracture grouting is its ability to

interconnect with void areas or areas of sufficiently high permeability that the grout can
permeate the open strata. While hydrofracture grouting is rarely used in remediating dam
embankments because of the potential for damage to the embankment, one notable dam project
that did use this method is the remediation of Mud Mountain Dam discussed later in this chapter.
On this project, loss of materials due to soil arching and piping resulted in both a local low-
density condition and possibly a hydraulic pipe within the embankment of high permeability.
In addition to permeating open materials, the network of grout lenses densified the embankment
and provided additional resistance to further hydrofracturing from slurry wall construction.

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While there is no design methodology currently available for this type of application, the benefits
of a network of high-strength, low-permeability material are conceptually easy to envision.

28-5. Field Methods.

a. General. The following paragraphs discuss various field procedures and equipment
typical of hydrofracture grouting projects. These methods are not the only suitable means for
performing hydrofracture grouting, but they have proven suitable on past projects.

b. Methods. Two methods of injection are common in the industry. The use of sleeve-port
pipe systems is the most common method and is discussed in more detail in the following
paragraphs. Grouting through the bottom of a casing, often referred to as end-of-casing
grouting, is another method used to perform hydrofracture grouting. This method is similar to
compaction grouting in that the grout materials are injected through a casing that is drilled, jacked,
or driven to depth. As with compaction grouting, the casing is raised to inject grout at different
zones. This method has several inherent disadvantages. First, after injection at the deepest stage,
the grout must be allowed to set before injection at shallower stages. This is necessary to ensure
that grout is penetrating the desired zone and is not continuing to propagate from the deeper,
previously grouted stage. Second, rather than hydrofracturing the ground, the grout may flow
along the casing and emerge at the ground surface. Third, using multiple grouting applications in a
particular stage is more difficult in comparison to sleeve-port pipe methods.

c. Drill Holes. Drill holes for hydrofracture grout injection are typically spaced at
intervals similar to those used for permeation grouting. Hole spacings on the order of 510 ft are
generally appropriate. Holes are commonly drilled vertically since there is no inherent benefit to
angled holes unless obstructions must be avoided. In confined conditions, such as grouting from
tunnels or shafts, fan arrays may be necessary. Drilling methods must be selected based on the
subsurface conditions and intended injection method (end-of-casing or sleeve-port pipe). Cased
drilling methods such as sonic or duplex rotary are most appropriate for sleeve-port pipe methods
since the holes can be advanced with minimal flushing fluid and a temporarily cased borehole
allows easy installation of the sleeve-port pipe.

d. Sleeve-Port Pipe. Hydrofracture grouting is typically conducted using sleeve-port pipe

or tube--manchette. The sleeve-port pipe is inserted inside the temporary drill casing. The drill
casing is removed, and the annulus between the sleeve-port pipe and the borehole sidewall is
grouted. This is normally accomplished by inflating a single injection packer just above the
lower-most sleeve. Grout pressure opens the sleeve, and the annulus is filled. After grout is
observed at the surface, the injection is terminated and the packer is released. Hydrostatic
pressure from the annulus grout column then forces the sleeve to the closed position. Casing
grout is typically specified to be a weak cement-bentonite grout so that minimal frac pressure is
necessary to open the sleeve. Depending on the applied pressures, sleeve-port pipe casing can be
constructed of either plastic or steel. Steel is most appropriate for very high pressure
applications, while plastic is often selected for economic reasons or for situations where other
drilling or excavation activities would be adversely impacted by a steel obstruction. Sleeves can
be spaced at any interval; however, sleeve spacings of 25 ft are common in practice.

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CHAPTER 29

Grouting Contract Considerations

29-1. Fundamental Considerations for Contracting.

a. General. The method of contracting, and the content and structure of the contract
documents and payment items, can all dramatically impact quality, schedule, the potential for
cost growth, and the inspection forces required. The development of an Acquisition Strategy
Plan, which defines the methods to be used, is the primary responsibility of the Contracting
Officer, but should be done in close coordination with the entire Project Delivery Team.
Selecting the appropriate contracting methods requires consideration of the projects size, the
complexity of the work, the intent and criticality of the grouting to the overall project
performance, the degree of uncertainty in the work, the knowledge and experience required of
the grouting contractor, and the experience and number of organizational personnel available for
oversight. As such, the acquisition strategy should be integral to and concurrent with the
development of the technical specifications.

b. Grouting Specialty Contractors. Without exception, grouting should be performed by

specialty contractors who are regularly and successfully completing grouting projects. Grouting
results can be highly dependent on the skill and knowledge of the contractor. An adequate
number of specialty contractors are available to service both small and large grouting projects.
In defining and/or evaluating the qualifications of grouting contractors, the following items and
issues are normally considered.

(1) Contractors must be able to mobilize sufficient equipment of the type required for the
project. Prospective contractors would normally be asked to submit the details of all equipment
that will be used (manufacturer, model, age).

(2) Contractors must be able to provide sufficient competent, experienced personnel for
all of the work items required. Corporate experience per se may have little relevance.
Prospective contractors are often required to submit detailed resumes of all of their key personnel
and superintendents. Resumes should identify all experience and specific duties directly
applicable to the proposed project. Project listings for individuals should state their roles in the
project and the duration of their activities.

(3) Project descriptions for similar work should include only those projects in which one
or more of the proposed staff were in a position of responsibility for the work. Project
information should include references, the initial cost at the time of contract issuance, and the
final cost at completion of the project. Similarly, initial and final contract completion dates for
projects should be provided.

c. Separate Grouting Contracts vs. Grouting Subcontracts. The choice of using a separate
grouting contract vs. including grouting work as an element of a larger contract is one of the
fundamental contracting decisions. A separate grouting contract can offer advantages, including:
(1) Government forces can have direct communication and interaction with the grouting
contractor, making it easier to administer, control, and modify the grouting operation, (2) a

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separate contract eliminates sometimes problematic site coordination issues between a

subcontractor and a general contractor, (3) a separate contract can provide project schedule
advantages if grouting is one of the early operations to be performed, and (4) perhaps most
importantly, it can prevent required modifications in the scope of the grouting program from
creating a ripple effect into other work, thereby preventing complex requests for equitable
adjustments related to compounding impacts. Conversely, some projects are not suitable for
using separate contracts due to required sequencing of the project work or the amount of
grouting to be performed relative to the overall project size. In addition, when the grouting
precedes work such as cutoff wall construction, the wall contractor cannot fully endorse the
adequacy of the grouting efficacy as it relates to their means and methods. One of the benefits of
having grouting included as a part of larger contracts is that the contractor derives direct benefit
from the quality of the work performed. Regardless of whether grouting is performed as a
separate contract or as a subcontract, the information obtained from grouting is important data
that should be available to follow-on contractors performing subsurface work in the vicinity of
the grout program.

29-2. Source Selection and Contract Types.

a. General. In general, there are two types of source selections: negotiated selection (i.e.,
Best Value Selections) and non-negotiated selections (e.g., Sealed Bid, Technically Qualified
Low Price). Contract types included fixed-priced and cost-reimbursable contracts. Typically,
fixed-priced contracts are appropriate for most grouting contracts. A variety of other contract
methods are available, depending on the specific projects needs. For instance, depending on the
criticality of time or other factors, incentives and/or a successively pricing method such as Early
Contractor Involvement (FAR Part 16.403) may be considered. The procedures and rules for
using the various selection methods and contract types are contained in the FARs. Applicable
FAR parts include Part 14, Sealed Bidding; Part 15, Contracting by Negotiation; Part 16, Types
of Contracts; Part 17, Special Contracting Methods; and Part 37, Service Contracting.

b. Recent Trends.

(1) In recent years, negotiated Best Value Selections (FAR, Part 15) have frequently been
used to acquire standalone grouting contracts for large and/or complex grouting projects where
access to the latest technology and/or comprehensive services is desired. This acquisition
strategy allows USACE to solicit and negotiate technical proposals based on weighted technical
and cost factors (i.e., tradeoffs). The negotiated Best Value selection methodology was used by
the Louisville District for the Patoka Lake Project, the Chicago District for the Chicago McCook
Reservoir grouting, the Little Rock District for grouting at Clearwater Dam, and the Nashville
District at Center Hill Dam. In each of those projects, the tradeoff process as described in FAR
15.101-1 was used to determine the technical and cost proposal that was in the best interest of
USACE. Additional information on Best Value Source Selection is contained in the Army
Material Command publication AMC-P 715-3, Contracting for Best Value A Best Practices
Guide to Source Selection (1 January 1998). Appendix C includes copies of the documents
describing the evaluation factors recently used by the Chicago and Little Rock Districts, along
with the corresponding unit price schedules, measurement and payment provisions, and project
technical specifications.

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(2) Another source selection strategy that might be employed on large or small projects
where it is not necessary to evaluate technical proposals, but where the technical ability and/or
experience of the contractor is essential to the successful outcome of the project is the two-step
Technically Acceptable, Low Price selection method. In this method, the lowest priced proposal
is selected from offerors deemed technically qualified based on an evaluation of the
qualifications specified in the solicitation.

(3) An innovative contracting method that could be particularly useful on projects where
the grouting is part of a larger foundation treatment program is the Early Contractor Involvement
(ECI) method. Under this method, the standard Fixed-Priced contract is supplemented with FAR
Clause 16.403, which allows for successively pricing all or part of the work at designated target
points. Within the context of a large foundation treatment or foundation remediation program, a
grouting and/or test program might be carried out under the Fixed-Priced Base Contract with the
follow-on remediation and treatment structured as an Unpriced Contract Option that is subject to
Clause 16.403 to be negotiated and awarded after the results of the grouting program or other test
are evaluated and the final design is completed. In addition to the obvious advantages of
incorporating the construction contractors expertise and perspective into the final design, it
provides actual on-site production data to be used in the cost estimate and negotiation of the final
design, and it also enables the project to begin using Construction General Funds while still
completing the design. Generally, an ECI contract is awarded with the design at approximately
35%. Hence the decision to use this method must be made early in project development. ECI
contracting using FAR Clause 16.403 was used by the Kansas City District on the Tuttle Creek
Foundation Modification Project in which both a test program and production testing of the final
remediation technology were carried out under one contract before completion of the final
design. The methodology was also used by the New Orleans District on much of the
reconstruction work after Hurricane Katrina to accelerate the design and construction schedule.

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CHAPTER 30

Measurement and Payment

30-1. General Considerations. Chapter 29 of this manual describes available contracting

methods and considerations for contracting. Chapter 31 of this manual covers estimating
grouting quantities, and provides general guidance for establishing the appropriate unit price
schedule items and commentary on measurement and payment provisions.

30-2. Unit Price Schedule Items.

a. General. Experience of the Corps of Engineers indicates that the items discussed in the
following paragraphs should be considered for inclusion in any estimate or unit price schedule
for a drilling and grouting program. Selected items must be appropriate for the needs of the
particular project. When establishing line items for a project, the work must be broken down in
such a manner that the Government has flexibility to modify the program based on the conditions
encountered, and that the contractor is not required to assume undue risk for the conditions or
flexibility required by the Government. Otherwise, if the contractor is required to accept risk for
the conditions that may be encountered, the cost for assuming that risk will be reflected in higher
prices in the unit price items.

b. Technical Requirements. All requirements regarding hole locations, hole angles,

drilling depths, stage lengths, upstage or downstage methods, injection pressures, pump
capacities, number of hole series, material properties, or any other item of work that has specific
requirements must be clearly described in the technical specifications or drawings. Technical
specification sections for other ancillary items of work, such as installation of instrumentation,
drain holes, or other secondary work activities, should contain content specific to those work
items. Measurement and payment provisions should only describe how the work will be
measured and paid and should not include work performance requirements or procedures.

c. Mobilization and Demobilization. Drilling and grouting equipment and all supporting
project infrastructure must be assembled at the job site before a grouting program can be started and
must be removed from the site when the work is completed regardless of the amount of work actually
performed. A separate pay item (or pay items) for these operations should therefore be included in
the specifications. Payment for these two elements of work is commonly set up under one pay item
with provision for a partial payment to the contractor upon completion of the mobilization (typically
60%) and for payment of the remainder after the grouting program is completed and the materials
and equipment are removed from the site to the satisfaction of the Government.

d. Site Preparation and Site Restoration. The required extent of preparation for a site may
vary substantially from project to project, but it is commonly a major item. In some cases, a
substantial work platform must be constructed to accommodate the equipment and provide
effective environmental controls (see Chapter 13 of this manual). Site preparation activities are
typically measured on a lump sum basis, but in some instances unit prices for support of
excavation, fill, and concrete paving might be appropriate. If it is anticipated that the limits of
work might be extended, or if the project is divided by area and grouting might (or might not) be
conducted in particular areas, provisions should be made for measuring site preparation in each

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area separately. It is also common to include a site restoration line item. For both site
preparation and site restoration, the contract must clearly define the scope associated with those
activities.

e. Environmental Protection. A separate measurement and payment item should be

considered for environmental protection. A separate pay item is considered necessary for any
project where unusual or special provisions are required, such as protection of a water intake or
where there are rigorous environmental requirements for monitoring and protection of
downstream areas or waters. Lump sum measurement and payment is appropriate for a project
with standard requirements. A separate monthly lump sum or unit price might be appropriate for
any special project specific environmental monitoring or protection requirement. The monthly
payment may also be limited to only those months where grouting was performed for a
substantial portion of the month.

f. Drill Setups. Drill setups are measured for payment each time the drilling equipment
must mobilize to the hole. Provisions for drill setups for each different drilling method required
per hole should be included. On upstage grouting programs, one drill setup should be measured
for payment per hole. Downstage programs require one drill setup per stage.

g. Drilling Grout Holes. Measurement and payment for drilling is almost universally paid
for on a per-foot basis. Different types of drilling should be measured and paid for separately.
In addition, differentiation of angled holes versus vertical holes is standard practice. The list of
drilling pay items might include:
(1) Overburden Drilling Vertical.
(2) Overburden Drilling Angled.
(3) Production Rock Drilling Vertical.
(4) Production Rock Drilling Angled.
(5) Exploratory Drilling Angled.
(6) Exploratory Drilling Vertical.
(7) Production Drilling Gallery Angled.
(8) Production Drilling Gallery Vertical.

h. On a project where the same classification of drilling has substantially different scope
depending on the location, multiple pay items for the same drilling type might also be included.
For example, if a project includes overburden drilling through an existing high embankment and
overburden drilling on an abutment with shallow overburden, separate pay items should be
established based on location or based on depth. If the embankment drilling will be performed
on a horizontal platform while the abutment drilling will involve drilling on sloped terrain, then
separate payment based on location and not depth would be more appropriate. Additionally,
drilling that must be conducted in confined spaces, such as within galleries, should be measured
for payment separately from above-ground work. If it becomes necessary to drill through grout

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in a hole after it has set, or re-drill an obstructed hole, a special payment provision for redrilling
should be specified. Measurement for payment is contingent on the determination that redrilling
is required through no fault of the contractor. Redrilling is sometimes specified as one-half of
the cost of initially drilling the grout hole rather than allowing the contractor to provide a
separate bid price for this item.

i. Temporary Casing for Grout Holes. If grouting of temporary casings is a requirement for
the project, then quantities associated with these operations should be measured for payment. It is
common on many existing embankment dams for curtains to be constructed on the upstream slope
where shell materials are present. Often, when grouting the overburden casing, the shell materials
will accept large quantities of grout before grout is observed at the ground surface in the casing
annulus. Grouting the annulus through a pervious shell might not be appropriate or necessary and
should be evaluated before injecting large volumes of grout. Additionally, the soil-rock interface
or first several feet of rock may readily accept casing grout. Since the contractor has little control
over the volumes of grout the ground will accept nor the time required to accomplish the grouting,
it is recommended that the grouting time and grout materials consumed be measured for payment
rather than using a lump sum price for each installation. The grout connection required for
grouting of the casing can be incidental to the overburden drilling, or may be measured for
payment in accordance with other grouting connections. Solid temporary casing can either be
measured for payment as a separate item or it can be defined to be incidental to overburden
drilling. The contract must be specific with respect to these matters. If sleeve-port pipe will be
used, it is recommended that it be measured for payment under a separate line item, since the
amount of sleeve-port pipe installed is typically at the direction of the Government based on the
conditions encountered, and sleeve-port pipe is materially different from solid casing.

j. Hole Washing. Hole washing separate from washing through the drill tooling should be
paid under a separate hole washing line item. On many past contracts, hole washing and pressure
testing have been paid under one line item. This is not recommended since the equipment required
for each operation is materially different. Measurement units can include lump sum per hole, or
washing time. Either can be effective provided the ground conditions are appropriate. Rock
formations of high quality and not subject to slaking will often result in near equal wash times per
lineal foot from hole to hole. In these instances, lump sum units may be appropriate. When
variable wash times are expected, such as in karst, measurement by unit time is more appropriate.
The technical specifications must detail the required pressure and flow rate for hole washing.

k. Pressure Testing. As stated above, it is not recommended that hole washing and
pressure testing be measured and paid under one line item. In addition to the equipment
necessary for performing hole washing, pressure testing requires: packers, packer inflation
system, flowmeters, pressure transducers, possibly a different pumping system, and possibly an
additional operator. As with hole washing, pressure testing can be measured as either lump sum
items for each test or as units of time. If the lump sum per stage unit is used, technical
specifications must provide the basis for reasonably establishing the unit costs, such as the
maximum or average test time per stage. Measurement of time units generally provides more
flexibility to the Government since extension of pressure testing duration will not negatively
impact the contractor.

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l. When using time units as the basis for measurement and payment, the start time should
be specified as when the pressure testing equipment is inserted into the top of the hole and the
end time should be specified as when the equipment is removed from the hole. Time deductions
should only be made for any interruptions in the operations resulting from equipment failure or
other contractor controlled causes. Because the amount of time required to lower the equipment
to the depth required and/or move the equipment from stage to stage is significant, including that
time in the measurement is recommended provided that it is conducted as a continuous process.
When using this method, however, it is also recommended that the technical specification require
the use of continuous hose rather than permitting the use of pipe sections, which greatly
increases the time of the operation.

m. Placing Grout. It has been common on many past projects to measure grout placement
for payment on the basis of the volume placed. The practice places high risk on the contractor
and is a disincentive to quality since injection rates and volumes are predominantly controlled by
the geologic conditions. Since the contractors cost of performing the work, not inclusive of
materials, includes plant and labor time, the contractor is forced, under this method, to estimate
costs with an assumed average injection rate of grout. During grouting, when flow rates are
above that assumed average the contractor will be quite pleased. However, when flow rates drop
below that assumed average, such as at the critical refusal period, it can be a contentious issue.
The result may be inappropriate and premature thickening, inadequate refusal, and any other
measures or actions (often unknown to the inspection staff) that allow the contractor to move on
to more productive and more profitable operations. Premature refusal can result in a poorly
constructed, low-quality grouting project.

(1) For these reasons and given the criticality of the grouting operations, placing grout
should be measured on a unit time basis. Measurement should initiate at the start of injection
and end upon the completion of refusal. If multiple injections are conducted simultaneously,
each injection should be separately measured for payment. The contract documents should be
specific with respect to the required injection flow rates, including minimum required injection
rate when maximum injection pressure is not achieved. Pressures and flow rates should not be a
payment consideration during the initial 5 to 10 minutes of grouting on a stage since the
pressures are purposely increased slowly during this phase of the application. After the
maximum permitted injection pressure is achieved, the ability of the formation to accept grout
totally controls the rate of injection.

(2) There are instances in grouting when measurement of volume injected is appropriate for
payment. These would include any and all instances where the volume of material to be placed is
known with certainty. Void-filling operations and annular space grouting may warrant consideration of
a volumetric payment provision. This is never the case in permeation grouting of rock or soil.

n. Cement. The units of measurement for cement should be tons. The contractor has little
control over the volumes of material the ground will accept at the pressures and using the mixes
directed by the Government. Cement in grout that is wasted due to no fault of the contractor,
such as at the completion of grouting when a cleanout of the circulation loop is required, should
be measured for payment.

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o. Other Grout Constituents. All other grout ingredients, with the exception of water, may
be individually measured for payment under separate line items using appropriate units, however
this method may create additional effort. Typically dry products such as bentonite, sand, fly ash,
silica fume, or diutan gum are measured on a weight basis. Liquid products such as
superplasticizer, retarders, etc. may also be measured on a volumetric basis. Note that pre
packaged products are also available.

p. Connection to Grout Holes. Connections to grout holes should be measured and paid
for as a lump sum price for each connection. A connection is defined as mobilization of the
grouting equipment to the hole for purposes of injecting grout. A connection line item is
provided to pay for all labor and equipment necessary for mobilizing equipment, including the
header, packers, packer inflation system, flow meter, pressure transducer, and circulation lines to
the hole, and also preparing the batch plant and mixing the first few batches of grout necessary to
fill the circulation loop. On upstage grouting programs one connection should be measured for
payment per hole. On downstage programs one connection is measured for payment per stage.

q. Computer Monitoring System. The computer monitoring system should be measured

for payment on a time basis (hourly, weekly or monthly dependent on site specifics) and should
include the equipment and operator costs. Measurement should begin 1 week before the start of
grouting to allow for setup and calibration of the system on site to the satisfaction of the
Government. Measurement should end at the completion of grouting. If additional use of the
system is required beyond the completion of grouting, such as for purposes of generating
information for a project completion report or otherwise required on site by the Government,
then this time should also be measured for payment. Operation of the system is normally
included with this pay item. The contractor determines the number of operators required based
on the contract deliverable requirements and the staffing plan, and on a consideration of the
capabilities of the system being provided. The cost of records, both digital and hard copy,
generated by the system should be incidental to the system payment. The specifications should
clearly define the frequency of submission and the format of the records required.

r. Geologists/Geotechnical Engineers for Recordkeeping and Drilling Observation.

Payment for on-site technical staff required by the contract can either be measured and paid for on
a per-shift basis or can be made incidental to the drilling. If this item is incidental to the drilling,
the number of staff must be clearly identified in the contract. Typically, the number of staff
required is specified based on the number of drills. For example, the specifications would state
that one geologist is required for every exploratory drill and that, on average, one geologist is
required for every two production overburden or rock drilling operations. Measurement and
payment on a shift basis can also be used effectively. In this case, the number of on-site staff can
be varied by the Government based on the nature of the work (critical or not critical), the level of
detail in the records that is desired, and the intensity of the operations. Practical resource planning
and cost considerations dictate that a minimum notification time of approximately 2 weeks be
provided before the Government increase or decrease the on-site technical staff requirements.

s. Instrumentation Monitoring. Similar to computer monitoring, instrumentation

monitoring should be measured for payment on a time basis. The specific instruments requiring
monitoring, the required frequency of readings, and the format of records or reports to be
provided must be clearly described in the contract. If the intent is to simply read the on-site

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instruments daily, then a daily rate unit is appropriate. If measurements will be obtained on a
more frequent basis, then a shift, weekly, or monthly rate is appropriate. Long duration projects
lend themselves to monthly units.

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CHAPTER 31

Quantity Estimates

31-1. General Considerations.

a. General. After all aspects of the design, technical requirements, and specific
procedures have been established for a grouting project, the drilling and grouting quantities must
be estimated. Because grouting is an underground operation and is ultimately controlled by the
geologic conditions, the work involved in a drilling and grouting program can only be
approximated in advance of construction. In addition to natural variations in the subsurface
conditions, the means and methods employed during construction can also impact the final
quantities. For example, overly conservative injection pressures might require more holes to
meet the project goals in comparison to using the maximum safe grout injection pressure.

b. Estimated Quantities. The contract specifications and bid items should be prepared so
that the estimated quantities for each of the bid items can vary without affecting unit prices. A
common practice to address the variation in quantities in grouting is to use split line items. ER
1180-1-8, Contracts - Labor Relations (2006) contains guidance in providing for variations in
estimated quantities by using subdivided items. However, a concerted effort must be made to
reasonably estimate the drilling and grouting quantities and to fairly represent the work required
so that the appropriate level of funding can be requested.

c. Discussion. Chapter 29 of this manual describes available contracting methods in

detail, and Chapter 30 addresses measurement and payment for grouting. This chapter provides
guidance for estimating the quantities for inclusion in the contract. For most major projects, all
of the methods described here should be considered when developing an estimate.

31-2. Test Grouting. For medium and large projects, the most reliable method for estimating
drilling and grouting quantities is to perform a full-scale test section of substantial length. The
site for the test section should be representative of the anticipated conditions across the project.
The performance achieved in the test section and the quantities consumed can be extrapolated to
estimate the total project quantities. Depending on the uniformity of conditions across the site,
this extrapolation might not be linear at all locations and may warrant separate reaches to be
designated as test sections.

31-3. Use of Historical Records. Another tool for estimating quantities is to refer to historical
grouting records from the same site or from sites located in areas that have similar geology and
rock types. Records from grouting projects in similar settings should give a general order of
magnitude for the quantities and their interrelationship. Experience and knowledge of grouting
on the part of the estimator are required to extrapolate the data from one site to another site.
Differences in grouting means, methods, and results must be carefully considered when using
historical data.

31-4. Site Characterization Information. Evaluating the cores from the exploration program, the
results of the water pressure tests, and other available information is fundamental in the initial
stages of preparing a grouting estimate. The number, strike, dip, spacing, and typical aperture of

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the predominant joint sets are essential information for establishing the estimated final hole
spacing and the orientation of the holes. Joint count and aperture information, if available, can
also be used in estimating grout quantities; this approach has rarely been accomplished, but the
availability and quality of borehole imaging information might result in this type of estimate
becoming more common.

31-5. Unit Take Method. A method frequently used during preparation of detailed estimates for
drilling and grouting programs is called the unit take method. This method is most appropriate
when historical data are available from the site or from a site with similar geologic conditions. In
this method, the area to be grouted is divided into horizontal reaches and vertical zones of varying
permeability based on site geology, pressure test results, and extrapolation from historical data.
Estimates are made of the number of primary and split-spaced holes required to complete each area
(reach) and zone. Grout take in volume per linear foot of grout hole is assigned, as is the estimated
reduction in grout take for each split (higher-order hole) and zone. The amount of grout take in
each series of split-spaced holes normally would be less than the preceding set of holes, and in
multiple lines, the take in each line would generally be less than on previously grouted lines. Each
zone of each hole is assigned an estimated take in cubic feet of grout per linear foot of grout hole.
The data in Table 31-1 illustrate a typical estimate using this method.

Table 31-1. Example of estimated grout take in cubic feet/linear foot.

Reach* Line Zone Depth (ft)* Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

A A 1 010 1.5 0.75 0.2 0.05
A A 2 1025 1.0 0.40 0.1
A A 3 2550 0.4 0.25 0.1
A A 4 50100 0.1 0.01
* Note: The above figures are for illustration only and should not be used for purposes of
estimating, criteria for split spacing, or completion of grouting.

31-6. Estimating the Quantity of Individual Bid Items.

a. Guidance. The following paragraphs provide general guidance on establishing

quantities and incorporating appropriate contingencies. Chapter 30 of this manual discusses the
measurement and payment items that should be considered for inclusion in any estimate or unit
price schedule for a drilling and grouting program. No guidance is required for the estimation of
the quantity of lump sum items. However, estimating the cost of lump sum items does require a
reasonable estimate of the anticipated project schedule, as do items paid for as monthly lump
sums. Estimating project duration is included in the items below. For schedule estimating, the
most reliable source of information is the average production rates achieved on recent past
projects using similar equipment.

b. Drilling Quantities. After the horizontal and vertical limits of the curtain and the angles
of individual holes are established, the length of each grout hole is easily established. The
remaining variables required for estimating drill footage are the number of lines and the final

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hole spacing. Without information from a grouted test section that provides more definitive
guidance on the hole spacing and achievable results, the following are recommended
assumptions for estimating quantities.

(1) For a single-line grout curtain, it is recommended that the final hole spacing be
established at 5 ft and that contingent drill footage equal to 2550% of the quantity for a single
line be added for problematic areas that require deepening of holes or adding of additional lines
to achieve the desired residual permeability.

(2) For a three-line grout curtain, it is reasonable to assume a final hole spacing of 5 ft on
each line with no contingency for additional holes. It might be possible to shorten the holes on
the center line, but that footage would then be available for deepening holes or adding additional
holes on the outside lines.

(3) For remedial grouting, drilling through an existing embankment is often required.
Therefore, the drilling quantities must be separated by drilling type. Overburden holes are
commonly installed several feet into rock to seat a temporary casing. This footage should be
included in the overburden drill footage. If grouting is for pre-treatment in advance of a slurry
wall, a two-line curtain will likely be used. In this situation, it is recommended that a final hole
spacing of 5 ft be assumed and that 100% of the footage be included for both lines. An
additional allocation of drill footage should be included equal to 25% of the footage for one of
the lines to permit verification holes to be drilled and tested along the proposed centerline of the
cutoff wall. For these projects, the quantity of overburden casing is equal to the overburden
footage.

(4) A quantity of the production drilling should be set aside as exploration holes. The
number of exploration holes required depends on the complexity of the site and the extent of any
prior investigations. If a site has been extensively explored previously, exploratory drilling might
not be necessary before beginning the grouting program. However, it is useful for the grouting
contractor and the QC personnel on site to see several cores in advance of grouting. In the absence
of any other guidance, it is recommended that one exploratory hole be allocated per 100 ft of
curtain for pre-grouting exploration. A similar quantity should be set aside for verification holes to
be performed after grouting. The pre-grouting exploration holes are commonly incorporated as
production holes by drilling them at primary hole locations on the first line. The verification holes
can be located as the quaternary holes of a single-line curtain, or on the final line of a multiple-line
curtain. In these instances, the quantity of exploratory drilling should be deducted from the
previously calculated production drilling quantity. For a cutoff wall pre-treatment program, the
verification holes will commonly be added as additional footage and not deducted from the
production drilling quantity.

(5) The number of geologists or geotechnical engineers needed for logging drill holes
should be determined based on the specification requirements for the number of drills each
geologist is to be responsible for logging, the anticipated number of drills, and the average
assumed production rate. The best source for estimating the number of drills and production
rates is a review of similar past projects.

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c. Grouting Time. Grouting time depends on many variables, including grouting pressures,
discontinuity aperture, mix design, stage length, and refusal behavior. On any given line, the
primary holes generally take longer to reach refusal than the secondary holes. Similarly, each
stage of the secondary hole would be expected to take longer to grout than the tertiary stages. If a
test section has not been performed at the site and previous information on grouting times is not
available at the site or at a similar site, then it is recommended that an overall average grouting
time of 0.51.5 hrs per stage be assumed. Shorter times can be assumed for multiple-line curtains.
One hour per stage would be a reasonable assumption in most cases. Grouting time in karst sites
can vary widely, depending on the solution features within the rock. The presence of even a small
cavity can greatly increase the amount of time required to adequately grout any given stage.

d. Grout Materials. The quantity of grouting materials is one of the more difficult items to
estimate in the absence of a test grouting program or a recent relevant project in a similar setting.
The actual injected grout volume depends on the compatibility of the grout mixes to the
formation, the maximum injection pressure, the fracture aperture, the connectivity of fracture
sets, and the refusal criteria. Fortunately, materials represent only a small percentage of the cost
of a grouting program in comparison to grouting time and drill footage. The quantity of grout
per foot of grout hole drilled will vary widely across a site, but it should steadily decrease as the
work proceeds and split spacing is performed. Historically, grout consumption has been
estimated and evaluated as the dry volume or weight of cement injected per foot of hole. A
common example of this is the Grout Take Classification System proposed by Deere (1976).
Now that stable grout mixes are used, it is more common to estimate grout material quantities by
assuming the average grout take per foot of hole, and then to calculate the corresponding weight
of cement. For comparison, Table 31-2 lists Deeres original criteria. To aid the user in
estimating grout quantities when using stable grouts, the Deere criteria have been modified in the
table to characterize takes in terms of grout volume, not bags or weight of cement.

(1) Although this classification system has commonly been used to characterize the grout
consumption after grouting is complete, it can also be used in conjunction with the available site
characterization information to grossly estimate grout volumes in advance of grouting.
Estimating grout takes based solely on Lugeon values from site investigations is not
recommended. Lugeon values are directly dependent on the stage length used in the testing, and
the test does not account for the fracture apertures. Grout penetration into a fracture is directly
proportional to the fracture aperture, and if radial penetration is assumed, the injected volume is
proportional to the cube of the fracture aperture. This is the explanation for stages with similar
Lugeon values having significantly different grout takes. A stage with one fracture in a 10-ft
length with the same Lugeon value as a 10-ft stage with 10 fractures will take more grout at a
given injection pressure. In addition, fractures finer than are penetrable with a given grout mix
will still be permeated with water during testing. For a site with a low to moderately low
average permeability (<30 Lu) before grouting and a typical fracture aperture of 0.5 mm, a grout
take of 35 gal per foot of hole would be considered an appropriate assumption. Similarly, for
an initial moderate pre-grouting permeability of 50 Lu with a typical fracture aperture of 12
mm, a reasonable assumption would be a grout take of 10 gal/ft. For highly permeable rock
masses with fracture apertures of several millimeters, a take of 2550 gal/ft would not be an
unreasonable expectation.

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Table 31-2. Deeres Grout Take Classification System.

Modified Criteria
Original
Criteria (Stable Grouts)
(maximum (maximum
Classification* Symbol bags/ft) gal/ft)
Very Low VL 0.09 1.0
Low L 0.18 2.5
Moderately Low ML 0.36 5.0
Moderate M 0.71 10.0
Moderately High MH 1.43 25.0
High H 2.85 50.0
Very High VH >2.85 >50.0
*
Source: Deere (1976).

(2) For a multiple-line curtain, the assumed takes should be reduced for the second and
subsequent lines. Although not supported by specific data, for a site with a high to very high
initial grout take, it would be reasonable to assume a high take for the first line, a moderate take
for the second line, and a low take for the interior line. The volume of grout required to backfill
the drill holes must also be calculated. Typical hole diameters range from 3 to 4 in. Backfill
volumes for hole sizes of 3, 3.5, and 4 in. are 3.7, 5, and 6.5 gal/ft, respectively.

(3) After the volume of grout has been estimated, it is recommended that the estimator
assume an average WCR 1:1 by weight if no design information is available. Therefore, the
cement quantity in bags of cement will be the estimated grout volume expressed in cubic feet
divided by two. A mix of 1:1 by weight includes 1.5 ft3of water and 1 ft3 of cement. Since the
absolute volume of a cubic foot of cement is 0.5 ft3, the volume of a one-bag mix prepared at 1:1
by weight is 2 ft3. After the number of cubic feet of dry cement or bags is known, the remaining
grout constituents can easily be estimated using the typical proportioning guidelines based on
weight of cement expressed in terms of percentage of weight of cement, as provided in Chapter 7
of this manual.

(4) Grout takes at karst sites can vary widely. Grouting at Wolf Creek Dam in the early
1970s resulted in an average grout take of approximately 1.5 bags per foot. Past grouting
projects at Center Hill Dam, located in similar geology, consumed 10 bags of cement per foot.
Major foundation grouting projects have been completed or are underway at Wolf Creek Dam,
Center Hill Dam, and Clearwater Dam. Estimators of future grouting projects in karst would be
well served to obtain the results from these projects to assist with estimating quantities in karst
using modern grouting mixes and techniques.

31-5

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APPENDIX B

Pressure Calculations

B-1. Introduction. This appendix addresses the method of calculating effective pressure applied
during water pressure testing and grouting stages. Proper calculation of effective pressure is an
important consideration for dam safety, consistency in grouting practice, and proper grouting and
evaluation technique. Noted here are several key concepts that pertain to calculating effective
pressure, along with several examples of effective pressure calculations ranging from simplistic
to complex, multi-variable problems.

B-2. Key Concepts.

a. General. The basic formula for determining effective pressure is simply the sum of all head
losses and head gains in the injection system and the ground. The key considerations of the
calculation include: geometry of the hole and injection system (hole angle, top and bottom stage
depths, gauge height), injection fluid (grout or water), and groundwater conditions. The following
paragraphs address these considerations, along with others.

b. Water Pressure. For purposes of grouting, and as appropriate for most civil engineering
applications, the density of water is generally accepted as 62.4 lb/ft3. The specific gravity is
generally accepted as 1.00. While minor variations in the values are noted, particularly due to
salinity and other dissolved solids, these values are appropriate in nearly all instances, and very minor
variations in the values result in negligible changes to subsequent calculations. The pressure induced
per unit foot of water head is calculated as:

c. Grout Pressure. Since the specific gravity of a substance is simply a unitless comparison of
the density to that of water, the pressure induced per unit foot of grout head is simply the unit water
head pressure (calculated above) times the specific gravity of the grout. For example, the pressure
induced per unit foot of grout head with a grout specific gravity of 1.35 is:

d. Hole Angles. Correction of the head induced by a fluid column is necessary for angled
holes (holes drilled at some angle other than vertical). This is necessary because the unit head
pressures noted above are only appropriate in the vertical direction. For hole angles referenced from
the vertical direction, simply multiply the depth of interest measured along the length of the hole
(stage midpoint, groundwater depth, etc.) by the cosine of the hole angle to determine the vertical
component. For hole angles measured from the horizontal, multiply by the sine of the angle.
Typically, holes are drilled at an angle to maximize the frequency of encountering vertical fractures,
and depths are measured along the length of the hole rather than vertically (by elevation); as a result,
this correction is common on most grouting projects.

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e. Groundwater. The proximity of groundwater to the point of interest, typically the stage
midpoint, is an important and often overlooked consideration. When the groundwater level is above
the point of interest, it results in a net head loss that must be overcome. The head loss is a result of
the buoyant forces on the grout or water injected. One can also consider this as the minimum
injection pressure required to force water out of a fracture or to displace the water from within a
fracture. The depth to groundwater is typically measured along the length of hole, so when angled
holes are used, a correction for the hole angle is necessary.

f. Gauge Height. The height of the pressure sensing instrument above the hole collar must be
considered in the effective pressure calculation, since this is the location where the gauge pressure is
measured. This variable is not corrected for the hole angle since the value is simply the vertical
height difference between the instrument and the hole collar.

g. Point of Interest. The point of interest is the location, origin, or reference at which all effective
pressure calculations are based. It is common to use the midpoint of the stage as the point of interest.
This is appropriate and recommended since it provides an average of the pressure over the length of the
stage. However, in some cases, particularly the first stage in rock when grouting embankment dams, it
may be appropriate to check the effective pressure at the top of the stage. This is an important dam
safety issue in embankment dams, since allowable effective injection pressures in overburden are
generally significantly less than those allowed in rock, and pressure will be applied near the
overburden/rock interface. It is recommended that the stage midpoint be used in determining the
effective pressure, but that the effective pressure at the top of stage be verified and the gauge pressure
set such that the effective pressure at the top of rock does not exceed allowable values.

B-3. Head Losses and Head Gains. Head losses and head gains are determined as described in
the following paragraphs, and as shown in Figure B-1.

a. Gauge Head. The pressure induced by the portion of the injection system downstream of
the pressure sensor and upstream of the hole collar may either be a head gain or head loss, depending
on the location of the instrument. If the instrument is located above the hole collar, it is considered a
head gain. If the instrument is located below the hole collar, it is considered a head loss.

b. Column or Static Head. The pressure induced by the static head within the injection system,
that is, from the hole collar to the point of interest (typically the stage midpoint), is almost always a
head gain. This may include an angle correction. In the rare instance when grouting is conducted
overhead, it would be considered a head loss (the head that must be overcome).

c. Groundwater Head. The pressure induced by the groundwater is either a head loss (if
groundwater is located above the point of interest) or has no effect and is therefore not considered (if
it is below the point of interest). Artesian pressures indicate that the groundwater level is above the
hole collar and are considered a head loss.

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Figure B-1. Illustration of an injection system.

d. Field Procedures.

(1) Head Loss Curves. The head-loss properties of the fluid may or may not be considered in
the calculations. If it is a static condition, the head loss for water is zero and is not considered.
However, if it is a flowing (dynamic) condition, then pressure is lost due to friction between the fluid
and the injection system, resulting in a head loss that must be considered in the calculation. A head-
loss curve (the relationship of pressure lost in the injection system versus flow rate) is necessary to
calculate the amount of pressure lost due to friction in the system. This also applies to grout, with

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one exception. The fluid properties of the grout (in particular, the cohesion) results in some pressure
required simply to initiate movement of the grout through the injection system. This is commonly
referred to as the head-loss or the cohesion intercept and will vary from mix to mix (thicker
mixes have higher cohesion and a corresponding higher head-loss intercept). This is evident on the
head-loss curve in that the best-fit line does not intercept the Y-axis at zero. The result is a head loss
that must be considered in the calculation even in the static condition.

(2) Calculating effective grouting and pressure testing pressures, and the corresponding gauge
pressure required to achieve the effective pressure, is an everyday occurrence on a grouting project.
Computer monitoring systems can be used to perform some or all of these calculations.

e. Calculation Methods. It is important that effective pressure calculations, such as those

presented in the following paragraphs, can be rapidly reproduced in the field. Given the relative
simplicity of the calculations, effective pressures may be calculated by hand using a calculator.
However, on any given grouting shift upwards of a hundred calculations may be required to determine
appropriate gauge pressures, so spreadsheets are typically more appropriate. If a spreadsheet is
developed for setting maximum gauge pressures, which is typically the reason for calculating effective
pressures separate from an automated data collection system, its accuracy should be verified by
USACE. The greatest concern is that an error in the spreadsheet may result in the application of
potentially damaging pressures to the ground. The inadvertent application of a pressure that is less than
desired may result in minimal grout travel and may necessitate additional grout holes.

f. Calculating Gauge Pressures. The primary purpose for effective pressure calculations
(separate from acquiring real-time pressure data during the grout injection or water pressure testing)
is to set gauge pressures for the field header operator to maintain. Effective pressures are not
measured, but calculated. The only pressure measured during an injection is the gauge pressure at
the header. Since maximum effective injection pressures are commonly specified, it is necessary to
calculate the gauge pressures required to achieve the target effective pressure. When testing water
pressure at a single pressure, only one target effective pressure would be used, so only one gauge
pressure calculation would be required. For stepped water pressure testing, a gauge pressure must be
calculated for each effective pressure step in the test. Grouting may require that gauge pressures be
modified throughout the course of the injection. While the geometric properties of the injection
system do not change during a given injection, the injected mix may change, and the physical
properties of the mixes (specific gravity and head loss intercept) may necessitate a gauge pressure
change (typically gauge pressures are increased as the grout is thickened). In this situation, a gauge
pressure is determined for each grout mix, and the system operator radios the new gauge pressure to
the header operator whenever a mix change occurs. During injection, dynamic losses can be ignored
at low-flow rates when determining the gauge pressure; otherwise the engineer would constantly be
phoning the header operator with a new maximum gauge pressure. At higher flow rates, the dynamic
losses might be large, and increasing the gauge pressure to offset these losses might be appropriate.
As refusal is approached, gauge pressures should be calculated using the assumption that the required
effective pressure is achieved under a no-flow condition.

B-4. Example Calculations. The following paragraphs give several examples of effective
pressure calculations. In many cases, the intent of the calculation is to arrive at an allowable
injection gauge pressure. In other cases, these same calculations may be used to calculate
effective pressures and subsequently used in Lugeon value calculations.

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a. Problem 1. Determine the gauge pressure required to achieve an effective pressure of

1 psi/ft in the static condition at the stage midpoint (Figure B-2). The injection fluid is water and the
hole is dry.

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(1) Gauge Head. The gauge is above the hole collar, so this is considered a head gain:

(2) Column Head. The column head is a head gain and is equal to the vertical component of
the distance from the hole collar to the stage midpoint times the unit water pressure:

(3) Groundwater Head. An artesian condition is present. The groundwater head that must be
overcome (the head loss) is equal to the vertical distance from the stage midpoint to the gauge times
the unit water pressure plus the artesian pressure measured at the gauge:

(4) Required Effective Pressure. The required effective pressure is 1.5 psi/ft, or the vertical
distance from the hole collar to the stage midpoint:

(5) Required Gauge Pressure. The required gauge pressure is the required effective pressure
minus all head gains and plus all head losses:

Rounded, the answer would be 67 psi.

e. Problem 5. Determine the gauge pressure required to achieve an effective pressure of

1 psi/ft in the static condition (at refusal) at the stage midpoint (Figure B-6). The injection fluid is B-
mix grout with a specific gravity of 1.32 (Figure B-7).

(1) Gauge Head. The gauge is below the hole collar, so this is considered a head loss:

(2) Column Head. The column head is a head gain and is equal to the vertical component of
the distance from the hole collar to the stage midpoint times the unit water pressure:

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Figure B-6. Conditions for Problem 5.

Figure B-7. Head-loss summary for grout.

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(3) Groundwater Head. The groundwater head that must be overcome (the head loss) is equal
to the vertical distance from the stage midpoint to the observed groundwater level times the unit
water pressure:

(4) Head-Loss Intercept. The head-loss intercept is a head-loss. The value is equivalent to the
location where the B-mix best-fit curve in Figure B-7. intercepts the Y-axis. From the equation
from best-fit curve, this is 17.8 psi.

(5) Required Effective Pressure. The required effective pressure is 1 psi/ft, or the vertical
distance from the hole collar to the stage midpoint:

(6) Required Gauge Pressure. The required gauge pressure is the required effective pressure
minus all head gains and plus all head losses:

Rounded, the answer is 53 psi.

f. Problem 6. Determine the gauge pressure required to achieve an effective pressure of

1 psi/ft in the dynamic condition with a flow rate of 10 gpm at the stage midpoint (Figure B-8). The
injection fluid is B-mix grout with a specific gravity of 1.32.

(1) Gauge Head. The gauge is below the hole collar, so this is considered a head loss:

(2) Column Head. The column head is a head gain and is equal to the vertical component of
the distance from the hole collar to the stage midpoint times the unit water pressure:

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Figure B-8. Conditions for Problem 6.

(4) Dynamic Head Loss. The head loss is a function of the flow rate. The relationship is the
equation of the best-fit curve for the head loss, as shown above. In the polynomial function used, the
X value is the flow rate and the Y value is the corresponding head loss at that flow rate. Dynamic
loss is calculated as:

(5) Required Effective Pressure. The required effective pressure is 1 psi/ft, or the vertical
distance from the hole collar to the stage midpoint:

(6) Required Gauge Pressure. The required gauge pressure is the required effective pressure
minus all head gains and plus all head losses:

Rounded, the answer would be 89 psi.

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APPENDIX C

Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

AlkaliAggregate Reaction

Chemical reaction in grout between alkalies (sodium and potassium) from portland cement or

other sources and certain constituents of some aggregates. Under certain conditions, deleterious

expansion of the grout may result.

Aquiclude

A body of relatively impermeable rock or soil that is capable of absorbing water slowly, but

functions as an upper or lower boundary of an aquifer and does not transmit groundwater rapidly

enough to supply a well or spring.

Aquifer

A stratum or zone below the surface of the earth capable of producing water as from a well.

Aquitard

A confining bed that retards, but does not prevent, the flow of water to or from an adjacent

aquifer; a leaky confining bed.

Area Grouting

Grouting of a shallow zone in a particular area that uses holes arranged in a pattern or grid. This

type of grouting is often referred to as blanket or consolidation grouting.

Bentonite

A clay composed principally of minerals of the montmorillonite group, characterized by high

adsorption and very large volume change with wetting.

Blanket Grouting

See Area Grouting.

Bursting Pressure (Grouting Equipment)

The pressure at which equipment becomes inoperative.

Cement Factor

Quantity of cement contained in a unit volume of grout, expressed as weight or volume.

Cementitious Factor

Quantity of cement and other cementitious materials contained in a unit volume of concrete,

grout, or mortar, expressed as weight or volume.

Circuit Grouting

Grouting in a continuous manner with a grout circulating from the pump to the bottom of the

zone to be treated and back to the pump.

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Coefficient of Permeability (Laboratory) (to Water)

The rate of discharge of water under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross-sectional area

of a porous medium under a unit hydraulic gradient and standard temperature conditions, usually

68 F (20 C).

Colloidal Grout

A grout that has an artificially induced cohesiveness, or the ability to retain the dispersed solid

particles in suspension, i.e., a grout mixture that does not settle or bleed.

Consolidation Grouting

See Area Grouting.

Effective Pressure

The sum of all head losses and head gains in the injection system and the ground.

False Set

The rapid development of rigidity in a freshly mixed grout without the evolution of much heat.

Such rigidity can be dispelled and plasticity can be regained by further mixing without the

addition of water. Premature stiffening, hesitation set, early stiffening, and rubber set are other

terms that refer to the same phenomenon.

Final Set

A degree of stiffening of a grout mixture indicating the time in hours and minutes required for

cement paste to stiffen sufficiently to resist the penetration of a weighted test needle (Vicat

needle).

Flash Set

The rapid development of rigidity in a freshly mixed grout, usually with the evolution of

considerable heat, and the rigidity cannot be dispelled nor can plasticity be regained by further

mixing without the addition of water, also referred to as quick set or grab set.

Free Water

Water that is free to move through a soil mass under the influence of gravity. Other terms are

gravitational water, groundwater, and phreatic water.

Grout

A mixture of cementitious or non-cementitious material, with or without aggregate, to which

sufficient water or other fluid is added to produce a flowing consistency.

Grout Placement

The introduction of grout by gravity or pressure, usually accomplished by grouting through pipes

placed in the medium to be grouted or through drilled open holes penetrating the medium.

Grout Take

The volume of grout placed.

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Heat of Hydration

Heat generated by chemical reactions of cementitious materials with water, such as that

generated during the setting and hardening of portland cement.

Hydrofracturing

The fracturing of an embankment or underground stratum by pumping water under a pressure in

excess of the tensile strength and minor principal stress.

Hydrostatic Head

The pressure produced by the height of a fluid above a given point.

Initial Set

A degree of stiffening of a grout mixture indicating the time in hours and minutes required for

cement paste to stiffen sufficiently to limit penetration of a weighted test needle (Vicat needle) to

25 mm.

Neat Cement Grout

A fluid mixture of cement and water or the hardened equivalent of such mixtures. Also called

neat slurry.

Packer

An expandable mechanical or pneumatic device used to seal a hole or isolate portions of a hole.

Perched Groundwater

Any groundwater separated by unsaturated rock from an underlying body of groundwater.

Perched Water Table

The water table above an impermeable bed underlain by unsaturated rock or soil of sufficient

permeability to allow movement of groundwater.

Permeability (Laboratory) (Coefficient of, to Water)

See Coefficient of Permeability.

Pore Pressure

Stress transmitted through the pore water (water filling voids). Also called neutral stress and

pore-water pressure.

Pressure Testing

A test performed to measure the rate at which water can be forced into a hole under a specific

pressure.

Pressure Washing

A process of washing between holes to remove mud and loose material from cracks and seams in

the rock. In effect, it is a sluicing operation whereby water or air and water alternately are

introduced under pressure into a hole and allowed to vent into adjacent cracks or escape from

one or more adjacent holes.

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Primary Holes

The first series of holes to be drilled and grouted, usually at the maximum allowable spacing.

Primary Permeability

The permeability of intact rock, rather than permeability due to fracturing.

Primary Porosity

The porosity that develops during final stages of sedimentation or that was present within the

sedimentary particles at the time of deposition.

Refusal

The point during grout injection when little or no grout is accepted under the maximum

allowable pressure or other specified conditions.

Rheology

The science of deformation and flow of matter.

Secondary Holes

The second series of holes to be drilled and grouted, spaced midway between primary holes.

Section

A linear or a real subdivision of the grout treatment pattern without regard to the depth of

treatment.

Seep

An area where water oozes from the earth.

Series Grouting

Similar to stage grouting, except that each successively deeper zone is grouted by means of a

newly drilled hole, eliminating the need for washing grout out before drilling the hole deeper.

Split Spacing

The procedure by which additional grout injection holes are located equidistant from previously

grouted holes.

Stage

One complete operational cycle of drilling, cleaning, pressure washing, pressure testing, pressure

grouting, and grout cleanout within a zone. The depths of stages in any hole depend on

conditions encountered in drilling that dictate where drilling should stop and grouting

commence.

Stage Grouting

The grouting of progressively deeper zones in stages. Previously emplaced grout is removed

before hardening, the hole is drilled to a deeper depth, and another stage is emplaced. Where

upstage grouting is used, the hole is drilled to full depth and grouted in stages starting at the

bottom of the hole and working upward. For downstage grouting, the hole is drilled for a single

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stage, which is then tested and grouted. After the grout in this stage has set, the hole is drilled to

the next stage and grouted. This process is continued until the hole has reached its final depth.

Stop Grouting

The grouting of a hole beginning at the lowest zone (bottom) after the hole is drilled to total

depth. Packers are used to isolate the zone to be grouted.

Sulfate Attack

Harmful or deleterious reactions between sulfates in soil or groundwater and grout.

Tertiary Hole

The third series of holes to be drilled and grouted, spaced midway between previously grouted

primary and secondary holes.

Thixotropy

The property of a material that enables it to stiffen in a short period of standing and to regain its

initial viscosity by mechanical agitation; the process is reversible.

Time of Setting

1. Final setting time. The time required for a freshly mixed grout to achieve final set (harden).
2. Initial setting time. The time required for a freshly mixed grout to achieve initial set.

Unit Weight

The weight of freshly mixed grout per unit volume, often expressed as pounds per cubic foot.

Viscosity

Friction within a liquid due to mutual adherence of its particles, i.e., the thickness of a mixture.

Void Ratio

The ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solid particles in a given soil mass.

Washing

The physical act of cleaning a hole by circulating either water, water and air, acid washes, or

water and dissolved chemical substances through drill rods or tremie pipe in an open hole.

Water-Cement Ratio (Cement Only)

The ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement in a grout mixture, expressed by

weight or volume.

Water-Cement Ratio (Total Cementitious Materials)

The ratio of the amount of water to the amount of total cementitious materials in a grout mixture,

expressed by weight or volume.

Water Table

The upper surface of a saturation zone, except where that surface is formed by an impermeable

body.

C-5

EM 1110-2-3506

31 Mar 17

Working Pressure

The pressure determined best for any particular set of conditions encountered during grouting.

Factors influencing the determination are size of voids to be filled, depth of zone to be grouted,

lithology of the area to be grouted, grout viscosity, and resistance of the formation to fracture or

uplift.

Zone

A predetermined subdivision of the overall depth of grout treatment. A single zone may make

up the full depth of treatment, or the depth of treatment may be divided into several zones.

C-6

EM 1110-2-3506
31 Mar 17

APPENDIX D

Acronyms

Term Definition
API American Petroleum Institute
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ATR Agency Technical Review
BCOE Biddability, Constructability, Operability, and Environmental Review
CADD Computer-Aided Drafting and Design
COR Contract Officer Representative
DA Department of the Army
DC District of Columbia
DQC District Quality Control
EC Engineer Circular
EM Engineer Manual
EOP Environmental Operating Principle
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
GIS Geographic Information System
GMS Groundwater Modeling System
HMG High-Mobility Grout
HQUSACE Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
IEPR Independent External Peer Review
LMG Low- (or Limited-) Mobility Grout (or Grouting)
NRC National Research Council
PED Preconstruction Engineering and Design (Phase)
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
RQD Rock Quality Designation
SDS Strategic Decisions & Solutions (Corp.)
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
U.S. United States
USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

D-1

EM 1110-2-3506
31 Mar 17

Term Definition
USDOI U.S. Department of the Interior
USBR U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
USCS Unified Soils Classification System
USGS U.S. Geological Survey

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Grouting

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Grouting

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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-3506

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Engineering and Design

3. Distribution Statement. This publication is approved for public release; distribution is

4. References. References are listed in Appendix A.

5. Discussion. This manual provides detailed information on state-of-the-art technology,

FOR THE COMMANDER:

4 Appendices PAUL .OWEN

This manual supersedes EM 1110-2-3506, dated 20 January 1984.

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-3506

CECW-CE Washington, DC 20314-1000

Engineering and Design

Purpose.............................................................................................. 1-1 1-1

Applicability ..................................................................................... 1-2 1-1

Distribution Statement ...................................................................... 1-3 1-1

References......................................................................................... 1-4 1-1

Changes............................................................................................. 1-5 1-1

General Considerations..................................................................... 1-6 1-1

Brief History of Injection Grouting .................................................. 1-7 1-1

CHAPTER 2. Purposes and Applications of Grouting

Purposes of Grouting ........................................................................ 2-1 2-1

Typical Applications of Grouting ..................................................... 2-2 2-1

Selection of Methods of Treatment................................................... 2-3 2-2

Potential Risk and Reliability Issues of Grouting............................. 2-4 2-3

Permanence of Grouting ................................................................... 2-5 2-4

Communication of Grouting Issues .................................................. 2-6 2-4

CHAPTER 3. Grouting Planning, Design, and Construction Process

Application of Design Principles ...................................................... 3-1 3-1

Effectiveness of Grouting ................................................................. 3-2 3-1

Reconnaissance Phase....................................................................... 3-3 3-1

Feasibility Phase ............................................................................... 3-4 3-1

Preconstruction Engineering and Design Phase ............................... 3-5 3-6

CHAPTER 4. Grouting Geology and Site Characterization Requirements

Impacts of Geology on Grouting ...................................................... 4-1 4-1

Generalized Grouting Geology Profiles............................................ 4-2 4-1

Regional and Site Geology ................................................................ 4-3 4-5

Structural Geology............................................................................4-4 4-5

Rock Types .......................................................................................4-5 4-14

CHAPTER 5. Geohydrology and Flow Modeling

Introduction....................................................................................... 5-1 5-1

Hydraulic Conductivity Units ........................................................... 5-2 5-1

Geohydrologic Flow Systems ........................................................... 5-3 5-4

Flow in Saturated Porous Media....................................................... 5-4 5-6

Flow in Saturated Fractured Media................................................... 5-5 5-7

Application of Seepage Flow Models in Grouting Program

Design ......................................................................................... 5-6 5-11

Hydraulic Conductivity Values for Grouted Zones .......................... 5-8 5-15

Guidelines for Determining Number of Grout Lines for

Seepage Control .......................................................................... 5-9 5-17

Effective Width of Grouted Zones and Spacing of Grout

Lines........................................................................................... 5-10 5-19

Constant Head Boundaries and Known Intermediate

Piezometric Levels for Flow Models......................................... 5-11 5-21

Analytical Models............................................................................ 5-12 5-22

Flow Net Seepage Flow Models ...................................................... 5-13 5-24

Numerical Seepage Flow Models .................................................... 5-14 5-37

Department of Defense GMS........................................................... 5-15 5-38

Two-Dimensional Numerical Seepage Flow Models

Commonly Used in Grouting..................................................... 5-16 5-39

Three-Dimensional Numerical Seepage Flow Models Used in

Grouting ..................................................................................... 5-17 5-41

Effects of Grouting Defects on Performance of Grouted

Barriers....................................................................................... 5-18 5-43

CHAPTER 6. Site Investigations

General.............................................................................................. 6-1 6-1

Related Documents ........................................................................... 6-2 6-1

Planning Considerations ................................................................... 6-3 6-2

Site Investigation Equipment............................................................ 6-4 6-3

Test Drilling and Test Grouting Programs........................................ 6-5 6-8

Supplemental Investigations During Construction ........................... 6-6 6-12

CHAPTER 7. Grout Materials, Mixes, and Their Properties

Types of Grout .................................................................................. 7-1 7-1

Process for Selecting Grouting Materials ......................................... 7-2 7-5

Basic Elements of Cement-Based Suspension Grouts...................... 7-3 7-13

Behavior of Cement-Based Suspension Grout .................................7-4 7-15