Communication | o Technical Publications reChapter Introduction to Communication System 4-1) 10 (1-30) Chapter Pulse Modulation Chapter-3 Amplitude Modulation (3-1) to (3-90) Chapter-4 __Angle Modulation (4-1) to (4-76) Chapter-5 _AM and FM Receivers (5-1)t0 (6-90) Chapter-6 _Noise (6-1)t0 (6-58) Chapter-7___Radiation and Propagation 7-1) to (7-58) Appendix A _ Introduction to TV System (A-1) to (A-34) Appendix -8 Telephony (8 - 1) to(B -30 Qral Questions with Answers P-1) to (P - 60 Solved Papers (S-1) to (S-98) Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of Pune University - 2003 Course S.E. (Electronics / E&Tc) Semester - I © Electronic Circuits and Applications Godse, Bakshi Engineering Mathematics-IIl Chitale, Kate, Tambe, Acharya, Navare, Bandewar | © Electrical Circuits and Machines Bakshi ‘= Data Structures and Files Puntambekar = Analog Communication Bakshi, Godse “Analog Communication Uday A. Bakshi M.E (Electrical) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Atul P. Godse M. S. Software Systems (BITS Pilani) B.E. Industrial Electronics Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Visit us at: Www.vtubooks.com Technical Publications Pune”im Analog Communication ISBN 9788184311778 Al ights reserved with Technical Publications. No par of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and ‘etrieval system without prior permission in writing, trom Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Assit Residency, 412, Shaniwor Peth, Pune - 411 030, India. Printers : Vikram Printers materialPreface Thanks to the professors and students for their overwhelming response to our previous books. It is a matter of great pleasure to introduce a new book covering the entire syllabus of the subject ‘Analog Communication’. The purpose of this book is to fulfil a need for a text stating in plain, lucid and simple everyday language. This book provides a logical method for explaining and it prepares very carefully a background of the topic with essential illustrations. This text is provided with number of solved problems which help students to understand the practical use of formulae derived by the mathematical analysis. All types of oral questions, alongwith variety of multiple choice questions with answers, added at the end of the book is the main feature of this book. Contents and Organisation Communication is the basic process of exchanging information. It is what people do to convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to one another. In order to become familiar with these communication systems, it is necessary to understand the basic building blocks of communication system, the concepts of noise, modulation, information theory, communication media, and various systems themselves. It also explains various methods of pulse modulation techniques such as PWM, PTM, PPM, PAM, etc. Chapter 1 is devoted for this purpose. Chapter 2 explains the generation and demodulation of PAM, PWM and PPM system, It also introduces concept of multiplexing. Chapter 3 explains the amplitude modulation technique. It also explains various terms related to amplitude modulation such as modulation index, frequency spectrum, average power, effective voltage and current, noise, non-sinusoidal modulation, modulator-demodulator circuits, and AM transmitters. Later part of this chapter is intended for single sideband communication. Various aspects of single sideband communication such as techniques for suppression of carrier, techniques of suppression of unwanted sideband, extension of SSB and their merits and demerits are discussed here. Chapter 4 explains frequency modulation theory, modulator circuits and basics of FM. transmitters. The topics such as characteristics of frequency modulation, mathematical representation, phase modulation are newly added, the tables giving comparison of F.M. and A.M., F.M. and P.M are also newly added at the end of the chapter. iyChapter 5 explains the receiver side of AM communication. It explains the basics of receiver and AM demodulating circuits required to convert AM modulated signal into the original signal. It also explains communication receiver and various enhancements in it. Later part of this chapter is devoted to F.M. receivers and the demodulator circuits. Noise is a disturbance, an unwanted signal. If the level of noise is much larger than the signal, reception becomes unreliable, reception may be totally marred by noise. The chapter 6 discusses the sources of noise and various noise terms such as signal-to-noise ratio, S/N ratio for cascade connection, noise factor, noise temperature etc. Chapter 7 explains radiation and propagation. It gives the basics of propagation of radio waves and antenna theory in a simple language. Acknowledgement We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by our whole family, We are specially grateful to the great teacher Prof. A.V. Bakshi for his time to time, much needed, valuable guidance. Without the full support and cheerful encouragement of Mrs. Varsha U. Bakshi and Mrs. Deepali A. Godse the book would not have been completed in time. Finally, we wish to thank Mr. Avinash Wani, Mr. Ravindra Wani and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get the quality printing in time. Any suggestions for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and appreciated. Authors U. A. Bakshe AP. Godse wy ee oe1.1 Evolution of Communication System... 1 1.2 Elements of Communication Systems .. 122 Transmitter 1-3 1.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum... 1.3.1 Frequency and Wavelength .... - 1.3.2 Radio Frequency . 1.3.3 Radio Frequency Spectrum ... 1.4 Types of Communication Channels... Be ‘icin 1-8 1.4.2 Parallel Wires 4-11 14.3 Coaxial Cables 4-14 14.4 Fiber-Optic Cables... . sss 1.4.5 Waveguides .........cseseeseeeeee 1.4.6 Comparison of Communication Channels... 1.5 Baseband Signals 1.6 Modulation Techniques .. ‘16.4 Need for Modulation 1.6.2 Types of Modulations . gsiateas a a 1.6.2.1 Amplitude Modulation ‘ 1-24 1.6.2.2 Frequency Modulation... = 1-25 1.6.2.3 Phase Modulation 1-251.6.2.4 Pulse Amplitude Modulaton eee 1.7 Bandwidth Requirements . University Questions... Chapter-2 Pulse Modulation 2.4.4 Sampling Process. 2.1.2 Sampling Theorem. 2.2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation ..... 2.2.2 Transmission Bandwidth of PAM Signal............. (2.2.3 Analysis and Frequency Spectrum of Naturally PAM. . 2.2.4 Analysis and Spectrum of Flat Top PAM . ‘2.25 Aperture Effect. 22 6 Reconstruction of Orginal Signlxt). 2.2.9 Classification of PAM based on Signal Polarity . 2.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 2.3.1 Generation of PWM Signal 2.3.2 Demodulation of PWM Signal | 233 Advantages of PWM. 2.3.4 Disadvantages of PWM 2.3.5 Frequency Spectrum for PWM Wave. 2.4 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) 2.4.1 Generation of PPM Signal . . 2.4.2 Demodulation of PPM Signal. 2.4.3 Advantages of PPM . 2.4.4 Disadvantages of PPM. 2.5 Comparison of PAM, PWM and PPM Syetens. TephiS OOS RRM RR EE RRS, ON? Rats SR Copyrighted material2.6 Multiplexing... 2.6.1 Types of Multiplexing . 2-28 2.6.2 Fregeuncy Dison Mutpexing (EDM) peronseerereees 2-28 2621Guard Bands 26.2.2 Transmission Bandwidth. . aig 5 2-30 2.6.2.3 Using FDM for Telephone Lines 2-30 26.2.4 Advantages of FM. 2-33 26.2.5 Disadvantages of FOM 2-33 2.6.2.6 Applications of FOM 2-33 2.6.3 Time Division Multiplexing (TOM)... ss 2698 2.6.3.1 Time Division Muliplexed PAM Signal 2-38 26.32 Cinsstale 0a 2.6.3.3 Comparison of FOM and TOM 2-37 26.3.4 Transmission Bandwidth ofaTDMChannel 2.6.3.5 Advantages of TOM. 2-39 2.6.3.6 Disadvantages of TOM 2-39 Review Questions i ssssssssssttsssstinsssnsssnnssscsssansrssssssassssssssssasssssssssrssanee 2 39 University Questions... 2-40 Chapter-3 Amplitude Modulation (3-1) to (3-90) 3.1 Amplitude Modulation ... 3-1 3.1.4 Expression for AM ........00.000005 vocvceuvevtvevevevseees Sat 3.4.2 Frequency Spectrum .. 3-3 3.1.3 Modulation Index ..... ia 3-4 3.1.4 Power Relations in Sinusoidal AM . . Saeeven 3-5 3.1.5 Effective Voltage and Current for Sinusoidal AM . semen res ee BD 3.1.6 Representation of AM Wave............... es sees eae Sens LIRA 3-12 3.1.6.1 Frequency Domain 3-12 3.1.6.2 Time Domain . . . 3-12 3.1.6.3 Calculating the Modulation index using AM Wave 3-13 3.1.6.4 Concept of Overmodulation. 3-16 3.1.6.5 Trapezoidal Display of AM Wave. s 3-16 3.1.6.6 Trapezoidal Displays for Overmodulated and Distorted AM Waves 3-17 (iy3.2.2 High Level Modulation... 0... eevee eee sneer B22 3.23 Campaaonbelvesn Low Laval and High Level Mouton. disieaissseimisin ds BARE 3.24.Low Level ModulatorsiNoninear Modulators 0g 3.2.4.1 Square-Law Modulator... ss 5 2 a 2 3-23 3.2.42 Switching Modulator : 5 preeereaereeareeee Saae 3.2.5 High Level Modulators . . . 3-26 3.25.1 Basic Requirements . — . 3-26 27 Nd tater Chen aE 3.3. AM Transmitters... 3.4 Types of AM Transmitters. 3.4.4 Suppression of Carrier to Generate DSB-SC. 3.4.4.1 Balanced Modulator using Diodes. =. se 342 3.4.4.2 Balanced Modulator using FETS... 2... + aama seem 2. 34d 3.4.4.3 Balanced ModulatorIC. . . Peas cane as SoM? 3.4.5 Suppression of Unwanted Sideban o Generate SSB-SC 3.4.5.1 Filer Method 3.4.5.2 Phase-Shift Method. a 3453 Third Method ©... 3.4.6 Independent Sideband Systems 3.4.7 Vestigial Sideband Transmission . . . 3.4.8 Frequency Domain Description 3.4.9 Generation of VSB Modulated Wave . 3.4.10 Demodulation of VSB Modulated Wave . 3-48 ce 3649 fig ties 3-50 3-52 3-57 ets ar EYSolved Examples .. 2 henley Cpe thas i aaccansnssscnncnnnssntnnnasssancnninnnnnnnnsssennesasen d= 70 University Questions . 3-71 Chapter-4 Angle Modulation (4-1) to (4-76) 4.1 Basic Concepts ... i or 4.2 Mathematical Analysis of FM using Sinusoidal Signal.. i 4.3 Mathematical Analysis of PM using Sinusoidal Signal. we Beg 4.4 Mathematical Treatment as Applied to General Non-sinusoidal Signals . 14-4 4.5 Characteristics of Frequency Modulatior -4-8 4.5.1 Modulation Index . .. sithe Samer . — 4-8 (A Dee ec ea ARS Dheranei n iceiccninacesaiimce hel 4.6 Frequency Spectrum of FM Wave 4-11 4.7 Bandwidth Requirements... 4.8 Wide and Narrowhand FM. Transmission. = 16 4.9 Comparison of FM and PM System .. 4.10 Frequency Modulators ... 4.10.2 Typical Reactance Modulator... ... pian eae ier ea. 4.10.3 Transistor Reactance Modulator 0 a 4.10.4 Frequency Modulation with Varactor Diode . . . ‘i ec 4.11 Directly Modulated FM Transmitter 4.11.1 Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) - 4.11.2 Effect of Heterodyning and Multiplication on FM Wave... 4-30 4.12.1 Basic Circuit of Audio Equalizer 4-35 4.12.2 Basic Principle of PM Generation . 4-8 4.12.3 Armstrong Method of F.M........ 4-37 4.13 Pre-Emphasis .. 4.14 Advantages and Disadvantages of FM 5 SORE IO DERE SO EAN4.15 Comparison of FM and AM Systems .. Solved Examples .... 4-42 4-43 Review lestions 4-5¢ University Questions .. 1. 4-51 Chapter-5 AMandFMReceivers (5-4) to (5-90) 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Functions of Receiver 5.3 AM and FM Receivers ... 7 5:3.1 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver . wee seeeteeeeees DOF 5.3.2 Problems in TRF Receivers 5.3.3 Superhetorodine REOONO RS sooo sees eh eee eee eeee es 5-3 SAN Selectivity... oso tienes eee ee steer eee 5.4.2 Sensitivity wee Ee se 5.4.4 Image Frequency and its Rejection ........................ 5.4.5 Double Spotting ..... 5.5 Superheterodyne Receiver ... §.5.1 RF Amplifier............. = 5.5.2 Mixer or Frequency Converter . . 5.5.3 Tracking 5.5.4 Local Oscillator x . son ees . on 5.5.5 Intermediate Frequency Amplifier... 0.0.0... .ceeeseereeeeeeeeseeeeeeer sees 5.5.6 Choice of Intermediate Frequency . . 5.5.7 Adjacent Channel Selectivity 5.5.8 Automatic Gain Control (AGC). . . 55.8.1 Simple AGC. . 5.5.8.2 Delayed AGC 5.5.9 De-emphasis: 5.6 AM Detection ...... 5.6.1 Envelope Detector... ..ecceceeveseeeeeeee“5.64 SSB Receiver. co ee BS 5651S Receiver. ; es 58.6 Communication (Double Conversion) Receiver... a ‘SZ7EMReceiver 8 89 58.1 RF. Amplifier Stage... se 5-40 5.8.2 Mixer Stage 5.8.3 LF. Amplifier Stage 6.11 Capture Effect 5.12 FM Stereo System. Solved Copyrighted materialChapter -6 Noise (6-1) to (6-58) 6.2.3 Types of Internal Noise............ Deeenses sere ere sent neenesoesesenes O98 @3WhiteNoise 6.4 Types of Noise... 6.4.1 Thermal of Thermal Agitation or Johnson Noise se 3 G42ShotNoise 64.3 Partition Noise 6-8 6.4.4 Low Frequency of Flicker Noise 6.45 High Frequency or Transit Time Noise... 6.5.2 Reactance and Equivalent Noise Bandwidth . . 6-10 6.5.3 Equivalent Noise Resistance . . pai: 6-12 6.54 Note Dus to Several Ampilersin Cascade .. oman wanes OS 6.6 Signal to Noise Ratio .... 6.6.1 Effect of Amplification on S/N Ratio. . .. 6.6.2 Effect of Cascade Connection on S/N Ratio. . 6.7.4 Noise Factor in Terms of R. 6.7.2 Amplifier Input Noise in Terms of F 6.7.3 Cascade Connection of Amplifiers (Fris's Formula) . 6.8 Noise Temperature . 6.9 Noise in AM Systems..... 6.91 Signal-to-Noise Ratios... 6.92 Noise in AM Receivers using Envelope Detection.6.12 Noise in FM Receivers... 6-33 Solved Examples 6-39 Classe Chath 6-48 Unsolved Examples 6-46 University Questions 6-47 Chapter-7 Radiation and Propagation ~ (7-1) to (7-58) 7.1 Concept of Radiation and Basic Antenna System .... er | 7.1.1 Concept of Radiation and Basic Antenna System ene : 7-1 7.1.2 Radiation Pattem of Antenna ear) 7.1.3 Directional Antenna System .. si 175 TAA Dipole Antenna oo... eee ceecseceeeeeeeseecsseessessesesseeseee 7940 7.4.5 Antenna Impedance ........ voce veevseeeeeevesesseeseeses TH48 7.1.6 Marconi Antenna (:] 7.1.7 Ferrite Rod Receiving Antenna 7.1.8 Yagi Antenna . 7.2 Concepts of Propagation of Radio Waves 7.3 Mechanism of Propagations .... we 7-25 7.3.1 Ground Wave Propagation we 78 7.3.1.1. Propagation Characteristics at Broadcast Frequencies [ 535 kHz to 1605KHz] .. . 7-28 7.3.2 Sky Wave Propagation . voeceeeeeeees 7.32.1 Relations between Oblique and Vertical Incidence Transmission ‘ 7-34 7.3.2.2 Multiple Hop Transmission... 7-36 7.32.3 Propagation Characteristics at Short Waves . 7637 7.3.3 Line-of-Sight (Space Wave) Propagation... vecceeeceesteeeereee 7287 7.3.3.1 Mutipath Space Wave Propagation. stews eeeme rams TBO 7.33.2 Radio Horizon... . . Pion s eoiaid © umn 7-39 7.3.3.3 Shadowing Effects of Hills and Buildings 5 weisws Dall 7.3.3.4 Miscellaneous Considerations in Space Wave Propagation... . . 782 7.3.4 Duet Propagation ........... eae Maes ee ceeee etc Pe 75 titi beret. 7-45 7.36 Extraterrestrial Propagation ......7.4 Concept of Fading... was oAT 74.1 Fading..........5 asohionaead ane weldeilinenennnemienieet enemies TEED 7.5 Diversity Reception Sislams .7-49 Review Question: .7-50 University Questions . 7-51 Appendix-A Introduction to TV System (A-1) to (A- 34) Pak Te i i a a oc casa A111 Sound Transmission A-4 A12 Picture Transmission Ast A.1.3 Scanning Process 2 3 A-2 A14 TV Camera .. Kamran peau mantic AD. A.1.5 Picture Reception .. : — A-4 Ai BSound Recopion! ocisiaauecuate earner ames ALE. A.1.7 Synchronization........... ~eTRMRETIMeMaasecs ASB {18 Complete TV Transmission Recepon Sytem. . seemumeagece AB. A.1.9 Important Term: i A-8 A1.10 VSB for TV Broadcasting............6.0e0c0eeee nesierajooralend tons ASM A1.11 Vestigial Sideband Correction at Receiver... 5.5.0 ..00 0000 ceveseeseeseees A228 A.2 Colour Television wA-27 A.3 High Definition Television. aaa 7 A-31 lie Chua oi Appendix - B Telephony (B- 1) to (B - 30) B.1 Principles of Telephony... B.2 Telephone Transmitter and Receiver... B.2.1 Telephone Transmitter. B.2.2 Telephone Receiver B.3 Side Tone B.4 Necessity for Telephone Exchange B.4.1 Working of Telephone Exchange. . .. B.4.2 Functions of Telephone Exchange ....... 26... .c seen eeeeseeeeee encesB.4.3 Classification of Telephone Exchanges. B.5 Tones in Telephony ...... BSAOTOG eve rnrsicdur sions esnnca B.5.2 Ringing Tone . B.5.3 Busy Tone . eae B.5.4 Number Unobtainable Tone .............+5 B.6 Automatic Exchange : Strowger System... B.7 Pulsed and DTMF Dialing 8.7.1 Pulsed Dialing 8.7.2 DTMF Dialing. . 8.7.3 Comparison of Pulse and DTMF Dialing . B.8 Electronic Telephone Exchanges.. B.8.1 Services Available to Subscribers of Electronic Exchange Subscribers os B13 B.9 E 10 B Electronic Exchange .. B.9.1 Units of Electronic Exchange........ B.10 Comparison of Electronic eeetarigai with Electromechanical Exchange (Strowger Exchange)... B.11 Teleprinters ....... B.11.1 Operation of Teleprinter. B.11.2 Operation of Receiver B.11.3 Teleprinter Code . ee £114 Funcionl Keys used on he TelerintrKeybosd 5 B-26 B.11.5 Speed of Teleprinter .........sesscesesseeseseseeseeesseeseeneeenss BodB Points to Remember. University Questions... omIntroduction to Communication System 1.1 Evolution of Communication System The field of electronics can be roughly classified into three major classes : computers, communications, and control. The computer field is the youngest of the three, while communications industry is the oldest, since electronics really started with radio communications. The communication is concerned with electronic equipment used for the transfer of information between two or more points. That information may be voice, television pictures, computer data, or some other form of electronic information. Communication is the basic process of exchanging information. It is what people do to convey their thoughts, ideas, and feelings to one another. People have been communicating with one another from the beginning of humankind. As soon as new infant is born, it starts crying and starts communicating with its mother. Most humans communicate through spoken word, yet a considerable amount of communication is nonverbal. Body movements and facial expressions are effective communication tools. People write letters for communication. Although the bulk of human communication today is still oral, a large volume of information is exchanged by means of the written word, may be in the form of letters, newspaper, books etc. In the beginning, communication over long distances posed the problem. Most human communication in the beginning was limited to face-to-face communication (conversation). However, long distance communication was attempted by blowing a horn, lighting a signal fire, or waving a flag. But despite these long distance communication attempts, transmission distances were limited. Long distance communication was extended by the written word. Messages and letters were transported from one place to another by human runner, horseback, ship, and later by trains. The communication took a dramatic turn in the late nineteenth century when electricity was discovered. The telegraph was invented in 1844 and the telephone in 1876. Radio was demonstrated in 1895. From this point, the exchange of information took a great leap in forward direction. Marconi demonstrated transatlantic radio a.Analog Communication 1-2 Introduction to Communication System transmission in 1901. Television was invented in 1923, while the colour TV began in 1954. The first communication satellite was launched in 1962. The best forms of electronic communication, such as radio and television, have increased our ability to share information. Today they form the major part of our lives. In today’s world, there are number of modern communication system in use, which include radio telephony and telegraphy, broadcasting, point to point and mobile communications, radio telemetry and so on. In order to become familiar with these communication systems, it is necessary to understand the basic building blocks of communication system, the concepts of noise, modulation, information theory, communication , and various systems themselves. The following section introduces the basic building blocks of communication systems and important concepts related to the communication systems. 1.2 Elements of Communication Systems Any electronic communication system can be represented in its basic form, as shown in the Fig. 1.1 ‘Communication ‘channel or medium Fig. 1.1 Block diagram of communication system The basic components of communication systems are transmitter, a communication channel or medium, and a receiver. Noise is inherently present in the channel or medium. It gets added to the information being communicated. The elements of communication system are as follows : ¢ Information « Transmitter * Communication Channel or Medium + Noise * Receiver 1.2.1 Information ‘The communication systems communicate messages. The message comes from the information sources. The two main sources of information are the ideas emanatingAnalog Communication 1-3 Introduction to Communication System from the human brain and changes in any physical environment. Jt may contain human voice, picture, code, data, music and their combinations. The amount of information contained in any given message is measured in bits or dits. To have a better communication system, selective, but all information must be communicated with no redundancy since we know no real information can be conveyed by a redundant message. 1.2.2 Transmitter The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium, Most of the times message that comes from information source is non-electrical and therefore it is not suitable for immediate transmission. Such messages need to be coded or processed before transmission and also require suitable transducers to convert them into electrical signals. The built-in circuitry such as decoders, encoders, transducers, etc. in the transmission makes incoming information suitable for transmission and subsequent reception. The most of the transmitters have built-in amplifier circuits. These circuits amplify the incoming nals (information) before transmission which help in faithful reception of the transmitted information at the receiver end. 1.2.3 Communication Channel The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is traysmitted from one place to another. The communication medium can be a pair of conducting wire, coaxial cable, optical fibre cable or free space. Depending on the type of communication medium the communication system can be classified as, * Wire communication or Line communication, * Wireless communication or Radio communication. 41) Line Communication In its simplest form, the medium may simply be a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to another. The common examples are telegraphy and telephony, where actually two physical wires or conductors are run between the transmitter and receiver. Now-a-days, the communication medium for telephony is a fiber-optic cable, carrying the message on a light wave. The coaxial cables are preferred over a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to other. They provide greater bandwidth, lower losses and much lower crosstalk. The fiber optic cable is a logical extension of coaxial cable, which allows high operating frequencies and provides even greater bandwidths. Optical fibers are used for light and infrared transmissions. An optic fiber is a piece of very thin, highly pure glass, with an outside cladding of glass that is similarAnalog Communication 1 4 Introduction to Communication System but, because of a slightly different chemical composition, has a different refractive index. This is known as a step index fiber, with a core diameter in the range of 2 to 200 um. The communication system with fiber optic cables are virtually immune to crosstalk and electromagnetic interference, unlike coaxial cables. They are also cheaper than systems with coaxial cables. 2) Radio Communication Radio is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless communication between two points. Radio communication is a wireless communication, requiring no physical wires between transmitter and receiver to carry the signal; on the contrary, the signal is sent through free space or air. Radio communication essentially requires two antennas, one at transmitting end and the other at the receiving end. Using transmitting antenna, the transmitter transmits the signal, over a carrier wave, into the free space. The receiver picks up the signal by means of receiving aerial and separates the signal from the carrier. The medium attenuates the signal and causes it to appear much lower in amplitude at the receiver. Considerable amplification of the signal, both at the transmitter and the receiver, becomes essential for successful communication. Radio communication makes possible communication over very very long distances, even from earth to moon. 1.2.4 Noise Noise is random, undesirable electric energy that enters the communication system via the medium and interferes with the transmitted message. Some noise is also produced in the receiver. Noise can be either natural or man-made. Natural noise includes noise produced in nature, e.g. from lighting during rainy season, or noise due to radiations produced by the sun and the other stars. Man-made noise is the noise produced by electric ignition systems of cars, electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc. Noise is one of the serious problems of electronic communication. It cannot be completely eliminated. However, there are ways to deal with noise, and reduce the possibility of degradation of signal due to noise. 1.2.5 Receiver A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the original information. It consists of amplifier, detector, mixer, oscillator, transducer and so on. 1.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum In wireless communication, electromagnetic waves are used as a media of transfer of information. Thus in such a communication, the information signal is converted into the electromagnetic signal before transmission. The electromagnetic waves consist ofAnalog Communication 1-5 Introduction to Communication System nm = nanometer, A= angstrom, jum = micrometer, mm = millimeter, em = centimeter, m =meter, km = kilometer, Mm = Megameter. Fig. 1.2 The electromagnetic spectrum Copyrighted materialAnalog Communication 1-6 Introduction to Communication System both electric and magnetic fields and they can travel a long distance through space. The range of all possible frequencies of EM waves is called the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The Fig. 1.2 shows the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum, shown in the Fig. 1.2 extends from just below the frequencies used for modern radio (at the long-wavelength end) to gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength end), covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometres down to fractions of the size of an atom. It is commonly said that EM waves beyond these limits are uncommon, although this is not actually true. In our universe the short wavelength limit is likely to be the Planck length, and the long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, though in principle the spectrum is infinite 1.3.1 Frequency and Wavelength + The frequency is defined as the number of cycles of a waveform per second. It is expressed in Hertz. «© Wavelength is defined as the distance travelled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle. Electromagnetic energy at a particular wavelength has an associated frequency f and photon energy E. Thus, the electromagnetic spectrum may be expressed equally, well in terms of any of these three quantities. They are related according to the equations : wave speed (c) = frequency x wavelength or aeg and E = hf or E = he/a where : cis the speed of light = 300,000 km/s h is Plank’s constant = 4.13567 peV/GHz So, high-frequency electromagnetic waves have a short wavelength and high energy; low-frequency waves have a long wavelength and low energy. When light waves (and other electromagnetic waves) enter a medium, their wavelength is reduced. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they are travelling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength, although this is not always explicitly stated. ‘The higher frequencies we use specific symbols to represent frequency in hertz. The Table 1.1 gives the list of symbols and their relation with the basic unit hertz.Analog Communication 1-7 Introduction to Communication System Symbol Meaning ion with [ie 1 Kilo hertz 1000 Hz (10° Hz) | 1 MHz 1 Mega hertz 41000 000 Hz (10° Hz) | 1 GHz 1 Giga hertz 1000 000 000 Hz (10° Hz) | 1TH 1 Tera hertz 1000 000 000 000 Hz (10'? Hz) | 1 PHe 1 Peta hetz 1000 000 000 900 000 Hz (10'S Hz) | 1 Hz 1 Exa hetz 1000 000 060 000 000 090'H2 (10" Hz) | Table 1.1 Symbol used to denote higher frequencies 1.3.2 Radio Frequency Radio frequency, or RF, refers to that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in which electromagnetic waves can be generated by alternating current fed to an antenna. Such frequencies and the belonging wavelength account for the following parts of the spectrum shown in the Table 1.2. ‘The radio frequency range is divided by the ITU (International, Telecommunication Unit) into a number of bands of frequencies, where all frequencies in the band exhibit similar properties. The bands are ELF, VF, VLF LF, MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF. 1.3.3 Radio Frequency Spectrum The Table 1.2 shows the radio frequency spectrum and its applications according to various frequency bands. Band name | Abbr | ITU | Frequency Wavelength Applications band Extremely fow eLF | 1 | 3-30Hz | 100,000 km - 10,000 km] Communication with frequency ‘submarines Super ow frequency] SLF | 2 | 30-300Hz | 10,000 km- 1000 km | Communication with submarines Uttra low frequency | ULF | 3 | 300-3000 Hz] 1000 km - 100 km — | Communication within mines Very low frequency | VLF | 4 | 3-30 kHz 100 km - 10 km ‘Submarine avalanche beacons, wireless heart rate monitors, geophysics Low frequency LF | 5 | 30-300 kHz 10 KM = 1 km Navigation, time signals, AM longwave broadcastingAnalog Communication 1-8 Introduction to Communication System Medium frequency ‘AM (Medium-wave) broadcasts High frequency ‘Shortwave broadcasts, amateur radio and ‘over-the-horizon aviation ‘commuaications Very high frequency | VHF | 8 | 30 - 300 MHz 10m-1m FM, television broadcasts and line-of-sight ground-to-aircraft and aircratt-to-aircraft ‘communications Ultra high frequency | UHF | 9 | 300 - 3000 1m - 100 mm Television broadcasts, MHz mobile phones, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, and ‘Two-Way Radios such as FRS and GMRS Radios ‘Super high SHF | 10 | 3-30GHz 100 mm- 10 mm | Microwave devices, wireless LAN, most modern Radars Extremely high EHF | 11 | 30 - 300 GHz 10 mm = 1 mm Radio astronomy, frequency high-speed microwave radio relay Table 1.2 1.4 Types of Communication Channels We have seen that the communication channel is a media over which the information signal travels from the transmitter to receiver. There are various types of communication channels. These are : * Transmission lines * Parallel wires * Coaxial cable © Optical-fiber cable © Waveguides 1.4.1 Transmission Lines A transmission line is the material, medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place to another for directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves, as well as electric power transmission.Analog Communication 1-9 Introduction to Communication System Components of transmission lines include wires, coaxial cables, dielectric slabs, optical fibres, electric power lines, and waveguides. Concept As an example, the Fig. 1.3 shows the transmission line used to transfer the output RF energy of a transmitter to an antenna. Here, the transmission line has a single purpose for both the transmitter and the antenna. This purpose is to transfer the energy output of the transmitter to the antenna with the least possible power loss. How well this is done depends on the special physical and electrical characteristics (impedance and resistance) of the transmission line. All transmission lines have two ends. The end of a two-wire transmission line connected to a source is ordinarily called the INPUT END or the GENERATOR END. Other names given to this end are TRANSMITTER END, SENDING END, and SOURCE. The other end of the line is called the OUTPUT END or RECEIVING END. Other names given to the output end are LOAD END and SINK. Transmission Input a line Fig. 1.3 Basic transmission line We can describe a transmission line in terms of its impedance. The ratio of voltage to current (E,,/Ij,) at the input end is known as the INPUT IMPEDANCE (Z,,). This is the impedance presented to the transmitter by the transmission line and its load, the antenna. The ratio of voltage to current at the output (Ejus/Iju) end is known as the OUTPUT IMPEDANCE (Z,,,). This is the impedance presented to the load by the transmission line and its source. Equivalent Circuit The Fig. 1.4 shows the typical equivalent circuit of a transmission line. It represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing a short segment of the transmission line :Analog Communication 1-410 Introduction to Communication System * The distributed resistance R of the conductors is represented by a series resistor (expressed in ohms per unit length) * The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field around the wires, self-inductance, etc.) is represented by a series inductor (henries per unit length). * The capacitance C between the two conductors is represented by a shunt capacitor C (farads per unit length). «The conductance G of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is represented by a conductance G shunted between the signal wire and the retum wire (siemens per unit length). L R L 6599 WW | O80 “Ty aoaeee / Ln Conductors c i 6 oc 3 s impedance Fig. 1.4 Typical equivalent circuit of transmission line Characteristics Impedance (Z,) If the transmission line is uniform along its length, then its behaviour is largely described by a single parameter called the characteristic impedance, symbol Z). This is the ratio of the complex voltage of a given wave to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical values of Z, are 50 or 75 ohms for a coaxial cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of wires, and about 300 ohms for a common type of untwisted pair used in radio transmission. The characteristics impedance of transmission line is given by Zy = A where L = inductance in henries and © = Capacitance in Farads Propagation Constant (:) ‘The propagation constant of a transmission line is given by y = a+jPp = (R+joL) (G+joC)Analog Communication 1-11 Introduction to Communication System where a, the real part, is the attenuation of the signal in transmission line and fi, imaginary part, is the phase change of the signal in the transmission line. When sending power down a transmission line, it is usually desirable that all the power is absorbed by the load and none of it is reflected back to the source. This can be ensured by making the source and load impedances equal to Zy, in which case the transmission line is said to be matched, ie. Z, = Zo. Some of the power that is fed into a transmission line is lost because of its resistance. This effect is called ohmic or resistive loss. At high frequencies, another effect called dielectric loss becomes significant, adding to the losses caused by resistance. Dielectric loss is caused when the insulating material inside the transmission line absorbs energy from the alternating electric field and converts it to heat. The total loss of power in a transmission line is often specified in decibels per metre, and usually depends on the frequency of the signal. 1.4.2 Parallel Wires There are seven types of parallel wire transmission line. «Two wire line type cable * Two wire flat type cable «Twisted pair type cable * Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) type cable + Shielded twisted pair (STP) type cable + Screened shielded twisted pair (S/STP) type cable * Screened unshielded twisted pair (S/UTP) type cable Two Wire Line Type The Fig. 1.5(a) shows the two parallel wires separated by insulating spacers. Conductors — ———— Conductors (a) Two wire line type cable (b) Two wire flat type cable ‘Spacers Fig. 1.5Analog Communication 1 12 Introduction to Communication System ‘The Fig. 1.5 (b) shows the two wire flat type cable. It is used to connect the output of Yagi-Uda TV antenna to the TV set. Both two wire type cables are simple in construction, cheap and easy to install. The two wire line type can carry more power. Both cables are susceptable for electromagnetic noise and they have high radiation losses. Twisted Pair Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which two conductors are wound together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference from external sources and crosstalk from neighboring wires. The Fig. 1.6 shows the twisted pair. ‘Twisting wires decrease interference, since the loop area between the wires (which determines the magnetic coupling into the signal) is reduced. Often the two wires carry equal and opposite signals (differential mode) which are combined by subtraction at the destination. The noise from the two wires cancel each other in this subtraction because the two wires have been exposed to similar electromagnetic interference The twist rate (usually defined in twists per meter) makes up part of the specification for a given type of cable. The greater the number of twists, the greater the attenuation of crosstalk. Conductors insulation Twisted wires. Fig. 1.6 Twisted pair ‘Twisted pair cables were first used in telephone systems by Bell in 1881 and by 1900 the entire American network was twisted pair. Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections because of its relatively lower costs compared to fiber and coaxial cabling. Cable Shielding Twisted pair cables are often shielded to prevent electromagnetic interference. Because the shielding is made of metal, it also serves as a ground. This shielding can be applied to individual pairs, or to the collection of pairs. When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is referred to as screening. The shielding must be grounded for the shielding to work.Analog Communication 1-13 ure Conductor Insulation Pair Sheath Fig. 1.7 Unshielded twisted pair st Conductor ® &— ~ es oa Pair shield ws Fig. 1.8 Shielded twisted pair ‘SiSTP Fig. 1.9 Screened shielded twisted pair Introduction to Communication System Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) UTP cables are not shielded. This lack of shielding results in a high degree of flexibility as well as rugged durability. UTP cables are found in many ethernet networks and telephone systems. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) STP cabling includes metal shielding over each individual pair of copper wires. This type of shielding protects cable from external EMI (electromagnetic interferences) eg. the 150 ohm shielded twisted pair cables defined by the IBM Cabling System specifications and used with token ring networks. Screened Shielded Twisted Pair (S/STP) S/STP cabling, also known as Screened Fully Shielded Twisted Pair (S/FTP), is both individually shielded (like STP cabling) and also has an outer metal shielding covering the entire group of shielded copper pairs (like $/UTP). This type of cabling offers the best protection form interference from external sources.Analog Communication 1-14 _ Introduction to Communication System Screened Unshielded Twisted Pair (S/UTP) S/UTP known as Fully Shielded (or foiled) Twisted Pair (FTP) is a screened UTP cable. SIUTP - FTP - SIFTP Conductor Insulation Pair Sheath Shield Fig. 1.10 Screened unshielded twisted pair, foiled twisted pair, screened foiled twisted pair 1.4.3 Coaxial Cables The coaxial cables are preferred over a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to other. They provide greater bandwidth, lower losses and much lower crosstalk. They are used as a high-frequency transmission line to carry a high-frequency or broad band signal ‘The coaxial cable system consists of a tube carrying a number of coaxial cables together with repeaters and other ancillary equipment. Separate cables are used for the two directions of transmission and a pair of spare cables is also provided for protection in case of failure. The number of cables per tube may be as low as four in smaller systems or as high as 22 in major systems as shown in Fig. 1.11. The typical number of channels per cable varies from 600 in a 3-MHz system to 3600 in an 18-MHz system. ‘The coaxial cable consists of a solid-center conductor surrounded by a plastic insulator such as Teflon. Over the insulator is a second conductor, a tabular braid or shield made of fine wire, as shown in Fig. 1.11. An outer sheath protects and insulates the braid. Because the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists (ideally) only in the space between the inner and outer conductors, it cannot interfere with or suffer interference from external electromagnetic fields. Coaxial cables may be rigid or flexible. Rigid types have a solid sheath, while flexible types have a braided sheath, both usually of thin copper wire. The inner insulator, also called the dielectric, has a significant effect on the cable's properties, such as its characteristics impedance and its attenuation.Analog Communication 1-15 Introduction to Communication System (Fine-wire braid shield) ‘Outer conductor ‘Outer plastic insulation Foil Teflon or plastic insulation Solid copper inner conductor Fig. 1.11 Important Parameters * In coaxial cable the characteristic impedance in ohms (Q) is calculated from the ratio of the inner and outer diameters and the dielectric constant. Assuming the dielectric properties of the material inside the cable do not vary appreciably over the operating range of the cable, this impedance is frequency independent. * Attenuation or loss, in decibels per metre is dependent on the loss in the dielectric material filling the cable, and resistive losses in the center conductor and shield. These losses are frequency dependent, the losses becoming higher as the frequency increases. © In co-axial cable velocity of propagation depends on the type of dielectric used. ‘Standards Most coaxial cables have a characteristic impedance of either 50, 52, 75, or 93 2. The RF industry uses standard type-names for coaxial cables. Applications * Short coaxial cables are commonly used to connect home video equipment, in ham radio setups, and in measurement electronics. * Long distance coaxial cable is used to connect radio networks and television networks, though this has largely been superseded by other more high-tech methods (fibre optics, T1/E1, satellite). It still carries cable television signals to the majority of television receivers. © Micro coaxial cables are used in a range of consumers devices, military equipment, and also in ultra-sound scanning equipment.Analog Communication 1-16 Introduction to Communication System 1.4.4 Fiber-OpticsCables Fiber-optic cables are used for light and infrared transmissions. They carry light rather than electrical signals. The two most commonly used light sources in fiber optic systems are LEDs and semiconductor lasers. A fiber-optic cable is a long thin strand of glass or plastic fiber. Most fiber cables have a circular cross section with a diameter of only a fraction of an inch. Some fiber-optic cables only have a diameter the size of a human hair. A light source is placed at the end of the fiber, and light passes through it and exits at the other end of the cable. The fiber-optic cable can carry information such as voice, video and computer data. Voice and video signals are converted into binary or digital pulses before being transmitted by a light beam. At the receiving end the light beam is converted into binary or digital pulses and then into original voice or video signals. ’-—— Water blocking yarn Dielectric CSM Loose buffer tube Optical fiber ‘Water blocking tape Water blocking tape — — Dielectric strength member Fig. 1.12 The fiber-optic cables are mainly used in telephone systems. The main advantage of these cables is that they provide large bandwidth. The bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies which a cable will carry. The communication system with fiber optic cables are interference, unlike coaxial cables. They are also cheaper than systems with coaxial cables. Fiber-optics cables are smaller, lighter and stronger than electric cables. The Table 1.3 summarizes the benefits of fiber-optic cables over conventional electrical cables.Analog Communication 1-47 Introduction to Communication System No. Benefit 1 Wider bandwidth : Higher information carrying capability. 2 Lower loss : Less signal attenuation over long distance. 3 Light weight : Useful where low weight is critical ie. aircraft 4 ‘Small size : More cables can be placed in a smaller place. 5 Strength : More stronger than electrical cables and hence can support more weight. 6. Security : Fiber-optic cables cannot be tapped as easily as electrical cables, and they do not radiate signals 7. Interference immunity : Fiber-optic cables do not radiate signals as some electrical cables do and cause interference to other cables. They are also immune to pick-up of interference from other sources. 8 Greater safety : Fiber-optic cables do not carry electricity. Therefore, there is no shock hazard. They are also insulators so are not susceptible to lightning strikes as electrical cables. Table 1.3 Table 1.4 summarises the applications of fiber-optic cables. No. Applications 1 Local and long-distance telephone systems, 2 For transmission of video signal from TV studio to transmitter, eliminating microwave radio link. 3 Used in close-circuit TV systems. 4 ‘Secure communication systems at military bases. 5 Used in wide area and local area computer networks. 6. Shipboard and aircraft communications and controls. 7 Interconnection of measuring and monitoring instruments in industries and laboratories. 8. Used in data aquisition systems and industrial process control systems for signal communication Table 1.4 Disadvantages of Fiber-OpticsaCable 1. Optical fibers are very costly. 2. Optical fibers can not be joined together as easily as copper conductor. 3. The maintenance is expensive.Analog Communication 1-18 Introduction to Communication System 1.4.5 Waveguides Similar to the transmission lines, waveguides are also used to guide electromagnetic waves from one point to other ie. from source to load. A waveguide is considered as a special case of the transmission line. In general, waveguides are hollow conducting tubes having uniform cross-section. The most commonly used waveguides are rectangular waveguide and circular waveguide as shown in the Fig. 1.13. Eventhough a waveguide is a special case of a transmission line, there are some notable differences between the two. Firstly, the transmission line can support only transverse electromagnetic wave (TEM wave), while a waveguide can support many different possible field configurations. Secondly, a transmission line becomes inefficient at microwave frequencies (3-300 GHz) due to skin effect and dielectric losses. But waveguide is used at that same range of frequencies to achieve larger bandwidth and lower signal attenuation. Lastly a transmission line may operate from dc. (frequency = 0) to a very high frequency. While a waveguide can not transmit d.c. Wave propagation Rectangul: 2 = (b) Circular Fig. 1.13 Waveguide The Fig. 1.14 shows how the EM waves travel through a waveguide. The EM waves undergo multiple reflections at the sides of waveguide while travelling from one end to the other. They can not travel in a straight line. Fig. 1.14 How EM waves travel thrugh waveguideAnalog Communication 41-19 Introduction to Communication System Advantages of Waveguides 1. High frequency communication upto 325 GHz is possible using waveguides 2. Large surface area of waveguid 3. In waveguides, radiation losses are low, 4. Waveguides have large power handling capacity. Disadvantages 1, Low’ frequency communication is not possible using waveguid es reduces copper losses s because the size of waveguides at low frequency becomes very high. They are difficult to install because of its rigidness and hollow shape. 3. The cost of entire waveguide and related equipment is comparatively high 4. The absolute efficiency of waveguide is low. 1.4.6 Comparison of Communication Channels Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable 1 Uses electrical signal for transmission, Uses electrical signal for transmission. Uses optical signal for transmission 2 Provides low noise immunity. Provides higher noise immunity than twisted pair. Provides highest noise immunity as the light rays are unaffected by the electrical noise. 3. | Affected due to elgcro-magnetic field Less affected due to elecromagnetic field. Does not get affected by electromagnetic field 4 Provides low bandwidth typically 3 to 4 MHz. Provides high bandwidth typically 300 to 400 MHz. Provides very high bandwidth typically 2 to 3 GHz. 5. | Possibility of short Possibility of short No possibility of short circuit betwen two circuit between two circuit conductors. conductors. 6. | Low cost. Medium cost. High cost. 7. | Supports iow data rates.| Support medium data | Support high data rates. rates. 8. | Power loss is due to | Power loss is due to | Power loss is due to ‘conduction and conduction absorption, scattering, radiation, dispersion and bending.Analog Communication 1-20 _ Introduction to Communication System 1.5 Baseband Signals Although digital transmission can be made up of signal that originated in digital form, such as computer data; analog signals can be converted into digital form and then transmitied. Regardless of whether the original information signals are analog or digital, they are all referred to as “baseband signals”. In a communication system, the original information signals (baseband signals) may be transmitted over the medium Putting the original signal directly into the medium is referred to as “baseband transmission”. The common example is telephony, especially for the local calls, Here the voice signal, converted into electrical form, is placed on the wires and transt fed over some distance to the receiver. In some computer networks, the digital signals are applied directly to coaxial cables for transmission to another computer. Limitations of Baseband Transmission There are many instances when the baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium. For example, voice signals cannot travel longer distances in air, the signal gets attenuated rapidly. Hence for transmission of baseband signals by radio, modulation technique has to be used. 1.6 Modulation Techniques In the modulation process, the base band signal (such as voice, video, ete.) modifies another higher-frequency signal called the carrier. The carrier is usually a sine wave that is higher in frequency than the highest baseband signal frequency. The baseband signal modifies the amplitude or frequency or phase of the carrier in the modulation process. Modulation techniques are classified according which parameter of the carrier is changed. + Amplitude modulation ; In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the cartier is varied according to the baseband signal keeping its frequency and phase constant. * Frequency modulation : In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier is varied according to the baseband signal. * Phase modulation : In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is varied according to the baseband signal. 1.6.1 Need for Modulation We have seen that baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium and therefore we have to use modulation technique for the communication of baseband signal. The advantages of using modulation technique are as given below :Analog Communication 1-21 Introduction to Communication System * Reduces the height of antenna + Avoids mixing of signals * Increases the range of communication * Allows multiplexing of signals * Allows adjustments in the bandwidth * Improves quality of reception 1. Reduces the height of antenna The height of the antenna required for transmission and reception of radio waves in radio transmission is a function of wavelength of the frequency used. The minimum height of the antenna is given as ./4. The wavelength 4 is given as £ ft where —_c is the velocity of light and f is the frequency. From the above equation it can be easily noticed that at low frequencies wavelength is very high and hence the antenna height. For example, consider the baseband signal with f = 15 kHz. Then - i ¢ Height of antenna = 5 = 755 3x 108 © 15x103 x4 = 5000 meters This 5000 meters height of a vertical antenna is unthinkable and unpracticable. On the other hand, if we consider a modulated signal with 1 MHz frequency in the broadcast band the height of antenna is given as ac aha 3x 108 1x108%4 Height of antenna 4 = 75 meters This height of antenna is practical and such antenna can be installed.Analog Communication 1-22 Introduction to Communication System 2. Avoids mixing of signals All sound signals are concentrated within the range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The transmission of baseband signals from various sources causes the mixing of signal and then it is difficult to separate at the receiver end. In order to separate the various signals, it is necessary to translate them all to different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (channel); each must be given its own bandwidth commonly known as channel bandwidth. This can be achieved by taking different carrier frequency for different signal source as shown in the Fig. 1.15. Once the signals have been transmitted, a tuned circuit at the receiver end selects the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum it is tuned for. Therefore modulating different signal sources by different carrier frequencies avoid mixing of signals. Sigal tones Suna Moatnd Sanat 3 Mots Soa Coane “nace gwar Frequency too kz 200 tHe 300 ne aoe | ; ‘ ‘Signal 2 Frequency oO ‘ 20 kHz frequency Signal 3 SOKHe —120KMe 180KH2 — 220;KHe 280 Ke 320 KHZ Frequency i ‘ i 1 i aban wt a Oo 1 Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 ‘ ‘ bandwidth bandwidth bandwidth Fig. 1.15 Modulation avoids mixing of signals 3. Increases the range of communication At low frequencies radiation is poor and signal gets highly attenuated. Therefore baseband signals cannot be transmitted directly over long distance. Modulation effectively increases the frequency of the signal to be radiated and thus increases the distance over which signals can be transmitted faithfully. 4, Allows multiplexing of signals The modulation permits multiplexing to be used. Multiplexing means transmission of two or more signals simultaneously over the same channel. The common examples of multiplexing are the number of Television channels operating simultaneously or number of radio stations broadcasting the signal in MW and SW_ band, simultaneously. The different signals from different stations can be separated in the receiver since the carrier frequencies for these signals are different. It is commonly known as tuningAnalog Communication 1-23 Introduction to Communication System the receiver to the desired station. By tuning process, the desired signal is selected and at the same time, other unwanted signals are rejected. 5. Allows adjustments in the bandwidth Bandwidth of a modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the original signal. Signal to noise ratio in the receiver which is a function of the signal bandwidth can thus be improved by proper control of the bandwidth at the modulating stage. 6. Improves quality of reception The signal communication using modulation techniques such as frequency modulation, pulse code modulation reduce the effect of noise to great extent. Reduction in noise improves the quality of reception 1.6.2 Types of Modulations We may classify the modulation process into continuous-wave modulation and pulse modulation. In continuous-wave (CW) modulation, a sinusoidal wave is used as the carrier. When the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the base band signal, we have amplitude modulation (AM), and when the angle of the carrier is varied, we have angle modulation. ‘Types of Modulations: ——————_ Continuous Wave Modulation Pulse Modulation Amplitude Angle Digital Analog Modulation Modulation ‘Modulation Modulation Frequency Phase Pulse Code ‘Modulation Modulation Modulation PAM POM PPM. Fig. 1.16 Modulation techniques The angle modulation is further subdivided into frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM), in which the instantaneous frequency and phase of the carrier, respectively, are varied in accordance with the baseband signal. In pulse modulation, the carrier consists of a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, The pulse modulation is further subdivided into analog and digital type.Analog Communication 1-24 Introduction to Communication System In analog pulse modulation, the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is varied in accordance with sample values of the base band signal to have pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse position modulation (PPM), respectively. + 1.6.21 Amplitude Modulation In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by the modulating signal. Here, information signal is the modulating signal and high frequency signal which is being modulated is the carrier signal. Formally, AM is defined as system of modulation in which the instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal Fig. 1.17 shows a single frequency sine wave modulating a higher frequency carrier signal with amplitude modulation. | Baseband casi fas i | | / Fig. 1.17 Amplitude modulationAnalog Communication 1-25 Introduction to Communication System 1.6.2.2 Frequency Modulation Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant, while its frequency is varied by the modulating signal. The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is known as frequency deviation. Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal. Fig. 1.18 shows a single frequency sine wave modulating a higher frequency carrier signal with frequency modulation. ti | Baseband signal +1 a Prrdescber eee | {= Frequency modulated wave Minarnum { frequency’ | Peete | | | Bl Eases frequency Leste tik Fig. 1.18 Frequency modulation 1.6.2.3 Phase Modulation Another way to produce angle modulation is a phase modulation. In phase modulation, the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal instead of its frequency; as in FM, the amplitude of the carrier remains constant. The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift. Fig. 1.19 shows a single frequency sine wave modulating a higher frequency carrier signal with phase modulation.Analog Communication 1-26 __ Introduction to Communication System Fig. 1.19 Phase modulation Here, the positive alternations of the modulating signal produce a lagging phase shift and negative signals produce a leading phase shift. As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag increases with the amplitude of the modulating signal. This causes the carrier sine wave to be effectively stretched out reducing its frequency. When modulating signal goes negative, the phase shift becomes leading. This causes the carrier sine wave to be effectively compressed increasing its frequency. 1.6.2.4 Pulse Amplitude Modulation In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of periodic sequential pulses are varied in accordance with sample values of the baseband signal. Copyrighted materialAnalog Communication 1-27 Introduction to Communication System Periodic sequi pulses eae = Pulse ampitude | t modulated signal off, = 300Hz Fig. 1.20 Pulse amplitude modulation 1.7 Bandwidth Requirements Frequency f, = 3000 Hz Fig. 1.21 Bandwidth for voice signal Bu f2 —f; = 3000 - 300 2700 Hz Bandwidth is the portion of frequency range occupied by a signal. More specifically, it is the difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal. Fig. 1.21 shows the bandwidth of the voice signal which ranges from 300 Hz to 3000 Hz. The upper frequency is f) and lower frequency is f). Therefore bandwidth is given asAnalog Communication 1-28 Introduction to Communication System The bandwidth required for transmission of various signals is different for each signal. It basically depends on the bandwidth occupied by the modulating signal. Bandwidth requirements for various signals 4. Telegraph signals : The telegraph speed is often expressed in terms of the reciprocal of the duration, in seconds, of the shortest signaling element termed as Baud. The shortest time element is typical of duration 20 milliseconds. Therefore the bandwidth required is 1 20x 10 Bo = fhatex = 3 = 50 Hz 2. Voice/speech sign: Voice signal ranges from 300 Hz to 3000 Hz so the bandwidth required is 2700 Hz. 3. Music signals : Musical instruments produce harmonics whose orders and amplitude decide the quality of the musical output. For the purpose of accommodating the harmonics, a frequency range of 30 Hz to 15 kHz is needed for high quality music transmission. ‘Therefore for music transmission bandwidth required is 14970 Hz (15000 ~ 30). 4, Television signals : For television signals bandwidth required is 6 MHz. 5. For digital data transmission : The digital data stream-is similar to a square wave signal with rapid transitions from one voltage level to another, with the repetition rate depending on the binary representation of the data word. Since many digital data transmission utilize telephone channels, the bandwidth of the telephone is an appropriate consideration. Actually the bandwidth required depends on the speed of data transmission. The faster the rate of data transmission, the greater the bandwidth required. The internationally accepted standard telephone channel occupies the frequency range of 300 to 3400 Hz. When data is sent over telephone channels, the speed must be limited to ensure that the bandwidth required by the data transmission will not exceed the telephone channel bandwidth. The data rates of common systems are limited to a maximum rate of about 10,800 bits per second (bps) for a telephone channel.Analog Communication 1-29 Introduction to Communication System 1 Review Questions Write a short note on evolution of communication system, What are the basic components of any communication system ? Draw and explain the block diagram of the typical communication system. What do you mean by noise ? What are the different types of communication systems according to their communication media ? What are the typical channels used in the line communication ? What is electromagnetic spsectrum ? Define frequency and wavelength What is radio frequency ? Drazw the radio frequency spectrum. What are the applications of following frequency bands in communication field ? 1. LF 2. MF 3. VHF 4. UHF . State various types of communication channels. Explain any one of them. Write a short note on a, Transmission lines ». Parallel wires ¢. Twisted cable. d. Coaxial cable ¢. Fiber-optic cable f. Waveguides . Give the comparison between communication chasinels. What is baseband signal ? What is baseband transmission ? What do you mean by band hand how it is measured ? Give the bandwidth requirements for any four transmitting signals. Wiat is the necessity of modulation ? How modulation is achieved ? What are the different types of modulation ? Compare continuous weave and pulse modulation techniques Wh. is pulse width modulation ? What is pulse amplitude modulation ? What is pulse position modulation ?Analog Communication 1-30 Introduction to Communication System University Questions Q4 Justify - The baseband signal cannot be transmitted through space by radio. (May-95) Q2 What is the need for modulation ? (Dec.-98, May-99) 3 What are the advantages of optical fiber over co-axial cable ? (May-96, May-97, May-2000) Q4 Write a short note on necessity of modulation. (Dec.-2001, Dec.-2003, May-2004) Q5 Write in detail RF-bands in communication. (May-2004) aoaPulse Modulation 2.1 Introduction So far we have considered only continuous signals. However, in pulse modulation we have to use discrete time signals to represent modulated signal of the pulse modulated wave. Fig. 2.1. shows the continuous and discrete time signals. The sampling process is used to convert continuous time signal into discrete time signal. So we begin this chapter with the explanation of sampling process. Discrete time signal Es. Fig. 2.1 Continuous and discrete time signals 2.1.1 Sampling Process In a sampling process a continuous time signal is converted to an equivalent discrete time signal. The Fig. 2.2 shows how this conversion can be done. As shown in the Fig, 2.2, switch position is controlled by the sampling signal. The sampling signal is a periodic train of pulses of unit amplitude and of period T,. The time T, is known (2-1)Analog Communication 2-2 Pulse Modulation as sampling time and during this time switch is closed so that sampled signal is equal to the input signal. During remaining time switch is open and no input signal appear at the output. Continuous e—§o Sampled ‘igral rae “y { rw) ‘Sampling signal Sylt) (a) ST Continuous signal |} j | ‘modulating signal} (b) signal, "(is always a sampled signal derived by sampling @ continuous signal, ft) using proper sampling, dit) Fig. 2.2 Sampling circuit and waveforms 2.1.2 Sampling Theorem In a sampling process, the rate at which samples of the parameters are to be taken depends on the most rapidly varying parameter, and it is necessary to sample this parameter at a rate faster than the fastest variation of the parameter, so as not to missAnalog Communication 2-3 Pulse Modulation the variation. The sampling theorem gives the complete idea about the rate at which samples to be taken. The sampling theorem states that, + A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher than W Hertz, is completely described by specifying the values of the signal at instants of time separated by 1/2W seconds and * A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher than W Hertz, may be completely recovered from the knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of 2W samples per second The above statement of sampling theorem stated in two parts can be combined. The first part represents the representation of the signal in its samples and minimum sampling rate required to represent a continuous time signal into its samples. The second part of the theorem represents reconstruction of the original signal from its samples. It gives sampling rate required for satisfactory reconstruction of signal from its samples. The theorem can be combined and alternately stated as follows “A continuous time signal can be completely represented in its samples and recovered back if the sampling frequency f,> 2 W. Here f, is sampling frequency and W is the maximum frequency present in the signal”. 2.2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation Fig, 2.3 shows a sampling of slowly varying parameter. “NY Slowly changing variable | Fig. 2.3 Pulse amplitude modulation The samples are taken at regular interval of time. Each sample is a pulse, whose amplitude is determined by the amplitude of the variable at the instant of time at which the sample is taken. If enough samples are taken, a reasonable approximation of the signal being sampled can be constructed at the receiving end. This is known as “Pulse Amplitude Modulation [PAM]".Analog Communication 2-4 Pulse Modulation 2.2.1 Generation of PAM It is very easy to generate and demodulate PAM. The signal to be converted to PAM is fed through switch which is controlled by a pulse train. When pulse is present ie signal is at high level, switch is closed. When pulse is absent ie. signal is at low level switch is open. With this control action of switch we get pulse amplitude modulated waveform at the output terminal of the switch. This pulse amplitude modulated signal is passed through a pulse shaping network, which gives them flat tops. This is illustrated in Fig. 24. These output pulses can be used to frequency modulate the carrier to form PAM-FM system. ‘Modulating signal Pulse train Fig. 2.4 Generation of pulse amplitude modulated wave . The Fig. 2.5 shows the block schematic of PAM generator. It consists of a low pass filter (LPF), a multiplier and a pulse train generator. Initially, the modulating signal x(t) is passed through the LPF. The LPF removes all the frequency components which are higher than frequency fn. This is known as band limiting, The band limiting is necessary to avoid the aliasing effect in the sampling process. The pulse train generator generates a pulse train at a frequency f, such that f, 2 2f,. Thus the Nyquist ri satisfied. The pulse sampling, network does the shaping work to give flat tops. Be Ree ria is Modulating | Pulse PA signal ——=] LW P88 |] utter sampling mere x(t) iter network Pulse train generator Fig. 2.5Analog Communication 2-5 Pulse Modulation The Fig. 2.6 shows the waveforms related to the generation of PAM generator. Fig. 2.6 Waveforms of PAM 2.2.2 Transmission Bandwidth of PAM Signal The pulse duration ‘x’ is supposed to be very very small compared to time period T, between the two samples. If the maximum frequency in the signal x (t) is 'W' then by sampling theorem, f, should be higher than Nyquist rate or,Analog Communication 2-6 Pulse Modulation f, 2 2Wor since f, = and << sph wl) °* Ww If ON and OFF time of the pulse is same, then frequency of the PAM pulse becomes, + (2) th me Fig. 2.7 Maximum frequency of PAM signal Thus Fig. 2.7 shows that if ON and OFF times of PAM signal are same, then maximum frequency of PAM signal is given by equation (2) ic., . 1 foe = 5 3) Bandwidth required for transmission of PAM signal will be equal to maximum frequency fmm given by above equation. This bandwidth gives adequate pulse resolution ie., Br > foo 1 Bret we Te a “ — i ais Joew a Since t<< 547 Br 2 30> Wie, Transmission bandwidth of PAM signal : By >> W =) Thus the transmission bandwidth Br of PAM signal is very very large compared to highest frequency in the signa! x (t).Analog Communication 2-7 Pulse Modulation 2.2.3 Analysis and Frequency Spectrum of Naturally PAM Fig. 2.8 demonstrates the simplest type of sampling, called natural sampling. The incoming analog signal x(t) is lowpass filtered and it is sampled at the rate of £ Hz where f, is the sampling frequency higher than the Nyquist rate. Thus it satisfies the sampling theorem. The sampling is achieved by multiplying the signal with the sampling function. The sampling function ¢(t) is the train of periodic pulses of width + and frequency equal to f, Hz. When c(t) goes high, a switch 'S' is closed. Therefore, When c(t) = A s(t) = x(t) and when ct) = 0 s(t) = 0 an SUFI we where A is the amplitude of - 3 Fig. 2.8 shows the waveforms of - a x(t), o(t) and s(t). The signal s(t) is mathematically expressed as s(t) = x(t) eft) () Fig. 2.8 Circuit for generation of natural sampling x(t) t (a) tt) + A LiL ~t (b) x(t)*e(t) | Ts! ah. t o) Fig. 2.9 (a) Baseband signal x(t) (b) Sampling signal c(t) (c) Naturally sampled signalAnalog Communication 2-8 Pulse Modulation Here, c(t) is the periodic train of pulses of width + and frequency f,. Exponential Fourier Series for a periodic waveform is given as xt) = 3 cy etento For the period pulse train of c(t) we have, T= T= t = Period of c(t). ie! oF & = f= qe = a = Frequency of c(t) Above equation will be, [with x(t) = c(t)], z fl c(t) = Se esis Putting jk =f = c(t) is rectangular pulse train. cy for this waveform is given as : TA ce = ae sin elf TD) Here T = Pulse width = + and f, = Harmonic frequency. Here +f =n or fy “i = nf co =F sineltot) ~ 8) , Fourier series for periodic pulse train will be written from equation (7) and equation (8) as, ay = ¥ 3 sine (E, 1) e2ntnt ) On putting the value of c(t) in equation (6) we get, sine (fy 1) e®*t x(t) su (10) This equation represents naturally sampled signals. Now fourier transform of s(t) is obtained by definition of FT as, S() = FT fs) = AD sinc ty DFT fei" x0} ~ (N)Analog Communication 2-9 Pulse Modulation We know from frequency shifting property of fourier transform that, x(t) <> X(F~ fn) om» (12) si) = FD seth )X (fF ~ fn) vu (13) We know that fy = nf ie, harmonic frequency. Above equation becomes, Spectrum of naturally sampled signal : S() = “2S sinc(nfeey X(F nf] ay This equation shows that the spectra of x(t) ie. X(f} are periodic in f, and are weighed by the sinc function. Fig. 2.10 (a) shows some arbitrary spectra for x(t) and corresponding spectrum S(f) is shown in Fig. 2.10 (b). Si) sine (nf,t) Fig. 2.10 (a) Spectrum of continuous time signal x(t) (b) Spectrum of naturally sampled signal Thus unlike the spectrum of instantaneously sampled signal the spectrum of naturally sampled signal is weighted by sinc function. 2.2.4 Analysis and Spectrum of Flat Top PAM This is also a practically possible sampling method. In this sampling method, the top of the samples remains constant and equal to instantaneous value of baseband signal x(t) at the start of sampling. The duration of each sample is and sampling rate is equal to f, = YT,Analog Communication 2-10 Pulse Modulation Fig. 2.11 shows the functional diagram of sample and hold circuit generating flat top samples and Fig. 2.11 shows waveforms. ‘Sampling switch x(t) Discharge == C Output Fig. 2.11 Sample and hold circuit for generation of flat top sampling Normally the width of the pulse in flat top sampling and natural sampling is increased as far as possible to reduce the transmission bandwidth. The flat top pulse of s(t) is mathematically equivalent to the convolution of instantaneous sample and pulse h(t) as shown in Fig. 2.12. ; htt) hit) 0 t tt 7 Fig. 2.12 Convolution of any function with delta function is equal to that function That is width of the pulse in s(t) is determined by width of hit), and. sampling instant is determined by delta function. The starting edge of pulse represents the point where baseband signal is sampied and width is determined by function h(t). Therefore s(t) will be given as, s(t) = xa(t) * h(t) The meaning of this equation is further explained by Fig, 2.13. wo» (15)Analog Communication 2-1 Pulse Modulation x(t) ett) (b) (c) Fig. 2.13 (a) Baseband signal x(t) (b) Sampling signal c(t) (c) Flat topped sampled signal By the replication property of delta function we know that x(t) * 6(t) = x(t) we (16) This is explained in Fig, 2.12 also. The same property is used to obtain flat top samples, The delta function in equation (16) is instantaneously sampled signal xs(t), and function h(t) is convolved with xs(t). Clearly observe that we are not directly applying equation (16) here, but we are using it similarly. In equation (16), 8(t) is constant amplitude delta function. But in Fig. 2.13 (b), xs(t) is varying amplitude train of impulses. Therefore on convolution of xq(t) and h(t) we get a pulse whose duration is equal to h(t) only but amplitude is defined by xs(t). The xs(t) is given as, xolt) = 3 xint) 8 (t- (17) <. From equation (15) we can write the convolution as, s(t) = xs(t) * h(t)Analog Communication 2-12 Pulse Modulation ie, = j xs(u) h(t-u) du re j z x (nT,) (u ~ nT.) h(t-u) du From equation (17) = dS xm j &(u ~ nT) h(t -u) du w» (18) From the sifting property of delta function we know that, { f(t)3 (t — to) = Flto) wn (19) Using this equation we can write equation (18) as, s(t) = s x (nT,) h(t ~ nT,) ox (20) This equation represents value of s(t) in terms of sampled value x (nT,) and function h (t ~ nT.) for flat top sampled signal. We also know from equation (15) that, s(t) = x5 () * h(t) By taking Fourier transform of both sides of above equation, Sif) = Xa(f) Hif) » QL) Convolution in time domain is converted to multiplication in frequency domain. Xe(6) is given as, Xa) = & 3 X(t - nf) »- (22) *. Equation (21) becomes, Spectrum of flat top sampled signal : S(f) = & 3° X(f -nf,) H( .. (23) This equation represents the spectrum of flat top sampled signal. 2.2.5 Aperture Effect The Fig. 2.14 shows the spectrum of the flat top signal. The amplitude of the flat-top signal must be constant, but it is not, as shown in Fig. 2.14. This is because, the high frequency rolloff of H(f) acts like a low-pass filter and attenuates upperAnalog Communication 2-13 Pulse Modulation portion of message spectrum. Thus the high frequencies of x(t) get affected. This effect is called aperture effect. ‘Spectrum of analog signal x(t) Xa} Spectrum of instantaneously ‘sampled signal Spectrum of sampling signal hit) ‘Spectrum of Flattop sampled signal wilew (tw) te Fig. 2.14 Spectrum of flat-top sampled signal 2.2.6 Reconstruction of Original Signal x(t) The original modulating signal can be detected from the natural PAM by passing naturally modulated PAM signal through a low-pass filter. The low-pass filter with cut-off frequency equal to fm removes high frequency ripple and recovers the original modulating signal. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.15.Analog Communication 2-14 Pulse Modulation Demoduiated PAM signal —e} PAK cignal Fig. 2.15 PAM detector It can be observed that the demodulated output shown in Fig. 2.16 is close to the original modulating signal. | ub LL i i Fig. 2.16 Waveforms of PAM detection In case of flat top PAM to reduce aperture effect, an equalizer is used. As shown in Fig. 2.17, the receiver consists of low-pass reconstruction filter with cut-off frequency slightly higher than the maximum frequency in message signal. The equalizer compensates for the aperture effect. It also compensates for the attenuation by a low-pass reconstruction filter. s(t) + noise Fig. 2.17 Recovering x(t)Analog Communication 2.2.7 Comparison of Sampling Techniques of PAM Parameter of comparison 2-15 Natural sampling Pulse Modulation Flat top sampling Principle of sampling I uses chopping principle. It uses sample and hold circuit. 2 Circuit of sampler eo AML o—— 4 x) a) ! 3. | Waveforms Mt) ie) 4. | Use ‘This method is used practically. This method is used practically. 5._| Sampling rate ‘Sampling rate satisfies criteria. ‘Sampling rate satisfies criteria 6__| Noise interference Noise interference is minimum. Noise interference is maximum. 7. | Time domain representation =e 5 x(t) sine (nf) eizeont y= x (nT,)h(t-nT,) 8, | Frequency domain representation sw= 2 zy sing (n ft) X(f—né,) sw = 4 > X(f-nG)HO Table 2.1 Comparison of sampling technique 2.2.8 Merits and Demerits of PAM In PAM, generation and demodulation are simple process. However, PAM produces the amplitude variations. We know that noise affects the amplitude of the waveform. Thus, like AM,PAM is also less immune to noise. PAM waveform has pulses with varying amplitude and therefore power required to transmit them is not constant. This requires that the transmitter must be able to handle the power required to transmit pulse having maximum amplitude.Analog Communication 2-16 Pulse Modulation 2.2.9 Classification of PAM based on Signal! Polarity The PAM signal can be classified according to signal polarity. + Single polarity PAM * Double polarity PAM The Fig. 2.18 shows the single polarity PAM. Here, a fixed d.c. level is added to the modulating signal x(t), such that the modulated output ie. PAM signal is always positive. Let pb tt Fig. 2.18 Single polarity PAM signal In double polarity PAM signal, signal has positive as well as negative polarity. It is shown in Fig. 2.19.Analog Communication 2-17 Pulse Modulation Fig. 2.19 Double polarity PAM signal 2.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) In pulse time modulation, the signal to be transmitted is sampled as in pulse amplitude modulation. In pulse time modulation, amplitude of pulse is held constant, whereas position of pulse or width of pulse is made proportional to the amplitude of signal at the sampling instant. Then we have two types of pulse time modulation, viz. Pulse Width Modulation [PWM] and Pulse Position Modulation [PPM]. Since in both PWM and PPM, amplitude is held constant and does not carry information, amplitude limiters can be used. The amplitude limiters, similar to those used in FM, will clip off the portion of the signal corrupted by noise and thus provide a good degree of noise immunity. In this section we see the generation and demodulation of PWM and in the next section we see the generation and demodulation of PPM. Let us first study Pulse Width Modulation. This is also known as Pulse Duration Modulation [PDM]. Three variations of pulse width modulation are possible. In one variation the leading edge of the pulse is held constant and change in pulse width with signal is measured with respect to the leading edge. In other variation, the tail edge is held constant and with respect to it, pulse width is measured. In the thirdAnalog Communication 2-18 Pulse Modulation variation, centre of the pulse is held constant and pulse width changes on either side of the centre of the pulse. This is illustrated in the Fig. 2.20. The modulating signal is at its positive peak at point (A) and at its negative peak at (B). In Fig. 2.20, the leading edge of pulse is kept constant and pulse width is measured from the lead edge. As shown, pulse width is maximum corresponding to point (A), while it is minimum at point (B). ' 7 ' t t i il t rye yt er i711) Modulating ytd T Tt [1 A signal otlt ryt i oda ‘ ' ion ‘1 '@: 1 ! 1‘ rt r moe ' tt (a) ' ' | ott rit tft it t iii t ' Wi at (o) | ii | t tia tt thet t ' 1 4 eH ) itt reillt it tbh Fig. 2.20 Waveform of PWM In Fig. 2.20 the tail edge of the pulse is kept constant and pulse width is measured from the tail end of the pulse. As before, pulse width is maximum corresponding to positive peak of the modulating signal and minimum at the negative peak. As shown in Fig. 2.20, center of the pulse is kept constant and pulse extends on either side of the center of the pulse, depending on the modulating signal. The Fig. 2.20 shows the waveforms of the PWM. Here, the leading edge of the pulse is held constant and change in pulse width with signal is measured with respect to the leading edge.Analog Communication 2-19 Pulse Modulation 2.3.1 Generation of PWM Signal The Fig. 2.21 shows the block diagram of PWM generator. It consists of sawtooth generator and comparator. The sawtooth generator generates a sawtooth signal which is used as a sampling signal. The comparator compares the amplitude of modulating signal x(t) and the amplitude of sampling signal, i.e. sawtooth signal. The output of the comparator is high as long as the instantaneous amplitude of x(t) is greater than that of the sawtooth signal. Thus, the duration for which the comparator output remains high is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal, x(t). As a result, the comparator output is a PWM signal. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.21. Modulating signal x(t) v ‘Sawtooth signal time 0 PWM output (comparator output) time Fig. 2.21 Waveforms of PWM generator As shown in the Fig. 2.21, the leading edges of the PWM waveform coincide with the falling edge of.the sawtooth signal. Thus it is generated at fixed time instants; however the occurrence of the trailing edges depends on the instantaneous amplitudes of signal x(t). Practical PWM Generator Circuits Fig. 2.22 (a) shows pulse width modulator. It is basically a monostable multivibrator with a modulating input signal applied at the control voltage input. © Internally, the control voltage is adjusted to the 2/3 Vcc. Externally applied modulating signal changes the control voltage, and hence the threshold voltage level. As a result, time period required to charge the capacitor up to threshold voltage level changes, giving pulse modulated signal at the output, as shown in the Fig. 2.22 (b).a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 2-21 Pulse Modulation 2+Vcg Trigger in = signal = Fig. 2.23 Monostable multivibrator generating pulsewidth modulation switched OFF, C determined by the supply voltage and the RC time constant of the charging network, the base of the T, becomes sufficiently positive to switch T, ON. The transistor T, is simultaneously switched OFF by regenerative action and stays OFF until the arrival of the next trigger pulse. To make T; ON, the base of the T; must be slightly more positive than the voltage across resistor Ry. This voltage depends on the emitter current Ip which is controlled by the signal voltage applied at the base of transistor T,. Therefore, the changing voltage necessary to turn OFF transistor T, is decided by the signal voltage. If signal voltage is maximum, the voltage that capacitor should charge to turn ON T; is also maximum, Therefore, at maximum signal voltage, capacitor has to charge to maximum voltage requiring maximum time to charge. This gives us maximum pulse width at maximum input signal voltage. At minimum signal voltage, capacitor has to charge for minimum voltage and we get minimum pulse width at the output. With this discussion it can be noted that pulse width is controlled by the input signal voltage, and we get pulse width modulated waveform at the output. 2.3.2 Demodulation of PWM Signal Fig. 2.24 (a) shows the block diagram of PWM detector. As shown in the Fig. 2.24(a), the received PWM signal is applied to the schmitt trigger circuit. The schmitt trigger circuit removes the noise in the PWM waveform. The regenerated PWM is then applied to the ramp generator and the synchronization pulse generator. The ramp generator produces ramps for the duration of pulses such that height of ramps are proportional to the widths of PWM pulses. The maximum ramp voltage is retained till the next pulse. On the other hand synchronous pulse generator produces reference pulses with constant amplitude and pulse width. These pulses are delayed by specific amount of delay as shown in the Fig, 2.24(b). The delayed reference pulses and the output of ramp generator is added with the help of adder. The output of adder is given to the level shifter. Here, negative offset waveform is clipped by rectifier.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Modulation Analog Communication 2-23 soa ° sa Fig. 2.24 (b) Waveforms for PWM detection circuit To have a better separation with respect to frequency, between highest frequency of baseband signal [in Fig. 2.25, fm] and lower sidebands of f, (sampling frequency), a higher sampling frequency which is more than Nyquist rate is used; and pulse width deviation is kept small.Analog Communication 2-24 Pulse Modulation 2.4 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) In this system, the amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant, while the position of each pulse, with reference to the position of a reference pulse, is changed according to the instantaneous sampled value of the modulating signal. Thus the transmitter has to send synchronizing pulses to keep the transmitter and receiver in synchronism. As the amplitude and width of the pulses are constant, the transmitter handles constant power output, a definite advantage over the PWM. But the disadvantage of the PPM system is the need for transmitter-receiver synchronization. Pulse position modulation is obtained from pulse width modulation, shown in the Fig. 2.26. Each trailing edge of the PWM pulse is a starting point of the pulse in the PPM. Therefore, position of the pulse is 1:1 proportional to the width of pulse in PWM and hence it is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the sampled modulating signal. t = Baseband signal Periodic sequential pulses r i | fake { {| Minimum. pan ie Pulse duration modulated signal | “Pulse position | ‘modulated signal { ce 4 Fig. 2.26Analog Communication 2-25 Pulse Modulation 2.4.1 Generation of PPM Signal The Fig. 2.27 shows the block diagram of PPM generator. It consists of PWM generator followed by the monostable multivibrator. Since, in PPM, output remains high for fix duration from the trailing edges of the PWM signal, the trailing edge of the PWM signal is used as a trigger input for the monostable multivibrator. Modulating signal ‘Trigger PPM Sawtooth signal input signal signal Fig. 2.27 Block diagram of PPM generator Practical PPM Generator Circuit Fig. 2.28 (a) shows the PPM generator. It consists of differentiator and a monostable multivibrator, The input to the differentiator is a PWM waveform. The differentiator generates positive and negative spikes corresponding to leading and trailing edges of the PWM waveform. Diode D, is used to bypass the positive spikes. The negative spikes are used to the trigger monostable multivibrator. The monostable multivibrator then generates the pulses of same width and amplitude with reference to trigger to give pulse position modulated waveform, as shown in the Fig. 2.28 (b). PPM Output PWM pulses t Trigger pulses t PPM pulses t 2.28 (b) Waveforms of PPM generatorAnalog Communication 2-26 Pulse Modulation 2.4.2 Demodulation of PPM Signal In the case of pulse-position modulation, it is customary to convert the received pulses that vary in position to pulses that vary in length. One way to achieve this is illustrated in Fig. 2.29. PPM pulses Recovered ‘modulating ‘signal ‘Synchronization ‘signal from transmitter Fig. 2.29 PPM demodulator As shown in the Fig. 2.29 flip-flop circuit is set or turned ‘ON’ (giving high output) when the reference pulse arrives. This reference pulse is generated by reference pulse generator of the receiver with the synchronization signal from the transmitter. The flip-flop circuit is reset or turned ‘OFF’ (giving low output) at the leading edge of the position modulated pulse. This repeats and we get PWM pulses at the output of the flip-flop. The PWM pulses are then demodulated by PWM demodulator to get original modulating signal. Position of unmodulated pulses — Triggering pulses Output of flip-flop, (PWM pulses) Fig. 2.30 Demodulation waveforms for PPM 2.4.3 Advantages of PPM 1. Like PWM, in PPM amplitude is held constant thus less noise interference, 2. Like PWM, signal and noise separation is very easy. 3. Due to constant pulse widths and amplitudes, transmission power for each pulse is same.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 2-33 Pulse Modulation 2.6.24 Advantages of FDM 1. Number of signals can be transmitted simultaneously 2. Do not require synchronization between transmitter and receiver. 3. Only a single channel gets affected due to slow narrow band fading. 2.6.25 Disadvantages of FDM 1. Requires larger bandwidth of communication channel. 2. Suffers from crosstalk problem due to imperfect bandpass filter. 3. Requires complex circuitry at transmitter and receiver. 4. More number of modulators and filters are required. 5. All FDM channels get affected due to wideband fading. 2.6.2.6 Applications of FDM Some important applications of FDM are as follows : 1. In radio broadcasting using AM (Amplitude Modulation) and FM (Frequency Modulation) 2. In TV broadcasting. 3. In Telephone systems. 4. . In first generation of celluar phones. 2.6.3 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) As the number of messages to be transmitted increases, the frequency division technique presents problems. The number of subcarriers needed increases, and stability problems can arise. Additional circuitry is required, both at transmitting and receiving ends to handle each added channel. The bandwidth requirements increase directly with the number of channels. These problems are eliminated to a great extent by using Time Division Multiplexing [TDM], together with pulse modulation. In TDM, each intelligence signal to be transmitted [voice or telemetry data] is sampled sequentially and the resulting pulse code is used to modulate the carrier. The same carrier frequency is used to transmit different pulses sequentially, one after other, thus each intelligence, to be transmitted, has been allotted a given time slot. Since only one signal modulates the carrier at any time, no added equipment and no increase in bandwidth is needed when multiplexing. The number of sequential channels that can be handled is limited by the time span required by any one channel pulse and the interval between samples.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 2-37 Pulse Modulation As its name implies, the sample and hold (S/H) circuit samples the value of the input signal in response to a sampling command and hold it at the output until arrival of the next command. It samples an analog input voltage in a very short period, generally in the range of 1 to 10 us, and holds the sampled voltage level for an extended period, which can range from a few millisecond to several seconds. Fig. 2.39 shows input and output response of the sample and hold circuit. The Fig, 2.40 illustrates the basic principle of sample and hold circuit. It is a capacitor and switch. The circuit tracks the analog signal until the sample command causes the digital switch to isolate the capacitor from the signal, and the capacitor holds this analog voltage during A/D conversion Sample command from clock Analog Analog” input, ————— output ‘Sample + Hold Fig. 2.40 Principle diagram for sample and hold circuit 2.6.3.2 Crosstalk The interference of the adjacent channels or overlapping of information between adjacent channels is called crosstalk. For faithful communication crosstalk must be avoided. In TDM crosstalk may occur due to insufficent transmission bandwidth to preserve the shape of the TDM pulses. In FDM the crosstalk may occur when frequency response of filter is not sharp enough. To eliminate or to reduce crosstalk a guardband is provided between the adjacent channels. 2.6.3.3 Comparison of FOM and TOM The FDM and TDM, being multiplexing techniques, accomplish the same goal, i.e. transmitting more than one message, on the same channel. Thus they are dual. techniques. Frequency Division Multiplexing requires modulators, filters, demodulators ; while Time Division Multiplexing require commutator at the transmitting end and a distributor, working in perfect synchronism with commutator at the receiving end. A perfect synchronism between transmitter and receiver is absolutely essential for proper operation of TDM system. Thus TDM synchronization is more demanding than that of FDM with suppressed-carrier modulation. For demodulating the SSB signal used in FDM; the carrier is locally generated in the receiver. This local carrier must be exactly identical to one used at the transmitting end with respect to frequency and phase. Copyrig nateriala You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-5 Amplitude Modulation between the amplitudes of the modulating and carrier signals is important and it is expressed in terms of their ratio, commonly known as modulation index (m). It is also called modulation factor, modulation coefficient or the degree of modulation. The m is the ratio of the modulating signal voltage to the carrier voltage : Em ne The modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 1, and it is very often expressed as a percentage and called the percentage modulation. 3.1.4 Power Relations in Sinusoidal AM We have seen that, AM wave has three components : Unmodulated carrier, lower sideband and upper sideband. Therefore the total power of AM wave is the sum of the carrier power, P, and powers in the two sidebands Pysu, and Psu. It is given as Prot = Pe + Pusu + Pisp where all three voltages represent rms. values, and resistance R is a characteristic impedance of antenna in which the power is dissipated. 1. Carrier power The carrier power is given as, The average carrier power = (&/2Y R 2. Power in sideband jlarly, average power for two sidebands can be given as En? Piss = Pus (mFa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-9 Amplitude Modulation vi) Transmission efficiency m 24m (0.2)? + (0. = 0.0196 0.0196 x 100 = 1.96 % " => Example 3.4: A 400 watt carrier is modulated to a depth of 80%. Calculate the total power in the modulated Solution : 28 watts > Example 3.5: A broadcast transmitter radiates 20 kilowatts when the modulation percentage is 75. How much of this is carrier power ? Also calculate the power of each sidebamds. Solution : We know that Prost = 2 é - 0 128 = 15.6 kW Puss = 3.1.5 Effective Voltage and Current for Sinusoidal AM We can calculate power dissipated in the load in three wi P= Exta You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-13 Amplitude Modulation ‘As shown in the Fig. 3.3 the positive and negative peaks of the carrier waveform are interconnected with an imaginary line to recreate the exact shape of the modulating signal. This imaginary line on the carrier waveform is known as the envelope, and it is the same as the modulating signal. ied oh . 2 nt) Fig. 3.3 Amplitude modulated wave. 3.1.6.3 Calculating the Modulation Index using AM Wave We know that, m = Ss with this relation we can calculate the modulation index from the amplitude modulated waveform, as shown in the Fig. 3.3. Looking at Fig. 3.3 we can write, Emax ~ Emin == vas (1) and Ee = Emax -Em + Q) Em = By substituting value of Ej in equation 2 we get, (38) 2E max — = Emax max +E min 2a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-17 Amplitude Modulation 2(Ec + Em )] + (2 (Ec - Ew] = 2B, +2Em +2E,-2Em = 4E. Li +Ly From above equation we can calculate modulation index from the trapezoidal display of AM wave by simply measuring values of Ly and L> . 3.1.6.6 Trapezoidal Displays for Overmodulated and Distorted AM Waves Looking at the trapezoidal pattern we can immediately make out the conditions such as overmodulation and distortion. Fig. 3.6 shows the trapezoidal patterns for over modulated and distorted AM waves. The trapezoidal waveform for unity modulation index is as shown in Fig.3.6(a) Jo“ Fig. 3.6 Trapezoidal patterns In case of overmodulation , the trapezoid becomes a triangle with a tail as shown in the Fig. 36 (b). Fig. 36 (c) show the distortions on the diagonal sides of the trapezoidal waveforms. 3.1.7 Modulation by Several Sine Waves Uptil now we have considered only one modulating signal but in practice there can be more than one modulating signals modulating the carrier simultaneously. Let us consider there are two modulating signals Smt = Egy SING ta You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-21 Amplitude Modulation FERS TT EF (c) Modulated AM signal Ed {et Fig. 3.8 3.2 Generation of AM So far we have studied the basic concepts of amplitude modulation. In this section, we study the techniques to generate amplitude modulated wave. These techniques can be classified as * Low Level Modulation « High Level Modulation 3.2.1 Low Level Modulation In this technique, the generation of AM wave takes place in the initial stage of amplification, i.e. at a low power level. The generated AM signal is then amplified using number of amplifier stages.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-25 Amplitude Modulation Fig. 3.11 shows the resultant waveform across Ry. n() ~__ (4) Modulating signal () Cartier signal mt) anit (c) Resuttant signal Fig. 3.11 Waveforms for switching modulator We know that, E;(t) = E, cos(2nft) + m(t) where mt) << EB The output voltage E2(t) can be represented as fE@, eto E(t) = [0, e(t)< 0 7 That is, the load voltage E2(t) varies periodically between the values E(t) and zero at a rate equal to the carrier frequency f. We can express equation mathematically as E2(t) = [Ec cosQrkt)+m(d)] g,(t) .. 6) where g,(t) is a periodic pulse train of duty cycle equal to one half and period T, = 1/f., as shown in Fig. 3.11 (b). Representing this g,(t) by its Fourier series, we have gpl) = 3+ aoe 0s 2 nfet(2n— 1] = fed cos(2nf,t) + odd harmonic components (6) Therefore substituting equation (6) in equation (5), we find the load voltage E,(t) is as follows : E(t) = lege mi) os(2nf itp aja” 5m? /4 +P. me? 100 100 Example 3.18: The output voltage of a transmitter is given by 400 (1 + 04 sin 6280 t ) sin 314% 107 t. This voltage is fed to a load of 600 © resistance. Determine a) Carrier frequency b) Modulating frequency c) Carrier power d) Total power output ©) Peak power output. Solution : eau = 400 (1 + 04 sin 6280 t) sin 3.14 « 107t. From the above equation we have, E. = 400V m = 04 Om 6280 we = 3.14% 107a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-65 Amplitude Modulation Power from collector supply source is given by Preval Pyo= 0.75 Maximum permissible collector dissipation = Power from collector supply ~ Pai 20 watts = Pos = Prosi Prot Prout 07 1 20 watts = Prot (| Pru = 60 watts. We know that, Phu = p, = Pw 60 m 09) (1) if $ = 427 Thus, maximum carrier power is 42.7 W. The sideband power is given as Psa = Pur ~Pe = 60 - 42.7 = 173W mmm Example 3.24: The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 12 Amp when only carrier is sent. It increases to 15 Amp when the carrier is modulated by 1 kHz sine wave, Find the modiilation index. Determine the antenna current when depth of modulation changes to 0.7. Solution : The modulation index is given as 1-7 = 1.060 i.e. 106.06 % m Antenna current is given as, wi fut en 7? = 1339 Amp naterial Copyrigha You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication Amplitude Modulation Solution : We know that, two sideband frequencies are f, + fm and f.~ fm. Given + fo+fm = 6.854 MHz fe-fm = 6.824 MHz 2%. = 13.678 MHz x fe = 6.839 MHz The amplitude of the sideband is given as Amplitude ident) = BBs m+ BE E,, = 22 10 “ m 04 = 250V ‘mm Example 3.29 : total power in the modulated wave in the following forms of AM. a) Double sideband full carrier (DSBFC) b) Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC) ©) Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB) A 400 W carrier is modulated on a depth of 75 percent; calculate the Solution : a) DSBFC: — Possrc b) DSBSC : —Pprse c) SSB: Pssu mi Example 3.30 : v, (142%) = 40014235) 512.5 W z 400% (0.75)? 2 112.5 W 4 400 x (0.75)? 56.25 W An AM broadcast station has modulation index which is 0.75 on the average. What would be its average power saving it if could go over to single sideband Copyrighted materiala You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-73 Amplitude Modulation Q.A15 The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 12 Amp when only carrier is sent. It increases to 15 Amp when the carrier is modulated by 1 kHz sine wave. Find the modulation index, Determine the antenna current when depths of modulation changes to 0.7. (Dec.-96) Sol. : Refer example 3.24. JQ.16 The output current of a 60 percent modulated AM generator is 1.5 ampere. To what value will this current rise if the generator is modulated additionally by another audio wave whose modulation index is 0.7 ? What will be percent power saving if the carrier and one of the side bands are suppressed ? (May-97) Sol. : Refer example 3.17. Q.47 Prove that balanced modulator produces an output consisting of sidebands only with the carrier removed. (May-97) Q.48 Explain the phase shift method of SSB generation. (May-97) QA9 Au AM transmitter has anterma current of 2 A with modulation index of 60 percent. What zoill be the total antenna current if one more identical antenna is connected in parallel with the previous one, keeping the transmitter output same ? Will it affect modulation index ? (May-97) Sol. : Refer example 3.25. Q.20. Estimate the dic. input power required by modulator and modulated amplifier when carrier power is 1000 watts and modulation is 100 percent for a) plate modulated class C amplifier with class A moditlator b) plate modulated class C amplifier with class B modulator Assume plate efficiencies of 75, 60 and 40 percent for typical class C, class B and class A amplifiers respectively. (Dec.-97) Sol. : Refer example 3.27. Q.21 A carrier wave V, = 4 sin (2 xx 500 x 10° x t) is amplitude modulated by an audio wave V,, = 0.2 sin 3 [2x 500 x 1) +01 sin 5 (2x 500 x U]. Determine the upper and lower sidebands and sketch the complete spectrum of the modulated wave. Estimate total power in sidebands. (May-98) Sol. : Carrier wave is given by V, = 4 sin (2 xx 500 x 10° x t) modulating audio wave is given by V,, = 0.2 sin 3 [( 2 x500 x t) +0.1 sin 5 (2.x 500 x t)]. From the above equations carrier frequency f, = 500 x 10° Hz = 500 kHz. Copyrighte nateriala You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-77 Amplitude Modulation Sol.: Given P, = 10 kW, Py = 12 kW We have, P= (1+ = 2(Pe_y)e w= a(R -1}= m = 0.632 Modulation index 0.632 For the second part, the total modulation index is m, = {mismi = (0.633? +05? m, = 0.806 2 «Total power radiated = P, (2 =) 2 P= 10(1+258 } P, = 13.25 kW Q.28 The antenna current of AM broadcast transmitter modulated to depth of 40% by an audio sine wave is 11 A. It increases to 12 A as a result of simultaneous modulation by another audio sine wave. What is modulation index due to this second wave ? (Dec.-99) Sol. : We have, I, = Now, 3 = 0.757 m, = ymy-m} = 0.643 Modulation index due to second wave = m, = 0.643 " (0.757)? —(0.4)? Q.29 Compare and contract : High level and low level amplitude modulation systems. (Dec.-99)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-81 Amplitude Modulation Pro) [pf W024 m= 2% -1)- Aa) = 05 For m = 0.4: (0.4)? (0.4)? Praag = P,{1+29" }=9(1O* } = 9.72 kW When both signals modulate the carrier simultaneously, the effective modulation index is given as m, = yim)? + (m2)? = (0.5)? +04)? = 0.64 Now, the total transmitted power is given as Prout = o(ee) 2 = 10.8432 kW * Q45 Differentiate between low-level modulation and high -level modulation with neat block diagram. (Dec.-2001) Q.46 The D.C. power to a modulated class C amplifier is 500 watts. Determine the power the modulator must supply for 100% modulation applied at the output electrode. (May-2002) Sol. : Given P., = 500 W and m = 1 The efficiency of class C amplifier is 75%, Therefore, Pos x 0.75 500 W = 0.75 = 375W Prorat We know that,a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.1g Communication 3-85 Amplitude Modulation Q.73 Compare and contract: Amplitude modulation and SSB modulation (Dec-99) Q.74 Explain the principle of operation for linear diode detector. How is RC time constant selected ? (Dec-99) Q.75. Sketch the waveform for (ii) Suppressed carrier wave. (iii) SSB suppressed carrier wave. (Dec.-2000) Q.76 With the block schematic, explain the operation of pilot carrier single side band receiver. Describe the function of each block in detail. (WDee.-2000) Q.77 What are the advantages of suppressed carrier ? (May-200) Q.78 What is ISB transmission ? Draw a neat diagram to explain it. (Dec.-2001) Q.79 Prove that the Balanced Modulator produces an output consisting of DSBSC. Draw a circuit diagram to support the proof. (Dec.-2001) Q.80 Write short note on VSB transmission. (Dec.-2001) Q.81 Calculate the percentage saving in power if only one side band transmission is used over the DSBFC system at 70% modulation. (Dec-2000) Sol. : The transmission power required for DSBFC with 70% modulation is Prowl = ». (16S = 1245 P. The transmission power required for transmission of only one sideband with 70% Imodulation is 2 Pro = Poy = 0.1225 P, 4 : 1.245 P.- 0. 1225P, % Power saving = => Fee Tate = 0.9016 = 90.16 % Q.82 Which are the different methods of generating SSB ? Explain any one method with a neat block diagram. (Dee,-2001) Q.83 Draw the waveforms for suppressed carrier wave and SSB suppressed carrier wave. (May-2002) Q.84 Describe FET or diode balanced modulator and derive the necessary expression. (May-2002)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3-89 Amplitude Modulation fisa = 711.7 - 10 = 701.7 kHz Range covered by the sidebands is from 701.7 KHz to 721.7 kHz. Q.107 Prove that Balanced Modulator produces an output consisting of sidebands only with the carrier suppressed. {May-2008) Q.108 The output current of 60% modulated AM generator is 1.5 A. To what value this current will rise if the generator is modulated additionally by another audio wave whose modulation index is 0.7 ? What will be the percentage power saving, if the carrier and one of the sidebands are now suppressed ? (May-2004) Sol. : Refer example 3.17. Q.409 A 300 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by two audiowaves with modulation percentages of 55 and 65, respectively. What is the total power radiated ? (May-20081 Sol. : Refer example 3.15. Q.110 Explain the phase shift method of SSB generation for receiving the upper sideband. How can you generate SSB signal with lower sideband ? [May-2003] Q.111 Write in detail : Vestigial sideband transmission. [May-2008] Q.112 The modulation index of an AM wave is changed from 0 to 1. What is the change in transmitted power ? [Dec.-2004] Sol. : Transmitted power will be 1.5 times. Q.113 A carrier is simultaneously modulated by tivo sine waves with modulation indices of 0.3 and 0.4. What is total modulation index ? [(Dec.-2004} Sol.: 0.5. Q.114 What is the disadvantage of SSB over DSBFC AM ? {Dec,-2004] Q.145 An AM wave is described by the equation Can = 10 (1 # 0.4 cos 2000 t + 0.6 cos 4000 t) cos 10° t. Specify different frequencies present in the AM signal. Draw the spectral diagram. [Dec.-2004} Q.146 With the help of a neat circuit diagram explain the working of a balanced modulator circuit. {Dec.-2004}a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-11 Angle Modulation Example 4.3: Determine the percent modulation of an FM wave with a frequency deviation of 15 kHz for (a) FM broadcast, (to) for TV broadcast. 1SkHz 1SkHz Solution : a) M = = 777x100 = 20% b) M= 3577x100 = 60% mm Example 4.4: Determine the frequency deviation and carrier swing required to provide 80% modulation in the FM broadcast band. Repeat this for an FM signal serving as the audio portion of a TV broadcast. Solution ; a) FM broadcast band : Actual Frequency deviation M Max Frequency deviation *100 % Af actualfrequency 8 = “yi *!00 Actual frequency deviation = z x75 = 60 kHz Carrier swing = 2 frequency deviation = 120 kHz b) Sound in TV broadcast : Actual frequency de Ms Sn een Sevan __ 1 Maximum permissible frequency deviation Actual frequency deviation so = Ace rere Sevene® x 100 Frequency deviation = 5° 25 equency * T00** 20 kHz Carrier swing = 2x frequency deviation = 40 kHz 4.6 Frequency Spectrum of FM Wave ‘ For an AM wave, it is easy to tell what frequencies are present in the modulated wave. Unfortunately, the situation is quite complicated, mathematically for FM. Since the equation (6) is the sine of a sine, the only solution involves the use of Bessel functions.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-15 Angle Modulation It is a matter of experience that the bandwidth requirements are determined by the maximum frequency deviation and maximum modulation frequency present in the complex modulating wave. We have, BW = 2(mr+l)fn BW = 26+ fama) In commercial FM broad casting, Maximum frequency deviation permissible = 75 kHz and Maximum modulating frequency = 15 kHz, then Max BWry = 2 [75 + 15] = 180 kHz. The above equation for calculating maximum bandwidth required to transmit the EM wave is known as Carson’s rule The bandwith for PM = 2 (M, + 1) fy = 2 (ky Em + 1) fm vom, =k, En imp Example 4.5: A carrier wave of amplitude 5 V and frequency 90 MHz is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal voltage of amplitude 5 V and frequency 15 kHz. The frequency deviation constant is 1 kHz / V. Sketch the spectrum: of the modulated FM wave, Solution : Amplitude of modulating voltage is 5 V and frequency deviation constant is 1 kHz/V. Hence, Frequency deviation = [1 kHz/V] [5 V] = 5S kHz frequency deviation Modulation index m; = —edUEnEY Ceviation modulating frequency Sav iSkHz = 0.333 For my = 0.333, from the table of Bessel functions, (Refer Table 4.2 ) Use approximate, values for Jy , J) and J2 For carrier : Jo = 0.96 First side frequency : J; = 0.18a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-19 Angle Modulation Neglecting gate current, let the current through C and R be hy. At the carrier frequency, the reactance of C is much larger than R. This is achieved by properly selecting the value of C. Then, he Vz = I ly = Then impedance of FET is, Z im jolgmCR] 1 [Cg ) ‘Thus impedance is seen to be capacitive reactance with , Coq = gm CR By modulating voltage the operating point of FET ie. gm can be varied and hence equivalent capacitance changes. Practical consideration : Consider the basic circuit of FET reactance modulator as shown in the Fig. 4.9. For the FET reactance modulator, the Fig. 4.9 gate-to-drain impedance is, in practice, made five to ten times the — gate-to-source impedance, R. Let the reactance of capacitance, at carrier frequency, be Xc. Then let, 1 Xe = m= (rea You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-23 Angle Modulation = 0.2273 pF Let the frequency deviation produced be + Then fn = fe +8 ij fin = fe - 5 _ 1 © Inf L[C+ Coq] 1 i mes Inf T+ Cin} sand fin = : nf 25+ Coax] fina J _ 25+ Conan © 25+ C min = + Cmax ot 5G! = Emax - Cin © 25+ Chin (fmax)? ~(fmin)? _ 0.4547 - 0.2273 (fexin)? © 25 +02273 = 9x10% (Fmmax +P min XE max ee 9x10 (fe - 6)? (fe +3 + fe BM fe +5 ~ fe +) Se = 9x10 (fe 8)? = 9x103 9x 10% neglecting 8 in denominator 9x 103 9x109 xf, 4a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-27 Angle Modulation Solution : a) The various component values are, hie = 450.2 ; p= 80; Rp =20kQ ; C2= 500 pF Cog = DteR2C2 _ (80)(20 x 103 (500 x 10-"?) 4 hie + Rz [450+20 x 103) = 39.1198 nF b) hy. = 450.2 ; B= 60; Rz =20kQ ; Cp = 500 pF hee: Cus RES _ (60)(20% 10° (500% 10-">) [450 +20 105} = 29.3398 nF ©) hie = 450.0 ; B= 100 ; Rz = 20 ; Cp = 500 pF Coq = ReRsCe fe + Re (10020 103 (500 10-1?) [450 +20= 109) Coq = 48.899 nF 4.10.4 Frequency Modulation with Varactor Diode The varactor diode is basically a semiconductor junction diode that is operated in a reverse bias mode. A reverse biased p-n junction diode appears to be a small capacitor. As reverse bias increases, this junction capacitance decreases. All junction diodes exhibit this characteristic. However, varactor diodes have been designed to optimize this particular characteristic. Such diodes are made so that the capacitance variations are as wide and linear as possible. Most varactor diodes have nominal capacitance in the range of 1 to 200 pF, and the range of capacitance variation can be as high 12 to 1. ‘The Fig. 4.18 shows the basic principle of a varactor frequency modulator. Ly and C; form the tank circuit of the carrier oscillator. The capacitance of the varactor diode depends on fixed bias set by Ry and Rz and the AF modulating signal. Either R, or R> is made variable so that the center carrier frequency can bea You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-31 Angle Modulation Assume that the oscillator frequency, fosc is less than the carrier frequency, f. The output of the mixer will be sum and difference components of two inputs, viz. [f + Af] + foe ; Le., Sum component 2 [fe + fose]+ AF Difference component : [fe ~fosc]#4 This shows that mixing process either increases or decreases the carrier frequency f ; however, keeping the frequency deviation constant. Thus it is seen that heterodyning process has no effect on frequency deviation of FM. When an FM wave at the carrier frequency Output f. and frequency deviation of + Af is applied at FMwave the input of a frequency multiplier [say, 24 doubler] ; then both the carrier frequency and Fig. 423 frequency shift are multiplied by the an multiplying factor of the frequency multiplier. In case of frequency doubler, the output FM wave will be at centre frequency 2 f with frequency deviation of 2[+ A f} This is illustrated in the following example. FM. wave sar wm Example 4.8 : The Fig. 4.24 is the block diagram of the frequency multiplication and heterodyne section of an FM transmitter. Determine the carrier frequency and frequency deviation at points 1, 2, and 3. Assume that at point 3, additive frequency is selected by mixer. {,= 13.5 MHz A= 8.5 kHz Fig. 4.24 Frequency multiplication and heterodyne Solution : At point (1): f = 2 (13.5) = 27 MHz Af = 2 (85) = 17 kHz At point (2) 3 (27) = 81 MHz and Af = 3(17)=51 kHz Thus at point (2) fax = fe + Af = 81 MHz + 51 kHz 81.051 MHza You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4 Moduiation and for 15 kHz : Frequency deviation = [15 kHz] [0.524] = 7.86 kHz Note that both the signals gave the same phase swing, the low frequency signal produces a frequency variation of only 15.7 Hz ; whereas the highest audio frequency produces a frequency variation of 7.86 kHz. 4.12.1 Basic Circuit of Audio Equalizer Suppose we transmitted the carrier with these frequency deviations. At the receiver, which would give the greatest output ? The 7.86 kHz, ofcourse, since all FM receiver develop a greater output for a greater frequency deviation. But at the transmitter this is not the situation, both the low and high frequency signals are assumed to have equal amplitudes. Thus it is essential that no. matter what the modulating frequency is, signals of equal amplitude should produce equal frequency shifts. To achieve this, a simple R-C circuit as shown in the Fig. 4.27, is used in the AF amplifier stages. The circuit is called an audio equalizer or phase correcting network. The resistor R is made very large in comparison to the reactance of C at all audio frequencies. This means that for any input voltage applied across terminals A and B; the current in the circuit will be determined by R. Thus, no matter what the audio frequency is the same voltage will produce the same current through R and C. Fig. 4.27 The output voltage across terminals C and D will depend upon reactance of C, ie. input frequency. A higher frequency will develop less voltage than a lower frequency. Therefore we obtain the desired inverse effect to counter balance the rising frequency effect of phase modulation. Since in phase modulation, the low frequencies produce the smallest equivalent FM, the audio-correction RC network, discussed above, reduces the effect of all frequencies higher than the lowest audio frequencies, say 50 Hz (typically) so that in the end, all frequencies of the same strength will produce the same frequency modulation. Thus, utilizing the maximum phase shift of + 30° {0.524 radian]; at 50 Hz, the carrier has frequency deviation of, frequency deviation = [50 Hz} [0.524] = 262 Hza You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Angle Modulation 4-39 Analog Communication poyyow Buonsuny Bulsn uoneinpow Asuanbexy jo wesBeIp y0/q Jeo!dAL Ze"p “Bld ZHI P12 x i i : : E i ZHWB'OL ZH 6%L> ZHYOZLE ZHIGP9ES ZHASEZLF ZHXGORS ZHIGOR? ZHASOTT ZHVN 06 ZHNO6 — 7HNSP —ZHNS) ZH ZHNS ZH Ze NI ZHOSP? = ZHOSPF = -ZHOSL* «= ZHOSF «2HSZF POTTING Tyidwe | a¥ ZHNGE = ZHIVGE = ZHINZL -ZHY OOF ZHOOE ZH SELF ZH @'OL frequencies, assuming both signals to b- equal in amplitude. This circuit is required ONLY in the phase-modulation systemsa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication of significant pairs of sidebands in an FM signal vary with the modulation index and can be calculated with Bessel functions. some modulation indices. The modulation index determines the number ‘The amplitudes of the carrier ‘and side bands ‘The carrier or sideband amplitudes are zero at Angle Modulation in an AM signal, only two sidebands are produced, for any value of modulation ir ‘The amplitudes of the sidebands Is dependent ‘on the modulation index, and is always less than the amplitude of carrier. ‘The sideband amplitude is never zero for any value of modulation index greater than zero. to the modulation index. ‘The bandwidth of an FM signal is proportional The bandwidth of an AM signal is twice the highest modulating frequency. permissible frequency deviation multiplied by 100. For FM, the % of modulation is the ratio of the actual frequency deviation and the maximum For AM, % modulation is the ratio of amplitude ‘of modulating voltage to the amplitude of the carrier multiplied by 100. The main advantage of FM over AM is its noise immunity, as limiter stage in FM receiver clips off noise signals. ‘The AM system is more susceptible to noise and more affected by noise than FM. 10} The capture effect in FM aliows the strongest signal on a frequency to dominate without interference from the other signal When two AM signals occupy the same frequency, both signals will generally be heard regardless of their relative signal strength. 11] in FM, greater transmitter efficiency can be of FM signal is constant. realized using class-C amplifiers, as amplitude ‘The efficiency of AM is less than that of FM due to use of class-8 amplifier. 12 | The bandwidth of FM signal is much under typical FM channel is 200 kHz, than the bandwidth of AM. The bandwidth of a The bandwidth required to transmit AM signal is much less than that of FM typically 10- kHz iin AM broadcasting. 13| The circuits to produce and demodulate FM AM circuits. ate usually more complex and expensive than The demodulation of AM signal is very easy practically by use of a diode ; which is very simple in operation and cheap cost wise. Solved Examples mm> Example 4.10 : In a frequency modulating system, the frequency deviation constant is R = 2 kHz/V. A sinusoidal modulating signal of amplitude 20 V and frequency 4 kHz is applied. Cateulate a) The frequency deviation produced, b) Modulation index Solution a) Frequency deviation = [2 kHz/V] [20 V) 40 kHz.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-47 Angle Modulation _ Frequency deviation d Modul ge eteduency Sevintion ) julation index Modulating frequency my = 1714. ‘nm Example 4.16 : An RC capacitive reactance modulator is used to vary the frequency of @ 10 MHz oscillator by + 100 kHz. An FET whose transconductance varies linearly, with gate voltage, from 0 to 0.628 ms is used conjugation with a resistance whose value is 0.1 of the capacitive reactance used. Calculate the inductance and capacitance of the oscillator tank circuit. Solution : _ 1 Xo = WR, = 10R foe = 10 MHz i RC = ite - = 1 foge = 10 MHz Coq = Bm CR=8m * iG aeF ose &m Fig. 4.35 20xx 10x 10° &m varies from 0 to 0.628 ms 0.628 x 103 Cegmin = 07 Ceamax = S09, qx 400 = 1 PF fox 2 eee; fin 2 VUCH Corin] ¥UC+ Cmax} for J _ C+Cmae _ C+ Cmax fin} C#Cmin C+O fou] yy Cine f=] = 1+ fax J Cras (= “4 Cc (fina)? = (fmnin)? z Gain)? c Cinax = 1 PF.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-51 Angle Modulation b) What are the highest and lowest frequencies attained by the frequency modulated signal ? ©) Calculate the modulation index for the wave. (Ans. (a) 70 kHz, (b) 90.035 MHz, 89.965, (c) 7.77) 22) When a 50 MHz carrier ts frequency modulated by a sinusoidal AF modulating signal, the highest frequency reached is 50,005 MPz. Calculate a) The frequency deviation produced, b) Carrier swing of the wave, ©) Lowest frequency reached. (Ans, (a) 5 MHz, (b) 10 kHz, (c) 49.995 MHz.) 23) The carrier stwing of a frequency modulated signal is 75 kHz and the modulating signal is a 6 kHz sine twave. Determine the modulation index of the FM signal. (Ans. 6.25) 24) Calculate the carrier swing, carrier frequency, frequency deviation, and modulation index for an FM signal which reaches a maximum frequency of 99.050 MHz and a mimmum frequency of 99.926 MHz. The frequency of the modulating signal is 6 kHz. (Ans. (a) 24 kHz, (b) 12 kHz, (c) 99.038 MHz, (d) 2) 25) An RC capacitive reactance modulator is used to vary the frequency of a 12 MHz oscillator by = 120 kHz, An FET whose transconductance varies linearly, with gate voltage, from 0 to 0.625 ms is used conjugation with a resistance whose value is 0.1 of the capacitive reactance used. Calculate the inductance and capacitance of the oscillator tank circuit (Ans, 3.44) 26) In an RC capacitive reactance modulator, a capacitance variation of + 1 pF produces the desired frequency deviation. If C = 5 pF and R= 3000, over what range must the transconductance of FET be varied by the modulating voltage ? (Ans. + 0.66 ms) 27) In an RC capacitive reactance FET modulator, the mutual conductance gj can le varied over the range of 600 to 2200 ys. With the carrier frequency fat 450 kHz, and C chosen as 20 pF for oscillator tank circuit and capacitance of reactance modulator to be 2 pF, what value should R have if it is desired to deviate the frequency aver a range of + 6.5 kHz ? (Ans. 380.230) University Questions Q.1 Derive an expression for frequency modulated wave. (Dec.-92, Dec.-99) Q2 A carrier is being frequency modulated by an A.F. signal of 2.4 V, 400 Hz and my being 60. Calculate maximum deviation. What will be the my when A.F. signal & changed to 250 Hz, 3.2V. (Dec.-92) Sol. : 24 kHza You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 2 = 64 = 7 6427 = 1728 <.Our requirement is satisfied. Qi4 tank circuit. Sol. : f = 10 MHz Bm = 0.628 mS 8 = +100 kHz C, = Bm 2 0628x107 _ * © Bain ~ ZAK 10% 10° % 10 _ 0.628% 10-8 ~ 2xax108 — 0.628 ae C= Gap X10 F = 0.999 pF — fj _ devi _ CHE ff — i Cc 2nJL(C+Cy) fe _ Cy me fe _ £+85 _ 10%10° +100 103 ‘Also, f, ~ F=8 ~ 10% 10° -100x 10° f, _ 10100 _ Ty * “so = 10? = 14% (# - coy Q413 With a neat circuit diagram explain the principle of operation of “reactance modulator”. Derive an expression for the equivalent reactance offered by this circuit. Discuss how it can be used for generation of FM wave. An RC capacitive reactance modulator is used to vary the frequency of a 10 MHz oscillator by + 100 kHz. An FET whose 'g,,’ varies linearly with gate voltage from zero to 0,628 ms is used in conjunction with a resistance, whose value is 1/10 of the capacitive reactance used. Calculate the inductance and capacitance of the oscillator (May-99, Dec.-95) (Dec.-95) 0.99a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication Angle Modulation (finax + frnin ) (frmax 2 = 9x10 (fe 8)? (fe +8 +f -O)(fe+5-fe +8) _ 5 ge 4f.5 ———— = 9x103 [fe -6P =: = 9x109 48 | oa08 z= 9x10 3 - 9x10 = 910 %70%10 55 7 8 = 1575 kHz Q.22 Write a short note on - AFC. (May-93, May-97, Dec.-2000) Q.23 Explain clearly the difference between phase modulation and frequency modulation. (Dec.-97) Q.24 A FM wave is represented by the voltage equation : e = 12 sin [6 x 10° § + 5 sin (1250 t) ] Caleulate : i) carrier and modulating frequency. i) modulation index iii) Power dissipated by this wave in a 10 ohm resistor. (Dee.-97) Sol. : The equation for FM is V = Asin (gt +m, sin apt) e = 12sin (6 = 10% + 5 sin 1250 t) Comparing the two equations A= 12V @ = 6x1 =2nk f. = 95.5 MHza You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-63 Angle Modulation my = 96 Modulation index at _ 44 mp = 28.8 my = 288 Modulation index at Vm = 10V 20 ms = G5 = 100 ma = 100 Q.33 Write a short note on - Phase modulation (Dee.-99) Q.34 Write a short note on - Armstrong frequency modulated transmitter. (Dec.-99) Q.35 Compare and contract (Dec.-99) i) Frequency modulation and phase modulation ii) Wideband and narrowband FM Q.36 The equation of FM wave is given by V = 15 sin (1.6 x 10°t + 40 sin (2508) tI, (i) What are the values of carrier and modulating frequencies ? (ii) Modulation Index. (iii) Maximum frequency deviation. (iv) Power delivered to a 75 Q resistor by this wave. (May-2000) Sol. : V = 15sin [1.6% 108 t+ 40 sin(2508) t] Comparing with V = Asin[a, t+40sin@m, t] 3 a) Carrier frequency = — = 25464 MHz Modulating frequency = 2°28 ~ 399.16 Hz Qn b) Modulation index = my; = 40a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-67 Angle Modulation Sol.: i) t, = 100 MHz, f, = 10 kHz @ = ats 2 sin agt 2 mf and ty = 2 7 fy om = 20x 100 x 10°=62 x 10° £ “ and @, = 2x 10x 10 = 6.28 x 10° 3 = (62x 10) t+ oe sin 62 x 10°t ii) We know that = att Dsinagt To keep => constant = 5 8 = 5x 200 = 1000 Hz QA4 A portable transmitter works on FM using Armstrong method. It has carrier frequency of 90 MHz with deviation of + 75 kHz. The carrier is deviated from a crystal oscillator of 200 kHz with + 25 kHz deviation. Draw a neat block diagram for such a transmitter and explain the function of each block. Also indicate the frequencies at different stages. (May-2001) Q.45 A 10 V peak, 100 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by 5 V, 10 kHz signal to achieve 50 kHz deviation. Determine the ratio of power before and after modulation. (May-2001) Sol.: Since the power does not depend on frequency, the power before and after modulation remains same. Hence the ratio of power before and after modulation is unity. Q.46 In FM, first carrier null (Bessel zero) which occur at modulation index of 2.405 is used for deviation measurement. A FM transmitter with input modulating signal of 5 V peak and 10 kHz frequency produces first carrier null. Estimate the bandwidth of FM transmission when modulating signal with 10 volts peaks and 15 kHz frequency is applied. (May-2001) Sol. : my = 2.405 (first carrier null), fy, = 10 kHz For this the input signal is 5 V peaka You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-71 Angle Modulation Q.54 Explain the Armstrong method of generating FM swith a neat block diagram and phasor diagrams. (Dee.-2001) Q.55 Ifa FM wave is represented by the equation : V = 10 sint (8108 +4 sin 10008) Calculate : (i) Carrier frequency. (ii) Modulating frequency. (iti) Modulation index: (iv) Maximum deviation. (o) Bandwidth. (ai) Power dissipated in a 10 Q load. (Dec.-2001) Sol. : Comparing the given equation with standard form, V = Asinfoct +m, sinomt)] we get, A = 10V, @. =8x108, my =4, @m =1000 . . Me i) fe = cartier frequency = $< = Sxl" = 127324 MHz in ii) fm = modulating frequency = = 1000 _ 459.155 Hz 2n iit) m,; = modulation index = 4 iv) Af = maximum deviation = my x fy = 4159.15 = 636.62 Hz vy) B.W. = bandwidth = 2[A f+fm] = 2 [636.62 + 159.155] = 1.5915 kHz. (V rens)® vi) p = Vo A 10 N View = f= azo low a 2 p - 7207? _ swa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 4-75 Angle Modulation Q.72 The equation of FM wave is given by v = 15 sin (3 x 10° + 50 sin (2500) t) i) What are the values of carrier and modulating frequencies ? ii) Modulation index. iii) Maximum frequency deviation. iv) Power delivered to 75 Q. resistor by this wave. (Dec.-2003) Ans. : i) 2nf.=3x 10" f, = 497.74 MHz 2th = 2500. fi, = 397.88 Hz 50 iii) Maximum frequency deviation = 19.89 kHz, ii) Modulation index = iv) Power dissipated by the wave in resistance of 75 Q is pa Nau 082) R 75 =15W Q.73 Compare : AM and FM (Deec.-2003) Q.74 Compare : Wideband and narrowband FM. (Dee.-2003) Q.75 What are the drawbacks of direct method of FM generation ? Explain the armstrong frequency modulation generation system in detail. (May-2004) Q.76 If an FM wave is represented by the equation : V = 10 sin (8x 108 +sin 10008), caltulate : i) Carrier frequency, ii) Modulating frequency. iii), Modulation index. iv) Maximum deviation. v) Bandwidth, vi) Power dissipated in a 10 0 load. (May-2008)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 3. Variable Bandwidth TRF receivers suffer from a variation in bandwidth over the tuning range Consider a medium wave receiver required to tune over 535 kHz to 1640 kHz and it provides the necessary bandwidth of 10 kHz at 535 kHz. Let us calculate Q of this circuit. f __ S3SkHz Bandwidth ~ TOkHz Now consider the frequency at the other end of the broadcast band, ie, 1640 kHz. At 1640 kHz, Q of the coil should be 164 (1640 kHz / 10 kHz). However, in practice due to various losses depending on frequency, we will not set so large increase in Q. Let us assume that at 1640 kHz frequency Q is increased to value 100 instead of 164 With this Q of the tuned circuit bandwidth can be calculated as follows. f _ (640k Bandwidth = & = Tog Qs We know, necessary bandwidth is 10 kHz. This increase in bandwidth of tuned circuit, pick up the adjacent stations along with station it is tuned for, providing insufficient adjacent frequency rejection. In other words we can say that in TRF receivers the bandwidth of the tuned circuit varies over the frequency range, resulting in poor selectivity of the receiver. Because of the problems of tracking, instability and bandwidth variation, the TRF receivers have almost been replaced by superheterodyne receivers. 5.3.3 Superheterodyne Receivers To solve basic problems of TRF receivers, in these receivers, first all the incoming RF frequencies are converted to a fix lower frequency called intermediate frequency (IF). Then this fix intermediate frequency is amplified and detected to reproduce the original information. Since the characteristics of the IF amplifier are independent of the frequency to which the receiver is tuned, the selectivity and sensitivity of superheterodyne receivers are fairly uniform throughout its tuning range. Mixer circuit is used to produce the frequency translation of the incoming signal down to the IF. The incoming signals are mixed with the local oscillator frequency signal in such a way that a constant frequency difference is maintained between the local oscillator and the incoming signals. This is achieved by using ganged tuning capacitors. Fig. 5.2 shows the block diagram of superheterodyne receiver. As shown in the Fig, 5.2 antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to the RF amplifier. The RF amplifier provides some initial gain and selectivity. The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the mixer. The mixer also receives an input from local oscillator.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-7 AM and FM Receivers +. Bandwidth of the tuned circuit _ fe _ Sx 108 Q 1885 = 265252 Hz ium Example 5.2 : Calculate, tie value of resistance of the coil that must be reduced to get 50 kHz bandwidth using the same tuned circuit specified in example 5.1. Solution: To get 50 kHz bandwidth, Q of the tuned circuit must be f, _ 5x 10° = 50° 0 = 100 Therefore resistance of the coil can be given as _ Xu _ 2afl nr nn a 2x mx$x106 x 15x10 100 = 4719 5.4.2 Sensitivity The sensitivity of a communication receiver refers to the receivers ability to pick up weak signals, and amplify it. It is often defined in terms of the voltage that must be applied to the receiver input terminals to give a standard output power, measured at the output terminals. The more gain that a receiver has, the smaller the input signal necessary to produce desired output power. Therefore, sensitivity is a primary function of the overall receiver gain. It is often expressed in microvolts or in decibels. ‘The sensitivity of receiver mostly depends on the gain of the IF amplifiers. Good communication receiver has sensitivity of 0.2 to 1 nV. Experimental setup for measurement of sensitivity In practice sensitivity test is carried out before selectivity test. It uses same setup as for selectivity test, as shown in Fig. 5.5. While measuring sensitivity practically, the radio source and load is standardized so that the variation in measurement conditions do not affect the results. Here, a standard AM signal with 30 % modulation and 400 Hz modulating frequency from AM signal generator is applied to the receiver through a standard coupling network (dummy antenna). The input voltage required to obtain a standard output power of 50 mW is measured.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-11 AM and FM Receivers um Example 5.4: A radio receiver is tuned to 1500 kHz frequency to hear a station clearly. The same station can also be heard with tittle disturbance at another dial setting. State with reason at what frequency this station can be heard if IF frequency is 465 k Solution : 1500 kHz and IF = 165 kHz. The same station is heard with little disturbance at another dial setting is due to double spotting. The frequency at another dial setting is given as = f,-2 IF p zs 7 ” & 570 kHz Double spotting is harmful because a weak station may be masked by the reception of a nearby strong station at the spurious point on the dial. It can be reduced by improving image frequency rejection using RF amplifier stage. 5.5 Superheterodyne Receiver In the above section we have seen the principle of superheterodyne receiver. In various forms of modulation same principle is used. In this section we are going to see AM superheterodyne receiver. The block diagram of AM superheterodyne receiver 5.2, Now we will see the detail circuits of each block in the is same as shown in Fi receiver. 5.5.1 RF Amplifier As mentioned earlier, RF amplifier provides initial gain and sele mmplifer is usually a simple class A circuit. A typical bipolar circuit is shown in Fig. 5.7 (a) , and a typical FET circuit is shown in Fig, 5.7 (b). Vee Noo j= ond a) Fig. 5.7 (b)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-15 AM and FM Receivers oscillator to the proper range. There are three common methods used for tracking These are * Padder tracking © Trimmer tracking © Three point tracking. Padder tracking Fig. 5.11 (a) shows connection of tuned circuit for padder tracking. In padder tracking the oscillator tunes below the frequency it should be in midband, so the IF created is higher than it should be, and positive error is created as shown in the Fig. 5.11 (b) Fig. 5.11 (a) Padder tracking Fig. 5.14(b) Tracking error in padder tracking Trimmer tracking Fig. 5.12 (a) shows connection of tuned circuit for trimmer tracking. In trimmer tracking, the oscillator tunes cy higher the frequency it should be in midband, so the IF created is less than it should be, and a negative error is created as shown in the Fig. 5.12 (b). Bu. Ae, Fig. 5.12 (a) Trimmer tracking fo ne Fig. 5.12 (b) Tracking error in trimmer trackinga You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Al 1g Communication 5-27 AM and FM Receivers capacitor effectively shorts or filters out the carrier, thereby leaving the original modulating signal. |__| () Current pulses through diode D | | | mi Hes 1 i | ro (c) Demodulating signal __ r 1 - E | Fig. 5.24 Demodulator waveformsa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-31 AM and FM Receivers For the practical diode detector shown in the Fig. 5.27, diode has dc. load equal to R, +R», and the audio load impedance Z., equal to Ry in series with the parallel combination of R», Ry and Rg, ignoring the capacitor reactance. Therefore, for practical envelope detector circuit maximum allowable modulation index can be given as Ry series with (Ro {| Rs || Re) Minas = Rit+R> im) Example 5.8: Calculate the maximum allowable modulation index which may be applied to the practical envelope detector circuit with following component values : Ry=100 12, Ro = 200 KO, Ry = 510 KQ and Ry = 1 MO. Solution : D.C. load for diode = Ri +R2 = 100 kQ + 200K 300 k Zm = Ry +(Ro || Rs || Ra) = 100 + (200 || 510 {| 1000) = 225.6 ka Zm _ 2356 Re 300 = 0.752 Minx = im) Example 5.9: Show that in an envelope detector circuit the demodulator output is to follow the envelope of m(t), it is required that at any time 1 MO SIN Opt RC T+ mcoseyyt Solution : Let us assume that the capacitor discharges from the peak value E at some arbitrary instant t = 0. Then the voltage across the capacitor (v,) is given by ve = Be vec o Q) We know that, the time constant RC is much larger than the interval between the two successive cycles of the carrier. Because of this the capacitor voltage v, discharges exponentially for a short time compared to its time constant. Hence, the exponential can be approximated by a straight line obtained from the first two terms in Taylor's series of Ee~/RC = E(1-ze) + @)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-35 AM and FM Receivers It is a mixer circuit tuned to get audio frequency at the output. As shown in the Fig. 5.30 the input SSB signal is fed to the base of transistor through a fixed frequency IF transformer. The signal from the crystal oscillator is applied to the unbypassed emitter. The frequency of the crystal oscillator is equal to the carrier frequency or the frequency derived from the pilot carrier. The mixing of carrier and SSB generates many frequencies with difference frequency. The low pass filter consisting of capacitors CF and resistor RF pass only wanted audio frequencies, blocking all other frequencies 5.6.3.2 Diode Balanced Modulator used for Demodulation Fig. 5.31 shows the diode balanced modulator used for demodulation. SSB signal is fed to the diode balanced modulator through the input transformer. The crystal oscillator frequency is applied through the middle transformer and output is taken through the output transformer, The diode balanced modulator operates as a nonlinear resistance and generates sum and difference frequencies. These frequencies appear at the primary of the output transformer. This output transformer is tuned to pass only low frequencies and reject all others, giving demodulated output. In SSB reception both incoming signal and the local carrier must remain closely synchronized in frequency to avoid severe distortion. 2 3 zl i z 3 Crystal oscillator in Fig. 5.31 Diode balanced modulator used for demodulation 5.6.4 SSB Receiver Fig. 5.32 shows the block diagram of a single sideband HF receiver. Here, double conversion technique is used, in which two intermediate frequencies are used to get good image frequency rejection and adjacent channel selectivity. The RF amplifier is tuned for desired frequency, and it provides initial gain and selectivity. The desired signal received by RF amplifier is then converted into fix frequency called intermediate frequency with the help of mixer and local oscillator. The output of the mixer is amplified by the first IF amplifier. The output of the first IF amplifier is converted into second intermediate frequency, which is lower than the first intermediate frequency with the help of another combination of mixer and local oscillator. The second intermediate frequency signal is then amplified by second IFa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-39 AM and FM Receivers a disagreeable amount of loud noise. This is because AGC disappears in the absence of carrier ; the receiver acquires its maximum sensitivity and amplifies the noise present at its input. The squelch circuit detects the presence of carrier and enables receiver's output only when carrier is present. Thus avoids loud noise. The squelch circuit is also called muting or quieting circuit. Fig. 5.35 shows the squelch circuit. Fig. 5.35 Typical squelch circuit As shown in the Fig, 5.35, AGC is applied to the D.C. amplifier. When AGC voltage is low or zero, the de amplifier Tz, draws current so that the voltage drop across its load resistance R; cuts off the audio amplifier Ty ; thus no signal or noise is passed, On the other hand when AGC voltage is sufficiently negative, it cuts off T: Now T; does not draw any current and hence sufficient bias is provided to Ty (First IF amplifier) to operate it is normal fashion. 5.7 FM Receiver The FM. receiver is basically a superheterodyne receiver, similar to AM receiver. However it differs fiom A.M, receiver with respect to following points = + AM. receiver operates in MW and SW bands, while FM. receiver operates at much higher frequencies viz. 88 MHz to 108 MHz.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-43 ‘AM and FM Receivers increases and hence it lowers the gain of the amplifier for high amplitude of the input signal and output voltage tends to remain constant. The basic function of the limiter is flat topping [squaring off] the upper and lower extremities of the signal. This is illustrated in the Fig. 5.38 (b). Although the signal is distorted, it makes no difference as far as FM. is considered, since the information is contained in frequency variation and not in amplitude variation. ‘Typical limiter response characteristics of the limiter is shown in the Fig. 5.39. Fig. 5.39 Typical limiter response characteristics At (A), Vou is proportional to Vix. Limiting start at point (B), which is known as “threshold of limitng (lower point)”. Beyond point (D), output is decreasing. Hence point (D) is the upper end of the limiting range. From point (B) to (D), output voltage is ideally constant despite of ions in input voltage. Therefore the practical limiter will be fed an input voltage ich lies normally in the middle of the limiting range. wi 5.8.5 Use of AGC and Double Limiting Sometimes it is quite practicable that average input signal amplitude may lie outside the limiting range. As a result, further limiting becomes necessary. The solution for this is the use of double limiter consisting two amplitude limiters in cascade. This gives satisfactory limiting range. An alternative to the use of second limiter is automatic gain control. The AGC ensures, by reducing the gain for higher signal strengths, that the signal applied to the limiter input is within the limiting range of the limiter. This also prevents the overloading of the last IF amplifier stage.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-47 AM and FM Receivers capacitor, Voy: and the current I flowing in the circuit are in phase difference of 90° for all frequencies. At resonant frequency, the series R-L-C circuit behaves as purely resistive circuit in which input voltage Vi, and current I will be in phase. Above resonant frequency, the circuit is inductive, and hence current I lags Vin. Below resonant frequency, the circuit is capacitive and current I leads Vig, as shown in the Fig. 5.44. Thus, the circuit provides frequency dependent phase shift. 1 Yin Vin IN Yn 1 V Vout vy ‘out baad ain =f bY fin? fe fin <4 Resonant frequency Circuit is inductive. Circuit is capacitive. Fig. 5.44 Now consider the block diagram shown in Fig. 5.45. Vv. out AM. signal to AM. detector Vin FM. signal Fig. 5.45 The input signal to the circuit is an FM signal. It is shifted by 180° in the phase shifter circuit to get the output voltage, denoted by Viso°. It is applied as input signal to the frequency dependent phase shifter circuit, discussed above. The output of this circuit, V,, is added with the original FM signal in the “adder” block. The output of the adder circuit, Vout, is an amplitude modulated signal which is then applied to A.M. detector circuit. The phasor diagrams for the circuit in the Fig. 5.45, for 3 frequencies, equal to, more than and less than the resonant frequency, are shown in the Fig. 5.46. The resonant frequency of the phase shifting network is adjusted to be the center carrier frequency of FM. signal. When the frequency of input signal increases anda You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-51 AM and FM Receivers Vs = Vas «+ (B) The equation B proves that the voltage across the RF choke is equal to the applied primary voltage. The mutually coupled, double-tuned circuit has high primary and secondary Q and a low mutual inductance. Therefore, we can neglect the impedance (coupled in from the secondary) and the primary resistance while evaluating the primary current. Then primary current, I, is given simply by lp = 2 a® jol: The induced secondary voltage V, due to primary current is given by V, = + joMIp (D) where the sign depends on the direction of winding. Taking the negative mutual inductance for simplicity we have, | V, = -joMIp Substituting the value of Ip from equation C we have, om Nate. MVan Ve = -joM- =- . (E) iM otr «) The Fig. 5.52 (a) and Fig. 5.52 (b) show the secondary circuits. The voltage across the secondary winding, Vep can be given as, Veo = V, 22 Vau M/ Li) ZatZi+R +X —Xa) — iMVap Xea 0) Ao ec t ™ Ip — 3 fa ve we c © & Veo o D {a) Secondary circuit (b) Secondary redrawn Fig. 5.52a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.1g Communication 5-55 AM and FM Receivers: capacitor Cy. Since it takes a long time for this capacitor to charge or discharge, short noise pulse or minor variations in amplitude are totally eliminated and constant voltage is obtained. The de voltage across Cy is equal to average signal amplitude. Hence it can be used for AGC purposes. Thus, in effect, ratio detector provides amplitude limitations. Let us see how amplitude limitation takes place. When input voltage Vas tries to rise, extra diode current flows, but this excess current flows into the capacitor Cy, charging it. The voltage V,-p: remains constant initially because it is not possible for the voltage across a capacitor to change instantaneously. In this situation, load impedance decreases because there is increase in diode current but the voltage across the load is unchanged. As a result, the secondary of the ratio detector transformer is more heavily damped, the Q falls, and so does the gain of the amplifier driving the ratio detector. This counteracts the initial rise in input voltage. When input voltage falls, diode current reduces but the voltage Vsg remains constant. This results increase in load impedance. Increase in load impedance reduces damping and increase the gain of the driving amplifier. This time it counteracts an initial fall in the input voltage. Thus, we can say that ratio detector provides what is known as diode variable damping of its tuned circuit and maintains constant output voltage despite changes in the amplitude of the input. Advantages of ratio detector 1. The ratio detector provides amplitude limitation; hence additional limiting stage is not required. v . Practically the circuit can be tuned to desired frequency, easily. » |. The circuit provides linearity between detected output and input frequency deviations. - The voltage developed across large capacitor used in circuit is proportional to average signal amplitude and hence can be used for automatic gain control purposes. 5.9.5 Quadrature Detector The ‘primary application of this FM. detector is in TV sound demodulation. Most of the IC frequency detectors are of the quadrature type. A typical quadrature detector is shown in the Fig. 5.54.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-59 AM and FM Receivers 5.9.6 Comparison of FM Detectors Performance | _Slope Parameters Detector Foster- Seeley Discriminator Tuned One circuits used Two Two Linearity Very poor Good Sensitivity to | Sensitive noise and amplitude variation Insensitive Use Not used in practice Used in satetlte station receivers, especially for the reception of TV carriers. Used in applications where linearity is critical Used in TV receivers for ‘sound section, in narrow band FM radio receiver, used in applications where linearity is not Used in TV receivers for sound section, critical Table 5.1 From the Table 5.1 it can be seen that Foster Seeley discriminators are preferred in situations in which linearity is an important characteristics, e.g. high-quality FM receivers, whereas the ratio detector is preferred in applications in which linearity is not critical. It is important to note that under critical noise conditions, which encountered in satellite receivers even the discriminator is not the best FM demodulator. In such conditions noise reduction may be achieved by increasing signal strength, receiver sensitivities, or receiver antenna size. Since each of these can be an expensive solution, demodulator noise performance does become very significant. In these circumstances, so called threshold extension demodulators are preferred, such as the FM feedback demodulator, or the phase-locked loop demodulator. 5.10 Noise Triangle in F.M. In F.M. system, carrier frequency for a transmitter is fixed at the transmitting end, which may be crystal controlled. Noise voltages at the input to receiver can produce only amplitude and phase modulation of the carrier; noise cannot directly frequency modulate the carrier. In the FM receiver, by using limiter circuit, amplitude modulation can be removed. However phase modulation of the carrier produces indirectly frequency modulation, which is detected as noise at the output of the receiver. As shown in the Fig. 5.57, the noise voltage can be represented by a phasor E, , having a randomly varying amplitude , and a randomly varying phase angle @, with respect to the carrier phasor E..a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-63 AM and FM Receivers 50 Hz to 15 kHz Fig. 5.60 The sum component {L + R} is meant for monoreceiver tuned to a stereo transmission. This component modulates the carrier in usual FM way. The other output of the matrix is the difference signal [L ~ R], which when added to and subtracted from the sum signal [L + R] after demodulation in stereo FM receiver can yield two channels L and R individually. The difference signal modulates the 38 kHz subcarrier obtained by doubling the 1 kHz subcarrier in frequency doubler, in the balanced modulator. The output of the balanced modulator consists of two sidebands 38 kHz + 15 kHz, with carrier suppressed. These sidebands occupy a frequency spectrum from 23 kHz [38 kHz - 15 kHz] to 53 kHz [38+15] kHz. The sum signal, the output of the balanced modulator and 19 kHz subcarrier at 10% level only are then added in the adder. The composite signal at the output of the adder is used as an input signal for the frequency modulator to produce FM wave. As shown in the Fig. 5.60, a Subsidiary Communication Authorization [SCA] signal may also be transmitted along with the primary stereo signal. It is applied as input to adder. This SCA signal is not always transmitted, it is optional. Some FM_ stereo transmitters provide SCA as a second, medium-quality transmission, to be used as background music in departmental stores, restaurants, etc. The complete frequency spectrum of stereo FM multiplex modulating signal, including optional SCA, is shown in Fig. 5.61. Optonet tranamtion St, Frequen 191923 ~*98 ~~ OT TAB Re Audio sub-carier DSB SC FM AM Fig. 5.61a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-67 AM and FM Receivers um Example 5.13 : The broadcast superheterodyne receiver has intermediate frequency 455 kHz and it is tuned for 1500 kHz. Calculate the image frequency and the Q of the tuned circuit having image frequency rejection ratio equal to 75. Solution : The image frequency is given as fy = f+2f) = 1500x108 +2 455% 109 = 2410 kHz We know that, _ fa fy _ 241010? 1500%10° Ps 1500x107 ~ 2410x108 fe fa = 0.984 We know that image frequency is given as a = fi+Qp? a? = 1+Q?p? a?-1 = Q?p? _ far=l_ [75-1 Qs. p> -Y (0.984)? = 7621 mm Example 5.14: Calculate the value of a padder capacitor and oscillator inductor to give two point tracking for a superheterodyne receiver working in medium wave band from 500 kHz to 1600 kHz; with IF of 465 kHz. Assume maximum gang capacitor of 350 pF. Also find the error in oscillator tracking frequency for a signal frequency of one megahertz, Solution : We have, Cs max 5 (= Co nin Fein = 10.24 fomin = 500 kHz + 465 kHz = 965 kHz fomn = 1600 kHz + 465 kHz = 2065 kHz We know that,a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Communication 5-71 Given value for Cyn = 300 pF Coo, = Sem - 300 son" 72642-12642 = 23.730 pF ‘Trimmer capacitor is connected in parallel with tuning capacitor. Cinaa Cie # Cr Comin Csmin + Cr _ _300+Cy 5156 = 337304 Gr Cy = 42.745 pF Conus and Comin can be given as Come = Conan + Cr = 300 + 42.745 = 342.745 pF Coma = Comin + Cr = 23.730 + 42.745 = 66.475 pF The oscillator coil value can be calculated as, 1 (2 2fo min)? Comax I ~ (2x 905% 103)? x 342745 x 10-2 = 90.234 pH Ly = At 1 MHz, Comax 342745 2055 1000+455 = 171.82 pF Fo mia 1 2nYLoCo mia * 2x 3.14 x 90.234 « 10° x 171.82 10-1 = 1278.198 kHz Actual value of f'omia = 1a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-75 AM and FM Receivers fone , Comm = (fun) Webwe = = (=) 1600)? ~ (Sar = 32 = 10.24 fy min = 500 KHz + 465 kHz = 965 kHz fy max = 1600 kHz + 465 kHz = 2065 kHz We know that, Coma {form Comm (es) Coma _ (2065)? Comin 965 = (2.139% = 458 Given value for C, y= 350 pF _ 350 Comin = 10.24 = 342 pF We know that, Coma _ Csmax (Comin +Cr) Comin Comin (Comax +Cp) _ 350 (34.2+Cp 458 = sa sore C, = 221.3 pF ») Comox = Cymax Series with C, Come *Cp _ 360% 221.3 Come Cp 350% 221-3 = 135.5 pF = C¢, — ‘omin = Cy min Series with C,a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 5-79 AM and FM Receivers My = 28% = eee Re f+ Qnty RO? ee af 1+ (2x 3.14 x5x10 50x 10° x 0.01 x 10-*)? = 1+(15.7)? Q.22 Write notes on any four of the following : a) Self-excited mixer b) Frequency stabilization of master oscillator. (May-96) Q.23 What factors govern the choice of the Intermediate frequency of a receiver ? (May-96, Dec.-99) Q.24 Draw a block diagram of a communication receiver and explain only the special features of this system. (May-96) Q.25 What qualities are expected of a superheterodyne radio receiver ? Define and explain each quality factor. (Dec.-96) Q.26 Mention the advantages of double superheterodyne receiver. Explain the reasons for using such a receiver for communication purpose. (Dec.-96) Q27 Q28 Q29 Q30 Solution : Refer example 5.15. What is tracking of super heat circuit ? Explain the reasons for keeping local oscillator frequency higher than incoming signal frequency. What factors control the choice of IF ? (Dec.-96, May-98, Dec.-2000) The frequency span to be received by a receiver (superheterodyne) is from 525 kHz to 1650 kHz. If yy in oscillator circuit is limited to 50 pF by a trimmer of 25 pE, calculate the value of padder capacitor if maximum value of tuning capacitor if 450 pe. {Dec.-96, May-98) Explain fully the distortion that can take place in an AM diode detector. How can they be minimized ? (May-97, Dec.-2000) What is AGC ? Give different types of AGC compare them. Which one will you prefer? Why ? (May-97, May-99, Dec.-2000)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication AM and FM Receivers detector load consist of 0.01 uF capacitor in parallel with a 5 KQ resistor. Determine the maximum depth of sinusoidal modulation that the detector can handle without diagonal peak clipping when the modulating frequency is 10 kHz. Also derive the relation used. (May-2001) Solution: Given C=O01uF, R.=5k2, f= 10 kHz We know that, Za Mow = . 1 [5 Gr fCR . 1 N+ (2mx 10x 103 «0.01 x 10% x5 105)? = 0303 Q.48 The resonant frequency of RE amplifier of a receiver is a1 MHz and its bandwidth is 10 kHz, What is the Q factor ? (May-2001) Solution : Given f, = 1 MHz BW = 10 kHz Q = fi. LMHe ~ BW ~ 10K = 100 Q.49 Draw the block schematic for SSB-SC detector and explain its working. _ (May-2001) Q.50 Draw a block diagram of superheterodyne receiver for receiving MW band amplitude modulated signals, Explain the function and necessity of each block. Explain the terms sensitivity, selectivity and fidelity with expected graph. (May-2000) Q.51 What is double spotting ? Explain it with an appropriate example, (Dec.-2001) Q.52 Explain why Negative peak clipping occurs in AM diode detector. (Dec.-2001) Q.53 What are the advantages of using a RF amplifier in a superheterodyne receiver ? (Dec.-2001) Q.54 Write a short note on Image frequency and its rejection. (Dec.-2001) Q.55 A diode envelope detector has a load of 200 k-ohms and a forward resistance of 150 ohms. A 50% modulated wave gives an output of 1 Vrms. What is the modulated input and the d.c. output of detector ? (May-2002) Q.56 What factors govern the choice of IF of a receiver ? (May-2002) Q.57 What is tracking and its error in MW band receiver ? Explain three-point tracking. (May-2002) Q.58 Explain with the help of sketches the negative peak clipping and diagonal clipping in AM diode detector. (May-2002)a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Analog Communication 6-3 Noise The noise power developed across a resistor is directly proportional to the temperature. A large value resistor at room temperature can have, across its terminals, the noise voltage of the order of several microvolts. It is comparable, many times, to many weak RF signals. Some RF signals may have an amplitude less than that of noise, and thus these signals will be totally lost in the noise. Since noise contains large number of random frequencies, its level can be minimized by passing it through a band-pass filter, such as tuned circuit. The selective tuned circuit will reject many of noise frequencies, reducing the overall noise level. The noise level is dependent on the bandwidth of any circuit to which it is applied. Although filtering can reduce the noise level, it does not totally eliminate the noise. Although noise is important for communication at all frequencies, it is specially critical for microwave communication systems, such as satellite and radar system. As the bandwidth of these systems is large and since noise is dependent on bandwidth, it will impact high frequency signals. In addition to bandwidth, noise depends upon the amount of current flowing in a component, the gain of the circuit, and resistance of the circuit. Increasing any of these factors will increase noise. Therefore, low noise level is possible using low-gain circuits, low currents, low resistance values, and narrow bandwidths. Keeping the temperature low will help in reducing noise level. In fact, in some special microwave receiver, the first stage (input stage) of the receiver is operated at a very low temperature, using super cooling arrangements. Noise has its greatest effect at the input of the receiver where the signal level is smallest. The noise performance of the receiver mainly depends on the very first stage of the receiver, usually an RF amplifier stage or a converter stage. The input stage is designed by using very low noise components and taking into account the current, resistance, gain, and temperature in this stage. Beyond the first stage, noise is no longer a probiem since the signal level is increased by the first stage. This is the main reason why an RF amplifier stage is used in the receiver. Regardless of its sources, noise is nothing but a random a.c. voltage. The amplitude of noise varies over a wide range so also its frequency. Noise has a tremendous amount of harmonic energy. Thus one can say that noise has all frequencies present in it and their amplitudes are varying at random. Noise cannot be eliminated. The only means to reduce it is to reposition the receiving antenna, where possible, to minimize noise reception, taking precaution that due to repositioning of antenna, desired signal level is not seriously reduced. 6.2.3 Types of Internal Noise The internal noise can be classified into following groups : 1. Thermal noise 2. Shot noise