NORTH EASTERN

REGIONAL
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
CE-4105
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY ASSIGNMENT

COURSE COORDINATOR: SUBMITTED BY:

N.G.SORUM PARTHA PRATIM BORUAH

ROLL NO: D/16/CE/11

DATE OF SUBMISSION 18/8/2017

1. What do you mean by concrete chain? Explain the every stage of concreting
represented by the link in the concrete chain.
The manufacture of concrete is fairly simple. First, the cement (usually Portland cement) is prepared.
Next, the other ingredientsaggregates (such as sand or gravel), admixtures (chemical additives),
any necessary fibres, and waterare mixed together with the cement to form concrete. The
concrete is then shipped to the work site and placed, compacted, and cured.

Preparing Portland cement

The limestone, silica, and alumina that make up Portland cement are dry ground into a very fine
powder, mixed together in predetermined proportions, preheated, and calcined (heated to a high
temperature that will burn off impurities without fusing the ingredients). Next the material is burned
in a large rotary kiln at 2,550 degrees Fahrenheit (1,400 degrees Celsius). At this temperature, the
material partially fuses into a substance known as clinker. A modern kiln can produce as much as
6,200 tons of clinker a day.
The clinker is then cooled and ground to a fine powder in a tube or ball mill. A ball mill is a rotating
drum filled with steel balls of different sizes (depending on the desired fineness of the cement) that
crush and grind the clinker. Gypsum is added during the grinding process. The final composition
consists of several compounds: tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and
tetracalcium aluminoferrite.

Mixing
The cement is then mixed with the other ingredients: aggregates (sand, gravel, or crushed stone),
admixtures, fibres, and water. Aggregates are pre-blended or added at the ready-mix concrete plant
under normal operating conditions. The mixing operation uses rotation or stirring to coat the surface
of the aggregate with cement paste and to blend the other ingredients uniformly. A variety of batch
or continuous mixers are used.
Fibres, if desired, can be added by a variety of methods including direct spraying, premixing,
impregnating, or hand laying-up. Silica fume is often used as a dispersing or densifying agent.
Transport to work site
Once the concrete mixture is ready, it is transported to the work site. There are many methods of
transporting concrete, including wheelbarrows, buckets, belt conveyors,

Placing and compacting

Once at the site, the concrete must be placed and compacted. These two operations are performed
almost simultaneously. Placing must be done so that segregation of the various ingredients is
avoided and full compactionwith all air bubbles eliminatedcan be achieved. Whether chutes or
buggies are used, position is important in achieving these goals. The rates of placing and of
compaction should be equal; the latter is usually accomplished using internal or external vibrators.
An internal vibrator uses a poker housing a motor-driven shaft. When the poker is inserted into the
concrete, controlled vibration occurs to compact the concrete. External vibrators are used for
precast or thin in situ sections having a shape or thickness unsuitable for internal vibrators. These
type of vibrators are rigidly clamped to the formwork, which rests on an elastic support. Both the
form and the concrete are vibrated. Vibrating tables are also used, where a table produces vertical
vibration by using two shafts rotating in opposite directions.

Curing
Once it is placed and compacted, the concrete must cured before it is finished to make sure that it
doesn't dry too quickly. Concrete's strength is influenced by its moisture level during the hardening
process: as the cement solidifies, the concrete shrinks. If site constraints prevent the concrete from
contracting, tensile stresses will develop, weakening the concrete. To minimize this problem,
concrete must be kept damp during the several days it requires to set and harden.

Cement supply Sand Supply Coarse aggregate supply Water supply

Transporting, unloading and staking

Gauging

Mixing Slump Test

Cube Test

Transporting

Placing Curing

Fig: Concrete Chain

2. Explain the factors that influences the properties of concrete in the plastic
stage and hardening stage and state how these factors are related to concrete
chain.
The Properties of Concrete in Plastic Stage are:
1. Good Workability: Workability is the most important property of concrete. It may be
defined as ' The ease with which the concrete can be mixed, transported, placed and
compacted. A workable concrete mix doesn't results in bleeding or segregation.
2. Freedom from segregation: A good concrete should be free from segregation. Segregation
means separation of coarse aggregates from concrete in plastic stage.
 3. Freedom from bleeding: A good concrete should be free from bleeding. The appearance of
Water, along with some particles of cement and very fine sand on the surface of freshly
placed concrete is known as bleeding.
4. Prevention from harshness: The concrete mix which doesn't give smooth surface with a
certain amount of trowel ling is known as harsh mix.

The properties of concrete in hardening stage are:

1. Compressive strength: In construction, concrete is used only for compression, since its
contribution to tensile resistance is negligible owing to its low tensile strength. The
compressive strength is determined by loading moulded concrete specimens (either cubes
or cylinders) in uni-axial compression until ultimate failure. While cubes are advantageous
because of the fact that loading on the cast side can be avoided (thus avoiding the need for
specimen preparation), cylinders have an edge based on the fact that they are indicative of
actual performance in a structure, since the loading is in the direction of casting. Different
countries adopt different standards for specimens.
2. Concrete creep: Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained
load. Basically, long term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This
deformation usually occurs in the direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete
column getting more compressed, or a beam bending. Creep does not necessarily cause
concrete to fail or break apart. Creep is factored in when concrete structures are designed.
3. Shrinkage: Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced.
Volume change is one of the most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the
long-term strength and durability

3. Explain the manufacture process of OPC with the help of flow chart.

Cement can be defined as the bonding material having cohesive & adhesive properties which makes
it capable to unite the different construction materials and form the compacted assembly.
Ordinary/Normal Portland cement is one of the most widely used types of Portland Cement.
The name Portland cement was given by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 due to its similarity in colour and its
quality when it hardens like Portland stone.

Composition of OPC:
The chief chemical components of ordinary Portland cement are:
1. Calcium
2. Silica
3. Alumina
4. Iron

Contents %
CaO 60-67
SiO2 17-25
Al2O3 3-8
Fe2O3 0.5-6.0
MgO 0.5-4.0
Alkalis 0.3-1.2
SO3 2.0-3.5
Manufacturing of OPC:
The manufacture procedures of Portland cement is described below.
1. Mixing of raw material
2. Burning
3. Grinding
4. Storage and packaging

1. Mixing of raw material

The mixing procedure of the manufacture of cement is done in 2 methods,
a) Dry process
b) Wet process

a) Dry Process
The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are firstly crushed in the gyratory crushers to get
2-5cm size pieces separately. The crushed materials are again grinded to get fine particles into ball
or tube mill.
Each finely grinded material is stored in hopper after screening. Now these powdered minerals are
mixed in required proportion to get dry raw mix which is then stored in silos and kept ready to be
sent into rotary kiln. Now the raw materials are mixed in specific proportions so that the average
composition of the final product is maintained properly.

b) Wet Process
The raw materials are firstly crushed and made into powdered form and stored in silos. The clay is
then washed in washing mills to remove adhering organic matters found in clay.
The powdered limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in the channels and transfer to
grinding mills where they are completely mixed and the paste is formed, i.e., known as slurry.
The grinding process can be done in ball or tube mill or even both. Then the slurry is led into
collecting basin where composition can be adjusted. The slurry contains around 38-40% water that is
stored in storage tanks and kept ready for the rotary kiln.

2. Burning:
The burning process is carried out in the rotary kiln while the raw materials are rotated at 1-2rpm at
its longitudinal axis. The rotary kiln is made up of steel tubes having the diameter of 2.5-3.0 meter
and the length differs from 90-120meter. The inner side of the kiln is lined with refractory bricks.
The kiln is supported on the columns of masonry or concrete and rested on roller bearing in slightly
inclined position at the gradient of 1 in 25 to 1 in 30. The raw mix of dry process of corrected slurry
of wet process is injected into the kiln from the upper end. The kiln is heated with the help of
powdered coal or oil or hot gases from the lower end of the kiln so that the long hot flames is
produced.
As the kiln position is inclined and it rotates slowly, the material charged from upper end moves
towards lower end at the speed of 15m/hr. In the upper part, water or moisture in the material is
evaporated at 400oC temp, so this process is known as Drying Zone.
The central part i.e. calcination zone, the temperature is around 10000C, where decomposition of
lime stone takes place. The remaining material is in the form of small lumps known as nodules after
the CO2 is released.
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
The lower part (clinkering zone) have temperature in between 1500-17000C where lime and clay are
reacts to yielding calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. This aluminates and silicates of calcium
fuse to gather to form small and hard stones are known as clinkers. The size of the clinker is varies
from 5-10mm.
The lower part i.e. clinkering zone has the temperature around 1500-1700C. In the region lime and
clay reacts to yield calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. This products of aluminates and silicates
of calcium fuses together to form hard and small stones known as clinkers. The size of the small and
hard clinkers varies from 5 to 10mm.

2CaO + SiO2 = Ca2SiO4 (declaim silicate (C2S))

3CaO + SiO2 = Ca3SiO5 (tricalcium silicate (C3S))
3CaO + Al2O3 = Ca3Al2O6 (dicalcium aluminate (C2A))
4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 = Ca4Al2Fe2O10 (tetracalcium aluminoferrite(C4AF))

The clinker coming from the burning zone are very hot. To bring down the temperature of clinkers,
air is admitted in counter current direction at the base of the rotary kiln. The cooled clinkers are
collected in small trolleys.

3. Grinding of Clinkers
The cooled clinkers are received from the cooling pans and sent into mills. The clinkers are grinded
finely into powder in ball mill or tube mill. Powdered gypsum is added around 2-3% as retarding
agent during final grinding. The final obtained product is cement that does not settle quickly when
comes in contact with water.
After the initial setting time of the cement, the cement becomes stiff and the gypsum retards the
dissolution of tri-calcium aluminates by forming tricalcium sulfoaluminate which is insoluble and
prevents too early further reactions of setting and hardening.

3CaO.Al2O3 + xCaSO4.7H2O = 3CaO.Al2O3.xCaSO4.7H2O

4. Storage and packaging

The grinded cement is stored in silos, from which it is marketed either in container load or 50kg
bags.
4. Explain with chemical reactions how gypsum delays the setting time of
cement. Also explain the process of delaying of cement.
Tricalcium aluminate reacts with water to form calcium aluminate hydrate ions.
C3A + water = calcium aluminate hydrate
This reaction occurs very fast and releases more heat. This reaction causes irreversible stiffening of
cement paste. So cement sets within minutes. This set is called quick set or false set of cement. To
delay or increase this setting gypsum was added to cement while manufacturing.

(C4AF reactions and products are similar to C3A, but this reaction is very slow.)

Generally cement will be mixed at one place and it will be consumed at some other place. So the
mixed cement mortar to be carried from mixed site to usage site which consumes some time until
which cement should not set. If set the cement cannot be used. So only gypsum was added to delay
this setting time.
Water dissolves calcium sulphate ions in gypsum and mixes with lime in cement to form calcium
sulphate solution.

Calcium sulphate + Calcium aluminate hydrate = Ettringite

This calcium sulphate solution reacts with calcium aluminate hydrate from C3A hydration to form a
insouble compound called ettringite.
This ettringite as insoluble, deposits on C3A ion surface and thus reducing the rate of water diffusing
into C3A ion.
The following diagram makes you to understand clearly about how setting time of cement delayed
by gypsum:

Thus C3A hydration time increases as C3A reaction with water slows due to low diffuse of water and
correspondingly setting time increases.
The reactions continues until presence of water and C3A compounds.

5. Distinguish between setting and hardening. Name the compounds which are
responsible for setting and hardening.
Setting
Setting begins to occur after the concrete is mixed and even before pouring. The cement in the
concrete begins to stiffen after mixed with water. The concrete is beginning to change from liquid
form to solid form. During the setting process, the concrete does gain strength, which is the
beginning of the hardening process. When the water ingredient is added to the concrete mix, the
concrete is still pliable and flexible, sort of a paste. There is two stages of setting: initial and final
setting. Initial setting is when the concrete loses it flexibility and begins to harden. Final setting is
when the concrete can sustain some load, but still has some moisture within the mixture. The
compound responsible for setting is Tricalcium Silicate (Ca3SiO5)

Hardening
Hardening of the concrete is the stage when the mixture gains strength. The cement ingredient
begins to attach itself to the aggregate as the water dries off the mixture. The hydration of water is
what starts the hardening process. It generally takes five to seven days for the concrete to complete
the hardening process. The easiest way to increase the strength of concrete is to add cement to the
mixture. The more water used in the mixture, the weaker the concrete and it will also delay the
hardening process. Once the concrete has hydrated all the water from the mixture, the hardening
process is complete and the concrete is as strong as it will get. The compound responsible for
hardening is Dicalcium Silicate (Ca2SiO4)

6. Explain the properties and uses of the following types of cement.

a) High strength ordinary Portland Cement:

(a) Fineness: It is measured in terms of percentage of weight retained after sieving the cement
through 90 micron sieve or by surface area of cement in square centimetres per gram of cement.
According to IS code specification weight retained on the sieve should not be more than 10 per cent.
In terms of specific surface should not be less than 2250 cm2/gm.
(b) Setting time: A period of 30 minutes as minimum setting time for initial setting and a
maximum period of 600 minutes as maximum setting time is specified by IS code, provided the tests
are conducted as per the procedure prescribed by IS 269-1967.
(c) Soundness: Once the concrete has hardened it is necessary to ensure that no volumetric changes
take place. The cement is said to be unsound, if it exhibits volumetric instability after hardening.
(d) Crushing strength: For this mortar cubes are made with standard sand and tested in compression
testing machine as per the specification of IS code. The minimum strength specified is 16 N/mm2
after 3 days and 22 N/mm2 after 7 days of curing.
Uses:

b) Rapid hardening cement:

Rapid hardening cement is similar to Ordinary Portland cement but with higher tri-calcium silicate
(C3S) content and finer grinding. It gains strength more quickly than OPC, though the final strength is
only slightly higher. This type of cement is also called as High-Early Strength Portland Cement. The
one-day strength of this cement is equal to the three-day strength of OPC with the same water-
cement ratio.
Uses:
(a) It is used where formwork has to be removed as early as possible in order to reuse it.
(b) It is used where high early strength is required.
(c) It is generally used for constructing road pavements, where it is important to open the road to
traffic quickly.
(d) It is used in industries which manufacture concrete products like slabs, posts, electric poles,
block fence, etc. because moulds can be released quickly.
(e) It is used for cold weather concreting because rapid evolution of heat during hydration protects
the concrete against freezing.

c) Low Heat Cement:

Low-heat Portland cement, is one of hydraulic binding materials, also named Low Heat Cement, High
Performance Low Heat Cement, or High Belite Cement. It has excellent performances such as high
final strength, sulphate corrosion resistance, good lasting properties, good resistance to rupture, etc.
Because of its excellent performances for example lower hydration heat, high late strength, sulphate
resistance, anti-seepage and resistance to rupture etc., Low Heat Cement is widely applied in
building dam, bank of river, wall of sea, and other hydraulic engineering concrete and marine
concrete.
Uses:
(a) To make mass concrete
(b) To make hydraulic engineering concrete
(c) To make marine concrete
(d) To make sulphate resistance concrete
(e) To make concrete resistance to impact erosion and wear
(f) To make high strength concrete
(g) To make concretes resistance to rupture
(h) To produce cement or concrete pipe resistance to sulphate corrosion
(i) To make the road and workroom surface of factories such as chemical plants and sulphuric acid
factories
(j) To make other ordinary engineering concrete structures.

d) White and coloured cement:

It is manufactured from pure white chalk and clay free from iron oxide. Greyish colour of cement is
due to iron oxide. So, the iron oxide is reduced and limited below 1 per cent. Coloured cements are
made by adding 5 to 10 per cent colouring pigments before grinding. These cements have same
properties as that of ordinary Portland cement and are non-staining because of low amount of
soluble alkalis. Sodium alumina fluoride is added during burning which acts as a catalyst in place of
iron.
Properties: Loss on ignition of white cement is nil. The compressive and transverse strength of this
cement is 90 per cent of that of 33 grade ordinary Portland cement.
Uses:
These cements are used for making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of walls (stucco), ornamental
works, and casting stones.

e) Sulphate resistance cement:

Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement is a type of Portland cement in which the amount of Tricalcium
aluminate (C3A) is restricted to lower than 5 % and (2 C3A + C4AF) is lower than 25%. SRC can be
used for structural concrete wherever OPC or PPC or Slag Cement is usable under normal conditions.
The use of SRC is particularly beneficial in such conditions where the concrete is exposed to the risk
of deterioration due to sulphate attack.
Uses:
(a) Foundations, piles.
(b) Basements and underground structures.
(c) Sewage and Water treatment plants.
(d) Chemical, Fertilizers and Sugar factories.
(e) Food processing industries and Petrochemical projects.
(f) Coastal works.
(g) Also for normal construction works where OPC is used.
(h) Construction of building along the coastal area within 50 km from sea.
f) Blast Furnace Slag cement:
Blast Furnace Slag Cement is special blended cement with low heat of hydration characteristics for
mass concreting. Concrete produced using Portland Blast furnace Cement has chloride and sulphate
resisting properties with improved durability. It is a cementations construction material comprising
of a combination of selected high quality ground granulated blast furnace slag and ordinary Portland
cement
Uses:
(a) Mass concrete foundations and dam which require low heat of hydration
(b) Marine concrete structures exposed to sea water and sulphates
(c) Water retaining structures where improvement in impermeability is essential
(d) Sub-structure, bored piles, pre-case piles and products positioned in soil
containing chlorides or moderate content of sulphates
(e) Concrete which may consist of alkali reactive aggregates
(f) Waste treatment facilities
(g) Grouting

g) Super-sulphate cement
It is manufactured by intergrinding or intimately blending amixture of granulated blast furnace slag
not less than 70 per cent, calcium sulphate and small quantity of 33 grade Portland cement. Water
resistance of concretes from supersulphate Portland cements is higher than that of common
Portland cements because of the absence of free calcium oxide hydrate. It has low heat of hydration
and is resistant to chemical attacks and in particular to sulphates. It should have a fineness of 400
m2/kg. The expansion of cement is limited to 5 mm. The initial setting time of the cement should not
be less than 30 minutes, and the final setting time should not be more than 600 minutes.
Uses:
Super-sulphated Portland cement is used for similar purpose as common Portland cement.
But owing to its higher water-resisting property, it should be preferred in hydraulic engineering
installations and also in constructions intended for service in moist media. RCC pipes in ground
water, concrete structures in sulphate bearing soils, sewers carrying industrial effluents, concrete
exposed to concentrated sulphates of weak mineral acids are some of the examples of this cement.
This cement should not be used in constructions exposed to frequent freezing-and-thawing or
moistening-and-drying conditions.

h) Natural Cement:
Any naturally occurring mixture of limestone and clay. A natural cement is made by powdering the
rock then calcining the limestone and then grinding the material into a fine powder to produce a
hydraulic cement. The properties of natural cement and Portland cement are quite different. Natural
cement has properties which are more similar to lime-cement mixtures than they are to cement
alone. It is more permeable and less brittle. It does not contain the salts typically found in Portland
cement, and may therefore have less potential for damaging masonry with which it is used. Mortars
made with natural cement have been used to build massive masonry structures without the use of
expansion joints, but still showing no signs of thermal expansion-related cracking.
Uses:
Natural cements may be formulated and used as authentic duplicates of original, historic cements
for restoration of the thousands of surviving buildings and structures originally built using natural
cement materials. Common uses include masonry mortars for repainting or rebuilding, stuccos,
grouts, whitewashes, concretes and composite repair mortars. Edison Coatings also produces pre-
packaged, pre-matched custom mortars, stuccos, grouts, coatings and concrete mixes, eliminating
errors in field-proportioning. It may also be used in applications where original materials were
entirely lime-based, in situations where adverse weather, reduced curing requirements and faster
resistance to rain and frost are required, or in salt contaminated structures where lime functions
poorly as a restoration material.

i) High Alumina Cement:

The characteristics of this cement can be summarized in following points:
(a) High alumina cement has low pH
(b) It has high refractoriness
(c) It has high durability in sulphuric acid
(d) It hardens rapidly
(e) It is less reactant than alumina or hydraulic lime
(f) It has high resistance to chemical corrosion.
Uses:
(a) In construction concretes, where rapid strength development is required, even at low
temperatures.
(b) As a protective liner against microbial corrosion such as in sewer infrastructure.
(c) In refractory concretes, where strength is required at high temperatures.
(d) As a component in blended cement formulations, for various properties such as ultra-rapid
strength development and controlled expansion are required.
(e) In sewer networks for their high resistance to biogenic sulphide corrosion.

j) Portland Pozzolana cement:

Portland Pozzolana Cement is a kind of Blended Cement which is produced by either intergrinding of
OPC clinker along with gypsum and pozzolanic materials in certain proportions or grinding the OPC
clinker, gypsum and Pozzolanic materials separately and thoroughly blending them in certain
proportions.
Pozzolana is a natural or artificial material containing silica in a reactive form. It may be further
discussed as siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which in itself possesses little, or no
cementitious properties but will in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically
react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cement
properties. It is essential that Pozzolana be in a finely divided state as it is only then that silica can
combine with calcium hydroxide (liberated by the hydrating Portland Cement) in the presence of
water to form stable calcium silicates which have cement properties.
Uses:
(a) Mass concreting works.
(b) Marine structures.
(c) Masonry mortars and plastering.
(d) Under aggressive conditions.
(e) Hydraulic structures.
(f) All other applications where OPC is used.