Power System Studies and Load Despatch

Compiled by

M.N.Murthy, M.E.

Deputy Director

Power Systems Training Institute

Bangalore-560070

National Power Training Institute

(Under Ministry of Power , Govt of India)

Faridabad

New Delhi
2
 Foreward

The importance of a manual on Power System Studies and Load Despatch for power
system planning and operation engineers can not be over emphasized. There is a need for such a
manual particularly suited for Indian operating conditions.

This manual on Power System Studies and Load Despatch has been prepared keeping such
requirement in view. The manual covers the topics referred by the short-term courses being
conducted by NPTI on the subject.

The efforts put in by Shri M.N.Murthy, Deputy Director, PSTI, Bangalore in compiling this
manual are gratefully acknowledged. I also place on record my sincere appreciation to the
members of Training Resources Unit (TRU) for their contribution in release of this publication.

Suggestions for improvement will be highly appreciated.

DIRECTOR GENERAL

NPTI

3
4
 Preface

This manual on Power System Studies and Load Despatch is prepared with the system
planner and operator in view.
The chapter 1 covers the Power Flow Studies with explanation for GaussSeidel,
Newton-Raphson and Fast Decoupled methods. The one-line diagrams of a 19-bus system with
the load flow results printed are also provided.
The chapter 2 provides the input data and output of the Load Flow Study conducted on
the 19-bus network. The study was conducted using MiPower software developed by M/s
Power Research Development Consultants, Bangalore.
The chapter 3 covers the Steady State Fault Analysis with details regarding Modelling,
Sequence Components, Z bus formation, extension of fault study to a large network etc.
The chapter 4 is a case study of Fault Analysis on the 19-bus system introduced in
Chapter 1 with detailed input and results.
The chapter 5 covers the Power System Stability and Dynamic Response of Power
System for Disturbances. The factors affecting system stability and the stability improvement
methods are explained.
The chapter 6 covers the case study of Stability done on the 19 bus system along with
plots for a stable case and an unstable case.
The chapter 7 gives an account of Active Power Control Methods in an interconnected
system. Some aspects of advanced functions like Automatic Generation Control, Economic
Despatch, Unit Commitment, etc. are discussed.
The chapter 8 illustrates Reactive Power Control and Management aspects. The role of
each Power System Element in Reactive Power Control, the compensation methods adopted in
Transmission and Distribution, the Reactive Power Control devices and their characteristics are
discussed.
The success of the manual is in its usage and continuous evolution. Suggestions are
welcome from the readers for further improvement in the subsequent editions.
My sincere acknowledgements are due to numerous engineers with whom I used to
interact during the training programs of PSTI for more than a decade. Also due to the
cooperation extended by my colleagues in PSTI in development of the subject and Smt. L.S. Nair
for her stenographic assistance.

Bangalore-70 M.N. Murthy

01 March, 2004 PSTI, Bangalore

5
6
 Table of contents

Chapter Description Page

1 Power flow studies 9

2 Case study of Load Flow on a 19 bus system 22

3 Steady State Fault analysis 30

4 Case Study of Fault Analysis on 19 bus system 57

5 Power System Stability 77

6 Case Studies of Power System Stability 108

7 Principles of Power System Operation 128

8 Reactive power Control and Management 146

7
8
 Chapter 1
POWER FLOW STUDIES

1.0 Introduction:
The power flow commonly known as Load flow problem has its origin in the way the loads are
specified. It is common practice in the industry to specify the loads in MW and MVAR. The Power
System engineer usually needs to know the voltages and currents that exits on the power system so as to
check the performance of the system i.e. whether the voltages are well within the permissible limits,
whether all transmission lines and transformers of the system carrying the power are within their safe
power carrying capacity.
Load flow study is concerned with the normal steady state operation of the power system. The
objective of load flow study is to determine, essentially, the complex bus voltages for a given network
configuration and bus power specification. The bus power specification is defined as the difference
between specified generation and load at a bus. The solution of load flow provides voltage magnitudes
and angles, active and reactive power flows on all transmission lines and transformers. It also gives the
reactive power generated or absorbed by the voltage controlled buses and transmission losses.
Load flow studies are performed in power system planning, operational planning, operation and
control. Sequential branch and generator outage load flow calculations are performed for planning and
operational planning studies and for operation/control, to evaluate the system performance and
particularly security following the credible outage contingencies. Load flow studies are also performed
for optimisation and stability.

2.0 Modelling Of Power System Elements:

The Power System consists of a number of buses ( also called nodes ) representing either
generating stations or switching stations interconnected by means of transmission lines or
transformers.
A balanced three phase network is assumed so that the transmission lines / transformers of the
network is represented by its positive sequence network. Transmission lines and transformers are
represented by their equivalent circuits. Generators and loads are represented by complex powers
flowing into and out of the network buses respectively.
Load flow studies involve two steps viz..,
a. Formulation of mathematical equations for power system network.
b. Solution of these equations .

3.0 Basic Analytical Formulation Of Load flow:

3.1 Bus types:

The complete definition of load flow requires the knowledge of four variables viz. Real Power P,
Reactive Power Q, Voltage magnitudeV , and Voltage angle at each bus. Three types of buses are
defined for the load flow study. At each bus of the network, two of the four variables mentioned above
are specified and the remaining two variables are computed by the load flow programme. The three bus
types are:
i) Load bus or P-Q bus
ii) Voltage controlled bus or P-V bus (also called generator bus)
iii) Slack bus or Swing bus

9
A P-Q bus is one at which the total injected power is specified. At any P-Q bus k
The complex power injected Sksp = Pksp + j Qksp

= PGksp - PLksp + j(QGksp - QLksp ) = VkIk*

sp
where S k is the net injected complex power and * denotes complex conjugate of the respective
parameter.
Subscripts G and L denote generation and load respectively.

A P-V bus is one at which a total injected real power specified and the voltage magnitude is maintained
at a specified value by reactive power injection. Thus at any P-V bus k

Pksp = PGksp - PLksp = Re(VKIK* )

Vksp = ek 2 f k 2
where ek and fk refer to the real and imaginary parts of the complex bus voltage V k and Re means the
Real Part of the quantity.

The system Slack or Swing bus is a fictitious concept created by the load flow analyst. The need
for this bus arises because the system losses are not known precisely in advance of the load flow
calculation. To take care of the losses it is normal to choose one of the available voltage controlled buses
as slack bus. For the slack bus the voltage magnitude and voltage angle are specified and the load flow
programme computes the real and reactive power. Slack bus voltage angle usually serves as the system
phase reference.

3.2 Equations:

The equations which are essential for analysing the load flow problem are :
a. Network equations
b. Bus power or bus loading equations
c. Line flow equations.
First two equations are made use of in the development of load flow model which consists of a set of
simultaneous non-linear equations relating to the complex power injections to complex bus voltages.
3.3 Network Equations :

The network equations describing voltage and current relations in a power system can be written in nodal
analysis in matrix form as

10
 I1 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y1N V1
I
Y Y22 Y23 Y2N V2
2 21
I3 Y31 Y32 Y33 Y3N V3

=

I N
YN 1 YN 2 YN 3 YNN
V N

N
and in summation notation Ik = Y
m 1
Vm
km ( 3.1 )

a. The nodal admittance matrix is easy to construct.

b. Square matrix of the order N x N
c. Symmetrical since Ykm = Ymk
d. Each off-diagonal element Ykm is the negative of branch admittance between nodes k and m.
e. Each diagonal element Y kk is the sum of admittance of branches which terminate at node k,
including branches to ground.
f. Matrix Y is highly sparse (contains more zero elements).

3.4 Bus power or Bus loading Equations:

In additions to the linear network equations the bus power or bus loading equations should also be
satisfied in a load flow problem. Unfortunately these equations introduce non-linearity because loads are
known as complex powers, and not by impedances and also the generators cannot be modelled as voltage
sources as in the circuit analysis sense, but behave more like power sources.
The complex power delivered into the bus k :
Sk = Pk + jQK = Vk Ik*

or Sk = Pk - jQK = Vk* Ik

Pk jQk
Ik = ( 3.2 )
Vk*
3.5 Line Flow Equations:
After the iterative solution for complex bus voltages is completed line flows can be calculated.
'
y km
The current at bus k in the line connecting bus k to bus m is I km = (Vk - Vm )ykm + Vk
2

11
where ykm = line admittance
ykm = total line charging admittance
'
y km
Vk = current contribution at bus k due to line charging
2
The power (real and reactive) flow is
'
y km
Pkm - j Qkm = Vk* Ikm = Vk*((Vk - Vm )ykm + Vk* Vk ) ( 3.3 )
2
where Pkm = real power flow from bus k to bus m
Qkm = reactive power flow from bus k to bus m
similarly the power flow at m from bus m to bus k is
'
y km
Pmk - j Qmk = Vm* ((Vm - Vk )ykm + Vm* Vm ) ( 3.4 )
2
The power loss in the line k - m is the algebraic sum of the power flows determined from equations (3.3)
and (3.4).

4.0 Solution Methods:

The methods generally used for solving the load flow problem are :

Gauss - Seidel Method

Newton- Raphson Method
Fast Decoupled Method

5.0 Gauss-Seidel method:

In Gauss -Seidel method the network and bus power equations are solved iteratively. The bus
power equation for any P-Q bus k of the network is given by P k + jQK = Vk Ik* and the current I k =
Pk jQk
( from equation ( 3.2 ) )
Vk*
N
But from network equations i.e. from equation ( 3.1 ) we have Ik = Y
m 1
km Vm

N N
or Ik = Ykk Vk +
m 1
Y
m 1
kmVm ( 5.1 )
m k

Substituting equation (3) in equation ( 2) and rearranging we have

1 PK jQK N
Vk = YkmVm
YKK VK *
m 1
m k

12

1 Pk jQk k 1 N
Vk(n1) (n) YkmVm(n 1) Ykm Vm ( 5.2 )
Ykk (Vk )* m 1 m k 1
ms ms

where n is the iteration count and N is the number of buses in the system. Equation (5.2) is a non
linear equation and solved iteratively for obtaining the complex bus voltages directly. For an N bus
system N - 1 equations are to be solved, since no equation need to be solved for swing bus. To start the
iterative process the bus voltages for all the load buses are assumed as 1.000 P.U. The assumed
voltages are substituted in eq (5.2) and a set of new voltages are estimated. These new set of voltages are
again substituted in eq ( 5.2 ) to obtain another set of new voltages. This process is repeated until either
the real and imaginary components of voltages at each bus computed by successive iterations converge to
a specified value or the maximum number of iterations specified are reached.

5.1 Voltage Controlled Buses:

At voltage controlled bus the real and imaginary components of voltage V k. are found by first
computing the reactive power. To compute the reactive power, Q k the following procedure is used.
Calculate the angle k = tan-1 (Im Vk / Re Vk )
Using this k compute the adjusted voltage Vk(adj)
N
Use Vk(adj) for computing the reactive power Qk = - Im ( Vk*(adj) Y
m 1
kmVm )
If Qk is with in the limits of QkMax and Qkmin , it is used in eq ( 5.2 ) to compute the updated value
of Vk. Also the real and imaginary parts of V k(adj) are multiplied by the ratio of the specified voltage
magnitude of the generator voltage to the magnitude of V k(adj). If Qk computed above exceeds either the
Qkmax or Qkmin it is set equal to the limit. The updated value of V k is computed by treating the generator
bus as P-Q bus in that iteration.

5.2 Acceleration of convergence:

Y bus iterative methods converge slowly. In a large network, at best each bus is connected to 3 to
4 other buses. This results in weak mathematical coupling of the iterative scheme. An improvement in
voltage of one bus affects the voltage of the buses directly connected to it. Acceleration techniques are
therefore used to speed up the convergence. After every iteration a correction is applied to the voltage at
bus k as follows :

The correction in voltage from Vk (n) to Vk (n + 1) is multiplied by a factor such that

Vk(n + 1) = Vk (n ) + (Vk (n + 1) - Vk (n ) )

= Vk (n ) + Vk (n ) (5.5)

where Vk(n + 1) is the new accelerated voltage at bus k, and is called the acceleration factor and an
empirically determined number between 1 and 2.

13
6.0 Newton - Raphson Method:
Newton - Raphson method is an iterative method which approximates a set of non-linear
simultaneous equations to a set of linear simultaneous equations using Taylor series.

6.1 Notations:

Bold face letters indicates Complex quantities.

k , Vk = Voltage angle , magnitude at bus k.
km = k - m Where km is known as the difference in phase angle between two buses k
& m.
k , Vk = Voltage angle, magnitude corrections
Vk = Vk e j = Vk ( Cos + j Sin )
Gkm + j Bkm = ( k,m ) th element of bus admittance matrix Ykm
PkSP = Specified real power
SP
Qk = Specified reactive power
Pk = Calculated real power
Qk = Calculated reactive power
Pk = Real power mismatch
Qk = Reactive power mismatch
N

signifies unless other wise stated.

m 1
[ ] signifies matrix

The Complex Power at Bus k is

Pk + j Qk = Vk Ik* ( 6.1 )

But IK = Ykm Vm = ( Gkm + j Bkm ) Vm ( 6.2 )

PK + j QK = VK ( Gkm + j Bkm )* Vm*

= VK e jK ( Gkm - j Bkm ) Vm e j - m
= VK ( Cos km + j Sin km ) ( Gkm - j Bkm ) Vm ( 6.3 )
Separating Real and Imaginary parts

Pk = Vk ( Gkm Cos km + Bkm Sin km ) Vm ( 6.4 )

Qk = Vk ( Gkm Sin km - Bkm Cos km ) Vm ( 6.5 )

When m = k then

14
 N
2
Pk = Vkk Gkk + Vk ( Gkm Cos km + Bkm Sin km ) Vm ( 6.6 )
m 1
m k

Qk = -Vkk2 Bkk + Vk ( Gkm Sin km - Bkm Cos km ) Vm ( 6.7 )

m 1
m k

Pk = PkSP - Pk = PkSP - Vk ( Gkm Cos km + Bkm Sin km ) Vm ( 6.8 )

Qk = QkSP - Qk = QkSP - Vk ( Gkm Sin km - Bkm Cos km ) Vm ( 6.9 )

Both real power and reactive power are functions of voltage magnitude V and voltage angle , Pk & Qk
can be written as
Pk = P ( , V ) ( 6.10 )
Qk = Q ( , V ) ( 6.11 )
An exact load flow solution is achieved when the calculated values P k and Qk are equal to the
specified values Pk specified and Qk specified respectively. In equations ( 6.10 ) & (6.11 ) the
unknown variables are ( , V ) and the specified quantities are P SP and QSP . These are related by
a set of non-linear equations
PSP = P ( , V ) ( 6.12 )
QSP = Q ( , V ) ( 6.13 )
Equations ( 6.12 ) & ( 6.13 ) are linearised using Taylors series giving

Pk P
Pk = m k Vm (6.14)
m Vm

Qk Qk
Qk = m V (6.15)
m Vm m
In equations ( 6.14 ) & (6.15 ) k takes the values 1 to N , but k Slack bus.

From equations ( 6.14 ) and ( 6.15 ) it is clear that for each P - Q bus we have four types of partial
derivatives . The terms (Pk/Vm) Vm and (Qk/Vm) Vm in equations (6.14 ) and (6.15 ) are
multiplied and divided by the voltage magnitude and this does not affect the numerical
performance of the algorithm but simplify the calculation of some of the partial derivatives. So
Pk P Vm
Pk = m Vm k ( 6.16 )
m Vm Vm

Qk Qk Vm
Qk = m Vm ( 6.17 )
m Vm Vm

Using equations ( 6.16 ) and ( 6.17 ) we can write mismatch equations in matrix form for
a three bus system with bus 3 as slack bus.

15

P1 P1 V1 P1 V2 P1 1
| P
V1 V2
1

1 2

11 J | J 12
P2 P2 V1 P2 V2 P2 2 P
| 2

1 2 V1 V2
=
Q Q V Q V Q
V1 Q
1 1
| 1 1 2 1
1

V V
1 2 1 2 V1
J | J 22
21
Q2
Q2 Q2 V1 Q2 V2 Q2 V2
|
1 2 V1 V2 V2





(6.18)
Jacobian C M

where C is the correction vector and M mismatch vector

6.2 Elements Of Jacobian :

Sub Off-Diagonal Elements Diagonal Elements

Matrix
J11 Pk Pk
= VkVm (Gkm Sin km - Bkm Cos km ) (6.19) = - Q k -Vk2 Bkk .. . (6.20)
m k
J12 Pk Pk
Vm = VkVm(Gkm Cos km + Bkm Sin km) (6.21) Vk = Pk + Vk2 Gkk (6.22)
Vm Vk
J21 Qk Qk
= - VkVm(Gkm Cos km + Bkm Sin km) (6.23) = Pk - Vk2 Gkk (6.24)
m k
J22 Qk Qk
Vm =VkVm(Gkm Sin km - Bkm Cos km) (6.25) Vk = Qk - Vk2Bkk (6.26)
Vm Vk

The solution of equation (6.18) is found by iteration as follows:

a. Assume initial values k(0) and Vk(0).
b. Use these values to calculate Pk(0) and Qk(0) from equations (6.4) and (6.5).
c. Calculate the mismatches from equations (6.8) and (6.9).
d. Calculate the elements of Jacobian from equations (6.19) to (6.26).

16
 e. Solve equation (6.13) for initial corrections k(0) and Vk(0)/ Vk(0).
f. Add the solved corrections for the initial assumed values to obtain
k(1) = k(0) + k(0) ;
Vk(1) = Vk(0) + Vk(0) / Vk(0)
g. Use the new values of k(1) & Vk(1) as the starting values for iteration 2.
h. Repeat steps b to g until Pk & Qk at step c is less than the specified tolerance value
or the number of iterations are equal to the maximum number of iterations specified.

6.3 Voltage Controlled Buses:

For any voltage controlled bus k, the voltage magnitude V k appearing in eq (6.16) and (6.17 ) has
a specified constant value and the voltage correction Vk / Vk must always be zero. Consequently we
omit the column corresponding to partial derivatives with respect to V k. Since Qk is not defined the
mismatch Qk cannot be defined. Hence we omit the row corresponding to partial derivatives of Q k.

7.0 Fast Decoupled Method:

In Newton - Raphson method, the Jacobian is calculated and triangulated in each iteration which
need a lot of time per iteration. To reduce the time per iteration the following assumptions are made and
the result is the fast decoupled method .
Assumptions :
a. A small change in voltage angle changes the flow of real power and does not affect much the
flow of reactive power which means that Q/ terms can be neglected.
b. A small change in voltage magnitude at a bus affects the flow of reactive power where as the
real power flow remains relatively unchanged which means that P/V terms can be
neglected.
c. Angular separation between any two buses in the system are very small so that Cos (k - m) =
cos km 1.0 & sin (k - m) 0
d. Line susceptances Bkm are much larger than the conductances G km (since X/R >> 1) which
means Gkm sin (k - m) << Bkm (k - m) and Qk << Bkk Vk2
e. From the first two assumptions the sub matrices J12 & J21 can be deleted from Jacobian i.e. in
equation (18) of Newton-Raphson method and the mismatch vectors now become
[ P] = [ J11] [] (7.1)

[Q] = [J22] [V/V] (7.2)

from the assumptions c to e , equations (7.1) and (7.2) will result as :

[ Pk] = [- VkBkmVm] [k] (7.3)

[ Qk] = [- VkBkmVm] [Vk/Vk] (7.4)

17
 Or [ P] = [V BV] [ ] (7.5)
[ Q] = [V BV] [ V/V] (7.6)

At this stage of derivation the elements of matrices B and B are strictly elements of [-B] or B.
The decoupling process and the final algorithmic forms are now completed by:

a) Omitting from [B ] the representation of those network elements that predominantly affect MVAR
flows, i.e., shunt reactances and off-nominal in-phase transformers . Also neglect series resistances
in the equivalent - circuits of the transmission lines in forming Y bus from which B is obtained.
b) Omitting from [B ] the angle-shifting effects of phase shifters ( by setting t = 1.00 from B)
c) Taking the V terms in equations (7.5) and (7.6) to the left hand side of the equations, and then
removing the influence of MVAR flows on the calculation of [ ] by setting all the right hand V
terms to 1.0 p.u in equation (7.5)
With the above modifications the final fast decoupled load flow equations become:
[P/V] = [ B ] [ ] (7.7)

[Q/V] = [ B ] [V] (7.8)

Both [B ] and [B ] are real, sparse and have the structures of [J 11] and [J22]. Since they contain
only network admittances, they are constant and need to be triangulated only once at the beginning of the
study.
Equations (7.7) and (7.8) are solved alternatively using the most recent values of V and . Each
iteration cycle comprises one solution for to update and then one solution for V to improve V.
Separate convergence tests are used for both of them with max P P &
maxQ Q.

8.0 Comparison of load flow methods:

Programming Gauss- Siedal Newton-Raphson Fast De Coupled

method
Feature
Programming Simple More Complex Less Complex
Complexity
Core Storage Small Large but increases About 60% of N.R.
Requirement linearly with system size Method
Number of Iterations Large 3 to 6 Iterations 4 to 7 Iterations
-Increases with size
Time taken for Smallest 7 Times that of G.S. -rises 2 to 3 times faster than
convergence nearly linearly with the no. G.S. and 5 times faster
of buses than N.R.
Convergence Slow convergence Quadratic convergence Geometric convergence
Characteristic
Acceleration Factors No. of iterations depends None required None required
on choice of acceleration
factor

18
Slack bus Location Requires trail and error to More tolerant to slack bus More tolerant to slack
find the slack bus location location bus location
Convergence criteria Change in voltage Change in Power Change in Power
is based on:

9.0 Convergence Problems:

9.1. Data Errors:

Corresponding to a load beyond the maximum power transfer point of the system.
Corresponding to omissions or too high transmission system impedances.
9.2. Considerations that cause the system voltages to be too low
Excess or poor power factor loads
Deficient reactive power from generator sources
Shunt capacitors not connected to the system
Power generation schedule
Transmission system deficiency

19
 Power Flow studies Questions

1. What are the purposes of Load Flow Study

2. What is purpose of Swing Bus in Load Flow Studies?
3. Write the network equation of Load Flow study in Matrix form
4. List out the steps involved in Load Flow study of Newton Raphson method
5. What are the convergence criteria in Gauss- Siedel, Newton-Raphson and Fast
decoupled methods?
6. Which partial derivatives are neglected in Fast- decoupled method of Load flow?

20
Fig 1.1 One line diagram of a 19 bus system with results of load flow study plotted

21
 Fig 1.2 Load flow study of the 19 bus system with series capacitor in service

22
 Chapter 2

Case Study of Load Flow on a 19 bus System

Data and Results of Load flow study conducted on the 19 Bus system shown in Fig.1.1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date and Time : Wed Feb 04 15:45:11 2004
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
CASE NO : 1 CONTINGENCY : 2 SCHEDULE NO : 0
CONTINGENCY NAME : ser-cap-out&line in,C1 in,C2&C3out

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LARGEST BUS NUMBER USED : 21 ACTUAL NUMBER OF BUSES : 21
NUMBER OF 2 WIND. TRANSFORMERS : 4 NUMBER OF 3 WIND. TRANSFORMERS : 2
NUMBER OF TRANSMISSION LINES : 22
NUMBER OF SERIES REACTORS : 0 NUMBER OF SERIES CAPACITORS : 1
NUMBER OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS : 0
NUMBER OF SHUNT REACTORS : 1 NUMBER OF SHUNT CAPACITORS : 3
NUMBER OF SHUNT IMPEDANCES : 0
NUMBER OF GENERATORS : 2 NUMBER OF LOADS : 9
NUMBER OF LOAD CHARACTERISTICS : 0 NUMBER OF UNDER FREQUENCY RELAY: 1
NUMBER OF GEN CAPABILITY CURVES: 0 NUMBER OF FILTERS : 0
NUMBER OF TIE LINE SCHEDULES : 0
NUMBER OF CONVERTORS : 0 NUMBER OF DC LINKS : 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LOAD FLOW - FAST DE-COUPLED TECHNIQUE : 0
NUMBER OF ZONES : 3
PRINT OPTION : 3 - BOTH DATA AND RESULTS
PRINT
PLOT OPTION : 1 - PLOTTING WITH PU VOLTAGE
NO FREQUENCY DEPENDENT LOAD FLOW, CONTROL OPTION: 0
BASE MVA : 100.000000
NOMINAL SYSTEM FREQUENCY (Hzs) : 50.000000
FREQUENCY DEVIATION (Hzs) : 0.000000
FLOWS IN MW AND MVAR, OPTION : 0
SLACK BUS : 0 (MAX GENERATION BUS)
TRANSFORMER TAP CONTROL OPTION : 0
Q CHECKING LIMIT (ENABLED) : 4
REAL POWER TOLERANCE (PU) : 0.00100
REACTIVE POWER TOLERANCE (PU) : 0.00100
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF ITERATIONS : 15
BUS VOLTAGE BELOW WHICH LOAD MODEL IS CHANGED : 0.75000
CIRCUIT BREAKER RESISTANCE (PU) : 0.00000
CIRCUIT BREAKER REACTANCE (PU) : 0.00010
TRANSFORMER R/X RATIO : 0.05000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ANNUAL PERCENTAGE INTEREST CHARGES : 15.000
ANNUAL PERCENT OPERATION & MAINTENANCE CHARGES : 3.000
LIFE OF EQUIPMENT IN YEARS : 25.000
ENERGY UNIT CHARGE (KWHOUR) IN RUPEES : 1.000
LOSS LOAD FACTOR : 0.300
COST PER MVAR IN LAKHS OF RUPEES : 3.000
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

23
ZONE WISE MULTIPLICATION FACTORS
ZONE P LOAD Q LOAD P GEN Q GEN SH REACT SH CAP
---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
1 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
2 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
3 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BUS DATA

BUS NO. STATUS ZONE BUS KV VMIN-PU VMAX-PU NAME

------- ------ ---- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 BUSG1
2 1 1 15.750 0.950 1.050 BUSG2
3 1 1 220.000 0.950 1.050 BUS3
4 1 1 220.000 0.950 1.050 BUS4
5 1 1 220.000 0.950 1.050 BUS5
6 1 2 132.000 0.950 1.050 BUS6
7 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 BUS7
8 1 2 132.000 0.950 1.050 BUS8
9 1 2 132.000 0.950 1.050 BUS9
10 1 1 220.000 0.950 1.050 BUS10
11 1 3 66.000 0.950 1.050 BUS11
12 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 BUS12
13 1 3 66.000 0.950 1.050 BUS13
14 1 3 66.000 0.950 1.050 BUS14
15 1 1 11.000 0.950 1.050 BUS15
16 1 1 220.000 0.950 1.050 Bus16
17 1 1 220.000 0.950 1.050 Bus17
18 1 1 400.000 0.950 1.050 Bus18
19 1 1 400.000 0.950 1.050 Bus19
20 1 1 220.000 0.950 1.050 DUM0001
21 1 1 220.000 0.950 1.050 DUM0002
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSFORMER DATA

STATUS CKT FROM FROM TO TO IMPEDANCE NOMINAL RATING

NODE NAME* NODE NAME* R(P.U) X(P.U.) TAP MVA
CTR MINTAP MAXTAP TAPSTEP SHIFT-DE
------ --- ---- -------- ---- -------- --------- --------- --------- --------
3 2 3 BUS3 1 BUSG1 0.00240 0.04794 1.05000 250.00
1 0.90000 1.05000 0.01250 0.000
3 3 4 BUS4 2 BUSG2 0.00093 0.01864 1.05000 750.00
2 0.90000 1.05000 0.01250 0.000
3 1 14 BUS14 15 BUS15 0.03228 0.64559 0.97727 12.50
15 0.90000 1.05455 0.02576 0.000
3 1 18 Bus18 10 BUS10 0.00479 0.09588 0.95000 125.00
10 0.95000 1.05000 0.01250 0.000
3 2 5 BUS5 20 DUM0001 0.00001 0.00017 0.98750 150.00
6 0.90000 1.05000 0.01250 0.000
3 2 6 BUS6 20 DUM0001 0.00334 0.06675 1.00000 110.00
6 1.00000 1.00000 0.00000 0.000
3 2 7 BUS7 20 DUM0001 0.00831 0.16629 1.00000 40.00
6 1.00000 1.00000 0.00000 0.000
3 2 10 BUS10 21 DUM0002 0.00001 0.00021 0.90000 120.00

24
 11 0.90000 1.05000 0.01250 0.000
3 2 11 BUS11 21 DUM0002 0.00417 0.08344 1.00000 90.00
11 1.00000 1.00000 0.00000 0.000
3 2 12 BUS12 21 DUM0002 0.01039 0.20787 1.00000 30.00
11 1.00000 1.00000 0.00000 0.000

TRANSMISSION LINE DATA

STA CKT FROM FROM TO TO LINE PARAMETER RATING KMS

NODE NAME* NODE NAME* R(P.U) X(P.U.) B/2(P.U.) MVA
--- --- ---- -------- ---- -------- --------- --------- --------- ------ -----
3 1 3 BUS3 4 BUS4 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941 200 100.0
3 1 3 BUS3 4 BUS4 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941 200 100.0
3 1 3 BUS3 10 BUS10 0.01237 0.06195 0.05205 200 75.0
3 1 3 BUS3 10 BUS10 0.01237 0.06195 0.05205 200 75.0
3 1 4 BUS4 5 BUS5 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941 200 100.0
3 1 4 BUS4 5 BUS5 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941 200 100.0
3 1 5 BUS5 10 BUS10 0.01485 0.07434 0.06247 200 90.0
3 1 6 BUS6 8 BUS8 0.06510 0.13738 0.01481 100 60.0
3 1 6 BUS6 8 BUS8 0.06510 0.13738 0.01481 100 60.0
3 1 6 BUS6 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01234 100 50.0
3 1 6 BUS6 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01234 100 50.0
3 1 8 BUS8 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01234 100 50.0
3 1 8 BUS8 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01234 100 50.0
3 1 11 BUS11 14 BUS14 0.29276 0.42836 0.00252 50 40.0
3 1 11 BUS11 14 BUS14 0.29276 0.42836 0.00252 50 40.0
3 1 11 BUS11 13 BUS13 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126 50 20.0
3 1 11 BUS11 13 BUS13 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126 50 20.0
3 1 13 BUS13 14 BUS14 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126 50 20.0
3 1 13 BUS13 14 BUS14 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126 50 20.0
3 1 10 BUS10 16 Bus16 0.04950 0.24780 0.20822 200 300.0
3 1 16 Bus16 17 Bus17 0.00017 0.00083 0.00069 200 1.0
3 1 18 Bus18 19 Bus19 0.00559 0.06225 0.83250 200 300.0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TOTAL LINE CHARGING SUSCEPTANCE : 3.14938
TOTAL LINE CHARGING MVAR AT 1 PU VOLTAGE : 314.938

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SERIES CAPACITOR AND REACTOR DATA

STATUS FROM FROM TO TO IMPEDANCE IN P.U. RATING

NODE NAME* NODE NAME* R(P.U) X(P.U.) MVA
------ ---- -------- ---- -------- --------- --------- --------
0 16 Bus16 17 Bus17 0.00021 -0.10330 100.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SHUNT CONNECTION (ADMITTANCE) DATA

MVAR* : +ve => Capacitive and -ve => Inductive

FROM FROM ADMITTANCE IN P.U MVAR* STATUS LOCATION
NODE/LINE NAME* G(P.U) B(P.U.) 0/3 0/1/2
--------- -------- --------- --------- -------- ------ --------
19 Bus19 0.00000 -0.57143 -57.143 3 0
7 BUS7 0.00000 0.40000 40.000 3 0
12 BUS12 0.00000 0.50000 50.000 0 0
14 BUS14 0.00000 0.50000 50.000 0 0

25
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TOTAL CAPACITIVE SUSCEPTANCE : 1.40000 pu - 140.000 MVAR
TOTAL INDUCTIVE SUSCEPTANCE : 0.57143 pu - 57.143 MVAR

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

GENERATOR DATA

SL.NO* FROM FROM REAL Q-MIN Q-MAX V-SPEC CAP. MVA STAT
NODE NAME* POWER(MW) MVAR MVAR P.U. CURV RATING
------ ---- -------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ---- ------- ----
1 1 BUSG1 200.0000 0.0000 170.0000 1.0000 0 222.00 3
2 2 BUSG2 630.0000 0.0000 324.0000 1.0000 0 732.00 3

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LOAD DATA

SLNO FROM FROM REAL REACTIVE COMP COMPENSATING MVAR VALUE CHAR F/V
* NODE NAME* MW MVAR MVAR MIN MAX STEP NO NO
STAT
---- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ---- ----
1 2 BUSG2 42.000 21.400 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0
3 0
2 5 BUS5 100.000 50.000 25.000 0.000 30.000 5.000 0 0
3 0
3 8 BUS8 50.000 25.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0
3 0
4 9 BUS9 50.000 25.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0
3 0
5 10 BUS10 80.000 40.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0
3 0
6 13 BUS13 40.000 25.000 25.000 0.000 30.000 5.000 0 0
3 0
7 14 BUS14 40.000 25.000 25.000 0.000 30.000 5.000 0 0
3 0
8 17 Bus17 120.000 60.000 20.000 5.000 30.000 5.000 0 0
3 0
9 19 Bus19 60.000 30.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0
3 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TOTAL SPECIFIED MW GENERATION : 830.00000
TOTAL MIN MVAR LIMIT OF GENERATOR : 0.00000
TOTAL MAX MVAR LIMIT OF GENERATOR : 494.00000
TOTAL SPECIFIED MW LOAD : 582.00000 reduced 582.00000
TOTAL SPECIFIED MVAR LOAD : 301.39999 reduced 301.39999
TOTAL SPECIFIED MVAR COMPENSATION : 95.00000 reduced 95.00000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FREQUENCY RELAY SETTINGS DATA

RELAY FREQ1 SHED1 FREQ2 SHED2 FREQ3 SHED3

NO. HZS. HZS. HZS.
----- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------
1 49.50 0.00 48.00 0.00 47.50 0.00

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

26
GENERATOR DATA FOR FREQUENCY DEPENDENT LOAD FLOW

SLNO* FROM FROM P-RATE P-MIN P-MAX %DROOP

PARTICI BIAS
NODE NAME* MW MW MW FACTOR SETTING
C0 C1 C2
------ ---- -------- -------- --------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
1 1 BUSG1 200.000 0.0000 200.0000 4.0000 0.1000 10.0000
6900.0000 30300.0000 1350.0000
2 2 BUSG2 630.000 0.0000 630.0000 4.0000 0.1000 10.0000
6900.0000 30300.0000 1350.0000
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TOTAL NUMBER OF ISLANDS IN THE GIVEN SYSTEM : 1
TOTAL NUMBER OF ISLANDS HAVING ATLEAST ONE GENERATOR : 1
SLACK BUSES CONSIDERED FOR THE STUDY
ISLAND NO. SLACK BUS NAME SPECIFIED MW
---------- --------- -------- ------------
1 2 BUSG2 630.000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ITERATION MAX P BUS MAX P MAX Q BUS MAX Q

COUNT NUMBER PER UNIT NUMBER PER UNIT
--------- --------- -------- --------- --------
1 10 30.365 10 594.442
2 10 32.876 10 2.941
3 10 5.382 10 0.806
4 10 0.636 10 0.057
5 17 0.053 10 0.018
6 17 0.040 17 0.008
7 17 0.028 17 0.006
8 17 0.017 17 0.003
9 17 0.009 17 0.001
10 17 0.002 17 0.001
11 17 0.002 10 0.001
12 17 0.001 10 0.001
Number of p iterations : 11 and Number of q iterations : 9

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BUS VOLTAGES AND POWERS

NODE FROM V-MAG ANGLE MW MVAR MW MVAR MVAR

NO. NAME P.U. DEGREE GEN GEN LOAD LOAD COMP
---- -------- ------ ------ -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.0000 -0.94 200.000 46.737 0.000 0.000 0.000
2 BUSG2 1.0000 0.00 416.082 71.574 42.000 21.400 0.000
3 BUS3 1.0263 -6.51 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
4 BUS4 1.0391 -4.01 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
5 BUS5 1.0068 -9.67 0.000 0.000 100.000 50.000 25.000
6 BUS6 0.9874 -13.48 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
7 BUS7 1.0922 -9.89 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 #
8 BUS8 0.9576 -15.06 0.000 0.000 50.000 25.000 0.000
9 BUS9 0.9592 -14.97 0.000 0.000 50.000 25.000 0.000
10 BUS10 0.9939 -11.75 0.000 0.000 80.000 40.000 0.000
11 BUS11 1.0979 -15.02 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 #
12 BUS12 1.1043 -11.76 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 #
13 BUS13 1.0628 -17.68 0.000 0.000 40.000 25.000 25.000 #

27
 14 BUS14 1.0560 -18.24 0.000 0.000 40.000 25.000 25.000 #
15 BUS15 1.0806 -18.24 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 #
16 Bus16 0.7450 -34.17 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 @
17 Bus17 0.7443 -34.26 0.000 0.000 119.590 59.795 20.000 @
18 Bus18 1.0073 -15.09 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
19 Bus19 1.0009 -17.20 0.000 0.000 60.000 30.000 0.000
20 DUM0001 1.0196 -9.68 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
21 DUM0002 1.1043 -11.76 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 #
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NUMBER OF BUSES EXCEEDING MINIMUM VOLTAGE LIMIT (@ mark) : 2
NUMBER OF BUSES EXCEEDING MAXIMUM VOLTAGE LIMIT (# mark) : 7
NUMBER OF GENERATORS EXCEEDING MINIMUM Q LIMIT (< mark) : 0
NUMBER OF GENERATORS EXCEEDING MAXIMUM Q LIMIT (> mark) : 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES

SLNO CS FROM FROM TO TO FORWARD LOSS %

NODE NAME NODE NAME MW MVAR MW MVAR LOADING
---- -- ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------
1 2 3 BUS3 1 BUSG1 -198.989 -26.514 1.0112 20.2232 82.2#
2 3 4 BUS4 2 BUSG2 -372.755 -23.616 1.3279 26.5585 50.3$
3 1 14 BUS14 15 BUS15 -0.000 -0.000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0*
4 1 18 Bus18 10 BUS10 -60.202 78.385 0.4165 8.3308 78.5#
5 2 5 BUS5 20 DUM0001 102.463 2.718 0.0008 0.0163 67.9$
6 2 6 BUS6 20 DUM0001 -101.879 -39.140 0.4077 8.1545 100.5@
7 2 7 BUS7 20 DUM0001 0.000 47.717 0.1587 3.1740 109.2@
8 2 10 BUS10 21 DUM0002 83.052 6.698 0.0009 0.0125 69.9$
9 2 11 BUS11 21 DUM0002 -82.874 -1.875 0.2378 4.7566 83.9#
10 2 12 BUS12 21 DUM0002 0.000 0.000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0*
11 1 3 BUS3 4 BUS4 -56.809 -10.633 0.5073 -12.2639 28.2^
12 1 3 BUS3 4 BUS4 -56.809 -10.633 0.5073 -12.2639 28.2^
13 1 3 BUS3 10 BUS10 156.304 23.890 2.9719 4.2530 77.0#
14 1 3 BUS3 10 BUS10 156.304 23.890 2.9719 4.2530 77.0#
15 1 4 BUS4 5 BUS5 129.061 13.440 2.6125 -1.4508 62.4$
16 1 4 BUS4 5 BUS5 129.061 13.440 2.6125 -1.4508 62.4$
17 1 5 BUS5 10 BUS10 50.450 2.056 0.3832 -10.5841 26.0^
18 1 6 BUS6 8 BUS8 23.882 8.945 0.4529 -1.8470 26.9^
19 1 6 BUS6 8 BUS8 23.882 8.945 0.4529 -1.8470 26.9^
20 1 6 BUS6 9 BUS9 27.057 10.626 0.4852 -1.3155 30.4^
21 1 6 BUS6 9 BUS9 27.057 10.626 0.4852 -1.3155 30.4^
22 1 8 BUS8 9 BUS9 -1.570 -1.707 0.0017 -2.2642 2.4&
23 1 8 BUS8 9 BUS9 -1.570 -1.707 0.0017 -2.2642 2.4&
24 1 11 BUS11 14 BUS14 15.555 0.228 0.5883 0.2762 28.3^
25 1 11 BUS11 14 BUS14 15.555 0.228 0.5883 0.2762 28.3^
26 1 11 BUS11 13 BUS13 25.880 0.713 0.8143 0.8973 47.2^
27 1 11 BUS11 13 BUS13 25.880 0.713 0.8143 0.8973 47.2^
28 1 13 BUS13 14 BUS14 5.066 -0.185 0.0333 -0.2341 9.5&
29 1 13 BUS13 14 BUS14 5.066 -0.185 0.0333 -0.2341 9.5&
30 1 10 BUS10 16 Bus16 133.091 75.256 13.4782 35.3505 76.9#
31 1 16 Bus16 17 Bus17 119.573 39.921 0.0473 0.1596 84.6#
32 1 18 Bus18 19 Bus19 60.201 -78.385 0.2016 -165.6212 52.9$
33 16 Bus16 17 Bus17 LINE IS OPEN
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
! NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BEYOND 125% : 0
@ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 100% AND 125% : 2
# NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 75% AND 100% : 7

28
$ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 50% AND 75% : 6
^ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 25% AND 50% : 11
& NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 1% AND 25% : 4
* NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 0% AND 1% : 2

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SHUNT CAPACITOR AND REACTOR INJECTION

NODE FROM V-MAG ANGLE MW MVAR

NO. NAME P.U. DEGREE GEN GEN
---- -------- ------ ------ -------- --------
19 Bus19 1.001 -17.20 -0.000 -57.244
7 BUS7 1.092 -9.89 -0.000 47.717
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NEW SYSTEM FREQUENCY FOR ISLAND 1 : 50.000 Hzs

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Summary of results
TOTAL REAL POWER GENERATION : 616.082 MW
TOTAL REACT. POWER GENERATION : 118.312 MVAR

TOTAL SHUNT REACTOR INJECTION : -0.000 MW

TOTAL SHUNT REACTOR INJECTION : -57.244 MVAR

TOTAL SHUNT CAPACIT.INJECTION : -0.000 MW

TOTAL SHUNT CAPACIT.INJECTION : 47.717 MVAR

TOTAL REAL POWER LOAD : 581.590 MW

TOTAL REACTIVE POWER LOAD : 301.195 MVAR
TOTAL COMPENSATION AT LOADS : 95.000 MVAR
TOTAL HVDC REACTIVE POWER : 0.000 MVAR

TOTAL REAL POWER LOSS (AC+DC) : 34.606 MW ( 34.606+ 0.000)

PERCENTAGE REAL LOSS (AC+DC) : 5.617
TOTAL REACTIVE POWER LOSS : -97.367 MVAR

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Zone wise distribution
Description Zone # 1 Zone # 2 Zone # 3
---------------- ---------- ---------- ----------
MW generation 616.0819 0.0000 0.0000

MVAR generation 118.3115 0.0000 0.0000

MW load 401.5896 100.0000 80.0000

MVAR load 201.1948 50.0000 50.0000

MVAR compensation 45.0000 0.0000 50.0000

MW loss 29.2096 2.2873 3.1096

MVAR loss -101.3034 -2.6989 6.6353

MVAR - inductive -57.2440 0.0000 0.0000

29
MVAR - capacitive 47.7171 0.0000 0.0000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Zone wise export(+ve)/import(-ve)
Zone # 1 MW & MVAR 2 MW & MVAR 3 MW & MVAR
------ -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 ----- 102.29 47.29 83.11 6.63

2 -102.29 -47.29 ----- 0.00 0.00

3 -83.11 -6.63 0.00 0.00 -----

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date and Time : Wed Feb 04 15:45:11 2004

30
 Chapter 3

STEADY STATE FAULT ANALYSIS

Introduction:
The normal operating mode of power system is balanced three phase a.c. A number of
undesirable, but unavoidable incidents can temporarily disrupt this condition. If the insulation of the
system should fail at any point, or if a conducting object should come in contact with bare power
conductor, a short circuit or a fault is said to occur. The causes of faults are many. They include
lightning, wind damage, trees falling across lines, vehicles colliding with towers or poles, birds shorting
down lines, aircraft colliding with lines, vandalism, small animals entering switchgear and line breaks due
to excessive ice loading. Power System faults may be categorised as one of four types in order of
frequency of occurrence. Single line to ground, line to line, double line to ground and balanced three
phase. The first three types constitute severe unbalanced operating conditions. It is important to
determine the values of system voltages and currents during faulted conditions so that protective devices
may be set to detect and minimise the harmful effect of such contingencies. Therefore, it is necessary to
analyse the power system operating in unbalanced modes. The time constants of the associated transients
are such that sinusoidal steady state methods may still be used. The method of symmetrical components
is admirably suited to unbalanced system analysis.
The analysis of short circuits on power systems can be carried out either by the Bus Admittance
Matrix method or by the Bus impedance Matrix method. The performance equations of the network
consisting of interconnected set of elements is given by either,
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS

or IBUS = YBUS EBUS

For formation of the system matrices (either admittance or impedance), the system components are to be
properly modelled by their equivalent circuits.

1.0 Modelling Of Power System Components

We discuss here modelling of some of the components of a power system. The complexity of the model
of the system components depends to a great extent on the type of study undertaken and the accuracy
desired. This section summarises the modelling of system components for a fault study prior to the
selection and application of the protective system.

1.1 Overhead Lines And Cables

A transmission line has its resistance, inductance, capacitance and leakage conductance uniformly
distributed along its length and these can be calculated on per phase basis from the dimensional
parameters of the line. In all practical cases, the leakage conductance is negligibly small and is not
considered. A transmission circuit may be represented by an equivalent or T network using lumped
constants as shown in Fig.1.
Z Sinh ZY
where Z
ZY

Y tanh ZY 2
Y 1 Y 2
2 ZY 2

31
 Z tanh ZY 2
Z1 Z 2
2 ZY 2

Sinh ZY
Y Y
ZY

Z = Total series impedance of the line

Y = Total shunt admittance of the line

A further approximation will involve assuming ZY<< 1 which is true for medium lines. The
equivalent circuits obtained under such an approximation are called the nominal and nominal T circuits
respectively. The parameters of the equivalent circuits are very readily expressed in terms of total series
impedance and total shunt admittance (also called as line charging). There is very little to choose
between T and representations in terms of accuracy. representation is preferred since it does not
introduce any new node.

In the case of a very short line the shunt admittance is neglected and the representation reduces to
that of a series impedance only.

It can be shown that the sequence impedances for symmetrical three phase circuit are

Z1 Z2 ZP Zm
and
Z0 = Z p + 2 Z m
Where Zp = self impedance of a conductor with an earth return
Zm = mutual impedance between two conductors with a common earth return.
Given by the Carsons equations, viz.

De
Zp R 0.00159 f J 0.00466 f log10
dc

De
Zm 0.00159 f J 0.00466 f log10
D
R = conductor a.c. resistance
D = spacing between the parallel conductor
dc = geometric mean radius of a single conductor
f = system frequency
De = equivalent spacing of the earth return path

= 2160 e f

where e is earth resistivity

The above formulae give the impedance in ohm/mile
It is customary to quote the impedances of a transmission circuit in terms of Z 1 and the ratio of Z 0/ Z1
since in this form they are most directly useful.

32
1.2 Transformers:
A transformer may be replaced in power system studies by an equivalent circuit representing the
self impedance of and the mutual coupling between the windings. A two winding transformer can be
simply represented as a T network in which the cross member is the short circuit impedance and the
column is the excitation impedance. It is rarely necessary in fault studies to consider the excitation
impedance as it usually is many times the magnitude of the short circuit impedance. A three winding
transformer becomes a star of three impedances and a four winding transformer of six impedances.
The impedances of static apparatus are independent of the phase sequence of the applied voltage.
Consequently transformer impedances to negative sequence and positive sequence currents are equal In
determining the impedance to zero sequence currents, account may be taken of the winding connections,
Earthing and also in some cases the constructional type.

Positive sequence equivalent circuits

1.2.1 Two winding Transformers:

The equivalent circuit reduces to a simple series impedance as shown in Fig.2.

1.2.2 Three Winding Transformers:

The equivalent circuit can be represented by a star of impedances as shown in fig.3.

ZP 1 2 ZPS ZPT ZTS
Z 12 Z
S PS ZTS ZPT
Z 12 Z
T PT ZTS ZPS
ZPS = impedance of primary with secondary short circuited and tertiary open
Similarly ZST and ZPT

1.2.3 Representation of Transformers having off nominal Turns Ratio:

Two considerations arise when we consider such a case:
I. The pu. value of series impedance of the transformer is put in series with an ideal transformer
II. It is assumed that the series impedance of the transformer is unchanged when the tap position is
varied.
The equivalent circuit is as given in Fig.4.

1.2.4 Zero sequence equivalent circuits:

The positive sequence equivalent circuit is still maintained to represent the transformer but now
there are certain conditions attached to its connection into the external circuits. The order of excitation
impedance is now very much lower than for the positive sequence circuit, of the order of 100% to 400%
but still high enough to be neglected in most fault studies.
The mode of connection of a transformer to the external circuit is determined by taking account
of each winding arrangement and its connection or otherwise to ground. If zero sequence currents can

33
flow into and out of winding, the winding terminal is connected to external circuit. If zero sequence
currents can circulate in the winding without flowing in the external circuits, the winding terminal is
connected directly to the zero potential bus. Fig.5 gives the zero sequence connections of some common
two and three winding transformer arrangements.
The exceptions to the general rule of neglecting magnetising impedance are when the transformer
is star and either or both neutrals are earthed. In these circumstances, the transformer is connected to the
zero potential bus through the magnetising impedances. Where a three phase transformer bank comprises
an arrangement without interlinking magnetic flux (Three phase shell type or three single phase units), the
zero sequence impedance is equal to the positive sequence impedance. In the case of three phase core
type units the zero sequence fluxes produced by zero sequence currents can find a high reluctance path
the effect being to reduce the zero sequence impedance by about one tenth. However, in calculations, it is
usual to ignore this variation and consider the positive and zero sequence impedance to be equal.

1.3 Auto Transformers:

The auto transformer is characterised by a single continuous winding part of which is shared by
both the high and low voltage circuits. Three phase auto transformer banks generally have star connected
main windings the neutral of which is normally connected solidly to earth. In addition a third winding
connected in delta i.e tertiary winding is also included.
The positive sequence equivalent circuit of a three phase auto transformer bank is no different
than that of three winding transformer, except that the impedance between windings are designated
differently. When no load is connected to the delta tertiary, the point T will be open circuited and short
circuit impedance of the transformer becomes ZL + ZH = ZSC i.e. similar to the equivalent circuit of a
two winding transformer with magnetising impedance neglected.
Auto transformers have the following disadvantages.
i)The two sides are not electrically separated, and (ii)the series impedance is lower than that in two
winding transformers and may result in excessive short circuit current.
On the other hand, its advantage is that for the same amount of copper and iron, we can get an
auto-transformer of a higher MVA rating than a two winding transformer. This gain is much higher if the
turns ratio is closer to unity. Thus, when voltage levels are of the order of 2:1 or lower but high MVA is
involved, the auto transformer offers a distinct advantage.

1.4 Loads

For analytical purposes there are mainly three ways of representing the load -
1. Constant power representation;

Both the specified MW and MVAR are assumed constant.

1.4.2 Constant current representation:

P jQ
I I
V*

where V V and = power factor angle

2. Constant impedance representation:

In this representation, load MW and MVAR are assumed known and the impedance is computed as

34
 2
V V
Z
I P jQ

P jQ
or Y 2
V

This impedance or admittance is held constant.

Normally during fault analysis loads are neglected as the load currents are much less compared to the
magnitude of fault currents.

2.0 Formation of System Matrices:

The impedance and admittance matrices can be obtained either by the use of incidence matrices
or by use of algorithms. Of the two, the use of the algorithms is more powerful and is better suited for
computer applications.

2.1 Bus admittance Matrix : YBUS

Let us consider a 4 bus system and apply the Kirchoffs current law:

1 2 3

I 1 y10 E1 y12 ( E1 E 2 ) y14 ( E1 E 4 )

I 1 ( y10 y12 y14 ) E1 y12 E 2 y14 E 4

I 2 y12 ( E 2 E1 ) y 23 ( E 2 E 3 ) y 24 ( E 2 E 4 )
I 2 y12 E1 ( y12 y 23 y 24 ) E 2 y 23 E 3 y 24 E 4

I 3 y 32 ( E 3 E 2 ) y 30 E 3 y 34 ( E 3 E 4 )
I 3 y 32 E 2 ( y 32 y 30 y 34 ) E 3 y 34 E 4

I 4 y 41 ( E 4 E1 ) y 42 ( E 4 E 2 ) y 43 ( E 4 E 3 ) y 40 E 4
I 4 y 41 E 1 y 42 E 2 y 43 E 3 ( y 40 y 41 y 42 y 43 ) E 4

35
 I y10y12y14 y12 0 y14 E

1
1

I 2 y y y y y y E2
12 12 23 24 23 24 1
I E
3 0 y y y y y 3
32 30 32 34 34
I 4 y y y y y y y E4
41 42 43 40 41 42 43

36
I1 Y1 Y12 Y13 Y14 E1
I Y Y Y Y E
2 21 2 23 24 2
2
I3 Y31 Y32 Y3 Y34 E3

I4 Y41 Y42 Y43 Y4 E4
I Y E
bus bus bus

(3)

Diagonal Elements of the Matrix are: YKK y k m

m cnnected to K

Off diagonal Elements of the Matrix are : Y k m yk m

Y
bus is a sparse matrix
For a 100 bus system with 120 transformers and lines
Total No. of elements = 100 X 100
=10000
Non zero elements
Ydiagonal = 100

37
 Yoff diagonal 2 x 120 = 240
Total = 340

Impedance Matrix:

E1 ZZZZ1 12 13 14 I1
E ZZ ZZ I
2 21 2 23 24 2
(4 )
E3 Z31 ZZZ32 3 34 I3

E 4 Z41 ZZZ42 43 4 I4
E Z I
bus bus bus

I Z E
bu s bus
1
bus = Y E
bus bus

Z Y 5
1
bus bus

Hence Zbus can be obtained by inverting the Ybus . Since inversion of Ybus for large networks is time
consuming and warrants lot of computer resources the Z bus is generally built step by step through
algorithm.

2.2 Bus Impedance Matrix-ZBUS

The bus impedance Matrix whose elements are the open circuit driving point and transfer
impedance. The algorithm for the formation of the Z bus is presented in detail in the Appendix A. The
summary of the equations for the formation of bus impedance Matrix is given in the following steps.

38
2.3 Addition of Branch p.q.:
a) p is not a reference bus
Zqi = Zpi , i =1,2 .........m , i q

Zqq =Zpq + zpq

b) P is a reference node
Zqi = 0, i =1,2 ........m , i q

Zqq = zpq

2.4 Addition of a link p-q

a) p is not a reference node

Z1i = Zpi -Zqi , i = 1,2 .........m , i 1

Z11 = Zpl - Zql + zpq

b) p is a reference node
Zli =- Zqi , i = 1,2 ........m , i 1

Zll = -Zql +zpq

Modification of the elements for the elimination of the 1 th node :
Zi l Zl j
ZIJ (mod ified ) ZIJ (before) ; i , j 1,2,3,......... m
Zl l

3.0 System representation for fault studies:

The fault analysis could be carried out to engineering accuracy with the following assumptions:
a. The machines are represented as constant voltage behind their respective transient or sub-
transient reactances.
b. Neglecting shunt connections, e.g. loads, line capacitances etc.
c. Setting all transformers at nominal taps.
However, if required, a more accurate analysis could be carried out by minor modification. The shunt
connections could be taken into account by modifying the bus impedance matrix suitably. The exact
transformer tap could also be directly incorporated in the impedance matrix. The prefault voltages on the
system at all buses could be obtained from a detailed load flow study.
The representation of the system with a fault at bus p is derived by means of Thevnins theorem (Fig.6)

3.1 Analysis in phase components:

The general performance equation of the system during a fault can be written as :

Eia ,Fb , c Eia ,0b , c Ziap,b , c . I pa ,bf, c 3.1
where E i ( F ) voltage at any bus i during fault
abc

E ia( ,0b),c prefault voltage at bus i

39
 Z ipa,b ,c , transfer impedance between buses i and p

I pa,bF,c fault current at bus p

The above equation can be written for different buses as

E 1a(,Fb,)c E 1a(,0b),c (Z1aP,b,c ) (I pa(,Fb,)c )

E 2a(,Fb,)c E 2a(,0b),c (Z2ap,b,c ) (I pa(,Fb,)c )

E pa(,Fb,)c E pa(,0b),c (Zppa,b,c ) (I pa(,Fb,)c ) (3.2)

E na(,Fb,)c E na(,0b),c (Znpa,b,c ) (I pa(,Fb,)c )

Further the voltage of the fault bus p will be

E pa(,Fb,)c ZFa ,b,c I pa(,Fb,)c (3.3)

where Z Fa ,b ,c is the three phase impedance matrix for the fault. The elements of this 3 x 3
matrix depend on the type of fault and fault impedance.
Substituting (3.3) in (3.2) for Pth equation yields

ZFa ,b,c I Pa,Fb,c EPa,0b,c ZPP

a , b, c a ,b, c
I P F

I Pa,Fb,c ZFa ,b,c ZPP
a ,b,c

EPa,0b,c

I Pabc abc

F ZF ZPP
abc
E (3.4)
1 abc
P 0

F ZF
and EPabc abc

ZFabc ZPP
abc
E (3.5)
1 abc
P 0

Similarly voltages at busses other than fault bus could be determined from

E E Z Z
abc
i F
abc
i 0
abc
iP
abc
F Z PP
abc
1
E ;
abc
P 0
i P 3.6
When it is desirable to express the parameters of the fault circuit in the admittance form, the equations
are:

I abc
P( F ) Y E
F
abc abc
P( F ) 3.7

where YFabc is the three phase admittance matrix for the fault.

40

( F ) E P ( 0)
E Pabc abc
Z Y
abc
pp F
abc
E Pabc
(F ) 3.8
F U ZPP YF E P 0
E Pabc abc abc abc

E U Z
abc
P F
abc
PP Y
F
abc 1
E ;abc
P 0 3.9

I Y U Z Y E 310
abc
P F
abc
F . abc
PP
abc 1
F
abc
P 0
and
E E Z Y U Z Y E ;
abc
i F
abc
i 0
abc
iP F
abc abc
PP F
abc 1 abc
P 0
i P 311
.

4 Symmetrical components:

4.1 Representation of unbalanced phases into symmetrical components:

Va 1 1Va0 Ia 1 1Ia0
2 2
Vb1 aaVa1 ; Ib1 aaIa1
Vc 1 a 2Va2 Ic 1 a 2Ia2
4.2 Representation of Symmetrical components in Three phase components:

Va 0 1 1 1 Va Ia 0 1 1 1 Ia
2 1
Va1 1 a a Vb ; Ia1
1
3 1 a a 2 Ib
3
Va 2 1 a 2 a Vc Ia 2 1 a 2 a Ic

4.3. Power in Symmetrical components:

S Va I a* Vb Ib* Vc I c*
3 V0 I 0 3 V1I1 3 V2 I 2

4.4 Sequence impedances of a three phase symmetric network:

Consider a generic three phase network.

v z i
ab c abc abc
6

T v 0 1 2 za b c T i 0 1 2

41
 v T z T i
012 1 abc .0 1 2
(7)

v T z T i
.012 1 abc .012

1 z z1 i0
a b ac

1 2 ba b c 2
=

1 a z z1a i1
3 2 c a cb c 2
1a z z 1a i2

Where zaa , zbb, zcc are self impedances and each is equal to z s,
zab, zac, zba,zbc,zca,zcb are mutual impedances and each is equal to z m

42
 1 z 1 i0
sm

1 2 m s m 2
=

1a z 1a i1
3 2 m s 2
1a z 1a i2

43
 z z z z z z z z z 11 1 i0
smm msm mms

1 s m 2 m m s 2 m m m 2 s 2
z az a z z az a z z az a z 1 a a i1
3 s 2 m m m 2 s m m 2 m s 2

z a z az z a z az z a z az 1 a a i2

44
 z 2z z 2z z 2z 1 1i0
sm sm sm

1 s m s m 2 s 2 m 2
=
z z az az az az 1 a ai1
3 s m 2 s 2 m s m 2

zz az az az az 1 aa i2
We know that 1+ a + a2 =0, hence 1+a = -a2 and 1+ a2 = -a

45
 3 (zs 2zm) zs 2zm a2 (zs 2zm) a (zs 2zm) zs 2zm a(zs 2zm) a2 (zs 2zm) i
0

( z s z m ) a ( z s z m ) a 2 ( z s z m ) i
1 1
(z z ) a (z z ) a (z z ) (z z ) a (z z ) a(z z )
s m 3s m 3s m s m 2 s m s m
3

(zs zm) a2 (zs zm) az( s zm) i2

(zs zm) az( s zm) a2 (zs zm) (zs zm) a3(zs zm) a3(zs zm)

46
 3(z 2z ) 0 0 i0
sm

1 s m
0 3(zz ) 0 i1
3 s m
i
0 0 3(zz ) 2
(z 2z ) 0 0 i0
sm

s m
v

0 (z ) 0 i18
012

0 0 (zs m) i
2
v0 z0 i0
v1 z1i1
v2 z2i2
Hence the sequence voltages are dependant on respective sequence currents only and are
independent of other sequence currents as long as symmetrical three phase impedances are considered.
z1 z2 z s z m ; z 0 z s 2 z m

47
Where z1 = Positive sequence impedance,
z2 = Negative sequence impedance
z0 = Zero sequence impedance
zs = Self impedance of a phase
zm = Mutual impedance of a phase with respect to other phases

5.0 Transformation to symmetrical components

5.1 Three phase fault analysis:
The phase voltages, currents and the fault impedance matrices can also be transformed into symmetrical
component domain.
The equation for calculating fault currents and voltages can be written in terms of symmetrical
components.
The equations are:

I P012(F ) Z012
F ZPP
012
1
E P012(0) 3.15

OR I P012(F ) YF012 U Z 012

PP YF012 1
E P012(0) 3.16

The voltage at the faulted bus p is

E P012(F ) ZF012 Z
012
F ZPP
012
1
E P012
( 0) 3.17

OR E P012(F ) U ZPP
012
Y 012
F 1
E P012(0) 3.18

The voltages at buses other than p are:

( F ) E i ( 0) Zip
E i012 012 012
Z 012
F ZPP012 1
E P012(0) 3.19
OR E i012
(F ) E i012
( 0) Zip012 YF012 U ZPP
012 012
YF 1
E P012
( 0) 3.20

Substitution of the proper fault impedance or admittance matrix in terms of symmetrical components or
phase co-ordinates would provide us with the solution for the corresponding fault condition. The example
of only single line to ground fault is presented.

5.2 Single Line to Ground Fault

For a single line to ground fault, the fault impedance matrix is not defined and hence the equations in the
admittance form are to be used. The fault admittance matrix
1 1 1
YF
Y 012
1 1 1 4.1
3
1 1 1

48
The fault current and the bus voltages are obtained by substituting for YF012 in the corresponding
equations.
The current at the faulted bus P would then be

I 0 1
P1 F 1.0
I P F Z 0 2Z 1 3Z 1
I 2 PP PP F
1
P F
(4.2)

The voltage at the faulted bus p is

E 0 ZPP0
P1 F 1.0 0
EP F 0 ZPP ZPP 3ZF
1

(4.3)
E Z 2Z 1
3ZF
2
P F
PP PP
ZPP1

The voltage at buses other than P are

E 0 0 ZiP0
i F
1 1 1
Ei F 1 Z 0 2Z 1 3Z ZiP 4.4
Ei2 F 0 PP PP F
ZiP2

The currents in all the elements could also be then calculated. Summary of Three phase fault
and Single Line to Ground fault formulae are given in Appendix B.

6.0 Programming Aspects:

The majority of short circuit studies involve only the calculation of three phase and line to ground faults.
A general fault analysis program first reads all the inputs data and then forms the sequence impedance
matrices. Normally the negative sequence matrix is assumed same as that of the positive sequence
matrix. Normally only the diagonal elements and upper off diagonal elements only are stored. The short
circuit quantities for the type of fault are then calculated and printed. Normally for a typical fault, the
total fault currents and the contributions to this total by the lines connected to the faulted bus and
sometimes to the next adjacent buses are also calculated and printed.
In the calculation of the line current contributions during faults special care has to be taken when
encountering branches having star delta transformers.

6.1 Extension of Z-matrix short circuit program to include very large systems:
With the availability of large computers and need to solve problems of increasing size, the processing of
ZBUS. has become necessary.

49
ZBUS building algorithm no longer suits manual methods. A short routine has been proposed with
randomly ordered data list such that the data could be processed sequentially by the matrix building
algorithm. An optimal ordering of this line data to minimise the time required for the building algorithm
has been proposed by Baumann (TRANS, IEEE, 1966). Subsequently an axis discarding technique has
been developed for studying large systems (1967 IEEE).

6.2 Data Preparation:

Numbers are assigned arbitrarily to the nodes of the system with the exception of the reference node
which is assigned the number zero. The positive and zero sequence networks are made to correspond
element by element. A one to one correspondence is achieved by adding an element of infinite impedance
where an element is missing in one of the networks.
The sorting routine portion of the program records a randomly ordered set of line data into a feasible
ordering of the lines so as to permit the algorithm to process the line data subsequently. The details of
the sorting operation are:
A) The line data are examined for a line connected to the reference. The common bus behind the
generator internal reactance is therefore connected in short circuit study work. The first line that is
found connected to the reference is transferred to the recorded line list. The other node at the end of
the line determines the first node in the system that is assembled from the line data.
B) The line data are examined and the node connected directly to the first node are added to the node list
of the system that is assembled.
C) Advance to the next node of the list being assembled. Examine all lines in the unrecorded list for
lines connected that is assembled to this node.
a) Lines connected between this node and the reference node
are added to the recorded line list.
b) Lines between it and nodes that proceed it in the list being
assembled are added to the recorded line list.
c) Lines between it and nodes that succeed it in the list are
passed over for later processing.
d) Nodes are added to the list for these lines between the node
being processed and nodes that do not already occur in the list.
The line is not processed at this time.
D) After all lines have been examined return to step 3 and repeat
In case of the system under study being made up of several disconnected areas, lines remain in the
unordered line list after processing the last node in the list of nodes of the system that is being assembled.
The lines remaining in the randomly ordered data list are examined for another line connected to the
reference that could be used for restarting the process. If one is found, the other node that describes the
line is added to the node list, the line is added to the recorded line list. After all possible lines have been
recorded, lines may remain in the unordered line list. It must then be concluded that there is a data error;
and these lines should be printed for analysis and correction.

6.3 Reduction of a system to an equivalent:

The purpose of a mesh equivalent is to be able to solve large systems on computer having small core
memory. The Z matrix of the portion of the system that is to be reused is formed by the Z bus forming
algorithm. A small matrix Zs with axes corresponding to only these busses to be retained from the
complete matrix. This small matrix is inverted to obtain the nodal admittance matrix of the equivalent
mesh network between the retained nodes. Define new matrix Y1 in which the diagonal element of the
matrix X2S are replaced by the negative Y S of the sum of the element of the particular row. Define a new
matrix Z1 are the principle impedance of lines in the mesh equivalent.

50
 Z IJ1 Z line ij and Z li1 Z line 0 i

For studying large systems, the system can be divided in parts for e.g. say, half, in some convenient
manner. Form the matrix of part A of the system including the terminal lines. The mesh equivalent of
part A when viewed from the terminal nodes is then computed. The lines of the mesh equivalent that are
obtained from the Z1 matrix are included with the data of part B. The Zbus formation and study of area B
can now be completed with Area A properly taken into account.
*******

51
 APPENDIX-A

7.0 ZBUS Building Algorithm

The format of the bus impedance matrix is done in steps simulating the construction of the networks by
adding one element at a time. A matrix is formed for the partial network.
1
2

Partial
Network E2 E1

0 Em

Reference

Representation of Partial Network

Performance equation of a partial network

Assuming that the partial impedance matrix has been formed for the partial system consisting of m busses
and a reference node O, the performance equation is written as :
E bus Z bus I bus (6.1)
where
E bus = m x 1 Vector of node voltages
I bus = m x 1 vector of impressed bus currents
Z bus = Impedance matrix of the partial network ( m x m )
If a new element p-q is added, it could be either a branch or a link. If p-q is a branch, a new bus q
is added to the partial network and the resultant bus impedance matrix is of dimension (m+1). The
element of the new row and the column of the matrix are to be determined.
If p-q is a link, then p and q nodes already exist in the partial network. The elements of the
partial impedance matrix are to be recalculated to include the effect of the added link.

6.1 Addition of a branch

The elements Zqi can be determined by injecting a current at the i th bus and calculating the voltage at the
qth bus with respect to the reference node. Since all other bus currents are equal to zero, it follows that:

52
 E 1 Z11 Z12 .. Z1p .. Z1m Z1l I 1

E Z Z22 .. Z2p .. Z2m Z2l I 2
2 21
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
E Z Zp2 .. Zpp .. Zpm Zpl I p (6.2)

p p1
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
E m Zm1 Zm2 .. Zmp .. Zmm Zml I m

E q Zq 1 Zq 2 .. Zqp .. Zqm Zqq I q

1
2

Partial
Network p q

Element p-q
m

0 Em

Reference

Addition of a Branch
E 1 Z1i . I i
E 2 Z2i . I i
.. . . . . .
E p Zpi . I i
(6.3)

. . . . . .
E q Zqi . I i

Letting Ii= 1 per unit, Zqi can be obtained directly by calculating Eq.
We know that Eq= Ep - vpq (6.4)
where vpq is the voltage across the element p-q
Also ipq = ypq vpq (6.5)

The current in the branch is ipq = 0

Since ypq is finite value vpq = 0

Eq = Ep
or Zqi = Zpi, i = 1,2....... i q (6.6)

The element Zqq is calculated by injecting a current at the q th bus and calculating the voltage at that bus.
Since all other bus currents are zero,

53
E 1 Z1q . I q
E 2 Z2q . I q
.. . . . . .
(6.7)
E p Zpq . I q
. . . . . .
E q Zqq . I q

Letting Iq =1 per unit Zqq can be obtained directly by calculating Eq.

Eq = Ep - vpq (6.8)

The current through the added element :

ipq = -Iq = -1
The voltage drop across the element is:
1
vpq zpq (6.9)
ypq
which gives
Zqq = Zpq + zpq (6.10)

6.2 Addition of a link :

The added branch p-q is a link. The procedure for recalculating the elements of the bus impedance matrix
is to connect in series with the added element a voltage source e l which creates a fictitious node l. The
voltage source el is selected such that the current through the added link is zero.
The performance equation of the partial network with the added element p-1 and the series voltage source
el is :
1
2

Partial p
Network
q
Element p-q
el
m

0
Reference

Addition of a Link

54
 E1 Z11 Z12 .. Z1 p .. Z1m Z1l I 1
E Z Z 22 .. Z 2 p .. Z 2 m Z 2 l I 2
2 21
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
E Z p1 Z p2 .. Z pp .. Z pm Z pl I p (6.11)

p

..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
E m Z m1 Z m2 .. Z mp .. Z mm Z ml I m

el Z l 1 Zl2 .. Z lp .. Z lm Z ll I l

Since el = E1 - Eq(6.12) the element Zii can be determined by injecting a current at the i th bus and
calculating the voltage at the 1th node with respect to bus q. Since other bus currents are zero, it follow
that:
Ek = Zki Ii k = 1,2 .........m (6.13)

el = Zli Ii
Letting Ii = 1 per unit Zli can be obtained by directly calculating e1.

The series voltage source is

el = EP - Eq - vPl (6.14)
Since the current through the added link is ipq = 0, the element p-l can be treated as a branch
ipl = ypl vpl Where ipl=ipq=0;

as ypl is finite vpl=0;

Now (6.14) el=Ep-Eq ;

Therefore Zli=Zpi-Zqi; (6.15)

The element Zll can be determined by injecting a current at the 1 th node with bus q as reference, and
calculating the voltage at the lth bus with respect to bus q. Since all other bus currents are zero.
Ek = Zkl Il k = 1,2.........m (6.16)
el = Zll Il
Letting Il = 1 p.u. Zll can be obtained directly calculating el
The current through the element p-1 is
ipl I 1 1 ypq vpl ;
1
vpl z pq ;
ypq
el E p E q vpl ; 6.17
E p E q z pq ;
Zll Zpl Zql z pq 6.18
The elements of the lth row and column are eliminated by short circuiting the series voltage source e l

E bus Z bus I bus Z il I l 619

.
el Z lj I bus Z ll I l 0 6.20

55
Solving equation (6.20) for I1 and substituting in (6.19)

el Z lj I bus Z ll I l 0;
Z l j I bus
Il ;
Z ll
Zl j
E bus Zbus I bus Zil I bus ;
Z ll
Zil Z l j
E bus Zbus I 6.21
Z ll bus

Equation (6.21) is the performance eqn. of the partial network including the link p-q

Zi l Zl j
Zbus(mod ified ) Zbus( before e lim ination) 6.22
Zll
Where any element of Zbus(modified) is

Zi l Z l j
Zi j (mod ified ) Zi j (before e lim ination ) 6.23
Z ll

**********

56
 APPENDIX-B

I. Formulae for Three phase fault results in Phase and Symmetrical components:

Symmetrical components Three phase components

a)Fault current at bus P

0
1
012,, 10.
abc,, 1 2
'
IpF( ) ZF Zp I ' a
pF( ) ZF Zp
0 a
b)Voltage at faulted bus P

0 1

0,12 ZF a, b c Z F 2
' E ' a
EpF( ) ZF Zp pF( ) ZF Zp
0 a
57
c)Voltage at a bus i other than P

' 1
o
'
012,, 1 Zip '
E ZF Z pp abc,, Zip 2
i ( F ) 0 E 1 ' a
iF( ) ZF Zp
a
d)The fault currents in 3 phase element i-j

0 1
012,, abc,,
1ij

Yijij, EiF( ) EjF( )
' '

Yij,ij EiF( ) EjF( ) a
1ij(F)
' ' 2

0 a

58
II. Formulae for Single Line to Ground fault results in Phase and symmetrical components:

Symmetrical components Three phase components

a)Fault current at bus JP

1 1
012,, Ep()0 abc,, 3Ep()0
0 ' 1 0 ' 0
IpF( ) Zp 2Zp 3ZF IpF( ) Zp 2Zp 3ZF
1 0
b)Voltage at the faulted bus P

59
 Z 0 3ZF
0 1
ZPP 2ZPP 3ZF

0,12 Ep()0 p
abc,, 2 ZPP0 ZPP1
a Z0 2Z1 3Z
0 ' Zp Zp 3ZF
0' E
' p(0) PP PP F
E
EpF( ) ZP 2Zp 3ZF ' pF( ) ZPP0 ZPP1
a Z0 2Z1 3Z

Zp
PP PP F

c) Voltage at a bus i other than P

60
 0 Zip 0 Zi0P 2Zi1F
0 1
0,12 Ep(0) ' 1
Z P 2 Z P 3Z F

E Ei(0)1 0 ' Zip

0 1
a , b c 2 Z iP Z iP
E E i ( 0 ) a E p ( 0) 0 1
i()F Zp 2Zp 3ZF i F)( a ZP 2ZP 3ZF
0 Z' 0 1
ip 0 1
Z iP Z iP
ZP 2ZP 3ZF
d) Short circuit current in the lines connected to the faulty bus

61

Y0 E 0 E 0
qpqp, q(F ) pF( )
1 1
a,bc 2 0,12
012,,
' ' '
Yqpqp, Eq(F) Ep(F)
IqpF( )
2 2 2
i 1 a I
Zqpqp, Eq(F) EpF( ) qp(F) 2 qp(F)
Z

ZT1 ZT2

Y1 Y2
1 a YT

Equivalent Equivalent T

Fig.3.1. and T Equivalent Network for transmission circuit

Z2=Z11- Z2=Z22-
A B B
AZ12 Z12
A Z12
B
Z11 Z22
Z3=Z12
A B
A B A B

A B
Z1+Z2=ZT

A B

62
Fig.3.2 Equivalent Circuit For A Two Winding Transformer
63
 Zp
Zs

ZT

Fig.3.3 Equivalent Circuit For A Three Winding Transformer

Y1
P a:1 Q

Ideal Transformer

Fig.3.4(a) Off Nominal Tap Transformer Representation

P Y1/a Q

Y1 1
a a
1 Y1 1 1a

Fig.3.4(b) Equivalent Circuit Off Nominal Transformer

64
 Winding Connection Of Two Winding Transformer Zero Phase Sequence Networks

ZT
(a)

ZT
(b)

ZT
(c)

ZT
(d)

ZT
(e)

FIG. 3.5 (a to f) Zero Sequence equivalent circuits of Two winding Transformers

65
 Z
(f) T

ZP ZS

(g) ZT

ZP ZS

(h) ZT

ZP ZS

(i) ZT

ZP ZS

(j) ZT

Fig.3.5(g to j) Zero Sequence equivalent circuits of three winding transformer

66
 i
SYSTEM

EP
EP Ei

IP ZF

Fig.3.6 Application of Thevinins theorem to Power System at fault

67
 Steady State Fault Analysis - Questions

1. What is the difference between a balanced fault and an unbalanced fault? Give an
example for each.
2. The shunt impedances to ground due to line charging effect and loads can be neglected in
fault studies: Give reason.
3. Explain the symmetrical components as applied to fault studies?
4. When the zero sequence components of a network are absent?
5. What is the base impedance of a network in terms of kVbase and MVAbase ?
6. Compute the base impedance of a network with 132 kV base and 100 MVA base.
7. Draw the sequence networks of the following network

1 2 3 4

G M

50
132/6.6 kV 6.6 kV
11kV 11/132 kV 25 MVA 10 MVA
25 MVA 25 MVA 10%, 15%, Delta
15%, YN 10%, YNd11
YNd1
Fig 3.7

8. Compute the three phase to ground and single phase to ground fault levels of the network
at bus 3.

68
 Chapter 4
Case Study of Fault Analysis on 19 Bus System
Data and results of Fault Analysis conducted on 19 bus system
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date and Time : Wed Feb 04 16:01:22 2004
File Name & Path : C:\mnm\n19bus_ss\SCS\1N19BUS0S.out0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES
CASE NO : 1 CONTINGENCY : 0 SCHEDULE NO : 0
CONTINGENCY NAME : Lse out,Cse in,Rsh in,C1 in, C2&C3 out

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LARGEST BUS NUMBER USED : 21 ACTUAL NUMBER OF BUSES : 21
NUMBER OF 2 WIND. TRANSFORMERS : 4 NUMBER OF 3 WIND. TRANSFORMERS : 2
NUMBER OF TRANSMISSION LINES : 22
NUMBER OF SERIES REACTORS : 0 NUMBER OF SERIES CAPACITORS : 1
NUMBER OF BUS COUPLERS : 0
NUMBER OF SHUNT REACTORS : 1 NUMBER OF SHUNT CAPACITORS : 3
NUMBER OF SHUNT IMPEDANCES : 0 NUMBER OF GENERATORS : 2
NUMBER OF MOTORS : 1
NUMBER OF LOADS : 9
NUMBER OF FILTERS : 0
NUMBER OF HVDC CONVERTORS : 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NUMBER OF ZONES : 3
PRINT OPTION : 3 (BOTH DATA AND RESULTS PRINT)
PLOT OPTION : 1 (PLOT FILE - PHASE A, AMPS)
BASE MVA : 100.000
NOMINAL SYSTEM FREQUENCY: 50.000
PREFAULT VOLTAGE OPTION : 1 (READ FROM THE FILE)
FAULT OPTION : 0 (FAULT CONSIDERED AT ALL BUSES, ONE AT A TIME)
FLOW OPTION : 1 (FAULT CONTRIBUTION COMPUTED FROM ADJACENT BUSES)
FAULT TYPE : 1 (3 PHASE TO GROUND FAULT)
POST FAULT VOLT OPTION : 0 (NO COMPUTATION)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT RESISTANCE - PHASE - 0.000000 (PU)
FAULT REACTANCE - PHASE - 0.000000 (PU)
FAULT RESISTANCE - GROUND - 0.000000 (PU)
FAULT REACTANCE - GROUND - 0.000100 (PU)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CIRCUIT BREAKER RESISTANCE (PU) : 0.000000
CIRCUIT BREAKER REACTANCE (PU) : 0.000100
TRANSFORMER R/X RATIO : 0.050000
TRANSFORMER ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE MULT FACTOR : 0.900000

NUMBER OF TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE LEVELS : 6

TRANSMISSION LINE VOLTAGE - KV : 400.000000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE RES. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE REA. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE ADM. MULT. FACTOR : 0.800000
TRANSMISSION LINE VOLTAGE - KV : 11.000000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE RES. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE REA. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000

69
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE ADM. MULT. FACTOR : 0.800000
TRANSMISSION LINE VOLTAGE - KV : 15.750000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE RES. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE REA. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE ADM. MULT. FACTOR : 0.800000
TRANSMISSION LINE VOLTAGE - KV : 220.000000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE RES. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE REA. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE ADM. MULT. FACTOR : 0.800000
TRANSMISSION LINE VOLTAGE - KV : 132.000000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE RES. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE REA. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE ADM. MULT. FACTOR : 0.800000
TRANSMISSION LINE VOLTAGE - KV : 66.000000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE RES. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE REA. MULT. FACTOR : 2.500000
TRANSMISSION LINE ZERO SEQUENCE ADM. MULT. FACTOR : 0.025000

GENERATOR NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RESISTANCE MULT. FACTOR : 0.175000

GENERATOR NEGATIVE SEQUENCE REACTANCE MULT. FACTOR : 0.175000
GENERATOR ZERO SEQUENCE RESISTANCE MULT. FACTOR : 0.037500
GENERATOR ZERO SEQUENCE REACTANCE MULT. FACTOR : 0.037500
LOAD NEGATIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE MULT. FACTOR : 0.810000
LOAD ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE MULT. FACTOR : 1.600000
SERIES REACTOR ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE MULT. FACTOR : 1.000000
SHUNT REACTOR ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE MULT. FACTOR : 0.625000
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONSIDERED FROM SENDING END OF LINE NUMBER 0 AT 0.00%
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BUS DATA
NODE STAT ZONE BUS-KV NAME VMAG-PU VANG-DEG PGEN-MW QGEN-MR
PLOAD-MW QLOAD-MR QCOMP-MR
---- ---- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 1 1 11.000 BUSG1 1.0000 -0.881 200.000 18.690
0.000 0.000 0.000
2 1 1 15.750 BUSG2 1.0000 0.000 410.920 33.800
42.000 21.400 0.000
3 1 1 220.000 BUS3 1.0404 -6.408 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
4 1 1 220.000 BUS4 1.0465 -3.951 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
5 1 1 220.000 BUS5 1.0224 -9.515 0.000 0.000
100.000 50.000 25.000
6 1 2 132.000 BUS6 1.0043 -13.200 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
7 1 1 11.000 BUS7 1.1091 -9.728 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
8 1 2 132.000 BUS8 0.9751 -14.727 0.000 0.000
50.000 25.000 0.000
9 1 2 132.000 BUS9 0.9766 -14.638 0.000 0.000
50.000 25.000 0.000
10 1 1 220.000 BUS10 1.0212 -11.541 0.000 0.000
80.000 40.000 0.000
11 1 3 66.000 BUS11 1.1288 -14.634 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
12 1 1 11.000 BUS12 1.1346 -11.549 0.000 0.000

70
 0.000 0.000 0.000
13 1 3 66.000 BUS13 1.0950
-17.148 0.000 0.000
40.000 25.000 25.000
14 1 3 66.000 BUS14 1.0884 -17.673 0.000 0.000
40.000 25.000 25.000
15 1 1 11.000 BUS15 1.1137 -17.673 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
16 1 1 220.000 Bus16 0.8868 -30.577 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
17 1 1 220.000 Bus17 0.9211 -21.843 0.000 0.000
120.000 60.000 20.000
18 1 1 400.000 Bus18 1.0373 -14.718 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
19 1 1 400.000 Bus19 1.0321 -16.711 0.000 0.000
60.000 30.000 0.000
20 1 1 220.000 DUM0001 1.0354 -9.524 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
21 1 1 220.000 DUM0002 1.1346 -11.549 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSFORMER DATA

STAT CKTS FROM FROM TO TO POSITIVE ZERO

NODE NAME NODE NAME R(P.U) X(P.U.) R(P.U.) X(P.U.)
TAP PHASE FB-MVA TB-MVA
---- ---- ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- - -
3 2 3 BUS3 1 BUSG1 0.00240 0.04794 0.00240 0.04794
1.05000 0.000 5000 5000 G D
3 3 4 BUS4 2 BUSG2 0.00093 0.01864 0.00093 0.01864
1.05000 0.000 5000 5000 G D
3 1 14 BUS14 15 BUS15 0.03228 0.64559 24.03476 0.64559
0.97727 0.000 5000 5000 D G
3 1 18 Bus18 10 BUS10 0.00479 0.09588 0.00479 0.09588
0.95000 0.000 5000 5000 G D
3 2 5 BUS5 20 DUM0001 0.00001 0.00017 0.00001 0.00017
0.98750 0.000 5000 1000 G G
3 2 6 BUS6 20 DUM0001 0.00334 0.06675 0.00334 0.06675
1.00000 0.000 5000 1000 G G
3 2 7 BUS7 20 DUM0001 0.00831 0.16629 0.00831 0.16629
1.00000 0.000 5000 1000 D G
3 2 10 BUS10 21 DUM0002 0.00001 0.00021 0.00001 0.00021
0.90000 0.000 5000 1000 G G
3 2 11 BUS11 21 DUM0002 0.00417 0.08344 0.00417 0.08344
1.00000 0.000 5000 1000 G G
3 2 12 BUS12 21 DUM0002 0.01039 0.20787 0.01039 0.20787
1.00000 0.000 5000 1000 D G

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

71
TRANSMISSION LINE DATA

STAT CKTS FROM FROM TO TO

NODE NAME NODE NAME RP(P.U) XP(P.U) BP/2(PU)
RZ(P.U) XZ(P.U) BZ/2(PU) FB-MVA TB-MVA
---- ---- ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- ------ ------
3 1 3 BUS3 4 BUS4 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941
0.04125 0.20650 0.05551 5000 5000
3 1 3 BUS3 4 BUS4 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941
0.04125 0.20650 0.05551 5000 5000
3 1 3 BUS3 10 BUS10 0.01237 0.06195 0.05205
0.03094 0.15487 0.04164 5000 5000
3 1 3 BUS3 10 BUS10 0.01237 0.06195 0.05205
0.03094 0.15487 0.04164 5000 5000
3 1 4 BUS4 5 BUS5 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941
0.04125 0.20650 0.05551 5000 5000
3 1 4 BUS4 5 BUS5 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941
0.04125 0.20650 0.05551 5000 5000
3 1 5 BUS5 10 BUS10 0.01485 0.07434 0.06247
0.03713 0.18585 0.04996 5000 5000
3 1 6 BUS6 8 BUS8 0.06510 0.13738 0.01481
0.16276 0.34346 0.01184 5000 5000
3 1 6 BUS6 8 BUS8 0.06510 0.13738 0.01481
0.16276 0.34346 0.01184 5000 5000
3 1 6 BUS6 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01234
0.13563 0.28621 0.00987 5000 5000
3 1 6 BUS6 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01234
0.13563 0.28621 0.00987 5000 5000
3 1 8 BUS8 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01234
0.13563 0.28621 0.00987 5000 5000
3 1 8 BUS8 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01234
0.13563 0.28621 0.00987 5000 5000
3 1 11 BUS11 14 BUS14 0.29275 0.42836 0.00252
0.73188 1.07089 0.00201 5000 5000
3 1 11 BUS11 14 BUS14 0.29275 0.42836 0.00252
0.73188 1.07089 0.00201 5000 5000
3 1 11 BUS11 13 BUS13 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126
0.36594 0.53545 0.00101 5000 5000
3 1 11 BUS11 13 BUS13 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126
0.36594 0.53545 0.00101 5000 5000
3 1 13 BUS13 14 BUS14 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126
0.36594 0.53545 0.00101 5000 5000
3 1 13 BUS13 14 BUS14 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126
0.36594 0.53545 0.00101 5000 5000
3 1 10 BUS10 16 Bus16 0.04950 0.24780 0.20822
0.12375 0.61949 0.16654 5000 5000
0 1 16 Bus16 17 Bus17 0.00017 0.00083 0.00069
0.00041 0.00206 0.00056 5000 5000
3 1 18 Bus18 19 Bus19 0.00559 0.06225 0.83250
0.00068 0.00765 0.00000 5000 5000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

72
SERIES CAPACITOR AND REACTOR DATA

STAT FROM FROM TO TO POSITIVE ZERO

NODE NAME NODE NAME R(P.U) X(P.U) R(P.U) X(P.U)
FB-MVA TB-MVA
---- ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- ------- -------
3 16 Bus16 17 Bus17 0.00021 -0.10331 0.00021 -0.10331
5000 5000

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SHUNT REACTOR AND CAPACITOR DATA - ADMITTANCE FORM

FROM FROM POSITIVE ZERO

NODE NAME G(P.U) B(P.U.) G(P.U.) B(P.U.) CB-MVA STAT LOCATION
---- -------- --------- --------- --------- --------- -------- ---- --------
19 Bus19 0.00000 -0.57143 0.00000 -0.57143 5000 3 0
7 BUS7 0.00000 0.40000 0.00000 0.40000 5000 3 0
12 BUS12 0.00000 0.50000 0.00000 0.50000 5000 0 0
14 BUS14 0.00000 0.50000 0.00000 0.50000 5000 0 0

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

GENERATOR/MOTOR DATA

Classification Code :
0 : Generator
1 : Large Motor >1000 hp for <= 1800 rpm, >250 hp for 3600 rpm
2 : Medium Motor >= 50 hp
3 : Small Motor < 50 hp

FROM FROM POSITIVE NEGATIVE ZERO

CLASS
NODE NAME R(P.U) X(P.U.) R(P.U.) X(P.U.) R(P.U.) X(P.U.) CB-MVA STAT
CODE
---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- ------ ----
-----
1 BUSG1 0.00045 0.13964 0.00045 0.07658 0.00045 0.04730 5000 3
0
2 BUSG2 0.00014 0.03634 0.00014 0.03443 0.00014 0.01434 5000 3
0
15 BUS15 0.73632 4.28094 0.73632 4.28094 999.00000 999.000 5000 3
1

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LOAD DATA

NODE NAME STATUS

---- -------- ------
2 BUSG2 3
5 BUS5 3
8 BUS8 3
9 BUS9 3
10 BUS10 3
13 BUS13 3
14 BUS14 3

73
 17 Bus17 3
19 Bus19 3
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 1 : NAME BUSG1
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
79407 -82.29 79407 -82.29 1513 1513
0 -90.00 79407 157.71 0 1513
0 -90.00 79407 37.71 0 1513
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.1511
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 187911 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.6733
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
1 BUSG1 3 BUS3 39968 90.91 39968 90.91 761
0 -90.00 39968 -29.09 761
0 -90.00 39968 -149.09 761
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
1 BUSG1 40003 104.51 40003 104.51 762
0 -90.00 40003 -15.49 762
0 -90.00 40003 -135.49 762
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 2 : NAME BUSG2
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
119913 -81.82 119913 -81.82 3271 3271
0 -90.00 119913 158.18 0 3271
0 -90.00 119913 38.18 0 3271
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.1437
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 286488 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.6894
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
2 BUSG2 4 BUS4 16659 95.55 16659 95.55 454
0 -90.00 16659 -24.45 454
0 -90.00 16659 -144.45 454
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

74
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
2 BUSG2 103275 98.60 103275 98.60 2817
0 -90.00 103275 -21.40 2817
0 -90.00 103275 -141.40 2817
2 BUSG2 0 -90.00 0 -90.00 0
0 -90.00 0 -90.00 0
0 -90.00 0 -90.00 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 3 : NAME BUS3
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
4447 -79.01 4447 -79.01 1695 1695
0 -90.00 4447 160.99 0 1695
0 -90.00 4447 40.99 0 1695
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.3133
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 8969 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.4260
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
3 BUS3 1 BUSG1 1418 105.20 1418 105.20 540
0 -90.00 1418 -14.80 540
0 -90.00 1418 -134.80 540
3 BUS3 4 BUS4 1178 101.12 1178 101.12 449
0 -90.00 1178 -18.88 449
0 -90.00 1178 -138.88 449
3 BUS3 4 BUS4 1178 101.12 1178 101.12 449
0 -90.00 1178 -18.88 449
0 -90.00 1178 -138.88 449
3 BUS3 10 BUS10 343 91.79 343 91.79 131
0 -90.00 343 -28.21 131
0 -90.00 343 -148.21 131
3 BUS3 10 BUS10 343 91.79 343 91.79 131
0 -90.00 343 -28.21 131
0 -90.00 343 -148.21 131
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 4 : NAME BUS4
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
5885 -80.60 5885 -80.60 2242 2242

75
 0 -90.00 5885 159.40 0 2242
0 -90.00 5885 39.40 0 2242
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.2373
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 12658 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.5210
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
4 BUS4 2 BUSG2 4640 99.21 4640 99.21 1768
0 -90.00 4640 -20.79 1768
0 -90.00 4640 -140.79 1768
4 BUS4 3 BUS3 486 102.10 486 102.10 185
0 -90.00 486 -17.90 185
0 -90.00 486 -137.90 185
4 BUS4 3 BUS3 486 102.10 486 102.10 185
0 -90.00 486 -17.90 185
0 -90.00 486 -137.90 185
4 BUS4 5 BUS5 138 93.11 138 93.11 53
0 -90.00 138 -26.89 53
0 -90.00 138 -146.89 53
4 BUS4 5 BUS5 138 93.11 138 93.11 53
0 -90.00 138 -26.89 53
0 -90.00 138 -146.89 53
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 5 : NAME BUS5
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
3710 -78.72 3710 -78.72 1414 1414
0 -90.00 3710 161.28 0 1414
0 -90.00 3710 41.28 0 1414
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.3797
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 7046 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.3430
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
5 BUS5 20 DUM0001 5 -95.04 5 -95.04 2
0 -90.00 5 144.96 2
0 -90.00 5 24.96 2
5 BUS5 4 BUS4 1349 102.69 1349 102.69 514
0 -90.00 1349 -17.31 514
0 -90.00 1349 -137.31 514
5 BUS5 4 BUS4 1349 102.69 1349 102.69 514

76
 0 -90.00 1349 -17.31 514
0 -90.00 1349 -137.31 514
5 BUS5 10 BUS10 1014 97.52 1014 97.52 386
0 -90.00 1014 -22.48 386
0 -90.00 1014 -142.48 386
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
5 BUS5 0 75.96 0 75.96 0
0 -90.00 0 -44.04 0
0 -90.00 0 -164.04 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 6 : NAME BUS6
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
3318 -85.46 3318 -85.46 759 759
0 -90.00 3318 154.54 0 759
0 -90.00 3318 34.54 0 759
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.3200
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 6652 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.4176
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
6 BUS6 20 DUM0001 3318 94.54 3318 94.54 759
0 -90.00 3318 -25.46 759
0 -90.00 3318 -145.46 759
6 BUS6 8 BUS8 0 100.01 0 100.01 0
0 -90.00 0 -19.99 0
0 -90.00 0 -139.99 0
6 BUS6 8 BUS8 0 100.01 0 100.01 0
0 -90.00 0 -19.99 0
0 -90.00 0 -139.99 0
6 BUS6 9 BUS9 0 99.19 0 99.19 0
0 -90.00 0 -20.81 0
0 -90.00 0 -140.81 0
6 BUS6 9 BUS9 0 99.19 0 99.19 0
0 -90.00 0 -20.81 0
0 -90.00 0 -140.81 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

77
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 7 : NAME BUS7
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
22322 -90.83 22322 -90.83 425 425
0 -90.00 22322 149.17 0 425
0 -90.00 22322 29.17 0 425
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.1566
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 52447 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.6614
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
7 BUS7 20 DUM0001 22322 89.17 22322 89.17 425
0 -90.00 22322 -30.83 425
0 -90.00 22322 -150.83 425
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
7 BUS7 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
0 -90.00 0 -120.00 0
0 -90.00 0 120.00 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 8 : NAME BUS8
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
2494 -82.35 2494 -82.35 570 570
0 -90.00 2494 157.65 0 570
0 -90.00 2494 37.65 0 570
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.4117
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 4619 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.3093
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
8 BUS8 6 BUS6 783 97.90 783 97.90 179
0 -90.00 783 -22.10 179
0 -90.00 783 -142.10 179
8 BUS8 6 BUS6 783 97.90 783 97.90 179
0 -90.00 783 -22.10 179
0 -90.00 783 -142.10 179
8 BUS8 9 BUS9 464 97.22 464 97.22 106
0 -90.00 464 -22.78 106
0 -90.00 464 -142.78 106
8 BUS8 9 BUS9 464 97.22 464 97.22 106

78
 0 -90.00 464 -22.78 106
0 -90.00 464 -142.78 106
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
8 BUS8 0 -33.69 0 -33.69 0
0 -90.00 0 -153.69 0
0 -90.00 0 86.31 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 9 : NAME BUS9
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
2549 -82.51 2549 -82.51 583 583
0 -90.00 2549 157.49 0 583
0 -90.00 2549 37.49 0 583
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.4066
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 4733 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.3129
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
9 BUS9 6 BUS6 880 97.72 880 97.72 201
0 -90.00 880 -22.28 201
0 -90.00 880 -142.28 201
9 BUS9 6 BUS6 880 97.72 880 97.72 201
0 -90.00 880 -22.28 201
0 -90.00 880 -142.28 201
9 BUS9 8 BUS8 394 96.97 394 96.97 90
0 -90.00 394 -23.03 90
0 -90.00 394 -143.03 90
9 BUS9 8 BUS8 394 96.97 394 96.97 90
0 -90.00 394 -23.03 90
0 -90.00 394 -143.03 90
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
9 BUS9 0 -116.57 0 -116.57 0
0 -90.00 0 123.43 0
0 -90.00 0 3.43 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 10 : NAME BUS10
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
3579 -77.37 3579 -77.37 1364 1364

79
 0 -90.00 3579 162.63 0 1364
0 -90.00 3579 42.63 0 1364
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.4489
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 6493 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.2829
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
10 BUS10 18 Bus18 0 -109.36 0 -109.36 0
0 -90.00 0 130.64 0
0 -90.00 0 10.64 0
10 BUS10 21 DUM0002 64 76.41 64 76.41 24
0 -90.00 64 -43.59 24
0 -90.00 64 -163.59 24
10 BUS10 3 BUS3 1207 104.46 1207 104.46 460
0 -90.00 1207 -15.54 460
0 -90.00 1207 -135.54 460
10 BUS10 3 BUS3 1207 104.46 1207 104.46 460
0 -90.00 1207 -15.54 460
0 -90.00 1207 -135.54 460
10 BUS10 5 BUS5 1112 100.09 1112 100.09 424
0 -90.00 1112 -19.91 424
0 -90.00 1112 -139.91 424
10 BUS10 16 Bus16 0 79.97 0 79.97 0
0 -90.00 0 -40.03 0
0 -90.00 0 -160.03 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
10 BUS10 0 -116.57 0 -116.57 0
0 -90.00 0 123.43 0
0 -90.00 0 3.43 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 11 : NAME BUS11
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
5919 -86.05 5919 -86.05 677 677
0 -90.00 5919 153.95 0 677
0 -90.00 5919 33.95 0 677
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.3362
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 11696 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.3974
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

80
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
11 BUS11 21 DUM0002 5737 94.44 5737 94.44 656
0 -90.00 5737 -25.56 656
0 -90.00 5737 -145.56 656
11 BUS11 14 BUS14 47 79.36 47 79.36 5
0 -90.00 47 -40.64 5
0 -90.00 47 -160.64 5
11 BUS11 14 BUS14 47 79.36 47 79.36 5
0 -90.00 47 -40.64 5
0 -90.00 47 -160.64 5
11 BUS11 13 BUS13 47 78.35 47 78.35 5
0 -90.00 47 -41.65 5
0 -90.00 47 -161.65 5
11 BUS11 13 BUS13 47 78.35 47 78.35 5
0 -90.00 47 -41.65 5
0 -90.00 47 -161.65 5
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 12 : NAME BUS12
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
20095 -92.17 20095 -92.17 383 383
0 -90.00 20095 147.83 0 383
0 -90.00 20095 27.83 0 383
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.1651
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 46693 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.6430
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
12 BUS12 21 DUM0002 20095 87.83 20095 87.83 383
0 -90.00 20095 -32.17 383
0 -90.00 20095 -152.17 383
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

81
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 13 : NAME BUS13
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
3894 -79.17 3894 -79.17 445 445
0 -90.00 3894 160.83 0 445
0 -90.00 3894 40.83 0 445
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.5312
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 6743 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.2245
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
13 BUS13 11 BUS11 1426 101.74 1426 101.74 163
0 -90.00 1426 -18.26 163
0 -90.00 1426 -138.26 163
13 BUS13 11 BUS11 1426 101.74 1426 101.74 163
0 -90.00 1426 -18.26 163
0 -90.00 1426 -138.26 163
13 BUS13 14 BUS14 521 98.33 521 98.33 60
0 -90.00 521 -21.67 60
0 -90.00 521 -141.67 60
13 BUS13 14 BUS14 521 98.33 521 98.33 60
0 -90.00 521 -21.67 60
0 -90.00 521 -141.67 60
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
13 BUS13 0 -51.34 0 -51.34 0
0 -90.00 0 -171.34 0
0 -90.00 0 68.66 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 14 : NAME BUS14
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
3535 -78.55 3535 -78.55 404 404
0 -90.00 3535 161.45 0 404
0 -90.00 3535 41.45 0 404
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.5572
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 6030 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.2061
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
14 BUS14 15 BUS15 200 81.19 200 81.19 23

82
 0 -90.00 200 -38.81 23
0 -90.00 200 -158.81 23
14 BUS14 11 BUS11 842 103.15 842 103.15 96
0 -90.00 842 -16.85 96
0 -90.00 842 -136.85 96
14 BUS14 11 BUS11 842 103.15 842 103.15 96
0 -90.00 842 -16.85 96
0 -90.00 842 -136.85 96
14 BUS14 13 BUS13 832 102.12 832 102.12 95
0 -90.00 832 -17.88 95
0 -90.00 832 -137.88 95
14 BUS14 13 BUS13 832 102.12 832 102.12 95
0 -90.00 832 -17.88 95
0 -90.00 832 -137.88 95
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
14 BUS14 0 -90.00 0 -90.00 0
0 -90.00 0 -90.00 0
0 -90.00 0 -90.00 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 15 : NAME BUS15

CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
7693 -96.53 7693 -96.53 147 147
0 -90.00 7693 143.47 0 147
0 -90.00 7693 23.47 0 147
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.1969
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 17126 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.5743
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
15 BUS15 14 BUS14 6347 83.76 6347 83.76 121
0 -90.00 6347 -36.24 121
0 -90.00 6347 -156.24 121
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
15 BUS15 1346 82.09 1346 82.09 26
0 -90.00 1346 -37.91 26
0 -90.00 1346 -157.91 26
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

83
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 16 : NAME Bus16
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
865 -83.87 865 -83.87 330 330
0 -90.00 865 156.13 0 330
0 -90.00 865 36.13 0 330
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.7455
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 1380 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.1279
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
16 Bus16 10 BUS10 865 96.13 865 96.13 330
0 -90.00 865 -23.87 330
0 -90.00 865 -143.87 330
16 Bus16 17 Bus17 0 171.52 0 171.52 0
0 -90.00 0 51.52 0
0 -90.00 0 -68.48 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 17 : NAME Bus17

CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
1197 -78.13 1197 -78.13 456 456
0 -90.00 1197 161.87 0 456
0 -90.00 1197 41.87 0 456
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.6673
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 1952 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.1536
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
17 Bus17 16 Bus16 1197 101.87 1197 101.87 456
0 -90.00 1197 -18.13 456
0 -90.00 1197 -138.13 456
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------

84
 17 Bus17 0 161.57 0 161.57 0
0 -90.00 0 41.57 0
0 -90.00 0 -78.43 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 18 : NAME Bus18

CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
902 -87.56 902 -87.56 625 625
0 -90.00 902 152.44 0 625
0 -90.00 902 32.44 0 625
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.3088
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 1825 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.4316
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
18 Bus18 10 BUS10 902 92.44 902 92.44 625
0 -90.00 902 -27.56 625
0 -90.00 902 -147.56 625
18 Bus18 19 Bus19 0 76.37 0 76.37 0
0 -90.00 0 -43.63 0
0 -90.00 0 -163.63 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 19 : NAME Bus19
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
661 -89.40 661 -89.40 458 458
0 -90.00 661 150.60 0 458
0 -90.00 661 30.60 0 458
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.3116
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 1336 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.4281
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
19 Bus19 18 Bus18 661 90.60 661 90.60 458
0 -90.00 661 -29.40 458
0 -90.00 661 -149.40 458
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

85
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
19 Bus19 0 80.54 0 80.54 0
0 -90.00 0 -39.46 0
0 -90.00 0 -159.46 0
19 Bus19 0 143.97 0 143.97 0
0 -90.00 0 23.97 0
0 -90.00 0 -96.03 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 20 : NAME DUM0001
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
3655 -78.76 3655 -78.76 1393 1393
0 -90.00 3655 161.24 0 1393
0 -90.00 3655 41.24 0 1393
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.3792
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 6946 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.3436
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
20 DUM0001 5 BUS5 3660 101.22 3660 101.22 1395
0 -90.00 3660 -18.78 1395
0 -90.00 3660 -138.78 1395
20 DUM0001 6 BUS6 0 -99.67 0 -99.67 0
0 -90.00 0 140.33 0
0 -90.00 0 20.33 0
20 DUM0001 7 BUS7 0 91.67 0 91.67 0
0 -90.00 0 -28.33 0
0 -90.00 0 -148.33 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT AT BUS NUMBER 21 : NAME DUM0002
CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) FAULT MVA
SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
--------- ------- --------- ------- --------- ---------
3214 -77.41 3214 -77.41 1225 1225
0 -90.00 3214 162.59 0 1225
0 -90.00 3214 42.59 0 1225
R/X RATIO OF THE SHORT CIRCUIT PATH : 0.4482
PEAK ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT : 5834 AMPS
PASCC = k x sqrt(2) x If , k = 1.2834
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

86
FAULT CONTRIBUTION
FROM FROM TO TO CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- ---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
21 DUM0002 10 BUS10 3163 103.06 3163 103.06 1205
0 -90.00 3163 -16.94 1205
0 -90.00 3163 -136.94 1205
21 DUM0002 11 BUS11 55 75.81 55 75.81 21
0 -90.00 55 -44.19 21
0 -90.00 55 -164.19 21
21 DUM0002 12 BUS12 0 -177.14 0 -177.14 0
0 -90.00 0 62.86 0
0 -90.00 0 -57.14 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FAULT CONTRIBUTION FROM SHUNT CONNECTION
FROM FROM CURRENT (AMPS/DEGREE) MVA
NODE NAME SEQUENCE (1,2,0) PHASE (A,B,C) PHASE(A,B,C)
MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE ANGLE MAGNITUDE
---- -------- --------- ------- --------- ------- ---------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 phase fault level
Bus No. Name BUS kV 3PH-fMVA Fault I
NOMINAL kA
------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 11.000 79407.1 4167.916
2 BUSG2 15.750 119912.8 4395.793
3 BUS3 220.000 4447.4 11.672
4 BUS4 220.000 5884.6 15.444
5 BUS5 220.000 3709.6 9.735
6 BUS6 132.000 3318.1 14.513
7 BUS7 11.000 22322.4 1171.654
8 BUS8 132.000 2494.4 10.910
9 BUS9 132.000 2549.3 11.150
10 BUS10 220.000 3578.8 9.392
11 BUS11 66.000 5918.6 51.776
12 BUS12 11.000 20095.4 1054.763
13 BUS13 66.000 3893.9 34.064
14 BUS14 66.000 3535.2 30.926
15 BUS15 11.000 7692.5 403.766
16 Bus16 220.000 865.1 2.270
17 Bus17 220.000 1196.8 3.141
18 Bus18 400.000 901.6 1.301
19 Bus19 400.000 661.4 0.955
20 DUM0001 220.000 3655.4 9.593
21 DUM0002 220.000 3214.5 8.436
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

From From From Bus-f Line-f To To To Bus-f Line-f

Node Name Rating MVA MVA Node Name Rating MVA MVA
---- -------- ------ ------ ------ ---- -------- ------ ------ ------
3 BUS3 5000 1695 270 1 BUSG1 5000 1513 381
4 BUS4 5000 2242 589 2 BUSG2 5000 3271 151
14 BUS14 5000 404 23 15 BUS15 5000 147 121
18 Bus18 5000 625 625 10 BUS10 5000 1364 0
5 BUS5 5000 1414 1 6 BUS6 1000 759 697

87
 6 BUS6 5000 759 379 7 BUS7 1000 425 0
7 BUS7 5000 425 213 5 BUS5 1000 1414 0 $&
10 BUS10 5000 1364 12 11 BUS11 1000 677 603
11 BUS11 5000 677 328 12 BUS12 1000 383 11
12 BUS12 5000 383 191 10 BUS10 1000 1364 0 $&
3 BUS3 5000 1695 449 4 BUS4 5000 2242 185
3 BUS3 5000 1695 449 4 BUS4 5000 2242 185
3 BUS3 5000 1695 131 10 BUS10 5000 1364 460
3 BUS3 5000 1695 131 10 BUS10 5000 1364 460
4 BUS4 5000 2242 53 5 BUS5 5000 1414 514
4 BUS4 5000 2242 53 5 BUS5 5000 1414 514
5 BUS5 5000 1414 386 10 BUS10 5000 1364 424
6 BUS6 5000 759 0 8 BUS8 5000 570 179
6 BUS6 5000 759 0 8 BUS8 5000 570 179
6 BUS6 5000 759 0 9 BUS9 5000 583 201
6 BUS6 5000 759 0 9 BUS9 5000 583 201
8 BUS8 5000 570 106 9 BUS9 5000 583 90
8 BUS8 5000 570 106 9 BUS9 5000 583 90
11 BUS11 5000 677 5 14 BUS14 5000 404 96
11 BUS11 5000 677 5 14 BUS14 5000 404 96
11 BUS11 5000 677 5 13 BUS13 5000 445 163
11 BUS11 5000 677 5 13 BUS13 5000 445 163
13 BUS13 5000 445 60 14 BUS14 5000 404 95
13 BUS13 5000 445 60 14 BUS14 5000 404 95
10 BUS10 5000 1364 0 16 Bus16 5000 330 330
16 Bus16 5000 330 0 17 Bus17 5000 456 0
18 Bus18 5000 625 0 19 Bus19 5000 458 458
16 Bus16 5000 330 1 17 Bus17 5000 456 1 # &
Number of instants net fault flow exceeding FROM breaker rating (# mark) : 1
Number of instants bus fault level exceeding TO breaker rating ($ mark) : 2
Number of instants net fault flow exceeding TO breaker rating (& mark) : 3
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date and Time : Wed Feb 04 16:01:45 2004
File Name & Path : C:\mnm\n19bus_ss\SCS\1N19BUS0S.out0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

88
 Chapter 5

POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

1.0 Steady State Stability

The term steady state implies a system condition of constant (i.e., steady) loads and
generation. In reality, no power system operates with constant consumer loads and constant generator
outputs. Load demand varies continuously throughout the day. Every change in load requires a
corresponding change in generator output to maintain system balance. Since load and generation are
continually changing, the power system could be said to be always in a changing, or dynamic state and
never in a steady state at all.
However, the changes in generator output caused by minute-to-minute load variations are
relatively small and not of any real concern. System operators, with the help of automatic controls, can
keep track of the changes and make adjustments so that the system remains intact and secure. For the
purpose of analyzing and understanding a system, we neglect these small, slow changes, and consider the
system to be in a steady state. Well now look at the effects of disturbances, which interfere with steady
state operation, and cause the system to enter a dynamic state.
Disturbances take the form of large and sudden changes in the power system. Examples of these
changes are: sudden dropping of a large load, loss of a generating unit, or a fault on a critical part of the
power system, resulting in tripping of a line or transformer. The system undergoes large power and volt-
age variations (i.e., swings) in the few seconds following such disturbances. While these power and
voltage swings are occurring, the system is said to be in the dynamic state. The dynamic state is the
transition period that must occur when a disturbance forces a system to go from one steady state operating
condition to another. It may also be called the transient state, although this term usually refers to the
period of about one second following a disturbance.
The power flows get redistributed in case of line outage. The power system shifts from one steady
state to other in the process. The post-disturbance steady state conditions are those that exist from a few
seconds to several minutes after a disturbance, that is, after the dynamic period is over.
This lesson studies the dynamic period that occurs between these two steady states. The dynamic
period is of interest because, if the change caused by the disturbance is too large, the system may not
make it to the new steady state. When a system does not survive the dynamic period it is said to be
unstable.
1.1 The two machine system:
To illustrate what goes on in a system during the dynamic period, consider Figure 5.l. Here we
have a network consisting of two systems, each having its own generation and load. A single generator
and load in each system are used to represent the many individual generators and loads. The two
systems, System 1 and System 2, are connected by two identical tie lines. Well first review the effect of a
trip of one of the tie lines on steady state operation, then extend the analysis to include the dynamic
period.
System 1, with excess generation, is supplying 1000 MW to System 2, which has excess load. Tripping
one of the tie lines under normal conditions should not pose a threat to the two Systems if they are
designed to transfer 1000 MW. However, if the line trip occurs when either system is in a weakened
state, the systems may not survive the dynamic period following the trip, and therefore may not reach a
new steady state.
As an example, suppose a problem in System 2 causes the loss of a 500 MW generator. If System
2 has only 200 MW of spinning reserve, then for a period of time after the 500 MW unit shuts down,

89
System 2 must rely on System 1 to supply the extra 300 MW over the tie lines. The new tie line flows
would go to 650 MW each for a total of 1300 MW.

Figure 5.1. Two Systems Connected by Two Identical Tie-Lines

The operators in System 2 would bring 10 and 30 minute reserves on-line as it is necessary to
reduce the tie line flows to the original 1000 MW. However, in the period before the reserves go on-line,
the interconnected system is stressed beyond normal levels. If one of the tie lines is faulted and tripped
while line loadings are high, the interconnection may not be able to survive the dynamic period
immediately following the line trip.
The concepts of machine stability, in both steady state and dynamic periods, are based on the
power flows on transmission lines. The power flow on a transmission line is calculated from the power-
angle equation shown in Figure 5.2.
V1 and V2 are the voltages at buses 1 and 2, respectively. X L is the inductive reactance of the line,
and the angle delta () is the phase angle difference between voltages V 1 and V2.
From the power-angle equation, one can see that the maximum flow occurs when the sine of the
angle is unity, its highest possible value. This occurs when the angle is 90, and can be readily
visualized from the power-angle curve plotted in Figure 5.3. Note that the maximum power flow is
given by (V1 x V2)/XL (i.e., when sin =1). The angle of 90 across the line is the maximum phase angle
that can be attained during steady state operation. This maximum angle is called the steady state stability
limit. If the system is operating with close to 90, and we attempt to transmit more power across the
line by opening the throttles of the sending system generators, the phase angle would increase beyond 90
and the power transfer would actually decrease, as shown by the curve. If the angle exceeds 90, the
rotors of the sending end generators will begin accelerating while receiving end generators will
decelerate. This situation will be discussed in more detail in the next segment.
We can draw a similar power-angle curve for our two-system example of Figure 5.l. However, we
must note that the term XL in the power-angle equation would represent the equivalent reactance of the
two transmission lines in parallel under normal conditions. When one line is removed from service, X L
represents the reactance of the single remaining line.
Figure 5.4 shows power-angle curves for our two-system example. The dotted curve represents
the power transfer when both lines are in service. With a power flow of 1000 MW across the lines, you

90
can see that our phase angle, 1, is well below the maximum of 90.

Figure 5.2. Power-Angle Equation

Figure 5.3. Power-Angle Curve

91
 Figure 5.4. Effect of Removing One Line From Service
Now suppose one line is tripped. We suddenly have double the impedance between bus 1 and bus
2. From the power-angle equation, the maximum steady state power flow will be halved. This is shown in
Figure 5.4 by the solid curve, whose peak value is half of the peak of the dotted curve. However, since
load and generation in the systems are unchanged, the actual power transfer between the two systems
must remain the same - at 1000 MW. The entire 1000 MW will flow on the one remaining line.
In order to transfer 1000 MW across the single transmission line, the generator rotors in System 1
will advance in phase relative to the rotors in System 2, thus increasing the phase angle across the line
from 1 to 2, as shown Figure 5.4. We can see that, after one line is removed, the system will be operating
much closer to its 90 steady state stability limit.
Though the angle across the system must be less than 90 in the post-disturbance steady state, it
can exceed 90 during the dynamic period. In the next segments, we will see how and why the system can
remain stable even though the angle temporarily exceeds 90. This is the key to an understanding of
system behavior during the dynamic period.

92
 QUESTIONS
1. Why is a power system said to be in steady state even though consumer loads and generator
outputs are constantly changing?
2. After a large system change, the transition period between the previous steady state and the new
steady state is called the___________ state or the___________ state.

3.

The above system shows a generator feeding a load over two identical transmission lines.
(a) The initial flow on each line is _________ MW.
Suppose one line is tripped. In the post-disturbance steady state:
(b) The flow on the remaining line is _____MW.
(c) The impedance between bus A and bus B has
(i) Doubled (ii) Been halved (iii) Remained the same
Circle correct answers:
(d) The maximum power transfer has
(i) Doubled (ii) Been halved (iii) Remained the same
(e) The total power transfer between bus A and bus B has
(i) Doubled (ii) Been halved (iii) Remained the same
(f) The phase angle between bus A and bus B has
(i) Increased (ii) Decreased (iii) Remained the same
4. List three system changes that cause the system to enter a dynamic state.
5. If a change is so large that the system does not make it to a new steady state, the system is said to
be ___________________.

93
2.0 MACHINE DYNAMIC STABILITY
In the last segment, changes in phase angle across the system (and corresponding changes in
generator rotor angle) were discussed in terms of pre- and post-disturbance steady states. In this segment,
we will discuss how similar changes occur in the dynamic state: i.e., the few seconds between the two
steady state conditions. To do this, we need to examine how changes in the generator rotor angle affect
the stability of the system.
A generator receives mechanical power from a turbine, and delivers this power to the system as electrical
power. Figure 5.5 shows how power from the steam is changed to electrical power by a turbine-generator.
The steam power is imparted to the turbine rotor and passed on to the generator rotor via the shaft
between them. The turbine rotor, the generator rotor and the shaft makes up what well call the turbine-
generator rotor assembly. The turbine applies mechanical driving power to the turbine-generator rotor
assembly. In converting mechanical power to electrical power, the generator applies a mechanical load
to the turbine-generator rotor assembly.

Figure 5.5. Conversion of Mechanical to Electrical Power in A Turbine-Generator

During steady state operation, the turbine throttle is adjusted so that the turbine mechanical power
is equal to the mechanical load power applied by the generator. Under this condition the rotor speed
remains constant. However, during the dynamic period, these two quantities will not be equal, and the
turbine-generator rotor speed will vary.
2.1 Generator connected to infinite bus:
Let us examine the rotor dynamics of a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus.
The equation of motion of Synchronous machine rotor is
J d2m/dt2 = Ta
= T m T e N-M (5.1)
Where
J = The total moment of inertia of the rotor masses in Kg-m 2
m = The angular displacement of the rotor w.r.t. a stationary axis in mechanical radians.
t = Time in seconds

94
T m = The mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover less retarding torque due to rotational
loses in N-M
T e = The net electrical torque in N-M
T a = The net accelerating torque in N-M
Consider m = sm t + m (5. 2 )
Where
sm = Synchronous speed of the machine in mech. radians/sec.
m = Angular displacement of rotor in mech. radians.

d m d m
sm (3.3)
dt dt

d 2 m d 2 m
( 5.4 )
dt 2 dt 2
d 2 m
Now (5.1) & (5.4) J = Ta = T m T e N-M (5.5 )
dt 2
d m
If m = = Angular velocity of rotor
dt
We know
Power = Torque Angular velocity

d 2 m
J sm = Pa= P m - P e Watts (5.6 )
dt 2
J s m = Angular momentum at synchronous speed
= M = Inertia constant of the machine
d 2 m
M = Pa = P m - P e (5. 7 )
dt 2
Stored Kinetic Energy in Mega joules at Syncronous speed
Let H =
Machine rating in MVA
2
1
2
J sm
=
S mach

1
2 M sm
= M J / MVA ( 5.8 )
S m ach

M = (2 H / s m ) S mach MJ / mach rad (5. 9 )

2 H d 2 m Pa P Pe
Now ( 7 ) & ( 9 ) 2 m (5.10 )
sm dt S mach S mach

95
 2 H d 2
Pa Pm Pe per unit (5.11 )
s dt 2

H d 2
s = 2 f = Pa = Pm Pe per unit (5. 12 )
180 f dt 2

Equations 5.10 , 5.11 and 5.12 are called swing equations.

The mechanical power supplied by the turbine can be thought of as constant during the dynamic
period. Actually, the turbine power can change during the dynamic period, but these changes will be
small, particularly in the first half second or so after the disturbance. This is due to the high inertia of the
steam valves and valve operating mechanisms, as well as the inherent time delays in the control system.
As we will see shortly, stability is pretty well determined by the system response during the first half
second or so after a disturbance.
The electrical power output of the generator, on the other hand, can change quickly and
drastically when a disturbance, such as a system fault, occurs. The change in electrical output results in an
immediate change in the mechanical load applied by the generator to the turbine-generator rotor
assembly. While the turbine goes right ahead driving the turbine-generator rotor with a constant power,
the mechanical load imposed by the generator varies significantly. Hence, the usual balance between
mechanical power from the turbine and mechanical load imposed by the generator will be upset when an
electrical system disturbance changes the electrical power output of the generator.
Since the generator electrical angle is related to the position of the rotor, any changes to the rotor
speed (due to this unbalance) will, in turn, result in changes in generator output. That is, there will be an
interaction between the system and the rotor speed. The system will be stable only if this interaction
leads to a rapid restoration of the balance between turbine power and generator power.
Sudden changes in electrical power can arise from several kinds of disturbances. The most
common one is electrical faults on transmission lines. Though most line faults are ground faults due to
lightning (one phase flashes over to ground), more severe faults can occur. A three-phase fault is the most
severe type that can occur, and most systems are designed to survive such faults when the system is
healthy. A three-phase fault near a generator represents a very severe disturbance. Under this condition,
the generator terminal voltage falls to zero, reducing generator power output to zero. However, the power
supplied by the turbine will remain essentially constant during the dynamic period. The result is a large
driving power from the turbine, and essentially zero mechanical load power applied by the generator.
This, in turn, results in rapid acceleration of the turbine-generator rotor assembly. The power that was
previously going from the turbine, through the rotor shaft and the generator to the system load, now goes
into the turbine-generator rotor assembly. The rotor speed increases, thereby storing the energy developed
by the turbine during the time that generator electrical output is zero.
The difference between turbine mechanical power and electrical output power is called
accelerating power:
P accelerating = Pmechanical - Pelectrical
When a system disturbance reduces generator output, (Pmech >Pelect) and causes an accelerating
power, the position of the generator field winding advances relative to the position of rotors and field
windings in other generators in the system. Thus the angle between the accelerated generator and the rest
of the system changes. The rotor acceleration caused by a fault thus results in changes in generator output
power in the seconds after the fault is removed. To analyze generator stability, we must look at the
changes in generator output power that can be caused by faults, and the changes in generator power that

96
follow removal of the fault. If a fault causes a large acceleration of the rotor, the power must increase
sufficiently after removal of the fault to decelerate the rotor back to its original speed. If this happens the
generator will remain stable.

Figure 5.6 illustrates the interaction between the turbine-generator rotor angle and the power
flows and voltages in the system during the dynamic period. The circuit diagram shows the generator on
the left sending power to a much larger system. The large system will be only slightly affected by changes
occurring at the generator in System 1 and on the lines, so we will assume the large system (System 2)
goes through no appreciable voltage or speed changes. The power transfer between System 1 and System
2 during the dynamic period will follow the power-angle equation shown in Figure 5.6 just as it does in
the steady state.

Figure 5.6. Power Flow Between Two Systems

However, since all impedances between the generators of System 1 and the generators of System
2 affect the power transfer between the systems, we must include transformer and other impedances in
addition to the impedances of the tie lines between systems. Figure 5.6 shows these additional
impedances as transformers. Also, as in the steady state case, the power transfer depends on the voltages
in System 1 and 2 (V1 and V2) the phase angle () between the two systems, and the total impedance (X)
between them.
A plot of the power transfer in MW against phase angle for the normal, or pre-disturbance
system is shown as the upper curve in Figure 5.7 (similar to Figure 5.4). The power transfer increases as
the phase angle increases up to a maximum of 900, where the sine of the angle across the system is 1.0. A
further increase in angle beyond 900 will cause a decrease in power transfer.
The horizontal line marked turbine mechanical power is the mechanical power driving the

97
turbine-generator rotor. The normal, or pre-disturbance steady state operating point is point A, where the
turbine mechanical power and the generator electrical output power are the same. The pre-disturbance
operating angle is about 30.
If one of the lines is tripped (i.e., the disturbance), total impedance, X, in the power-angle
equation increases, so the peak of the power angle curve (V 1V2/X) decreases. The new (post-disturbance)
power-angle curve is shown in Figure 5.7, along with the pre-disturbance curve. Immediately after the
line trip, the power output drops from the initial operating point, point A, to point B on the lower curve.

Figure 5.7. Power-Angle Curve; Trip of One Line

This is because, for that instant, the phase angle is still at its original value of about 30. The electrical
power is now less than the turbine mechanical power, so an accelerating power is applied to the turbine-
generator rotor assembly, causing it to speed up. This acceleration advances the generator rotor phase
angle, thereby increasing the angle from System 1 to System 2. As increases from its initial 30 to
about 50, power output increases from point B to point C on the lower power-angle curve. The power

98
transferred across the remaining line increases, the generator output power approaches turbine mechanical
power, and the accelerating power approaches zero.
When the phase angle reaches point C, the mechanical power and electrical power are equal, so
there is no more power un-balance to accelerate the rotor. However, the rotor has been building up speed
during its acceleration from point: B to point C, so that its phase angle continues moving right on past
point C. Once past point C, the power transfer across the line, and the power out of the generator, increase
beyond their initial value of 1000 MW. Since the electrical power is now greater than the turbine
mechanical power, the accelerating power applied to the rotor is negative, and the rotor decelerates.
Between points C and D the deceleration is bringing the turbine-generator rotor speed back down to its
initial, or pre-disturbance, speed.
At point D the rotor is momentarily at its initial speed. However, the generator power output is
still higher than the turbine power, and there is thus still decelerating power being applied to the rotor.
The rotor then decelerates further, going below its initial speed, and dropping the rotor angle from point D
back toward point C. The turbine-generator rotor continues past C toward B, but, because of inherent
losses, will not reach B. It will stop short of B, and head back toward C and D. The rotor will oscillate
around point C for several seconds before finally settling at point C.
Once it settles at point C, the dynamic period is over, and the system is in the post-disturbance
steady state. The power transfer (and generator output) is again 1000 MW, but the phase angle has
advanced from its original 30 to about 50 bringing the angle closer to the steady state stability limit of
90.
Though the dying oscillations are part of the dynamic period, they are not of great concern so
long as they eventually die out. The important thing is that the rotor angle stop moving ahead at some
point D, and start back toward C. If the acceleration were to carry the rotor beyond point D, and on to and
beyond point F, an unfortunate situation results. Beyond point F, the power across the remaining line
between the systems will fall below the turbine mechanical power, and the accelerating power applied to
the rotor will again become positive. This will begin accelerating the rotor of the System 1 generator,
taking it out of step with System 2. The rotor will continue through cycles of acceleration and
deceleration, but will not find its way back to point C. To get to point C (and stability), the deceleration
of the rotor to its initial (pre-fault) speed (at point D) must occur before point F is reached.
An interesting observation can be made from Figure 5.7. The area between points C, D and E will
equal the area between points A, B and C when the rotor has been decelerated back to its initial speed.
The area between A, B and C represents the energy stored in the turbine-generator rotor during the
acceleration period, and the area between C, D and E represents the energy removed during the
deceleration period.
The system will be stable if the decelerating area (C-D-E) can equal the accelerating area (A-B-
C). This is often referred to as the equal area criterion for stability. To meet the criterion, the area above
the turbine mechanical power line and below the post-disturbance power angle curve (from C to F) must
be large enough to exceed the area between A, B and C. Then point D will indeed exist, and be at a lower
angle than point F; hence the system will be stable and the rotor will return to point C.

2.2 TWO-SYSTEM EXAMPLE: TRIP OF ONE LINE; INCREASED INITIAL LOADING

The example illustrated in Figure 5.7 showed a situation where a sudden change in the system
occurred, yet the system remained stable. This example illustrates (Figure 5.8) what happens when the
generator and transmission lines are operating at a higher loading prior to the line trip. The turbine power
will be greater and the turbine mechanical power line will be higher on our power-angle curve as shown
in Figure 5.8.
With this increased power level (1500 MW output) the initial operating point is now at a new

99
point A that corresponds to a phase angle of about 40. From this initial condition, tripping one line
drops the output to point B on the lower curve and the machine accelerates to and beyond point C. Notice
that the cross-hatched area from C to F is much less than the corresponding area in Figure 5.7. The
accelerating area (A-B-C) is about the same, but the decelerating area beyond C is much lower, and, in
fact, is less than area A-B-C. The result is that the rotor will not be decelerated to its initial speed by the
time it reaches point F, and the angle will continue advancing beyond point F.

Figure 5.8. Power-Angle Curve; Trip of One Line; Increased Loading Initially
Beyond point F, the rotor will begin accelerating again (Pmech > Pelect) and the generator will go
out of step with the rest of the system. Once out of step, the generator will run at a speed several
percent above synchronous speed, and begin slipping poles until tripped by a protective relay. Well dis-
cuss relay response to out of step conditions in Segment 4, Loss of Synchronism.
From the examples of Figures 5.7 and 5.8, it is clear that the initial operating point of the system
will be a major determining factor in whether a system will remain stable when a disturbance occurs. In
the case of Figure 5.7 there is some margin; that is, the system remains stable without using more than
about a third of the area (between C and F above the turbine power line) available to decelerate the
rotor back to its initial speed. In the case of Figure 5.8, the system is initially operating at a higher power

100
transfer level, and the system is clearly unstable when a line is tripped. This shows how sensitive the
stability of a system is to the pre-disturbance power transfer level.

2.3 TWO SYSTEM EXAMPLE: PHASE TO PHASE FAULT FOLLOWED BY TRIPPING

ONE LINE
In this example, a phase-to-phase fault occurs on one of the transmission lines and is followed by
tripping of the line. The voltage at the point of fault will be depressed by the fault, and voltages
throughout the system will fall as well. From the power- angle equation, we can see that lower voltages
will result in a lower power-angle curve (much the way increased impedance would lower the curve)
There are now three power-angle curves to be considered: the pre-fault curve (for the healthy
system), the curve that applies when the fault is on, and the post-fault curve that applies following the line
trip. The three curves are labeled and shown in Figure 5.9.
The initial operating condition is shown by point A on the upper curve. The initial phase angle is
just above 30. When the fault occurs, the output drops to point B. Note that the output drops much lower
than in the case where no fault occurs (Figure 5.7). The generator power output is far below the turbine
power, and there is a relatively large accelerating power being applied to the turbine-generator rotor. As
the rotor accelerates, the power increases somewhat as the operating point moves from point B toward
point J. At point J, the circuit breakers open to remove the faulted line.

101
 Figure 5.9. Power-Angle Curve; Phase to Phase Fault Followed by Trip- One Line
With the fault and the line removed, the power transfer jumps up to point K on the one-line
(post-fault) power-angle curve. The power out of the generator is higher at this point, but is still below
the turbine mechanical power. The rotor is thus still being accelerated as the angle increases further from
K toward C. As before, the rotor is above its original speed as it reaches point C, and continues past point
C. It now begins decelerating since the power out of the generator is greater than the power being
supplied by the turbine.
The rotor will decelerate, and the system will remain stable if there is enough area between C and
F to bring the rotor back to its original speed. As can be seen in Figure 5.9, the system will be stable for
this disturbance (AREA A-B-J-K-C AREA C-D-E); there is even some area to spare.

2.4 The critical clearing angle:

At t = 0 fault occurs and the electrical power delivered is zero i.e. P e = 0

From equation 5.11

(2H / s ) (d 2 / d t 2 ) = Pm
t
d 2 t

dt 2 dt 2 Hs Pm dt
0 0

d
s Pm t
dt 2 H
s t2
(t) = Pm 0 ( 5.13 )
2H 2

The equation 5.13 provides the angular position of the rotor at time t after occurrence of the fault.
The angular position is proportional to the maximum power ( Pmax) .

Let t cr = Critical clearing time and the corresponding rotor angle as cr .

s
At t = t cr cr = Pm tcr2 + 0 ( 5.14 )
4H
s Pm 2
cr - 0 = = t (5. 15 )
4 H cr
Equation 5.13 shows the swing

2.5 TWO-SYSTEM EXAMPLE: THREE-PHASE FAULT FOLLOWED BY TRIPPING ONE

LINE
For a three-phase fault, the voltage of System 1 would go to zero and the fault-on power-angle
curve would be essentially a straight line along the horizontal axis. This is shown in Figure 5.10. The area
A-B---J-K-C must now be compared with the area between C and F. It appears that the systems may be

102
unstable for this severe type of fault.

Figure 5.10. Power-Angle Curve; Three-Phase Fault Followed by Trip-One Line

2.6 SUMMARY OF STABILITY EXAMPLES:

Earlier, we recognized that the initial power transfer was quite important in determining whether
a system would survive (i.e., remain stable following) a disturbance. By comparing the cases with and
without a fault (Figure 5.7 vs. Figure 5.9) we can see that a fault also will significantly affect stability.
Since most line trips result from faults, studies which consider the faulting and tripping of lines are very
common tests used in the design of transmission systems as well as in establishing safe operating limits
for a system once it has been constructed.

103
 The duration of the fault, as well as the type, is very important. The three-phase fault case (Figure
5.10) would be quite stable if the fault-on time could be reduced (point J would be closer to point B,
thereby reducing the A-B-J-K-C area)
The simple network we have considered has illustrated the fundamentals of system behavior in
the dynamic period. For a large power system, stability analysis is sometimes more complex, with several
generators being accelerated by some faults. Also, there are many transmission lines in a typical network,
some being quite critical to stability, while others can be faulted and tripped with little or no hazard to the
system. Computer programs are used to study the stability of large, complex systems. With the help of
these programs, systems are designed so that they will withstand severe faults. These programs also help
determine the maximum power transfer levels in operating systems.

Figure 5.11. Power Vs. Time Curve; Trip of One Line as in Figure 5.7.
The power-angle curves we have presented in this segment show generator output power in terms
of phase angle across the system. Figure 5.11 shows a plot of generator output power versus time for the
conditions of Figure 5.7 (trip of one line, no fault) . The flow on the remaining line doubles, from 500 to
1000 MW, as it picks up the flow from the tripped circuit. However, one can see from Figure 5.11 that the
generator output power goes through large oscillations (starting and ending at 1000 MW output) . These
oscillations occur as the angle and power oscillate around point C in Figure 5.7. The oscillations are
damped (decrease with time) due to line resistance and system loads, and after some seconds, the system
settles at point C, where the generator output and flow over the remaining line settle to 1000 MW.

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 QUESTIONS
1. When there is a sudden increase in electrical load on a generator, that turbine-generator will
experience _________ (positive, negative) accelerating power.
2. Opening the throttle of a turbine will ___________ (increase, decrease) the angle of the
associated generator rotor relative to the rest of the generators in the system.
3. when the angle of a generator passes through point C immediately after a fault (see Figure 5.7),
the accelerating power changes from _________ (positive, negative) to __________ (positive,
negative)
4. What is the maximum stable steady state power transfer (in per unit) between two systems, each
operated at 1.05 per unit voltage, and having an impedance of .25 per unit between them.
5. What is the steady state operating angle across the two systems described in question 5 if the
power being transferred between them is 3.0 per unit.
6. For the two systems in question 5, suppose a line trip caused the impedance between them to
increase from 0.25 p.u. to 0.33 p.u.
i. The power-angle curve is now lowered from a peak of 4.41 p.u. to a peak of
__________p.u.
ii. For a power transfer of 3.0 p.u., what is the new steady state operating angle across the two
systems?
iii. Are the two systems steady state stable following the line trip?
7. For the two systems of question 5, what is the maximum angle that f could swing to in the
dynamic period following a fault, and still remain stable?
8. Assume the initial power transfer is 3.0 p.u. and the fault does not trip any lines between the two
systems. The power angle curve for the conditions of question 5 is shown below.

9. In order for a generator to remain stable (i.e., in synchronism with the rest of the system), the
____________ (acceleration, deceleration) of the rotor due to excess mechanical input power must be
cancelled by the _____________ (acceleration, deceleration) of the rotor due to excess electrical output
power. This is known as the_____________criterion for stability.
10. In the fault case of Figure 5.9, the sooner the fault is removed, the ___________ (greater, less)
the chance of instability.

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3.0 MAINTAINING SYSTEM STABILITY
Recent lessons have dealt with the analysis of generator stability during the dynamic or
transient period. It was pointed out that faults could result in instability if the fault stays on the system
too long, or if the system is operating at too high a power transfer when the fault occurs. In this seg ment,
we will examine some of the other parameters that can affect stability, and, in particular, what actions the
system operator can take to help keep his system stable.
Whether a system remains stable or goes unstable is determined within a second or so after a fault
occurs. Obviously, operators can do nothing in this short time to help a system remain stable. However,
the operator can improve the chances of a system remaining stable following a disturbance by ensuring
that the system is in a safe operating state at all times. In addition, the operator will be in a better position
to maintain stability if he has a good understanding of what factors affect stability, and how these factors
should influence his decisions during operation of the system.

3.1 Generation Redispatching:

The operator knows the state of the system from his instrument and strip chart readings, and from
the reports of other operators. However, this data alone cannot tell him if the system is in danger of
instability. The operator must receive guidance from the engineers in the operations planning section of
his company. The planning engineers will supply the operators with information on what conditions make
the system susceptible to instability. Knowing this, the operator can use the data available in the control
room to determine when the system is in or approaching a state where, if a fault occurs at a critical
location, instability is likely.
The operations planners are responsible for performing large-scale system studies, usually with
the aid of computer programs, which consider probable outages and their effect on stability. Although
these studies look at outages of critical lines and generators, and consider various transfer levels, they are
never able to cover all possible system conditions. The operator must contend with any outage condition,
(including multiple outages), crucial generators operating at reduced power, aiding neighboring systems
which are experiencing problems, and so on. The operations planners must supply the operators with a
basic set of data and system stability limits, but it is up to the operator to understand and apply them, even
when system conditions do not correspond to those envisioned by the operations planners.
Most systems have just a few critical regions where a line outage or heavy power transfer will
significantly increase the risk of instability. Operators must be particularly concerned with such regions,
and know immediately the correct actions to take when problems develop in such areas. If the power
flows on critical lines approach stability limits, the operator must take action. Usually, the correct action
will be to redispatch generation in the local system or a neighboring system to reduce transfers in the
affected area. This essentially reduces the turbine mechanical power line relative to the power-angle
curve (i.e., operating point A is lower on the curve; consequently angle is reduced - see Figure 5.7).
Since redispatching generation can cause voltage or line loading problems near the generators
whose output is increased, the operators must be aware of the effects of their actions over a wide area.
Redispatching generation will likely violate the desired economic operation of the system, but restoring
the system to a safe operating condition will always take precedence over economics.

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3.2 Raising the operating voltages:
Another way to improve stability is to increase generator voltages. The system operator and plant
operators are responsible for maintaining system voltages within a specified range. The operator can help
maintain the system in a stable state by making sure that voltages do not fall below assigned levels. In
addition, the operator can sometimes improve the stability of a weakened system by increasing voltages
to the upper limit of the assigned range. Increasing the voltages anywhere in the weakened region will
help, but increasing voltages at generators in the region will be particularly effective. Refer back to Figure
5.6, and observe that the power-angle curves will be higher (tending to improve stability) if V 1 and/or V2 is
increased.
Voltages in the transmission system can be raised by adjusting generator excitation, load tap
changers on transformers, and by capacitor banks. The operator must know how to control voltages using
these means. But, we should look more closely at the voltage control equipment on generators. It is
important not only because it is used to set system voltages under both normal and weakened operating
conditions, but because it plays a small but significant role in the dynamic or transient period. During
the dynamic period following a fault, voltages in the system will drop. The system stability will be
improved if these voltage drops are limited. It is the job of the automatic voltage regulator to change
generator excitation levels to reduce these voltage excursions. The regulator will only make a small
improvement in voltage, but it may be an important one if the system is operating close to its stability
limit.
The system operator should be aware of the condition and status of the voltage regulator on each
generator in his system, and perhaps even in neighboring systems. Generator automatic voltage regulators
will not do their job if they are out of service, and will be ineffective if not tuned properly. When a reg -
ulator is out of service while a turbine-generator is on-line, the unit is said to be on hand control.
During hand control, the plant operator adjusts generator field voltage manually. Needless to say, the plant
operator will not be able to perform the rapid automatic control that is helpful during the dynamic period,
so the system operator must be aware of this limitation.

3.3 Operation of steam valves:

In the previous section we assumed that turbine mechanical power would not change appreciably
during the dynamic period. Generally, this is true. However, some turbines are equipped with a fast valve
actuation mechanism that responds very quickly when turbine generator rotor acceleration occurs. When
sensors detect a large rotor acceleration, the normal governor system is bypassed, and the steam valves
are quickly closed. About a second later, the valves are reopened, and control is passed back to the
governor. Closing the steam valves in this way pushes the turbine mechanical power line (see Figures 5.7
and 5.8) down about the time the rotor passes point C, thereby increasing the decelerating area from C to
F and improving the chance for the rotor angle to swing back to point C (i.e., remain stable). Operators
should be aware of any fast valve actuation systems in use in their own or neighboring systems.
So far we have discussed two methods the operator can use to improve or preserve the stability of
his system. These are:
Redispatching generation
Raising generator and transmission voltages.
3.4 The Design Strategies:
However, the operator should also be aware of certain system design factors that may
significantly affect stability. These include:
a.The effect of the number of lines connecting two areas of the system.

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 b. The effect of line length.
c.The effect of series capacitors.
d. The effect of static compensators for voltage control.
Knowledge of how these various factors affect stability will help the operator pinpoint crucial
locations in his system. Such areas should be monitored carefully, particularly when a system is stressed
beyond normal levels.

3.4.1 Effect of Number of Parallel Lines Connecting Two Parts of a System

In general, the fewer the number of lines joining two parts of a system, the less stable the system
will be. Let us compare the case where we trip one of four lines with the case where we trip one of two
lines, as shown in Figure 5.12.

Figure 5.12. Impact of Single Line Trip on Four-Line and Two-Line Systems
Case (a) shows the four-line system, where the peak of the upper curve (P) represents the
maximum steady state power transfer with all 4 lines in service. With one line out of service, the total
reactance of the system increases. The parallel impedance of the lines goes from .025 p.u. (with 4 lines) to
.033 p.u. (with 3 lines) , thereby increasing total system reactance from .125 p.u. to .133 p.u. (adding in
transformer reactances).This increase in reactance causes the maximum steady state power transfer (with
3 lines) to decrease by about 6%. Since the power-angle curve is lower; the chance for instability is

108
greater. The difference is significant, but not drastic.
In Case (b) we assume that the upper power-angle curve represents a two-line system. If we trip
one of the lines, the system reactance increases from .15 p.u. to .2 p.u., causing the peak of the curve to
decrease by 25% (with 1 line) . The effect of this line trip is much more significant than in Case (a). We
can thus see that the impact of a line trip on stability will be greater in a two-line system than in a four-
line system (or any system with more than two lines)

3.4.2 Effect of Line Length:

Figure 5.13. Impact of Line Length on Stability

Now let us examine the effect of line length on stability. The two systems in Figure 5.13 (a) and
(b) have the same total reactance across the system (.35 p.u.) but System (a) is made up of a series of

109
short lines, while System (b) is made up of just a couple of long lines. If we take out one of the short lines
in System (a), the power-angle curve drops only about 12%. In System (b) , tripping one of the long lines
drops the power-angle curve about 30%. Thus, the trip of a long line, will, in general, impact the stability
of a system to a much greater extent than will the trip of one of a series of shorter lines.
In the examples of Figures 5.12 and 5.13, several lines were clearly in parallel, and served to join
together the two parts of the system. But keep in mind that the effect on stability will be the same whether
the parallel lines are all close together (on the same or nearby rights-of-way) or hundreds of miles or more
apart, so long as they are more-or-less in parallel, and serve to join two parts of a system.

3.4.3 Effect of Series Capacitors

Some systems include capacitors in series with the transmission line to compensate for the
inductive reactance (XL) of the line. The capacitive reactance is negative, and, when added to the
inductive reactance of the line (i.e. put in series with the line) , reduces the total reactance between the
line terminals. The series capacitor, in effect, shortens the line, electrically.

Figure 5.14. Impact of Series Capacitors on Stability

The lower the reactance, the higher the power-angle curve, and consequently, the more stable the
system. This effect is shown in Figure 5.14, which considers two parallel lines with and without series
compensation. With both lines in service, the compensated system has a power-angle curve which is
about 10% higher than the uncompensated system. In the compensated system, we can even trip one of
the lines, and still preserve the same power transfer capability as the uncompensated case with both lines

110
in service (see middle curve in Figure 5.14)
During a fault, the series capacitors may be damaged by the high fault current. Hence the
capacitor is bypassed (short circuited by a breaker in parallel with the capacitor) temporarily when a fault
occurs. This would seem to degrade stability, and it does. However, the series capacitors in the remaining
line or lines give those lines higher maximum power transfer capability, so, even though capacitors must
be used in two or more parallel circuits to make them effective, the system is still more stable with series
compensation.
3.4.4 Effect of Static Compensators:
A static compensator is a device made up of Thyristor-switched shunt capacitors or shunt
capacitors and a Thyristor-controlled shunt reactor. The capacitors provide reactive power (vars) to the
system to support (i.e., raise) voltages. The thyristors either control the number of capacitors applied to
the system or control the amount of reactor current so that the reactor absorbs the unneeded vars supplied
by the capacitors. The thyristors can be switched quickly, allowing the compensating device to provide
very rapid control of voltages. Holding voltage up in the transmission system during the power swing
following a fault will increase the power-angle curve about as shown in Figure 5.15. The actual curve will
depend on the amount of capacitive current the device can make available to the system.

Figure 5.15. Impact of Voltage Control on Stability

These devices have been widely used to control voltages near arc furnaces, but are now being
applied to improve stability of transmission systems. Where they are used, they are usually a critical part
of the system, and the system may be unstable for the more severe fault types when one or more such
units are out of service.

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 Other Factors Affecting System Stability
3.5 Unit Tripping:
A technique that is sometimes used to improve stability is unit tripping. When a fault
accelerates several generators in an area or in a large plant, tripping one or more of the units will make the
remaining units more stable. The remaining units will each have a higher power output during the
deceleration period (from point C to point D in Figures 5.7 and 5.9), since the power across the
transmission system will be shared by fewer units. In effect, one or two units are sacrificed in order to
save the rest of the units. This technique is used primarily where the cost of additional transmission
facilities (to ensure usual stability performance) would be prohibitive, or as a means of providing stability
for the less frequent, but more severe disturbances.

3.6 Line Tripping:

Relays that detect faults and remove lines from service are another component of the system that
the operator should know and understand, even though he cannot influence the performance of the relays.
From the last segment, we know that the longer a fault remains on the system, the longer the accelerating
power will persist, and the greater will be the acceleration of the generators near the fault. If a fault stays
on the system too long, the system may very well go unstable. The relays in a system may vary somewhat
from one line to the next, primarily in their operating times. This difference will be in hundredths of a
second, and the total time for the relay to operate and for breaker opening to occur will typically be only .
05 to .08 seconds (2.5 to 4 cycles based on 50 Hz) . However, in terms of stability, even a hundredth of
a second can easily spell the difference between stability and instability.
A relay that fails to respond properly to a fault, or a breaker that is slow to open, can cause
instability. Most systems include some backup protection. This backup protection may not be fast
enough to avoid instability for severe faults, but will be adequate for the common line-to-ground (single-
phase) fault.

3.7 High Speed Reclosing:

High speed reclosing is used by many utilities to improve stability. The breakers on a faulted line
are reclosed about a third of a second after the breakers have opened to clear the fault. The large majority
of system faults are transient or temporary in nature. The most typical example is a lightning stroke
that elevates the voltage on a line conductor or a tower, and results in a flashover across a line insulator.
The 50 Hz current that follows the flashover imposes a line-to-ground fault on the line. This fault current
ceases to flow after the line has been deenergized. Once the current has stopped, and the ionized cloud of
gas that forms around the arc has dissipated, the line can be reclosed. Having the line quickly back in ser-
vice is desirable from a stability standpoint, especially if the lightning stroke came from a storm that may
hit another line shortly. However, it is always possible that the fault is not temporary, but is actually a
permanent fault. In this case, the fault is reapplied to the system when the line breakers are reclosed.
This results in a second shock to the system, Systems using high speed reclosing must be designed to
remain stable in the event of an unsuccessful reclosure (i.e., reclosure into a permanent fault)
Usually, reclosing is initiated only if the fault is a line-to-ground fault. That is, the line fault
detecting relays initiate reclosing only if the relays detect a fault on one phase only. In the case of
reclosing into a permanent fault, the system will be hit twice by the line-to-ground fault. In most systems
this double hit is a less severe shock than a single three phase fault. Since most systems are designed to
remain stable for a normally cleared three-phase fault, they are also stable for an unsuccessful reclosure
into a single-line-to-ground fault.

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3.8 Single Phase Auto Reclosing:
In the above two paragraphs we have been discussing reclosing practices wherein all three phases
of a line are opened to remove the fault from the system, and then reclosed. Some utilities utilize single
pole reclosing for line-to-ground faults. The fault detecting relays send a trip signal only to the section of
the breaker serving the faulted phase. Two phases remain energized during the fault clearing process.
These phases carry some power while the faulted phase is open, and thus aid in maintaining stability.

3.9 Delayed Reclosing:

Delayed reclosing is also used. When reclosing is delayed (several seconds or more), there is a
better chance that the fault will be dissipated by the time the line is reclosed. However, there is also a
greater chance that another fault will occur before the line is reclosed; the system may not be able to
withstand a second fault and line trip while the first faulted line is still open. Delayed reclosing is only
used with three-pole reclosing.
An unsuccessful reclosure results in trip and lockout of the faulted line, putting it out of service
until it can be reclosed without hazard to the system (in case the fault really is permanent) , or the line can
be examined and damage repaired as necessary.
One may ask what the effect of reclosing will be when the system is in a weakened state.
Generally, operators will have no control over reclosing. Reclosing relays, once installed, will remain
active through all system conditions. An unsuccessful reclosure that occurs during a weakened system
condition may very well result in system instability. On the other hand, a fault and line trip on a weakened
system may create instability even without the reclosure, while a successful reclosure might hold the
system together. Since the majority of reclosures will be successful, reclosing is more likely to save a
weakened system from collapse than contribute to its collapse.

3.10 Dynamic Instability:

There is one other stability-related problem that can arise when a system is in a weakened state.
In the last segment, we saw how a system will oscillate for a few seconds after a fault. This is shown in
the power vs. time plot of Figure 5.11. In most healthy systems, the oscillations die out within 5 to 10
seconds after a fault and line trip. If a system is already weakened when the fault and line trip occurs, or
the fault and line trip occurs on a major circuit and itself severely weakens the system, then the
oscillations may not die out so rapidly, and may even build up. This is termed dynamic instability, and
is most likely to show up in systems where power is transmitted over long distances. If such oscillations
do build up, they may eventually reach the point where the oscillating parts of the system go out-of-
step. The result will be very similar to transient instability following a fault and line trip.
The operator can do little to influence the susceptibility of the system to such oscillations. The
tendency is inherent in the structure of the system and the design of certain of its components, particularly
automatic voltage regulators, Systems with a susceptibility to this problem will usually have power
system stabilizers installed in some of the generator automatic voltage regulators. However, these
devices cannot always prevent dynamic instability, it is the operators responsibility to understand what
conditions make the system susceptible to dynamic instability, and to keep the system away from those
conditions. Usually this will mean keeping transfers (line flows) down when the system is weak. Beyond
this, there is always the chance an operator may find a system in the midst of dynamic instability
following a disturbance. If the oscillations are not building too fast, the operator may have time to reduce
transfers (perhaps by tripping generators). If the oscillations are continuous, but not increasing, the
operator should still take action, but might reduce transfers by ramping output of sending end
generators down as rapidly as possible.

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 As we have seen, raising the power-angle curve of a system by adding more parallel lines will
improve stability. However, lines are expensive, and most systems must get by with the minimum number
that will carry the power from generation to load, with reasonable stability performance. It is also the case
that in many systems there is, at times, extra seasonal energy that could be transferred if the system could
operate safely at a higher power transfer. Since it is not economic to install lines to carry this extra power
for the few days or weeks that it is available each year, such economic transfers cannot be taken ad -
vantage of.
However, the system operator will find that utilities will load the available transmission up very
close to stability limits in order to take advantage of even a small amount of this energy. Hence, some
systems operate very close to stability limits, emphasizing the demands on the system operator to
understand his system and limit the transfers to levels that he knows it can handle.
The operator faces similar problems when the system is suddenly weakened by a major
disturbance, or is hit by a series of modest problems, which, cumulatively, put the system in a weakened
state. However, whereas the heavy transfer problem is predictable, and one the operator may see from
time to time, disturbances are very unpredictable, and will rarely leave the system in a state the operator
has previously experienced or studied. When this does happen, the operator must be able to recognize the
areas where the system is weakest and most vulnerable. The operator must decide quickly the action he
must take to minimize the chance of system failure in those areas. In the next segment we will look at
what happens when instability does occur, and what operators can expect to find after a system breakup
due to instability.

QUESTIONS
1. How can an operator best affect the stability of a system?
(a) by intervening when a fault occurs
(b) by understanding and controlling the system operating conditions
(c) by simply following operations planners recommendations
2. A system will be more stable if:
(a) generator voltages are kept high
(b) transmission voltages are kept high
(c) both of the above
3. Two parts of a system, or two systems, will be more stable if:
(a) there are many parallel lines between them
(b) individual lines are relatively short
(c) there is voltage support equipment in the transmission system
(d) all of the above
4. Raising voltages at the generators and in the transmission system will __________ (raise, lower)
the power angle curves. These will __________ (improve, degrade) stability. Why?
5. Short lines connecting two parts of a system tend to improve stability because the total reactance
between the two ends of the system is _______ (lower, higher) than for long lines, thus ________
(raising, lowering) the power angle curve.

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6. Referring to Figure 5.14, the two parallel lines are 50% series compensated (Xc is 50% of X L) .
Suppose now the lines are 30% series compensated (Xc = -.03 p.u.).
(a) What is the system per unit reactance with both (compensated) lines in service?
(b) What is the system per unit reactance with one compensated line out of service?
(c) For the case with no capacitors and both lines in service (system X = .25
p.u.) , assume the voltages at either end of the system are 1.0 p.u. What is the
maximum power transfer in per unit?
(d) What is the maximum power transfer for the uncompensated case with one line
out of service?
(e) For 30% series compensation, what is the maximum power transfer with two
lines in? one line in?
(f) On a power-angle diagram sketch four curves as follows:
i. With caps; 2 lines in
ii. With caps ; 1 line in
iii. Without caps ; 2 lines in
iv. Without caps ; 1 line in
7. About how long does it take for the system angle () to move from point B to point J in Figure
5.9?
8. In the power-angle plot shown below, the top curve represents the system with all lines in service;
the middle curve represents one line out of service, and the lower curve represents a permanent
fault on the system. Briefly describe what is happening at each of the points w, x, y and z.

9. Two generating units on the same bus are connected to a large system by several parallel
transmission lines. If one generator is tripped, what happens to the turbine mechanical power
input line? Is the system more stable with one unit tripped (or off-line) in the event of a fault and
line trip? Why?

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4.0 LOSS OF SYNCHRONISM
Previous segments have dealt with how to judge the susceptibility of a power system to
instability. We looked at various actions the operator can take (i.e. reducing power transfers; reclosing
open lines) to bring the system to a safe state from a susceptible state (i.e., where a fault at some critical
location would likely trigger instability).
However, sometimes events happen too fast; a system slips into a weak or susceptible state,
and goes unstable in response to a fault in spite of the actions of operators. We will now look a little
closer at just what this instability does to the system, and what operators can expect to find seconds after
instability occurs.
Section (2) did not go into detail as to what actually happens when a fault accelerates a generator
sufficiently to make it unstable (See Figure 5.10, where the decelerating area between points C and F is
less than the accelerating area to the left of point C). Figure 5.16 shows that, once a generator goes
beyond point F, the turbine mechanical power becomes greater than the electrical power out of the
generator, and the generator begins accelerating again. As it does, the electrical power out of the generator
goes to zero as the generator rotor angle approaches 180 degrees (point P in Figure 5.16) . At 180 degrees,
the generator is being accelerated very rapidly. Beyond point P, the generator electrical power reverses,
and flows INTO the generator. The acceleration continues from point P through the negative part of the
power-angle curve, and clear up to point C

Figure 5.16. Extended Power-Angle Curve During Loss of Synchronism

Between point F and point C, the electrical power into the generator adds to the mechanical
power from the turbine, and accelerates the rotor assembly at an extremely high rate. There is a
momentary slowing of the generator as it passes from C to F, but not nearly enough to bring the
generator speed down close to its normal speed. By about this time, the generator speed is so high that it
is starting to act like an induction generator. An induction generator is like an induction motor, except
that, instead of running slightly below synchronous speed, it is driven slightly above synchronous speed.
The induction power flowing out of the generator is not shown in Figure.5.16
Also by this time, the governor on the accelerated generator senses the high speed (several
percent above normal speed) , and begins reducing turbine power (see Figure 5.16 - the turbine

116
mechanical input line begins to slope downward) . If the generator is not tripped, it will run out-of-step,
with reduced power from the turbine, with induction power flowing out of the generator, and with rapid
reversals in synchronizing power as shown by the extended power-angle curve of Figure 5.16. A gen-
erator experiencing these rapid power reversals is said to be slipping poles.
The generator would continue to run this way if nothing were to happen to interrupt such
operation. Such operation has a major detrimental impact on the electrical network and can damage the
generator. During the large power swings into and out of the generator, there will be corresponding large
voltage swings in the electrical network; the voltage at some point between the out-of-step generator and
the rest of the system will repeatedly swing through zero. This causes loss of system electrical load,
disrupts industrial processes, and can cause other generators in the area to also lose synchronism.
However, the protective relaying on the system or at the generator is likely to interrupt such operation.
Usually, the distance relays out on the system will trip one or more lines between the out-of-step
generator and the rest of the system. Distance relays on the lines will see the large power swings, and the
zero voltage that occurs near the zero power point, and will interpret this as an electrical (three-phase)
fault on the system. This will, of course, cause these relays to trip. Hence the lines near the electrical
center of the system are likely to trip and separate the out-of-step generator from the rest of the system.
Another possibility is that the generator itself will be tripped by relays installed to protect it from
damage. The large power swings result in high generator currents. Also, operation as an induction
generator causes high currents in the rotor iron that do not normally occurs. These currents can heat the
rotor sufficiently to damage the field or cause the rotor to become deformed. The rotor thermal
protection relays that sense the currents resulting from this kind of operation will usually trip the
generator within a matter of seconds if relays in the electrical system have not already separated the
generator from the rest of the system.
Note that we have been talking about one generator losing synchronism with the rest of the
system, but it is quite possible for a group of generators to be accelerated together by a fault, or otherwise
lose synchronism due to loss of transmission between them and the rest of the system. This is most likely
to happen, of course, if these generators are supplying power over long lines to the rest of the system. The
equal area criterion would still apply; the group of generators would behave as one large generator.
Yet another possibility is for special relays (installed to detect only out-of-step conditions) to
initiate tripping of lines or transformers to separate the out-of-step generator from the rest of the system.
These relays are sometimes used in areas where the system is naturally weak, or is frequently heavily
stressed, so that loss-of synchronism is a definite possibility.
These out-of-step relays would seem to compete with the distance relays, which would also
respond to loss-of synchronism. However, these special relays block operation of the distance relays when
they detect an out-of-step condition and then make their own tripping decision. Out-of-step blocking or
tripping relays are applied for several reasons:
o The normal distance relays might open the last circuit between the two out-of-step systems (or
parts of a system) when the angle difference between those systems is about 180 degrees. This
out-of-phase interruption could damage circuit breakers.
o The normal distance relays might separate the system at a point that would leave the load and
generation in each part unbalanced. In Figure 5.17, for example, the normal opening point with
distance relays might be at breakers 1 and 2. This would leave the generators to the left under
loaded, and those to the right overloaded. Both parts of the system could be in trouble as a result.
Special out-of-step block and trip relays at breakers 1, 2, 3 and 4 could be used to trip breakers
3 and 4 and block 1 and 2, thereby better balancing load and generation after the system split.
o Finally, if the lines between the systems are long, there may develop some very high voltages as
parts of the system split. The out-of-step block and trip relays can initiate tripping at a point that

117
 is less likely to leave long open-ended lines tied to a weak system, and thus reduce the chance of
overvoltage. For instance, in Figure 5.17, tripping breakers 3 and 4 might leave long lines tied to
the right-hand system. If this is a potential problem, the tripping could be initiated at the other
ends of the lines.

Figure 5.17. Out-of-Step Blocking at Breakers 1 and 2 &

Out-of Step Tripping at Breakers 3 and 4
These special relays are not frequently used, but when they are used, will significantly affect the
way a system breaks up during instability. They are most likely to be used where risk of instability is
high. The operator should know about such relays, and what to expect from them (and from the normal
distance relays) in case an out-of-step condition occurs. This kind of information is provided by stability
studies, conducted by most utility operating departments.
We have discussed how a system will split into two or more smaller systems when instability
occurs. We now turn our attention to these smaller systems (i.e., islands). If the split does not impose
repeated and severe voltage excursions on the smaller systems, and the split results in a fairly good
balance between load and generation in each of the smaller systems, then they may very well survive the
instability with little loss of load. In this case, the primary responsibility of the operator will be to
reconnect the smaller systems.
However, if there is extensive loss of load, the operator must go through a restoration procedure
that both restores the load and reconnects the islands. The order in which this should be done will depend
on what condition the islands are in after a split. For example, picking up load may have a high priority,
but this may have to wait until the systems are reconnected, and able to handle the load.
If instability results in a severe overload in one of the smaller systems, there will be widespread
load shedding. If the system survives the load shedding, the operator, as in the above case, must determine
the order in which to reconnect the systems and pick up load. Picking up load too quickly could cause
more load shedding and perhaps even additional instability or generator unit trips. If a system is left with
much more generation than load, there is likely to be major upsets in the generating plants, with tripping
of all or most of the generating units. Few generating plants will survive a massive loss of load. When this
happens, the operator must restore load by a combination of plant restarts and reconnection with healthy
parts of the system.
As we have just observed, instability may leave the system in any number of states. Operators
must be able to recognize the condition of the system as soon as it comes to rest, and take action that will
put the system back together again as quickly as practical.

118
 QUESTIONS

1. When a generator goes out-of-step and operates as induction generator, it will be rotating:
(a) below synchronous speed
(b) at synchronous speed
(c) above synchronous speed
2. What two protective devices might trip an out-of-step generator from a typical system?
3. Why do distance (or impedance) relays trip when generators or parts of a system go out-of-
step?
4. What are three possible problems associated with tripping by distance relays when a generator (or
group of generators) goes out-of-step?
5. Out-of-step block and trip relays are most likely to be found where:_________________

119
 Chapter 6

CASE STUDIES OF POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Data and Results of Transient Stability Study on 19 bus system of fig 1.1
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date and Time : Tue Jun 10 11:18:24 2003
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSIENT STABILITY STUDIES
CASE NO : 1 CONTINGENCY : 0 SCHEDULE NO : 0
CONTINGENCY NAME : Lse out,Cse in,Rsh in,C1 in, C2&C3 out
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LARGEST BUS NUMBER : 21
ACTUAL NUMBER OF BUSES : 21
NUMBER OF 2 WIND. TRANSFORMERS : 4
NUMBER OF 3 WIND. TRANSFORMERS : 2
NUMBER OF TRANSMISSION LINES : 22
NUMBER OF SERIES REACTORS : 0
NUMBER OF SERIES CAPACITORS : 1
NUMBER OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS : 1
NUMBER OF SHUNT REACTORS : 1
NUMBER OF SHUNT CAPACITORS : 3
NUMBER OF SHUNT IMPEDANCES : 0
NUMBER OF GENERATORS : 2
NUMBER OF MOTORS : 1
NUMBER OF LOADS : 9
NUMBER OF LOAD CHARACTERISTICS : 0
NUMBER OF UNDER FREQUENCY RELAYS : 1
NUMBER OF VOLTAGE RELAYS : 1
NUMBER OF OVER CURRENT RELAYS : 0
NUMBER OF DISTANCE RELAYS : 0
NUMBER OF FILTERS : 0
NUMBER OF CYCLIC LOADS : 0
NUMBER OF VOLTAGE REGULATORS : 2
NUMBER OF GOVERNORS : 2
NUMBER OF STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS : 0
NUMBER OF HVDC CONV. TERMINALS : 0
NUMBER OF HVDC LINKS : 0
NUMBER OF FREE PROGRAMMABLE BLOCKS : 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
No. of Zones : 3
No. of Disturbances : 2
No. of Nodes for V-I-Z-S output : 4
No. of Iterations in Load Flow Analysis : 10
No. of Time Steps for Print : 10
Index for Load type during post-disturbance : 0
Index for Load Flow Print : 1
Index for Voltage Impedance Print : 1
Index for Data details Print : 1
Reference swing bus : 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage - Current - Impedance Print Bus Numbers :
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 10 13
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

120
Base MVA : 100.0000
Rated system frequency : 50.0000
Transformer R/X : 0.0500
Circuit breaker resistance : 0.0000
Circuit breaker reactance : 0.0001
Tolerance - Real Power (pu) - initial : 0.0100
Tolerance - Reactive Power (pu) - initial : 0.0100
Tolerance - Real Power (pu) - post-distb : 0.0100
Tolerance - Reactive Power (pu) - post-distb : 0.0100
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Variable Time Step (Seconds)
From Time To Time Time Step
---------- ---------- ----------
0.00000* 1.00000 0.02000
1.00000* 2.00000 0.02000
2.00000* 3.00000 0.02000
3.00000* 20.00000* 0.04000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Zonal Wise Demand Multiplication Factors :
Zone Number Print Option P-DM Q-DM
----------- ------------ -------- --------
0 1 1.00000 1.00000
1 1 1.00000 1.00000
2 1 1.00000 1.00000
3 1 1.00000 1.00000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Disturbance Description
Dist. Type Description
---------- -------------------------------------------------------
1. Change in transformer/line parameters
2. Change in shunt impedance load
3. Change in load P and Q values
4. Fault creation at a bus
5. Fault clearing at a bus
6. Change in number of generator sets a a bus
7. Complete generation outage at a bus
8. Simulation of single line to ground falut
9. Clearing of single-line-to-ground fault and single pole opening
10. SLG fault clearing or recloser of the line
11. Loss of excitation at a generator
12. Change in load model data
13. Starting of the motor
14. Stopping of the motor
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dist. Dist. Time From To New Z.re New Z.im New B/2 Rec.
No. Type Sec. No. No. New P.MW New MVAR New Comp Type
----- ----- -------- ---- ---- -------- -------- -------- ----
1 4 0.1000 10 10 0.00000 0.00010 0.00000 0
0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
2 5 0.2000 10 10 0.00000 0.00010 0.00000 0
0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Generator Bus Numbers : 1 2 15
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

121
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. Island Zone Rated-Kv Name Vmag-pu Vang-Deg Pgen-MW Qgen-MR
Pl-MW Ql-MVAR Comp-MR
------- ------ ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 1 1 11.000 BUSG1 1.00000 -0.881 200.000 18.690
0.000 0.000 0.000
2 1 1 15.750 BUSG2 1.00000 0.000 410.920 33.800
42.000 21.400 0.000
3 1 1 220.000 BUS3 1.04040 -6.408 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
4 1 1 220.000 BUS4 1.04645 -3.951 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
5 1 1 220.000 BUS5 1.02243 -9.515 0.000 0.000
100.000 50.000 25.000
6 1 2 132.000 BUS6 1.00428 -13.200 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
7 1 1 11.000 BUS7 1.10913 -9.728 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
8 1 2 132.000 BUS8 0.97511 -14.727 0.000 0.000
50.000 25.000 0.000
9 1 2 132.000 BUS9 0.97665 -14.638 0.000 0.000
50.000 25.000 0.000
10 1 1 220.000 BUS10 1.02120 -11.541 0.000 0.000
80.000 40.000 0.000
11 1 3 66.000 BUS11 1.12884 -14.634 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
12 1 1 11.000 BUS12 1.13465 -11.549 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
13 1 3 66.000 BUS13 1.09496 -17.148 0.000 0.000
40.000 25.000 25.000
14 1 3 66.000 BUS14 1.08835 -17.673 0.000 0.000
40.000 25.000 25.000
15 1 1 11.000 BUS15 1.11366 -17.673 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
16 1 1 220.000 Bus16 0.88683 -30.577 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
17 1 1 220.000 Bus17 0.92114 -21.843 0.000 0.000
120.000 60.000 20.000
18 1 1 400.000 Bus18 1.03727 -14.718 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
19 1 1 400.000 Bus19 1.03208 -16.711 0.000 0.000
60.000 30.000 0.000
20 1 1 220.000 DUM0001 1.03536 -9.524 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
21 1 1 220.000 DUM0002 1.13465 -11.549 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSFORMER DATA ON 100.000 MVA BASE
SLNO* STAT #CKT FROM FROMNAME TO TO NAME RP-PU XP-PU RZ-PU XZ-PU
TAP PHASE-SH F-FREQ-V T-FREQ-V
----- ---- ---- ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 3 2 3 BUS3 1 BUSG1 0.00240 0.04794 0.00240 0.04794
1.050 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 G
D
2 3 3 4 BUS4 2 BUSG2 0.00093 0.01864 0.00093 0.01864

122
 1.050 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 G
D
3 3 1 14 BUS14 15 BUS15 0.03228 0.64559 24.03476 0.64559
0.977 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 D
G
4 3 1 18 Bus18 10 BUS10 0.00479 0.09588 0.00479 0.09588
0.950 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 G
D
5 3 2 5 BUS5 20 DUM0001 0.00001 0.00017 0.00001 0.00017
0.988 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 G
G
6 3 2 6 BUS6 20 DUM0001 0.00334 0.06675 0.00334 0.06675
1.000 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 G
G
7 3 2 7 BUS7 20 DUM0001 0.00831 0.16629 0.00831 0.16629
1.000 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 D
G
8 3 2 10 BUS10 21 DUM0002 0.00001 0.00021 0.00001 0.00021
0.900 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 G
G
9 3 2 11 BUS11 21 DUM0002 0.00417 0.08344 0.00417 0.08344
1.000 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 G
G
10 3 2 12 BUS12 21 DUM0002 0.01039 0.20786 0.01039 0.20786
1.000 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0 0 D
G
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSMISSION LINE DATA ON 100.000 MVA BASE
SLNO* STAT #CKT FROM FROMNAME TO TO NAME RP-PU XP-PU BP/2-PU
R0-PU X0-PU B0/2-PU F-FREQ-V T-FREQ-V
----- ---- ---- ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 3 1 3 BUS3 4 BUS4 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941
0.04125 0.20650 0.05551 1- 1 1- 1
2 3 1 3 BUS3 4 BUS4 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941
0.04125 0.20650 0.05551 0- 0 0- 0
3 3 1 3 BUS3 10 BUS10 0.01237 0.06195 0.05205
0.03094 0.15487 0.04164 0- 0 0- 0
4 3 1 3 BUS3 10 BUS10 0.01237 0.06195 0.05205
0.03094 0.15487 0.04164 0- 0 0- 0
5 3 1 4 BUS4 5 BUS5 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941
0.04125 0.20650 0.05551 0- 0 0- 0
6 3 1 4 BUS4 5 BUS5 0.01650 0.08260 0.06941
0.04125 0.20650 0.05551 0- 0 0- 0
7 3 1 5 BUS5 10 BUS10 0.01485 0.07434 0.06247
0.03712 0.18585 0.04996 0- 0 0- 0
8 3 1 6 BUS6 8 BUS8 0.06510 0.13738 0.01481
0.16276 0.34346 0.01185 0- 0 0- 0
9 3 1 6 BUS6 8 BUS8 0.06510 0.13738 0.01481
0.16276 0.34346 0.01185 0- 0 0- 0
10 3 1 6 BUS6 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01235
0.13563 0.28621 0.00987 0- 0 0- 0
11 3 1 6 BUS6 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01235
0.13563 0.28621 0.00987 0- 0 0- 0
12 3 1 8 BUS8 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01235
0.13563 0.28621 0.00987 0- 0 0- 0
13 3 1 8 BUS8 9 BUS9 0.05425 0.11449 0.01235
0.13563 0.28621 0.00987 0- 0 0- 0

123
 14 3 1 11 BUS11 14 BUS14 0.29276 0.42836 0.00252
0.73188 1.07089 0.00201 0- 0 0- 0
15 3 1 11 BUS11 14 BUS14 0.29276 0.42836 0.00252
0.73188 1.07089 0.00201 0- 0 0- 0
16 3 1 11 BUS11 13 BUS13 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126
0.36594 0.53544 0.00101 0- 0 0- 0
17 3 1 11 BUS11 13 BUS13 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126
0.36594 0.53544 0.00101 0- 0 0- 0
18 3 1 13 BUS13 14 BUS14 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126
0.36594 0.53544 0.00101 0- 0 0- 0
19 3 1 13 BUS13 14 BUS14 0.14638 0.21418 0.00126
0.36594 0.53544 0.00101 0- 0 0- 0
20 3 1 10 BUS10 16 Bus16 0.04950 0.24780 0.20822
0.12375 0.61949 0.16654 0- 0 0- 0
21 0 1 17 Bus17 16 Bus16 0.00017 0.00083 0.00069
0.00041 0.00206 0.00055 0- 0 0- 0
22 3 1 18 Bus18 19 Bus19 0.00559 0.06225 0.83250
0.00068 0.00765 0.00000 0- 0 0- 0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SERIES REACTOR AND CAPACITOR DATA ON 100.000 MVA BASE
SLNO* STAT FROM FROMNAME TO TO NAME RP-PU XP-PU R0-PU X0-PU
F-FREQ-V T-FREQ-V
----- ---- ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 3 17 Bus17 16 Bus16 0.00021 -0.10330 0.00021 -0.10330
0- 0 0- 0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CIRCUIT BREAKER DATA
SLNO* STAT FROM FROMNAME TO TO NAME B-FREQ-V
----- ---- ---- -------- ---- -------- --------
1 0 17 Bus17 16 Bus16 0- 0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SHUNT REACTOR AND CAPACITOR DATA ON 100.000000 MVA BASE
SLNO NODE BUS NAME GP-PU BP-PU G0-PU B0-PU S-FREQ-V
---- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 19 Bus19 0.0000 -0.5714 0.0000 -0.5714 0- 0
2 7 BUS7 0.0000 0.4000 0.0000 0.4000 0- 0
3 12 BUS12 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0001 0- 0
4 14 BUS14 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0001 0- 0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LOAD DATA
SLNO NODE BUS NAME P-MW Q-MVAR COMPMVAR LOADCHAR L-FREQ-V
---- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 2 BUSG2 42.000 21.400 0.000 0 0- 0
2 5 BUS5 100.000 50.000 25.000 0 0- 0
3 8 BUS8 50.000 25.000 0.000 0 0- 0
4 9 BUS9 50.000 25.000 0.000 0 0- 0
5 10 BUS10 80.000 40.000 0.000 0 0- 0
6 13 BUS13 40.000 25.000 25.000 0 0- 0
7 14 BUS14 40.000 25.000 25.000 0 0- 0
8 17 Bus17 120.000 60.000 20.000 0 0- 0
9 19 Bus19 60.000 30.000 0.000 0 0- 0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total islands in the system : 1
Frequency : 50.00
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

124
Machine Data on its own MVA rating
Notation used in the generator data print
H : Inertia constant in seconds.
Ra : Generator resistance in pu.
xd' : Direct axis transient reactance in pu.
xq' : Quadrature axis transient reactance in pu.
xn : Negative sequence reactance in pu.
x0 : Zero sequence reactance in pu.
df : Damping factor in pu.
xd : Direct axis reactance in pu.
xq : Quadrature axis reactance in pu.
xp : Potier reactance in pu.
xd" : Direct axis sub-transient reactance in pu.
xq" : Quadrature axis sub-transient reactance in pu.
tdo': Direct axis transient open circuit time constant in seconds.
tqo': Quadrature axis transient open circuit time constant in seconds.
tdo": Direct axis sub-transient time constant in seconds.
tqo": Quadrature axis sub-transient time constant in seconds.

Notation used in the motor data print

H : Inertia constant in seconds.
r1 : Stator resistance in pu.
x1 : Stator reactance in pu.
r2 : Rotor resistance in pu.
x2 : Rotor reactance in pu.
xm : Magnetizing reactance in pu.
Slip: Initial motor slip in pu.
pm : Motor rated power in in pu.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Generator bus no. : 1 Bus name : BUSG1 Model type : 3 Units : 2
MVA : 111.000 H : 3.78700, Ra : 0.00100 xd' : 0.31000 xq' : 0.55000
xn : 0.17000 x0 : 0.10500 df : 0.00000
xd : 0.90000 xq : 0.55000 xp : 0.14000 xd" : 0.14000 xq" : 0.16900
tdo' : 11.30000 tqo' : 0.50000 tdo" : 0.04000 tqo" : 0.08000
Frequency Relay No : 0 Voltage Relay NO : 0

Generator bus no. : 2 Bus name : BUSG2 Model type : 3 Units : 3

MVA : 244.000 H : 4.22000, Ra : 0.00100 xd' : 0.26600 xq' : 0.65200
xn : 0.25200 x0 : 0.10500 df : 0.00000
xd : 2.21000 xq : 2.11000 xp : 0.21300 xd" : 0.17900 xq" : 0.24500
tdo' : 7.00000 tqo' : 2.50000 tdo" : 0.04000 tqo" : 0.20000
Frequency Relay No : 0 Voltage Relay NO : 0

Motor bus no. : 15 Bus name : BUS15 Model type : 4 Units : 1

MVA : 3.750 H : 7.73000, r1 : 0.00372, x1 : 0.01013
r2-1 : 0.02743, x2-1 : 0.16087, r2-0 : 0.02743, x2-0 : 0.16087, xm : 2.24962
Slip : 1.00000, c1 : 1.00000, c2 : 0.00000, c3 : 0.00000, p : 0.00000
Mode : 0 tap-cutoff-slip : 0.10000 time Cut_off : 0.00000
auto-tap : 1.00000 R Start : 0.00000 R End : 0.00000
Frequency Relay No : 0 Voltage Relay NO : 0

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage regulator data
Bus : 1 Bus Name : BUSG1 AVR type : 5 PSS status : 0
Ka : 200.000 Ta : 40.00000 Ke : 1.00000 Vte : 1.00000
Vkf : 0.00000 Tf1 : 0.06000 Tf2 : 0.02400 Trec : 0.01000 Vts : 0.02500

125
Vse1 : 0.00000 Vse2 : 0.00000 Vrmax : 3.50000 Vrmin : -1.70000
Efdmax : 4.30000 Efdmin : -1.70000

Bus : 2 Bus Name : BUSG2 AVR type : 5 PSS status : 0

Ka : 200.000 Ta : 40.00000 Ke : 1.00000 Vte : 1.00000
Vkf : 0.00000 Tf1 : 0.06000 Tf2 : 0.02400 Trec : 0.01000 Vts : 0.02500
Vse1 : 0.00000 Vse2 : 0.00000 Vrmax : 3.50000 Vrmin : -1.70000
Efdmax : 4.30000 Efdmin : -1.70000

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Governor data
Bus No : 1 Bus Name : BUSG1, Gov. Type : 2 Units : 2,
Prate : 100.00000 Droop : 0.04000 Tran Droop : 0.36000
Pmax : 1.00000 Pmin : 0.00000Pup : 0.10000 Pdown : -0.10000
T1 : 0.05000 T2 : 0.20000 T3 : 5.00000 Tw : 1.00000

Bus No : 2 Bus Name : BUSG2, Gov. Type : 1 Units : 3,

Prate : 210.00000 Droop : 0.04000 Pmax : 1.00000 Pmin : 0.00000
Pup : 0.10000 Pdown : -0.10000
K1+K2 : 0.27600 K3+k4 : 0.32400 K5+K6 : 0.40000 K7+K8 : 0.00000
T1 : 0.10000 T2 : 0.03000 T3 : 0.22000
Thp : 1.00000 Trh : 10.00000 Tip : 99.90000 Tlp : 0.50000

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Frequency relay characteristics
Relay Number Type Freq-set Time-set Trip-Factor
------------ -------- -------- -------- ---------------
1 1 49.500 0.500 0.001
48.000 0.300 0.002
47.500 0.200 0.003
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage relay characteristics
Relay Number Type Volt-set Time-set Percentage-trip
------------ -------- -------- -------- ---------------
1 1 0.850 0.500 0.002
0.750 0.200 0.003
0.650 0.100 0.004
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iter # Pmax Pmax-bus Qmax Qmax-bus Vmax Vmax-bus
------ -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 0.00159 21 0.02102 5 0.00012 17
2 0.00095 21 0.00096 5 0.00012 0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Results of load flow study
No. Name Zone Rated KV Vact-KV V-mag Ang-Deg Pgen Qgen
Pload Qload Q-comp
---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1 11.000 11.000 1.00000 -0.881 199.998 18.742
0.000 0.000 0.000
2 BUSG2 1 15.750 15.750 1.00000 0.000 410.920 33.888
42.000 21.400 0.000
3 BUS3 1 220.000 228.881 1.04037 -6.408 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
4 BUS4 1 220.000 230.215 1.04643 -3.951 0.000 0.000

126
 0.000 0.000 0.000
5 BUS5 1 220.000 224.924 1.02238 -9.515 0.000 0.000
100.000 50.000 25.000
6 BUS6 2 132.000 132.559 1.00423 -13.200 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
7 BUS7 1 11.000 12.200 1.10908 -9.728 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
8 BUS8 2 132.000 128.708 0.97506 -14.727 0.000 0.000
50.000 25.000 0.000
9 BUS9 2 132.000 128.911 0.97660 -14.638 0.000 0.000
50.000 25.000 0.000
10 BUS10 1 220.000 224.654 1.02115 -11.541 0.000 0.000
80.000 40.000 0.000
11 BUS11 3 66.000 74.500 1.12880 -14.634 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
12 BUS12 1 11.000 12.481 1.13460 -11.549 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
13 BUS13 3 66.000 72.264 1.09491 -17.148 0.000 0.000
40.000 25.000 25.000
14 BUS14 3 66.000 71.828 1.08831 -17.673 0.000 0.000
40.000 25.000 25.000
15 BUS15 1 11.000 12.250 1.11366 -17.673 0.000 0.007
0.000 0.000 0.000
16 Bus16 1 220.000 195.077 0.88672 -30.577 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
17 Bus17 1 220.000 202.625 0.92102 -21.843 0.000 0.000
120.000 60.000 20.000
18 Bus18 1 400.000 414.890 1.03723 -14.718 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
19 Bus19 1 400.000 412.812 1.03203 -16.711 0.000 0.000
60.000 30.000 0.000
20 DUM0001 1 220.000 227.769 1.03531 -9.524 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
21 DUM0002 1 220.000 249.611 1.13460 -11.549 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Line flow and line losses
From From To To Ckts Forward Forward MWLoss MVARLoss
Node Name Node Name No. FlowMW FlowMVAR MW
---- -------- ---- -------- ---- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 3 BUS3 2 200.00 18.74 0.967 19.344

2 BUSG2 4 BUS4 3 368.93 12.49 1.270 25.403

3 BUS3 1 BUSG1 2 -199.03 0.60 0.967 19.344

3 BUS3 4 BUS4 1 -55.57 -2.84 0.474 -12.739
3 BUS3 4 BUS4 1 -55.57 -2.84 0.474 -12.739
3 BUS3 10 BUS10 1 155.08 2.54 2.757 2.741
3 BUS3 10 BUS10 1 155.08 2.54 2.757 2.741

4 BUS4 2 BUSG2 3 -367.66 12.92 1.270 25.403

4 BUS4 3 BUS3 1 56.04 -9.90 0.474 -12.739
4 BUS4 3 BUS3 1 56.04 -9.90 0.474 -12.739
4 BUS4 5 BUS5 1 127.79 3.45 2.479 -2.445
4 BUS4 5 BUS5 1 127.79 3.45 2.479 -2.445

5 BUS5 20 DUM0001 2 102.40 0.43 0.001 0.016

127
 5 BUS5 4 BUS4 1 -125.31 -5.89 2.479 -2.445
5 BUS5 4 BUS4 1 -125.31 -5.89 2.479 -2.445
5 BUS5 10 BUS10 1 48.25 -13.60 0.338 -11.351

6 BUS6 20 DUM0001 2 -101.80 -38.46 0.392 7.838

6 BUS6 8 BUS8 1 23.86 8.78 0.436 -1.983
6 BUS6 8 BUS8 1 23.86 8.78 0.436 -1.983
6 BUS6 9 BUS9 1 27.04 10.45 0.467 -1.437
6 BUS6 9 BUS9 1 27.04 10.45 0.467 -1.437

7 BUS7 20 DUM0001 2 0.00 49.20 0.164 3.273

8 BUS8 6 BUS6 1 -23.43 -10.76 0.436 -1.983

8 BUS8 6 BUS6 1 -23.43 -10.76 0.436 -1.983
8 BUS8 9 BUS9 1 -1.57 -1.74 0.002 -2.348
8 BUS8 9 BUS9 1 -1.57 -1.74 0.002 -2.348

9 BUS9 6 BUS6 1 -26.57 -11.89 0.467 -1.437

9 BUS9 6 BUS6 1 -26.57 -11.89 0.467 -1.437
9 BUS9 8 BUS8 1 1.57 -0.61 0.002 -2.348
9 BUS9 8 BUS8 1 1.57 -0.61 0.002 -2.348

10 BUS10 18 Bus18 1 60.62 -76.50 0.438 8.761

10 BUS10 21 DUM0002 2 82.81 5.95 -0.000 0.008
10 BUS10 3 BUS3 1 -152.32 0.20 2.757 2.741
10 BUS10 3 BUS3 1 -152.32 0.20 2.757 2.741
10 BUS10 5 BUS5 1 -47.91 2.25 0.338 -11.351
10 BUS10 16 Bus16 1 129.09 27.88 9.078 7.360

11 BUS11 21 DUM0002 2 -82.69 -1.49 0.224 4.479

11 BUS11 14 BUS14 1 15.52 0.14 0.554 0.191
11 BUS11 14 BUS14 1 15.52 0.14 0.554 0.191
11 BUS11 13 BUS13 1 25.83 0.60 0.767 0.811
11 BUS11 13 BUS13 1 25.83 0.60 0.767 0.811

12 BUS12 21 DUM0002 2 0.00 -0.00 0.000 0.000

13 BUS13 11 BUS11 1 -25.06 0.21 0.767 0.811

13 BUS13 11 BUS11 1 -25.06 0.21 0.767 0.811
13 BUS13 14 BUS14 1 5.06 -0.21 0.031 -0.255
13 BUS13 14 BUS14 1 5.06 -0.21 0.031 -0.255

14 BUS14 15 BUS15 1 -0.00 -0.01 0.000 0.000

14 BUS14 11 BUS11 1 -14.97 0.05 0.554 0.191
14 BUS14 11 BUS11 1 -14.97 0.05 0.554 0.191
14 BUS14 13 BUS13 1 -5.03 -0.04 0.031 -0.255
14 BUS14 13 BUS13 1 -5.03 -0.04 0.031 -0.255

15 BUS15 14 BUS14 1 0.00 0.01 0.000 0.000

16 Bus16 10 BUS10 1 -120.01 -20.52 9.078 7.360

16 Bus16 17 Bus17 1 119.99 20.52 0.039 -19.471

17 Bus17 16 Bus16 1 -119.95 -39.99 0.039 -19.471

18 Bus18 10 BUS10 1 -60.18 85.26 0.438 8.761

18 Bus18 19 Bus19 1 60.18 -85.26 0.189 -176.125

128
 19 Bus19 18 Bus18 1 -59.99 -90.86 0.189 -176.125

20 DUM0001 5 BUS5 2 -102.40 -0.41 0.001 0.016

20 DUM0001 6 BUS6 2 102.19 46.30 0.392 7.838
20 DUM0001 7 BUS7 2 0.16 -45.93 0.164 3.273

21 DUM0002 10 BUS10 2 -82.81 -5.94 -0.000 0.008

21 DUM0002 11 BUS11 2 82.92 5.97 0.224 4.479
21 DUM0002 12 BUS12 2 -0.00 0.00 0.000 0.000

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total power generation : 610.92 MW 52.64 MVAR
Total reactive compensation : 95.00 MVAR
Total capacitivei copensation : 49.20 MVAR
Total inductive compensation : 1.#R MVAR
Total power losses : 29.03 MW -165.39 MVAR
Over all P mismatch : 1.#QO MW
Percentage P losses : 1.#QO
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Notation used for generator graph files
Vbname.grp : Voltage Magnitude
Abname.grp : Voltage Angle
Dbname.grp : Swing curve
Fbname.grp : Frequency plot
Pbname.grp : Electrical Power P - MW
Qbname.grp : Electrical Power Q - MVAR
Mbname.grp : Mechanical Power - MW
Ebname.grp : Field Voltage - kV
Sbname.grp : Motor Slip - PU
Ibname.grp : Current Magnitude - Amps
Tbname.grp : Apparent power - MVA
wherein bname is the bus name.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Notation used for line flow graph files
LPxFV.grp : Voltage Magnitude From Bus
LPxTV.grp : Voltage Magnitude To Bus
LPxFI.grp : Forward flow current magnitude
LPxFF.grp : Frequency in Hz. From Bus
LPxFP.grp : Forward real power flow
LPxFR.grp : Forward reactive power flow
LPxFZ.grp : Forward impedance loci (r-x plot)
wherein x is the line number in the plot list as follows
1 BUSG1 3 BUS3 x : 1
2 BUSG2 4 BUS4 x : 2
10 BUS10 18 Bus18 x : 3
21 DUM0002 x : 4
3 BUS3 x : 5
3 BUS3 x : 6
5 BUS5 x : 7
16 Bus16 x : 8
13 BUS13 11 BUS11 x : 9
11 BUS11 x : 10
14 BUS14 x : 11
14 BUS14 x : 12
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

129
Time = 0.00000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/PU
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1 -0.881 24.4 50 200 18.7 200 1.32
2 BUSG2 1 0 47.2 50 411 33.9 411 1.66
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 47.16241 b/w buses : 2 and 15
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 phase fault 0.10000 10 BUS10
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time = 0.20000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 0.468 21.5 31.4 50.4 42.3 198 200 4.3
2 BUSG2 0.619 14.1 50.4 50.2 108 561 411 3.96
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 50.42614 b/w buses : 2 and 15
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.438
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.388
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle
Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 0.468 21.48 3 BUS3 0.278 14 2.3e+004 -57
0.022 0.11 42 2e+002
2 BUSG2 0.619 14.14 4 BUS4 0.474 12 3.3e+004 -67
0.011 0.067 91 5.5e+002
10 BUS10 0.001 -9.17 18 Bus18 0.00108 -12 0.26 43
0.66 -0.85 6.5e-005 -8.3e-005
21 DUM0002 0.00118 -9.2 0.2 -11
1.4 0.052 8.2e-005 3.1e-006
3 BUS3 0.278 14 1.2e+003 1.2e+002
-0.00014 -0.0002 -0.27 -0.38
3 BUS3 0.278 14 1.2e+003 1.2e+002
-0.00014 -0.0002 -0.27 -0.38
5 BUS5 0.301 8.8 1e+003 1.1e+002
-0.00013 -0.00023 -0.21 -0.37
16 Bus16 0.000946 -26 0.31 -18
0.89 0.14 0.00012 2e-005
13 BUS13 0.001 -13.59 11 BUS11 0.00118 -12 0.13 1.7e+002
-7.9 0.11 -1.7e-005 2.3e-007
11 BUS11 0.00118 -12 0.13 1.7e+002
-7.9 0.11 -1.7e-005 2.3e-007
14 BUS14 0.00115 -14 0.028 -9.3
37 -2.8 3.6e-006 -2.8e-007
14 BUS14 0.00115 -14 0.028 -9.3
37 -2.8 3.6e-006 -2.8e-007
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

130
Fault removal 0.20000 10 BUS10
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time : 0.26000 Modifying the line parameter 3 BUS3 4 BUS4
New parameters : 0.00000 999.90002 0.00000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time : 0.26000 Modifying the line parameter 3 BUS3 4 BUS4
New parameters : 0.00000 999.90002 0.00000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time : 0.36000 Modifying the line parameter 3 BUS3 4 BUS4
New parameters : 0.00000 999.90002 0.00000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time : 0.36000 Modifying the line parameter 3 BUS3 4 BUS4
New parameters : 0.00000 999.90002 0.00000
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time = 0.40000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 0.979 33.5 62.2 50.3 239 35.7 202 1.7
2 BUSG2 0.968 32.6 73.1 50.4 337 28.9 411 2.03
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 73.11961 b/w buses : 15 and 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.335
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.349
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle
Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 0.979 33.47 3 BUS3 1.01 27 1.3e+004 25
0.39 0.059 2.4e+002 36
2 BUSG2 0.968 32.56 4 BUS4 1.01 29 1.1e+004 31
0.31 0.0094 3e+002 8.9
10 BUS10 0.991 21.45 18 Bus18 1.01 18 2.4e+002 73
0.66 -0.84 57 -72
21 DUM0002 1.1 21 2.1e+002 17
1.3 0.09 78 5.6
3 BUS3 1.01 27 3.8e+002 -1.6e+002
-0.69 -0.0016 -1.4e+002 -0.34
3 BUS3 1.01 27 3.8e+002 -1.6e+002
-0.69 -0.0016 -1.4e+002 -0.34
5 BUS5 0.991 24 1.2e+002 -1.5e+002
-2.1 0.2 -46 4.3
16 Bus16 0.862 2.4 3.3e+002 9.4
0.77 0.16 1.2e+002 26
13 BUS13 1.063 15.83 11 BUS11 1.1 18 1.9e+002 -1.6e+002
-4.8 0.069 -24 0.34
11 BUS11 1.1 18 1.9e+002 -1.6e+002
-4.8 0.069 -24 0.34
14 BUS14 1.06 15 39 18
24 -1 4.8 -0.2
14 BUS14 1.06 15 39 18
24 -1 4.8 -0.2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

131
Time = 0.60000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1 57.3 81.5 50.3 185 34.3 202 1.61
2 BUSG2 0.996 60.8 104 50.4 422 36.3 410 1.93
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 104.01742 b/w buses : 2 and 15
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.373
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.398
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle
Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.004 57.30 3 BUS3 1.04 52 9.8e+003 47
0.53 0.099 1.8e+002 35
2 BUSG2 0.996 60.84 4 BUS4 1.04 57 1.4e+004 58
0.26 0.011 3.8e+002 16
10 BUS10 1.017 47.51 18 Bus18 1.03 44 2.5e+002 99
0.66 -0.84 60 -76
21 DUM0002 1.13 48 2.1e+002 43
1.3 0.09 82 5.9
3 BUS3 1.04 52 3.6e+002 -1.3e+002
-0.74 -0.017 -1.4e+002 -3.2
3 BUS3 1.04 52 3.6e+002 -1.3e+002
-0.74 -0.017 -1.4e+002 -3.2
5 BUS5 1.02 51 1.9e+002 -1.2e+002
-1.4 0.2 -71 10
16 Bus16 0.884 28 3.4e+002 35
0.77 0.17 1.3e+002 27
13 BUS13 1.091 41.90 11 BUS11 1.12 44 2e+002 -1.4e+002
-4.8 0.065 -25 0.34
11 BUS11 1.12 44 2e+002 -1.4e+002
-4.8 0.065 -25 0.34
14 BUS14 1.08 41 40 44
24 -0.98 5 -0.21
14 BUS14 1.08 41 40 44
24 -0.98 5 -0.21
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time = 0.80000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.02 84.9 106 50.4 174 34 201 1.53
2 BUSG2 1.01 89.5 134 50.4 451 43.9 408 1.85
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 134.06689 b/w buses : 2 and 15
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.399
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.387
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle

132
 Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.016 84.94 3 BUS3 1.05 80 9.2e+003 74
0.57 0.11 1.7e+002 34
2 BUSG2 1.011 89.48 4 BUS4 1.06 85 1.5e+004 86
0.25 0.014 4.1e+002 22
10 BUS10 1.029 75.65 18 Bus18 1.05 72 2.5e+002 1.3e+002
0.66 -0.84 62 -78
21 DUM0002 1.14 76 2.2e+002 71
1.2 0.092 84 6.2
3 BUS3 1.05 80 3.6e+002 -1.1e+002
-0.76 -0.022 -1.4e+002 -4.2
3 BUS3 1.05 80 3.6e+002 -1.1e+002
-0.76 -0.022 -1.4e+002 -4.2
5 BUS5 1.03 79 2e+002 -97
-1.3 0.18 -79 11
16 Bus16 0.894 57 3.4e+002 63
0.77 0.17 1.3e+002 28
13 BUS13 1.103 70.04 11 BUS11 1.14 73 2e+002 -1.1e+002
-4.8 0.029 -26 0.16
11 BUS11 1.14 73 2e+002 -1.1e+002
-4.8 0.029 -26 0.16
14 BUS14 1.1 70 41 72
24 -0.79 5.2 -0.17
14 BUS14 1.1 70 41 72
24 -0.79 5.2 -0.17
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time = 1.00000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.02 114 140 50.5 222 27 201 1.5
2 BUSG2 1.02 116 160 50.3 411 43.7 406 1.79
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 159.87746 b/w buses : 2 and 15
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.377
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.362
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle
Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.019 114.35 3 BUS3 1.06 1.1e+002 1.1e+004 1.1e+002
0.46 0.058 2.2e+002 28
2 BUSG2 1.020 115.86 4 BUS4 1.07 1.1e+002 1.3e+004 1.1e+002
0.28 0.017 3.7e+002 22
10 BUS10 1.038 103.55 18 Bus18 1.05 1e+002 2.5e+002 1.6e+002
0.66 -0.84 63 -79
21 DUM0002 1.15 1e+002 2.2e+002 99
1.3 0.09 86 6.1
3 BUS3 1.06 1.1e+002 3.8e+002 -77
-0.72 -0.0029 -1.5e+002 -0.6
3 BUS3 1.06 1.1e+002 3.8e+002 -77
-0.72 -0.0029 -1.5e+002 -0.6
5 BUS5 1.04 1.1e+002 1.6e+002 -72

133
 -1.7 0.12 -65 4.7
16 Bus16 0.901 84 3.5e+002 91
0.77 0.17 1.3e+002 29
13 BUS13 1.113 97.94 11 BUS11 1.15 1e+002 2e+002 -81
-4.8 0.058 -26 0.31
11 BUS11 1.15 1e+002 2e+002 -81
-4.8 0.058 -26 0.31
14 BUS14 1.11 97 41 1e+002
24 -0.94 5.2 -0.21
14 BUS14 1.11 97 41 1e+002
24 -0.94 5.2 -0.21
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time = 1.20000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.02 139 167 50.3 225 25.6 200 1.48
2 BUSG2 1.02 141 185 50.3 411 45.2 404 1.75
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 184.59589 b/w buses : 15 and 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.324
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.333
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle
Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.020 139.46 3 BUS3 1.06 1.3e+002 1.2e+004 1.3e+002
0.46 0.053 2.2e+002 26
2 BUSG2 1.023 140.79 4 BUS4 1.07 1.4e+002 1.3e+004 1.4e+002
0.28 0.018 3.7e+002 24
10 BUS10 1.040 128.57 18 Bus18 1.06 1.3e+002 2.6e+002 -1.8e+002
0.66 -0.84 63 -79
21 DUM0002 1.16 1.3e+002 2.2e+002 1.2e+002
1.3 0.09 86 6.2
3 BUS3 1.06 1.3e+002 3.8e+002 -51
-0.72 -0.00083 -1.5e+002 -0.17
3 BUS3 1.06 1.3e+002 3.8e+002 -51
-0.72 -0.00083 -1.5e+002 -0.17
5 BUS5 1.04 1.3e+002 1.6e+002 -48
-1.7 0.1 -64 3.9
16 Bus16 0.903 1.1e+002 3.5e+002 1.2e+002
0.77 0.17 1.3e+002 29
13 BUS13 1.115 122.96 11 BUS11 1.15 1.3e+002 2e+002 -56
-4.8 0.057 -26 0.31
11 BUS11 1.15 1.3e+002 2e+002 -56
-4.8 0.057 -26 0.31
14 BUS14 1.11 1.2e+002 41 1.3e+002
24 -0.94 5.2 -0.21
14 BUS14 1.11 1.2e+002 41 1.3e+002
24 -0.94 5.2 -0.21
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

134
Time = 1.40000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.02 160 184 50.2 194 28.4 199 1.43
2 BUSG2 1.03 163 208 50.3 445 45.9 401 1.71
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 208.11839 b/w buses : 15 and 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.279
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.288
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle
Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.025 160.03 3 BUS3 1.06 1.5e+002 1e+004 1.5e+002
0.53 0.079 1.9e+002 29
2 BUSG2 1.025 163.46 4 BUS4 1.07 1.6e+002 1.4e+004 1.6e+002
0.26 0.016 4e+002 24
10 BUS10 1.043 150.20 18 Bus18 1.06 1.5e+002 2.6e+002 -1.6e+002
0.66 -0.84 63 -80
21 DUM0002 1.16 1.5e+002 2.2e+002 1.5e+002
1.2 0.09 87 6.3
3 BUS3 1.06 1.5e+002 3.7e+002 -31
-0.74 -0.011 -1.5e+002 -2.2
3 BUS3 1.06 1.5e+002 3.7e+002 -31
-0.74 -0.011 -1.5e+002 -2.2
5 BUS5 1.04 1.5e+002 1.9e+002 -24
-1.4 0.15 -75 7.8
16 Bus16 0.906 1.3e+002 3.5e+002 1.4e+002
0.77 0.17 1.3e+002 29
13 BUS13 1.118 144.59 11 BUS11 1.15 1.5e+002 2e+002 -35
-4.8 0.054 -26 0.29
11 BUS11 1.15 1.5e+002 2e+002 -35
-4.8 0.054 -26 0.29
14 BUS14 1.11 1.4e+002 41 1.5e+002
24 -0.92 5.3 -0.21
14 BUS14 1.11 1.4e+002 41 1.5e+002
24 -0.92 5.3 -0.21
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time = 1.60000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.03 179 202 50.3 198 28.3 198 1.39
2 BUSG2 1.03 -178 227 50.2 445 46.2 398 1.67
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 226.91554 b/w buses : 2 and 15
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.236
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.229
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle

135
 Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.027 178.60 3 BUS3 1.06 1.7e+002 1e+004 1.7e+002
0.52 0.076 2e+002 29
2 BUSG2 1.027 -178.14 4 BUS4 1.07 1.8e+002 1.4e+004 1.8e+002
0.26 0.016 4e+002 24
10 BUS10 1.045 168.68 18 Bus18 1.06 1.7e+002 2.6e+002 -1.4e+002
0.66 -0.84 63 -80
21 DUM0002 1.16 1.7e+002 2.2e+002 1.6e+002
1.3 0.09 87 6.3
3 BUS3 1.06 1.7e+002 3.7e+002 -12
-0.74 -0.01 -1.5e+002 -2.1
3 BUS3 1.06 1.7e+002 3.7e+002 -12
-0.74 -0.01 -1.5e+002 -2.1
5 BUS5 1.05 1.7e+002 1.9e+002 -5.5
-1.4 0.15 -75 7.6
16 Bus16 0.908 1.5e+002 3.5e+002 1.6e+002
0.77 0.17 1.4e+002 29
13 BUS13 1.121 163.07 11 BUS11 1.16 1.7e+002 2e+002 -16
-4.8 0.061 -26 0.34
11 BUS11 1.16 1.7e+002 2e+002 -16
-4.8 0.061 -26 0.34
14 BUS14 1.11 1.6e+002 41 1.7e+002
24 -0.96 5.3 -0.21
14 BUS14 1.11 1.6e+002 41 1.7e+002
24 -0.96 5.3 -0.21
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time = 1.80000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.03 -166 219 50.2 217 26.7 197 1.37
2 BUSG2 1.03 -164 241 50.2 424 46.5 396 1.65
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 240.54700 b/w buses : 15 and 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.174
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.170
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle
Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.025 -166.20 3 BUS3 1.06 -1.7e+002 1.1e+004 -1.7e+002
0.48 0.059 2.2e+002 27
2 BUSG2 1.027 -164.26 4 BUS4 1.07 -1.7e+002 1.4e+004 -1.7e+002
0.28 0.018 3.8e+002 25
10 BUS10 1.044 -176.78 18 Bus18 1.06 -1.8e+002 2.6e+002 -1.3e+002
0.66 -0.84 63 -80
21 DUM0002 1.16 -1.8e+002 2.2e+002 1.8e+002
1.3 0.091 87 6.3
3 BUS3 1.06 -1.7e+002 3.8e+002 2.9
-0.72 -0.0044 -1.5e+002 -0.92
3 BUS3 1.06 -1.7e+002 3.8e+002 2.9
-0.72 -0.0044 -1.5e+002 -0.92
5 BUS5 1.05 -1.7e+002 1.7e+002 7.4

136
 -1.6 0.12 -68 5
16 Bus16 0.907 1.6e+002 3.5e+002 1.7e+002
0.77 0.17 1.4e+002 29
13 BUS13 1.120 177.61 11 BUS11 1.15 -1.8e+002 2e+002 -1.8
-4.8 0.052 -26 0.28
11 BUS11 1.15 -1.8e+002 2e+002 -1.8
-4.8 0.052 -26 0.28
14 BUS14 1.11 1.8e+002 41 1.8e+002
24 -0.92 5.3 -0.2
14 BUS14 1.11 1.8e+002 41 1.8e+002
24 -0.92 5.3 -0.2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time = 2.00000 Seconds
Intermediate results for Machines
GNo Name Voltage Angle Delta Freq Pgen Qgen Pmech Efd/Slip
pu Degree Degree Hzs. MW MVAR MW pu/P.U.
--- -------- ------- -------- -------- ------- ------- ------- ------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.02 -157 229 50.1 212 27.4 197 1.36
2 BUSG2 1.03 -154 251 50.1 427 46.4 395 1.63
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum rotor angle difference : 250.71625 b/w buses : 15 and 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bus No. : 3 Name : BUS3, Frequency : 50.106
Bus No. : 4 Name : BUS4, Frequency : 50.112
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Voltage (pu), Current (AMPS), impedance (PU) and power (MW-MVAR) for lines
From Name Voltage Angle To Name Voltage Angle Current Angle
Zl-real Zl-im P Q
---- -------- ------- ------- ---- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
1 BUSG1 1.024 -156.52 3 BUS3 1.06 -1.6e+002 1.1e+004 -1.6e+002
0.49 0.064 2.1e+002 28
2 BUSG2 1.025 -154.24 4 BUS4 1.07 -1.6e+002 1.4e+004 -1.6e+002
0.27 0.017 3.8e+002 24
10 BUS10 1.043 -166.92 18 Bus18 1.06 -1.7e+002 2.6e+002 -1.2e+002
0.66 -0.84 63 -80
21 DUM0002 1.16 -1.7e+002 2.2e+002 -1.7e+002
1.3 0.09 86 6.2
3 BUS3 1.06 -1.6e+002 3.8e+002 13
-0.73 -0.0064 -1.5e+002 -1.3
3 BUS3 1.06 -1.6e+002 3.8e+002 13
-0.73 -0.0064 -1.5e+002 -1.3
5 BUS5 1.04 -1.6e+002 1.7e+002 18
-1.6 0.13 -69 5.7
16 Bus16 0.905 1.7e+002 3.5e+002 -1.8e+002
0.77 0.17 1.3e+002 29
13 BUS13 1.118 -172.53 11 BUS11 1.15 -1.7e+002 2e+002 8
-4.8 0.044 -26 0.24
11 BUS11 1.15 -1.7e+002 2e+002 8
-4.8 0.044 -26 0.24
14 BUS14 1.11 -1.7e+002 41 -1.7e+002
24 -0.88 5.3 -0.2
14 BUS14 1.11 -1.7e+002 41 -1.7e+002
24 -0.88 5.3 -0.2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date and Time : Tue Jun 10 11:18:24 2003
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

137
The terminal voltage vs time curves of units of 19 bus system shown in fig 1.1 for a Three phase fault at
Bus 10 from 0.1 sec to 0.2 sec.

Unit frequency curves of 19 bus system shown in fig 1.1 for a Three phase fault at Bus 10 from 0.1 sec to
0.2 sec.

138
The terminal voltage vs time curves of units of 19 bus system shown in fig 1.1 for a Three phase fault at
Bus 10 from 0.1 sec to 0.45 sec.

Unit frequency curves of 19 bus system shown in fig 1.1 for a Three phase fault at Bus 10 from 0.1 sec to
0.45 sec.

139
140
 Chapter 7

PRINCIPLES OF POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Overview
The Principles of Power System Operation module presents the following topics:
Energy Balance
Interconnected Operations
Automatic Generation Control
Operating Limits
Power System Stability
Computer System Functions
As a system operator you are responsible for operating and controlling the power system so the power is generated
and delivered to customers and other utilities as reliably and economically as possible. In this module, we apply
some of the concepts developed in other modules to the operation of the power system.
Let's begin by discussing why it is necessary to match the power supply to the customer demand.

1 Energy Balance

We are now familiar with the various devices that produce and consume electric power. Generators supply the
power and customers use the power.

Like other businesses, utilities supply a product to their customers. Utilities differ, however, in that their product,
power, cannot be produced in advance and stored. So, at all times utilities must supply enough power to meet the
needs of their customers.

An electric power system can be thought of as an energy balance system. The generation must be equal to the
customer load. Figure 7.1 shows this relationship.

Figure 7.1:Energy Balance

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Figure 7.1 illustrates the following:

Power Supplied = Power Generated + Power Imported - Power Exported

Power Consumed = Customer Demand + System Losses
If the system is in perfect balance, the frequency is equal to 50Hz.
If there is a power imbalance, frequency excursions occur:
When the system is over-generating (supply > demand), the frequency increases above 50 Hz.
When the system is under-generating (supply < demand),the frequency decreases below 50 Hz.
The amount of frequency deviation is determined by the amount of generation and load imbalance.
The greater the imbalance, the greater the frequency deviation.

Severe frequency excursions (below 49.5 or above 50.5) can damage utility and customer equipment.
Frequency excursions can also lead to time error accumulation.

Electric clocks run faster when the frequency is high (over-generation).

Electric clocks run slower when the frequency is low (under-generation).

So what can be done to maintain the power balance?

Control systems on the generators regulate the power output to meet the load. But the range of control is
limited. The system operator has the ultimate responsibility to balance the power system. The remainder of this
module provides some insight on how to accomplish this.

We know that for the electric power system to operate properly, the amount of electricity generated must
exactly match the amount of power used by the customers, plus that consumed in losses.

If load exceeds generation, the power system generators momentarily slow down, causing a
reduction in the system frequency. In this case, the generating unit control systems must increase the
mechanical power input to the turbine (steam, gas, or water flow) to the point of stabilizing the
system at a lower frequency. Automatic Generation Control (AGC) provides supplemental control to
move the system back to 50 Hz. We discuss AGC in more detail later in this module.
If generation exceeds load, generators momentarily speed up, increasing the system frequency. The
mechanical power input must then be reduced to restore the desired frequency.

Frequency Response Characteristic;

Each generator has a frequency response characteristic. A frequency response characteristic is the amount of
generation response to a frequency change, usually expressed in MW/0.1 Hz.

Load changes fall into two basic categories:

Regulating Units

Relatively small load changes These increases and decreases occur continuously on the power system as
customer demand routinely fluctuates. To maintain a balance between load and generation, the loading on
fast-responding generators, called regulating units, requires small adjustments. Where available,
hydroelectric units sometimes perform this task.

142
 Daily load cycles These changes are generally larger and more predictable than regulating load swings.
Utilities employ units that can be placed in service, loaded, and unloaded quickly to balance load changes
associated with daily cycles. Peaking units, such as combustion gas turbines, generally handle this
function.

The balance between load and generation may suddenly be disrupted if a key generating unit trips off-line. To
prevent such an occurrence from dragging system frequency to an unacceptably low level, we require a rapid
increase in the loading of on-line generating units to compensate for the lost generator.

Spinning Reserve:

It is normal practice for power companies to load some generating units to something less than maximum
load, so that the remaining spare or reserve capability may be used to respond to the loss of a generator. This spare
capability is called spinning reserve. Spinning reserve is reserve capability that can be converted to energy within
ten minutes. It is provided by equipment electrically synchronized to the system and responding automatically to
frequency changes. Within various power pools, there are methods of sharing reserve capabilities.

2 Interconnected Operations

Interconnected System:

Utilities usually do not operate as electrical islands. Rather, they interconnect their power transmission
systems to allow power to flow between control areas. An interconnected system consists of two or more individual
power systems normally operating with connecting tie lines. There are many benefits to interconnected systems,
including:

Reliability:

Interconnected utilities can rely on the transmission tie line capacity to assist in meeting the changing load
demands. If one system suffers the sudden loss of a generating unit, generating units throughout the interconnection
experience a frequency change and can help in stabilizing frequency.

Economy:

Interconnected systems allow utilities to buy and sell power with neighboring systems whose operating
costs make such transactions profitable. Neighboring utilities commonly establish contracts with each other that
allow each company to buy or sell specified amounts of power at certain times or under predetermined conditions.
The contract may also specify the transmission path to be used for these transactions.

Interchange Schedule:

At the agreed-upon time, the seller increases generation and the buyer decreases generation to cause power
to flow from the seller to the buyer. This agreement is called an interchange schedule.

Loop Flow:

Power does not only flow over the desired path. Rather, it flows over all available paths in inverse proportion
to the relative impedance of those paths. This leads to the phenomenon known as loop flow, parallel path flow, or

143
inadvertent flow. An interchange schedule between two utilities can increase the transmission line loading of
another utility not otherwise involved in the transaction, leading to the following adverse effects:

Decreasing margins within stability limits

Increasing transmission line losses
Needing to adjust interchange schedules

Adjusting generation can control loop flow; however, this may not always be the most economical solution.
Many utilities use phase shifting transformers to control loop flow. Controlling loop flows requires cooperation
from all interconnected utilities.

We may recall from Principles of Power Generation, that prior to closing the generator circuit breaker, the
generator voltage must be synchronized to the power system voltage. A similar requirement must be observed prior
to synchronizing power systems. When synchronizing two power systems, however, the inertias are significantly
greater, and therefore, more care must be taken to ensure proper conditions exist before closing the circuit breaker.
If the frequency and phase angle are not carefully matched, extremely high currents can result that cause damage
to equipment.

One problem that requires the system operator's attention is the closing of a parallel tie on a long
transmission loop. If the system operator closes a loop that has a large phase angle across the open circuit breaker,
the angle immediately reduces to zero and large amounts of power instantly begin to flow across the breaker.
Nearby generators and transformers may be damaged.

One method of reducing the phase angle across the circuit breaker is to adjust generation levels of nearby
generating units. These adjustments also affect loop flow. Another method of reducing the phase angle is to
sectionalize the loop and make the final closure at a location where the angle across the open point is at a minimum.

Interconnecting power systems can create problems with determining how to allocate generation to meet
load.

Figure 7.2 illustrates one problem.

Figure 7.2: Interconnected System

Refer to Figure 7.2 for the following example:

Assume System 1 and System 2 have equal frequency response characteristics. (That is, each system
provides the same response to load or generation changes.) System 1 has a contract to supply 100 MW to

144
 System 2 and a schedule has been established for that amount.

During the contract, System 2 experiences a sudden load increase of 60 MW. The frequency on both
systems declines slightly.

Since System 1 and System 2 have equal frequency response characteristics, both System 1 and System 2
respond with 30 MW generation increases. This means the tie line flow from System 1 to System 2
increases from 100 MW to 130 MW.

System 1 contracted to provide 100 MW, not 130 MW.

A control scheme is needed that recognizes that the 60 MW load increase occurred in System 2 and that
System 2 should increase its generation by an additional 30 MW to restore frequency. The scheme which provides
the needed capability is called Automatic Generation Control.

3 Automatic Generation Control:

Automatic Generation Control (AGC) automatically adjusts generation from a central location, using some form of
computer control, to maintain the desired load/generation balance. It does so in response to an error signal called
Area Control Error. The computer implementation for AGC is discussed in Section 7-6.

Area Control Error:

Area Control Error (ACE) is the instantaneous difference between actual and desired conditions of the control
parameters being used. These parameters differ for the different control modes used.

Tie Line Bias Control:

Tie line bias control is the normal mode used. It uses both frequency and tie-line power flow to calculate
ACE. A more descriptive term for this control mode is constant net interchange with frequency bias. It
recognizes the following:
If frequency decreases and the power leaving the system Increases (or power entering the system
decreases), then The need for power is outside the control area.

If frequency decreases and the power leaving the system decreases (or power entering the system
increases), then The need for power is inside the control area.

Flat Frequency Control:

Flat frequency control responds only to frequency changes, as described in the example of Figure 7.2. It
does not respond to power flow changes on tie lines. This mode is used only on an isolated system, since it
could lead to overloading tie lines while correcting frequency in an interconnected system.

Flat Tie Line Control:

Flat tie line control responds only to changes in power flow on tie lines. It does not respond to changes in
frequency. To prevent large frequency deviations, it is used only for brief periods when a frequency
measurement is not available.

145
Control Area:

A control area is a part of an interconnected power system, which regulates its generation to maintain its
interchange schedule with other systems and to assist the interconnected system in controlling frequency. The
control area boundaries are the metered tie points with other control areas.

There may be one or more utilities within a control area. All utilities must either operate a control area or
make arrangements to be included in the control area of another utility. Utilities may exchange power with other
utilities within their control area or with neighboring control areas.

Tie line bias control, as practiced in power utilities, includes Automatic Time Error Correction. ACE is calculated as
follows:

ACE = (Actual Tie Flow - Scheduled Tie Flow) a Frequency Bias Setting x(Actual Frequency - Scheduled
Frequency) a Time Error Bias Setting x Time Error

The frequency bias setting is a constant unique to the control area. It is based on the area's frequency
response characteristic. The time error bias setting is a fraction of the frequency bias, currently 30%.
A positive ACE indicates the need to lower generation to correct for over-generation.
A negative ACE indicates the need to raise generation to correct for under-generation.

Time Error and Accumulated Frequency Error:

Sustained frequency deviations lead to accumulating time error. A clock that ticks off one second for every
50 cycles of power runs slow if frequency is less than 50 Hz or fast if frequency is above 50 Hz. Another term for
time error is accumulated frequency error (AFE).

If the time error cannot be maintained at a small value through automatic time error correction, control
areas coordinate with one another to adjust the system frequency to correct the time error. The frequency is adjusted
to 49.98 Hz to correct for fast time error or to 50.02 Hz to correct for slow time error. Utilities use manual time
error correction only if the time error grows to two seconds or greater.

Net Scheduled Interchange and Net Actual Interchange:

Ideally, all power flowing between systems is scheduled. The net scheduled interchange is the sum of all the
scheduled interchange transactions at any time. The net actual interchange is the sum of the actual power flow on
the control area's tie lines at any time. The mathematical sign convention is negative (-) for flows and schedules
into the area and positive (+) for flows and schedules out of the area.

Inadvertent Interchange:

Inadvertent interchange (inadvertent) is the difference between net actual interchange and net scheduled
interchange. It is calculated each hour and accumulated in an inadvertent account for later payback to the
interconnected systems. Inadvertent shows the imbalance between power commitments and power supplied by the
control area. The primary causes of inadvertent are: AGC lag, which is the inability of generation to exactly match
load changes as quickly as they occur the bias response to frequency and time deviations metering errors
scheduling errors (giving the computer a wrong schedule)

146
4 Operating Limits:

Electric current flowing from the generators to the loads follows all available paths. Most current flows over paths
that offer the least impedance through conductors, transformers, and other power system components. On well-
designed power systems, natural load flows are such that no lines are overloaded under normal circumstances. In
some cases, phase-shifting transformers may be required to alter the natural current flows on the transmission
system.

If a transmission line is opened for any reason, such as a fault, current flows almost instantaneously
redistribute over the remaining transmission system.
Power systems are generally designed to handle contingencies, such as a line tripping, without
overloading any facility. However, this is not always possible, particularly when other lines are already out
of service. Therefore, system operators may be required to implement emergency switching actions or arm
special remedial action schemes during certain contingencies to prevent equipment loadings from
exceeding emergency ratings.

To effectively control the power system, the voltage levels, frequency, transmission line flows, and equipment
loading must be within limits. We discuss thermal limits and voltage limits in this section, beginning with thermal
limits.

Thermal Limits:

We know from previous modules that any current-carrying device, which has resistance, experiences heating due to
the current flow. Excessive heat buildup can result in insulation breakdown or other damage to the equipment.

To avoid excessive heating, utilities assign thermal limits or ratings to devices. These limits should not be exceeded.

The ratings are based on the amount of heat the device can carry and dissipate. Ratings are expressed in
amps, MW, or MVA.
Ratings vary with season and the amount of time the device is exposed to the high current.

Operating Limits Conductor Ratings

Each energized device (a circuit breaker, the bus work, transformer, conductor, etc.) has an individual rating.
When multiple devices in series (e.g., a transmission line and a series capacitor) have different thermal limits, the
most restrictive rating applies to the combination of facilities.

Conductor and transformer ratings are typically the most Restrictive factors.

Let's look at the thermal ratings of a conductor and a transformer.

Conductor Ratings:

Transmission line conductors are rated to minimize the following:

147
Annealing:

The reduction of conductor strength due to annealing over the life of the conductor (annealing is the process of
heating and cooling the conductor)

The increase in conductor sag due to thermal expansion at high temperatures (minimum conductor-to-
ground clearances must be maintained at all times)

The conductor's temperature determines the annealing and sag. The principal factors that affect conductor
temperature are:

Heat buildup due to conductor I 2 R losses over time, heat loss due to wind velocity and, to a lesser extent,
ambient air temperature

Usually several ratings, tailored to local loading and weather conditions, apply to a given line.

Summer and winter ratings

Winter ratings are typically higher because of the higher wind velocities and lower ambient temperatures.

Normal, peak, and emergency ratings

Normal Rating:

Normal rating is the maximum current that can flow on a continuous basis.

Peak Rating:

Peak rating is the current that can be tolerated for a limited time period, usually four hours. In general, the peak
rating is higher than the normal rating.

Emergency Rating:

- Emergency rating is the highest rating of the line. This rating is the maximum current that is permissible for a
short period of time, usually one hour or less. Utilities may operate at the emergency rating during abnormal power
system conditions. Now, let's examine transformer ratings.

Transformer Ratings:

A transformer's rating is based on the amount of heating that the transformer's insulation can tolerate. High
temperatures decrease the mechanical strength and increase the brittleness of the insulation, making transformer
failure more likely. You can imagine that the transformer's insulation has a fixed maximum

Lifetime. Whenever the transformer is heavily loaded, the insulation is heated, reducing the remaining life._
The remaining lifetime can be calculated from the transformer load, using constants derived during tests
performed at the time the transformer was manufactured.
Utilities typically decide how long they expect the transformer to last, and then select ratings that will not
cause the transformer to deteriorate faster than expected.

148
Transformer ratings are typically based on the anticipated daily load cycle. Since a transformer's loading at off-peak
hours of the day is well below its rating, the transformer loading may exceed its rating for short periods without
causing any appreciable reduction in transformer life. Other limits that must be considered when operating the
power system are the voltage limits.

Voltage Limits:

Voltage limits provide upper and lower voltage boundaries for operating the equipment and overall power
system. The purpose of voltage limits is to maintain voltage levels on both transmission and customer connections.

Exceeding the high voltage limit may lead to overheating and over-excitation of the equipment.
Operating the equipment below the low voltage limit may cause motor loads to stall and may lead to
voltage collapse.

Equipment manufacturers establish voltage limits for all equipment, including insulators, circuit breakers,
generators, transformers, reactors, and capacitors.

Now let's examine how thermal and voltage limits affect power system stability.

5 Power System Stability

Stability:

Stability is a power system property that enables the synchronous machines of the system to respond to a
disturbance so as to return to a steady-state condition. It is determined by the power system's ability to adjust its
generators so that they remain synchronized following a power system load change or disturbance, such as the loss
of a major transmission line, generator, or load.

Synchronism:

We may recall that synchronism occurs when connected AC systems, machines, or a combination of the two
operate at the same frequency and the voltage phase angle differences between systems or machines are stable at
less than 900.

. In an unstable system, load changes or disturbances cause generators to speed up or slow down and, consequently,
fall out of synchronism with the rest of the system. When a generator loses synchronism, it has to be tripped and re-
synchronized, which places additional burden on the remaining generators.

Instability:

Instability results when two or more synchronous machines, systems, or parts of a system fail to remain in
synchronism while electrically connected.

How do stability problems occur? Let's see.

149
Stability Problems:

Changes in the mechanical forces that drive generators occur much more slowly than power system electrical
changes resulting from disturbances. When a disturbance occurs, the generating station's mechanical components
have to play "catch up" to make the required adjustments.

From Fundamentals of Electricity, we know that the power delivered to the system by a generator depends on the
relative phase angle between the generator voltage and the system voltage A simplified equation for the power
delivered to the system is

Power=(Vs Vr /Xs) Sin

Where:

Vs = sending end voltage

Vr = receiving end voltage

_ = phase angle between the Vs and Vr

X = reactance of the line

If the phase angle increases slightly, the power flow increases

Decreasing the phase angle causes the electrical power flow to decrease.

However, under fault conditions, even though the phase angle may increase, power transfer may decrease on the
line. This is due to an increase in reactance and a decrease in voltage.

When the relative phase angle reaches 90 0, the electrical output of a generator starts to decrease as the angle
increases. This is a key point in understanding the process of generator stability.

Under normal conditions, the mechanical power input (such as steam driving the turbine) is just enough to match
the electrical load. Under this steady-state condition, the sending end voltage phase angle leads the receiving end
voltage phase angle; the relative voltage phase angle is constant.

When the load increases, the following events occur:

Generators momentarily slow down. This results in a small reduction in system frequency.
To restore system frequency, the mechanical input to the turbine increases. The input must be greater than
the steady-state load requirements, because the generators must be accelerated to a new and larger relative
phase angle.
Because the mechanical input is trying to catch up, it is momentarily greater than the electrical output.
So when the desired phase angle is reached, the angle continues increasing until the mechanical input is
slightly reduced.
As the end result, the generators oscillate or "swing" around their steady-state point before eventually
settling down.

150
A similar sequence of events occurs when the system load decreases. During power system disturbances, such as
faults or the sudden loss of a generator, load, or major transmission line, significant generator oscillations can occur
throughout the system.

On a stable power system, generators are able to make the required adjustments to their mechanical input
quickly enough that the oscillations gradually diminish and the generators return to steady-state.
With an unstable system, oscillations for some generators increase with time, eventually resulting in
over/under speed conditions that cause these units to lose synchronism with the rest of the system. These
units trip off-line. This further aggravates the disturbance and possibly causes other units to lose
synchronism.

Similar to generators, the transfer of power between locations has the same characteristic as the electrical
load on a generator. Figure 7.3 illustrates the power-angle characteristic of a transmission line.

Figure 7.3:Power Transfer

151
 We know from our previous discussions in this module that in order to transfer power across a transmission
line, there must be a difference in phase angle between the voltages at each end of the line. The more load that is
transferred across the line the greater the phase angle. Similar to a generator, there is a maximum power transfer.
Theoretically, this occurs when the phase angle between the two buses is 90 0. In practice the actual value is below
this

Any attempt to transfer power beyond the maximum value results in an actual decrease in power transferred. This causes
the generators at either end of the system to electrically drift apart and lose synchronism.

The transferred power flows over several parallel circuits. The magnitude of power carried by any one circuit is
determined by the reactance of the circuit relative to the reactance of the other parallel paths.

For example, If line 1 has twice the reactance of line 2, line 1 carries half the power. So when a line unexpectedly
trips, there must be enough capability on the parallel paths to handle the resulting changes in flow.

Electric power systems generally remain stable, even following severe faults at major generating stations. Stability
problems can arise during unusual multiple contingencies, such as when faults occur nearly simultaneously on two
major transmission lines.

Special Protection Systems for more information:

Many utilities incorporate protection systems called special protection systems or remedial action schemes.
These monitor certain critical facilities and, when necessary, initiate switching actions and adjustments to generator
loading when certain contingencies occur. We discuss special protection systems in more detail in System
Protection.

Utilities also install series capacitors to allow more real power to flow at a reduced relative phase angle.
Series capacitors cancel or compensate for some of the line's inductive reactance. Thus, they decrease the
impedance and improve stability.

Stability Limit:

The maximum amount of power that can be transferred across a system is called the stability limit.

If the power transfer is below the stability limit, the system is stable.
If the power transfer is above the stability limit, the system is unstable.

Stability Conditions:

Three stability conditions exist

Steady-state
Transient
Dynamic

It is beyond the scope of this manual to cover each of the stability conditions in detail. Instead we provide general
definitions of each.

152
Steady-State Stability:

Steady-state stability is a power system's ability to maintain synchronism between parts of the system during
normal load changes. It also refers to the power system's ability to damp out any oscillations caused by such
changes.

Transient Stability:

Transient stability is a power system's ability to maintain synchronism between system parts when subjected to a
fault of specified severity.

Dynamic Stability:

Dynamic stability is a power system's ability to maintain synchronism between system parts after the initial swing
(during the transient stability period) until the system settles down to a new, steady state condition.

Utilities establish their own guidelines for operating the power system within stability limits but guidelines
generally include the following functions:

Adhere to actual line loading limits and path scheduling limitations (i.e., the maximum scheduled
interchange is not greater than the transfer capability).
Use series compensation methods, as appropriate._
Monitor system conditions, including line loadings, generation changes, and line conditions.
Carefully analyze the effect of planned equipment outages and adjust system operations accordingly.
Keep remedial action schemes and protection schemes in-service as much as possible.
Keep power system stabilizers in-service.
Follow established operating procedures.
Be prepared to shed load, as necessary.
Exchange operating information with adjacent systems.

Sub synchronous Resonance

We may recall that utilities improve system stability by inserting series capacitors in a transmission line. The series
capacitors cancel some of the line's inductive reactance. This allows more real power to flow. When this is done, the
capacitance of the capacitor bank may interact (resonate) with the transmission line's inductance and produce
electrical oscillations with Frequencies between 10 and 50 Hz. These oscillations are called sub synchronous since
they are less than the normal 50 Hz frequency of the rotating machine. When these electrical resonances occur on
the system, currents at the sub synchronous frequency flow into the stators of the generators. These currents
produce torsional stresses in the generating unit shafts.

Sub synchronous Resonance:

If the damping from the electrical resistance in the system and steam in the turbines is insufficient, or if the
electrical system is heavily stressed, the sub synchronous oscillations build up. This is called sub synchronous
resonance. Shearing of the turbine-generator shaft can occur as a result of sub synchronous resonance.

Utilities use several methods to prevent and/or control sub synchronous resonance, including:

153
 Minimizing the use of series capacitors by implementing other methods of improving power system
stability
Implementing operating procedures that bypass series capacitors when the power system is in a
contingency condition
Installing special relays or filtering devices that block low frequency currents from entering a generator

6 Computer System Functions:

Many utilities have computer systems that allow the system operators to monitor, control, study, and
coordinate the operation of the power system. The computer systems are capable of performing many different
functions. The functions are implemented with the following computer programs:

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

Automatic Generation Control
Unit Commitment
Interchange Transaction Scheduling
Hydroelectric Coordination
Hydrothermal Coordination
Power System Analysis
Information Storage and Retrieval

Many other functions are available to match the needs of the individual utilities. This section focuses on the ones
listed above which are the more common functions.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition:

Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a combination of a telecommunications system, computer
hardware, and software programs that collect data, such as generator and transmission line loadings and circuit
breaker statuses, and transmits this information to a central location where it can be viewed or used by various
application programs.

SCADA also allows the system operator to select and control various remotely located power system devices. For
example, system operators may be able to open and close selected circuit breakers and adjust transformer taps.

Automatic Generation Control:

An automatic generation control (AGC) program regulates the power output of electric generators within a
prescribed control area in response to changes in system frequency and tie line loading.

The primary objectives of AGC are:

To hold system frequency as close as possible to the desired frequency

To maintain the correct power interchange values between control areas
To provide generation at the most economic value

154
After determining the desired generation for each unit, the AGC system signals the unit turbine governor controllers
to raise or lower their outputs.

The AGC program may not control all generating units. For units not on control, the system operator contacts the
plant operator to specify the desired loading. The plant operator then manually adjusts unit loadings to the
appropriate values.

Economic Despatch:

An economic despatch (ED) program achieves optimum system economy by distributing the total generation
requirements among generating units that are currently on-line.

In determining the most economical load for each available unit, ED programs take into account:

Relative production costs for each unit

-Production costs are influenced by unit efficiency and fuel cost.

-In general, more efficient units are loaded more heavily than less efficient units.

Electrical losses incurred while transferring power over the transmission system to the load

-Generating units that are closest to the load centers or connected to transmission lines operating at the
highest available voltages experience lower transmission losses.

-Remote generating stations and stations served by lower voltage lines experience higher transmission
losses.

Unit Commitment:

unit commitment (UC) program determines the best combination of generating units for satisfying the expected load
requirement over a specified period. The UC program determines which units should be on-line to minimize total
system production costs.

UC programs consider many factors in deciding which units to run, including:

Capacity of available units

-Is the capacity adequate to satisfy the anticipated load and reserve requirements?
Time required to bring a unit on-line
-When it is anticipated that a unit with a lengthy start-up process will be needed, the
process must be started in advance.
Minimum run time
-Some units must run for a specified minimum time period before being shut down. These
units should not be started up to satisfy a peak load requirement of short duration.
Minimum shut-down time
-Some units have to stay off-line for a period of time after being shut down. These units
should not be taken off-line if they will be needed again soon.

155
Interchange Transaction Scheduling:

An interchange transaction scheduling (ITS) program keeps track of all agreements to buy and sell power with
neighboring systems. This can include transactions currently in progress and transactions scheduled for the future.

Hydroelectric Coordination:

A hydroelectric coordination program is a despatch program for hydroelectric units. It considers the following
factors:

o Supply of water
o Environmental constraints

Hydro plants sharing the same river system require coordinated despatch. The water outflow from one plant
might be a very significant part of the inflow to the next plant downstream. Water used by one plant takes time to
flow downstream to the next plant.

Hydrothermal Coordination

A hydrothermal coordination program optimizes the mix of hydro and thermal generation to meet the system load
in the most economical way within the following constraints:

Water availability
Minimum flow requirements
Other environmental or operating issues

In general, the lowest cost method of operating a hydrothermal system is to use all the hydro energy available and
minimize the amount of fuel burned in the thermal units.

Power System Analysis:

The power system analysis functions provide the system operator with tools to monitor power system security. The
power system analysis applications include the following functions:

State estimation
Contingency analysis

Each of these functions uses a power system model, which provides a computer database description of the power
system.

State estimation combines the real-time system data with the power system model to estimate the current power
system condition. It is also used to identify telemetered data that may be in error.

Contingency analysis examines "what if" power system troubles before they occur. Again, this program uses the
power system model to study outage events and alarms the system operators of potential overloads or voltage
problems. The contingency analysis results enable the system operator to operate the power system defensively.

156
Information Storage and Retrieval:

The information storage and retrieval function collects and stores data periodically and upon power system
disturbances. The data consists of accumulator, analog, and status point values that are telemetered, operator-
entered, and calculated. Calculations are performed on the stored data; the results are then stored. Alarms, events,
and reports are also stored. This information is made available to operators and engineers to use in operating and
studying the power system.

Conclusion This concludes the module on principles of power system operation. The module presents some
methods of monitoring and controlling the power system. You should review the methods and operating practices in
use at your utility.

157
Principles of Power System Operation: Questions

7.1 True or False :: When the system is over-generating (supply > demand), the frequency decreases below 50
Hz.
7.2 Describe the effect of frequency excursions on electric clocks.
7.3 What is spinning reserve?
7.4 What is loop flow?
7.5 List and define three system control modes.
7.6 Answer the following questions about inadvertent:
(a) What is inadvertent?
(b) What does inadvertent indicate?
(c) List two causes of inadvertent.
7.7 Define stability.
7.8 List and describe three stability conditions.
7.9 Match the computer system function in Column 1 with its definition in Column 2

Column 1 Column 2
Supervisory Control and Data A. Program that regulates the power output of electric generators within a
Acquisition (SCADA)
prescribed control area in response to changes in system frequency and tie
line loading.
Automatic Generation control B.Program that achieves optimum system Economy by distributing the total
(AGC)
Generation requirements among Generating units that are currently on-Line.
Economic Despatch (ED) C.Functions that provide tools to monitor Power system security and include
state estimation and contingency analysis.
Unit Commitment (UC) D. Program that keeps track of all Agreements to buy and sell power with
Neighboring systems.
Interchange Transaction Scheduling E. Telecommunications system that collects data and transmits this
(ITS)
information to a central location where it can be viewed or used by various
application programs.
Hydroelectric Coordination F. Program that determines the best combination of generating units for
satisfying the expected load requirements over a specified period.
Power System Analysis G. Despatch program for hydroelectric units.
Hydrothermal Coordination H. Program that optimizes the mix of hydro and thermal generation to meet
the load.

158
 Chapter 8

REACTIVE POWER CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT

1.0 Introduction

Voltage is proportional to the magnetic flux in the power system element. Most of the Power
System elements are reactive in nature. They absorb / generate reactive power depending on system
loading conditions. The balance in reactive power availability and requirement at a node indicates steady
voltage. Drawal of reactive power leads to reduction in voltage and supply of reactive power leads to
increase in voltage at the node. Ideally, the reactive power balance should be effected within each region,
within each distribution system.

Excess of MVAr high voltage

Deficit of MVAr Low Voltage
MVAR balance Good voltage low system losses

Early systems were simple and comprised Generators, Capacitors, Synchronous condensers and
Loads. Present systems are complex and comprise Generators, Shunt Capacitors, Synchronous
condensers, Shunt reactors, SVCs, Series Capacitors, Loads etc.,

1.1 Classification of System Voltages

Voltage Level in kV Category of Voltage

<33 kV Distribution System
33 kV to132 kV Sub. Transmission System
230 kV to 400 kV HV Transmission System
750 kV and above UHV System

1.2 Reactive Power:

I V

V
Load
I

Fig 8.1: A single phase circuit in AC system with lagging pf load

When a voltage V is supplied to a load operating at I with respect to V then

159
 Q = VI sin 1.1

As per IEC sign convention the net reactive power supplied to an inductive element is positive and that
supplied to a capacitive element is negative.

1.3 Sources and sinks of Reactive power :

S.No. Sources (Q- Generation) Sinks (Q Absorption)

1 Gen. Over excited Gen. Under excited
2 Transmission Lines - charging Transmission Lines - series reactance
drop
3 Shunt Capacitors Shunt Reactors
4 Static Var Compensators (Q gen Static Var Compensators (Q absorb
mode) mode)
5 Series Capacitors (Cse) -

6 Synchronous Condenser over excited Synchronous Condenser under excited

7 Loads -Capacitive Loads - Inductive

1.4 Power transmission in a Transmission line:

Es Er0
JX
M Ir
G M
Sr

Fig.8.2 Simple Transmission System

Sr = Pr +J Qr = Er . Ir* (1)
*
Es cos jEs Sin Er
= Er
J X

E s Er E E Cos Er 2
= Sin j s r
X X

Es Er
Pr = sin Pmax Sin Ps (2)
X

160
For a loss less line.
P and are closely related.

E s Er Cos Er 2
Qr = (3)
X

E s 2 E s E r Cos
Qs = (4)
X

For small angles of

Er Es E r
Qr = (5)
X

Es Er
Qs = E s (6)
X

Q and V are closely coupled.

1.5 Power Losses in a Transmission line:

Losses across the series impedance of a transmission line are I2 R and I2 X.

P JQ
Where I = *
;
V

P JQ
I* =
V

I2 = I.I* =
P jQ P jQ P 2 Q 2
V .V * V2

P2 Q2
Ploss = I2R = 2
.R
(7)
V

161
 P2 Q2
Qloss =I2Q = .X (8)
V2

In order to minimise losses we have to minimise the transfer of Q.

1.6 Voltage Regulation:

Voltage regulation is defined as the change of voltage at the receiving end when rated load is
thrown off, the sending end voltage being held constant.

Pr jQr
ETh =V0 +j X I =V + j X
ETh
V*
X.Pr
V
XQr XPr Vr X.Qr
=V+ j (9)
V V V
Fig 8.3 Voltage regulation in a loss less system

The voltage rise term in phase with V depends on Q.

The angle, depends mainly on the quadrature term involving P.

Three methods of system voltage control are available : (a) Varying excitation of generators, (b)
Varying the turns ratio of transformers by OLTC and (c) Varying shunt compensation.

Shunt compensation is drawing or injection of reactive power at a node. Reactor absorbs reactive power
and so reduces system voltage. Capacitor injects reactive power and so increases system voltage.

1.7 Short circuit capacity:

S sc 3V If MVA (10)

Where
V = Phase to phase voltage in kV
If = The three phase fault current in k.A.

Expressed in p.u parameters

162
 1
Ssc = (V0-)(If) p.u. = If p.u. = X (11)

Th

XTh = Thevinin impedance = Driving point impedance of the network.

The change in voltage when certain quantity of reactive power is supplied to the system is given by
Q
V pu.
S SC

Where
Q = Change in Q injection
Ssc =Short circuit capacity
V = Change in voltage in percentage

1.8 Reactive power - physical analogy

The reactive power is the extra effort needed to pull a load along the rail when the effort, s is at an angle,
to the rails.
s
Q

Fig 8.4. Physical analogy for Active and Reactive powers

1.9 Effects of Reactive power in transmission

We need to minimise reactive Power transfer because

It is inefficient during high real power transfer and requires substantial voltage magnitude
gradients
It causes high real and reactive power losses
It can lead to damaging temporary over voltages following load rejections
It requires larger equipment sizes for transformers and cables
2.0 Power System Elements in Voltage and Reactive Power Control:

2.1 Generators- capability curve:

a) Turbine Power limit

163
 b) Gen. Winding thermal limit
c) Field winding thermal limit
d) Steady state stability limit

Fig 8.5. Capability curve of a 210 MW thermal unit

The Generator supplies reactive power to the point of connection under over excitation. Typical
generating unit is designed to operate at 0.85 p.f. at rated load.
During system over voltage conditions the Generators need to absorb reactive power to maintain
system voltages within limits. This is achieved by unit under excitation which results in lower Generator
terminal voltage due to lower flux in the air gap. The Generator output can still be maintained by
increasing the load angle of the Generator. This results in increase in the operating angle of the machine
and hence lower margin to swing in case of disturbance.

Large generators are connected to the network with step up transformers. The terminal voltage of
the generators is usually allowed to be controlled within a 5% range around nominal voltage at rated
load.

2.2 Generator Rotor angle Stability

164
Transient Stability :

If
J = The total moment of inertia of the rotor masses in Kg-m2
m = The angular displacement of the rotor w.r.t. a stationary axis in mechanical radians.
t = Time in seconds
T m = The mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover less retarding torque due to rotational
loses in N-M
T e = The net electrical torque in N-M
T a = The net accelerating torque in N-M

J d 2
T m Te
dt 2

d 2
J 2
Pm Pe
d

1
J 2
2 2H
HJ Smach
Smach

2H d 2 EV
S mach Pm Sin
dt 2 X
The transient stability depends on first swing which in turn
depends on the initial operating angle o and the swing . The transient Stability can be raised through
controlled shunt compensation or fixed series compensation.

2.3 Transformers

Transformers have a magnetising circuit which consume certain amount of reactive power. The
series reactance of the transformer causes reactive drop proportional to the load current. The On Load Tap
Changers redirect the reactive power
R available in power system from
jX one side of the transformer to other
V2
side depending on which side has more voltage magnitude.
V1
Tap staggering of parallel transformers is done to increase circulating currents and reactive power
absorption.

2.4 Transmission lines

J B/2 J B/2

165

Fig.8.6 Equivalent circuit of a transmission line or cable

 The overload lines and under ground cables have uniformly distributed series impedance and shunt
capacitance along its length.
V2
The reactive power generated per unit length of line shunt capacitance is =V2 C and is
Xc
practically impendent of power transferred. The reactive power absorbed by the series impedance per
unit length is I2XL=I2L. The reactive power absorbed is dependent on load. At Surge Impedance
Loading (SIL) the reactive power generated matches with that of absorbed by the line.

At SIL : Vs =Vr and XL = XC

1 1 1 L L

2
L Z L
c LC LC LC C

Hence,
V1V2 V2 V2
P0 Sin Sin Sin
Z Z L
C

At no load Vr increases due to line charging. At loads >SIL the line absorbs more than it
generates. Hence Vr decreases. This is further aggregated by lesser line charging under low voltage
conditions.

2.4.1 The over head transmission line characteristics at 50 Hz are as follows.

Table 1:

166
 Operating Surge Line Charging Line series Line (X/R)
Voltage in kV Impedance In MVAr / km Reactance in Ratio
Loading in Ohms / km
MW
0.4 - - 0.4 0.5
10 - - 0.4 0.5
130 50 0.05 0.4 3
220 130 0.14 0.4 6
400 550 0.6 0.33 15
500 910 1.0 0.3 15
750 2200 2.3 0.28 30

X
The ratio increases with voltage level. The line charging effect can be neglected below 66 kV level.
R
At higher voltage levels it becomes predominant. The series reactance is practically independent of
system voltage.

2.4.2 The underground paper insulated cable characteristics at 50 Hz:

Table 2:
Operating Surge Line Charging Line series Line (X/R)
Voltage in kV Impedance In MVAr / km Reactance in Ratio
Loading in Ohms / km
MW
0.4 - - 0.07 0.3
10 3 0.01 0.10 0.4
130 500 2 0.15 2
220 1000 4 0.18 6
400 3200 13 0.2 9

X
The ratios of cables are lower than their OH counterparts. The line charging and hence SIL is much
R
larger than OH lines. Except at low voltage levels the SIL is larger than the thermal rating of cables.

2.5 Loads

167
 Most of the loads consume reactive power. Some typical values of reactive power consumption
are as follows.

Type of load KVAR Consumption / KW

Induction Motor 0.5 to 1.1
Uncontrolled rectifier 0.3
Controlled Rectifier 0.6
Arc furnace 1.0
Filament lamps, heaters 0.0
Syn. Motor over excited Q is generated
Syn. Motor Underexcited Q is absorbed

The system composite loads change continuously depending on time of the day, weather condition,
seasons, social activities etc. The loads may grow from year to year. The resultant reactive power
demand though increases in association with active power demand it will vary considerably due to series
reactive power losses in the network.

2.6 HVDC Converter Stations

HVDC converters consume about 50% of MW as MVAr during operation. A rectifier station with
adjacent generators, the reactive power need is covered partly by the generators and partly by shunt
capacitors. At inverter stations it may be taken care of by synchronous condensers, shunt capacitors or
SVCs.
This is generated by shunt capacitor banks or Synchronous compensators. The shunt capacitors
serve as var compensators and harmonics absorbers.

3.0 Reactive Power Compensation in Transmission systems

3.1 Reactive power and p.u. of generation

168
QL

Fig 8.7. The Reactive power p.u. of Line Generation vs. Line loading

Transfer of MVAr is limited to keep the line losses low. Since the active power transmitted by the
transmission system vary hour by hour, the variation of reactive power balance of a line may be
considerable as shown in Figure-7. A line outage may lead from net reactive power generation to reactive
power absorption of the system.

3.2 Passive Shunt compensation

EHV lines (400 kV) require shunt compensation above 200 km. Compensation of line charging is
done with breaker switched Shunt Reactors to the extent of 60 to 70% of line charging under light load
conditions. The Reactors are generally connected at line potential. The acceptable voltage change when
Rsh or Csh are switched is 3%.

.
3.3 Dynamic Shunt Compensation:
More efficient control of voltage is achieved with dynamic compensators. This is done with either
Synchronous Compensator or Static Var Compensator (SVC). SVC is preferred on account of cost,
maintenance, performance characteristics.

.
3.4Voltage Collapse :
Voltage collapse is meant a severe voltage depression without inherent recovery. The key causes of
voltage collapse are :

169
 High transfer impedance
High load content of induction motors
Insufficient Reactive Power Generation Reserves
Temporary Operating Conditions
Generator, Transformer or Line outage
High system loading
Maintenance work
Erroneous human action
Equipment mal-function
Automatic OLTCs
Actions of generator current limiters
Voltage collapse may take place from fraction of a second to about half an hour. The examples are :
A forced outage eg. of a line, may cause voltage collapse for a limited load area of a
Power System
A large scale voltage collapse preceding a system blackout, may take a minute or more to develop
after the initial disturbance. During this time, there may be cascade line disconnections, actions
by field and stator current limiters of generator excitation systems, actions by Transformer OLTC,
etc.
Voltage collapse in a distribution system fed via a long sub transmission line and due to receiving
end transformer tap changing as the load increases, may take half an hour to develop.
Solution is use of breaker switched shunt capacitors, SVCs and Series Capacitors.

3.5 Switching over voltages (Temporary Over Voltages) :

The switching over voltages are generally of 1.5 pu magnitude and < 1.0 second duration. The
switching over voltages become critical during initial stages of transmission development, when the short
circuit capacities and the number of interconnections are low. Energization of a long EHV line is done
from the Best end ie the end with highest short circuit capacity.
The switching over voltages can be taken care by the Shunt Reactors connected to the bus or line.

4.0 Power Quality

4.1 Effects of OFF NOMINAL frequency and voltage conditions

A. Low Frequency:

170
i) Poor quality of power to station Reduced outputs
auxiliaries
ii) Induction motor speeds drop Reduction in output torque reduced
iii) Saturation of inductive equipment like Increase of magnetising currents at very
transformers, ind. motors etc. low power factor
Increase in Reactive power
requirement
Under voltage conditions
Increased core losses due to
harmonic currents
Reduced equipment capacity
iv) Vibration of Turbines Turbine blades get damaged
v) Freq. Dependent loads cannot perform Reduced of loads

B. High Frequency:
i) Vibration of Turbines Turbine blades get damaged
ii) Waste of fuel Loss to the utility

C) Low Voltage:
i) Induction Motors torque get reduced Motors draw heavy inductive currents
leading to further drop in terminal voltage
ii) Generators are over excited to maintain MVA loading and hence stator current of
terminal voltage Generator Increases
Thermal ageing of insulation
iii) Voltage dependent loads get damped Loads decreases

D) High Voltage
i) Heavier currents in loads Over heating of equipment
ii) Inductive equipment like Transformers Over heating of cores
saturate drawing heavy harmonic currents Reduced capacitors
Reduced
iii) Equipment insulation currents increase Insulation failures

4.2 Voltage unbalance in Single phase loads :

The negative sequence component of voltages will have undesirable effects on rotating machines.
Classical voltage balance with shunt Capacitor and shunt Reactor is not sufficient. Because they are slow.
Modern SVC with phase balancing is the solution.
Similarly the rapidly varying mining loads, dragline loads can be taken care of by SVCs.

5.0 Reactive Power Compensation in distribution systems:

The MVAr in distribution system is supplied from :

Transmission Systems

171
 Synchronous machines
Shunt capacitor banks
Static Var Compensation Systems

Utilities discourage low power factor by penalising loads operating below 0.85 pf . Permitted Voltage
limits are 5 to 10% of nominal voltages.

5.1 Power Factor Correction

The power factor correction is done to

Avoid penalties at low power factor
Reduce active (I2R) and Reactive (I2X) loss in distribution network
To release current capacity of transformers, cables etc.
To improve the performance of capacitors with improved voltage regulation.
Power factor correction by means of fixed and switched shunt capacitors is used in distribution
systems and high power industrial systems.

5.2 Location of Shunt Capacitors (Csh ):

Rules of thumb:
Locate the shunt capacitors as close to the load as possible
Give preference to location which can postpone the reinforcement of network
Next install Switchable shunt capacitors: Low voltage banks at large consumers, Medium Voltage
banks at intermediate switching stations
Permitted maximum voltage change when switching a Capacitor bank ( V) is 2% to 5% such that
V< 2% for hourly switching
<3% for daily switching
<5% for seasonal switching

5.3 Ordering of buses for shunt compensation

172
Bus voltage sensitivity factors:
Sum of elements in a column gives the voltage sensitivity factor
Order of buses in the order of bus voltage sensitivity factors is possible

173
 The factors bf1 ,bf2 and bf3 represent the incremental voltage that is possible in the network due to

installing a reactive power source of 1 per unit(pu) magnitude at 1,2 and 3 respectively(at a time at

only one place).

These are termed as bus voltage sensitivity factors.

To derive maximum advantage from placing reactive sources in the system, the capacitors are

placed at those buses where the bus voltage sensitivity factors are high

6.0 Reactive power compensation in Industrial Systems:

6.1 Steady State Voltage Control:

174
 Static power converters are used for var compensation of induction motors, fluorescent lamps,
Rolling mills and arc furnaces.
Plant Group Motor
Fixed Capacitor -
Switched Capacitor - -
OLTC - -
Synchronous - -
Condenser
Static Var - -
Compensator

6.2Arc furnaces:

An arc-furnace of a steel mill is characterised by

Low power .factor.
Unbalance
Rapid large fluctuation of P & Q with irregular frequency of 2 to 20 Hz.
Harmonic currents

Fig 8.8 Typical Arc furnace supply

175
Fig 8. 9. Typical arc-furnace reactive power consumption

Fig 8.10. Typical SVC arrangement in conjunction with arc furnace

(a)

(b)

Fig 8.11. Performance of a SVC at a steel mill

is without SVC: V = 5 to 25%
is with SVC of 60 MVAr : V = 0 to 5%

176
6.3 Reduction of voltage due to starting of large motors:
Direct on-line (DOL) starting is the simplest, most straight forward and cheapest of all starting
methods for induction motors. It creates a starting current (Ist ) with low power factor causing dip in
voltage. One method is to use starting shunt capacitor. Second superior method is to use a SVC.

Fig 8.12. shows a typical SVC for mining loads.

7.0 Reactive Power Compensation Devices:

Shunt Compensation Series Compensation
a) Shunt Capacitor a) Series Caps
b) Shunt Reactor
c) SVC
d)Synchronous Compensator

7.1 Shunt Reactors :

Connected in shunt to a Power System to absorb MVAr. They are economical and can be
switched depending on system voltage conditions. Normally used with EHV Transmission lines or HV,
EHV Under-ground cables.

Typical capacities are : 50 MVAR, 420 kV

63 MVAR, 420 kV
Either single phase or 3 phase. Air core or shell form design and oil immersed reactors are used for
EHV systems. For Medium Voltage dry type air core reactors are used. Typical Losses are 2 to 10 Watts
per KVar.

177
7.2 Shunt Capacitors :
Shunt Capacitors are used in a single or a bank of capacitor units connected in shunt to Power
System to produce MVAr. The reactive power produced is proportional to the square of the connected
voltage. They are
Economical
Fixed Compensation
Modular
Simple
Can be used in series and parallel combinations to customise to the system voltage.

Typically a few KVar to large MVAr in EHV systems are available. Typical Losses are 0.2 watts per
KVar.

7.3 Synchronous Compensator:

It is an idle running Synchronous Motor used for generation or absorption of MVAr. It is also
called Synchronous Condenser or Synchronous Phase modifier. It is available from a few KVA to
hundreds of MVA.
It is characterised by
Increases short circuit capacity
Continuous control
Over excitation MVAr generation
Under excitation MVAr absorption
<50 MVAr air cooled
>50 MVAr H2 cooled
Fast AVR
Absorption capacity = 60% of MVA capacity. Hence range is -60 to +100 MVAr
Typical losses are 10 watts per KVar for large machines and 20 watts per KVar for small
machines.

7.4 Static Var Compensator:

It is a combination of Thyristor Switched capacitor (TSC) and Thyristor controlled Reactor (TCR) .
They can be considered as variable capacitive or inductive reactance respectively.

178
7.4.1 Thyristor Switched Capacitor:

Fig 8.13. Operating principle of a Thyristor-switched capacitor

Where
C = Capacitor
Ty = Bi-directional Thyristor
L =Inductor to limit the rate of rise of charging current and to prevent resonance problem
with network.

Principle: Transient free switching on of capacitor is done by switching Thyristor when VTy is zero.
Switching off a capacitor is done by withdrawing firing pulses so that Thyristor blocks as soon as
Capacitor current becomes zero.

Hence a TSC has

Step wise control
Average one half cycle delay for executing a command from the regulator
Switching transients are negligible
No generation of harmonics

179
7.4.2 : Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR):

Fig 8.14. Thyristor controlled reactor

Fig 8.15. Operating principle of a Thyristor controlled reactor

The current and thereby the power frequency component of the current are controlled by delaying
the closing of Thyristor switch with respect to natural zero passages.
It is characterised by
Continuous Control
Max one half cycle delay for executing a command from the regulator
Practically no transients
Generator of harmonics

7.4.3 Static Var Compensator:

It is configured as FC + TCR or TSC + TCR.

The TCR and TSC are connected in delta for trapping harmonic currents of zero sequence (3rd, 9th etc.)

For a rapid change of the control order the change from full lagging current to full leading current takes
place within a maximum of one cycle of the network voltage.

180
Fig 8.16. SVC of a)FC + TCR type b) TSC + TCR type

Fig 8.17. Operating principle of a SVC of type TSC + TCR

181
7.4.4 SVC Characteristics:
According to CIGRE an SVC shall be considered as a reactive load on the power system. That
means the reactive power, Q, of an SVC is positive when the SVC absorbs reactive power, and negative
when the SVC generates reactive power.

Fig 8.18. shows the SVC current verses Voltage Characteristic.

7.4.5 Harmonics in SVC:

A TSC does not produce harmonics, but a TCR does. The harmonics of zero sequence character (eg.
3 , 9th etc.) are eliminated by some delta connection. The 5 th and 7th harmonics are in some cases
rd

eliminated by 12 pulse arrangement. As a last resort a filter is included. The allowable amount of
harmonic currents into the Power System expressed in terms of voltage distortion at the point of SVC
connection are :
The allowed voltage distortion caused by a single harmonic current =1.0%
The allowed total voltage distortion caused by all harmonic currents=1.5%

7.5 Series Capacitor:

It is a bank of capacitor units inserted in a line for the purpose of cancelling a part of the line
inductive reactance and so reducing the transfer impedance.

The reactive power generated in a series capacitor is proportional to I L2 and so increases with
increasing transmitted power and thus influences the reactive power balance of the system.
The typical uses are:

To increase the transmission loading capability as determined by Transient stability limits

To obtain a desired steady state active power division among parallel circuits in order to reduce
overall losses

182
 To control transmission voltages and reactive power balance
To prevent voltage collapse in heavily loaded systems
To damp the power oscillations in association with Thyristor control

The degree of compensation is 20 to 70% of line inductive reactance. The series capacitor (C se ) can be
located at the ends of a long Transmission line or in a switching station in the middle of it. Considerations
are voltage profiles, efficiency of compensation, losses, fault currents, over voltages, proximity to
attended stations etc.
It is necessary to bypass series capacitor (Cse ) in case of faults as large voltage develops across the
series capacitor . But the transient stability warrants reinsertion of Cse into the system at the earliest. This
is achieved by the Zinc Oxide (Zno) varistor. It provides instantaneous capacitor reinsertion after fault
clearing. A triggered spark gap is provided to take care of excess energy absorbed by Zno. Damping
circuit (D) limits the discharge current.

Fig.8.19. Series Capacitor with Zinc-oxide varistor by-pass system

7.5.1 Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR):

The SSR is generated in radially connected turbo generators with a series Capacitor (Cse ) in the line.

Fig 8.20. System of the type most exposed to the sub-synchronous resonance

Two basic phenomenon:

The generator appears as an induction generator for sub synchronous armature currents
If the difference between the synchronous frequency and the sub synchronous natural frequency of
the electrical system lies close to a natural frequency of the shaft mechanical system, the bilateral
coupling between the two systems becomes strong. If the net damping of the two systems is
negative, electrical and torsional oscillations will build up, either spontaneously or after a
disturbance, eg. a line fault.

In case of a hydro-turbine generator units, the risk of torsional oscillation problem is practically
negligible.

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Preventive Measures:
SSR detection and relaying leading to tripping of unit
Compensating sub synchronous currents with Dynamic stability
Pole-face amortizer winding against induction generator effect
Thyrister Controlled Series Capacitor.

7.5.2 Series Capacitor in radial distribution systems:

A Series Capacitor is becoming popular in radial distribution systems because
Cse is a cost effective device of reducing voltage drops caused by steady loads on a 11 or 33
KV radial line with load Power factor of say 0.7 to 0.9
To take care of starting of a large motor and consequential voltage fluctuations
To decrease line losses due to the lower current
To increase loadability of the feeder
Simple and reliable bypass systems are available
Advanced resonance detectors are available.

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 Reactive Power Control and Management Questions

1. The voltage at a node in power system is maintained by the balance of _________ power at that
node.
2. The synchronous generator and the synchronous motor generate reactive power on ________
excitation and absorb reactive power on __________ excitation.
3. The change in voltage at a point in a network is proportional to ________ supplied and inversely
proportional to ________ at that point.
4. The reactive power transfer through transmission and distribution leads to __________ in T&D
losses and ___________ in voltage regulation.
5. The generator capability during under excitation is limited by __________ considerations.
6. List out the reasons for power factor correction in industrial systems.
7. The optimal location for placing the reactive power sources is where the bus sensitivity factors are
_____________.
8. An SVC is a combination of a _________, _________ and ________.
9. The Thyristor Switched Capacitor __________ harmonics, while the Thyristor Controlled Reactor
__________ Harmonics.
10. The zero sequence harmonics (3rd, 9th, etc) can be eliminated by __________ connection.
11. The Sub synchronous resonance is generally observed in radially connected Turbo generator with
a ___________ in the line.

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 Fig 8. 21.

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 References

1. G.W. Stagg and A.H. El-Abiad Computer methods in power system analysis ,
McGraw- Hill, 1968.

2. John J. Grainger and W. D. Stevenson Jr., Elements of Power System Analysis ,

McGraw - Hill International Edition, 1994.

3. B .M. Weedy, Electric Power Systems , John Wiley & Sons, 3rd Edition, 1979.

4. B. Stott , Review of Load Flow Calculation Methods , Proceedings IEEE, Vol.

62, PP 916- 929, July, 1974.

5. B. Stott and D. Alsac, Fast Decoupled Load Flow , IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS 93, PP
859 -869, May - June 1974.

6. Arrillaga and Others, Computer Modelling of Electrical Power Systems , John

Wiley & Sons, 1983.

7. Prabha Kundur, Power System Stability and Control,

Mc Graw Hill Inc - 1994

8. System Operations Training Manual : Western Electricity Coordinating Council

Web Site: www.wecc.biz
9. Tore Petersson, ABB Power Systems , Sweden : Reactive Power Compensation

10. Video Training Course Power System Operation

L&K International Training, Web Site: www.lk-intl.com

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