CHAPTER Past Modals ‘A. GRAMMAR IN DISCOURSE: The Really Early Birds 8B, FORM: Past Modals Past Modals, I may/might/could/should/must have passed the test. Past Phrasal Modals He ought to have come. She has to/has got to have known. Informally Speaking: Reducing Past Modals C. MEANING AND USE 1: Modals of Past Possil Overview Guessing with May Have, Might Have, and Could Have Strong Certainty with Must Have, Have to Have, and Have Got to Have Strong Certainty with Can‘t Have and Couldn't Have D, MEANING AND USE 2: Other Functions of Past Modals Past Ability and Opportunity Advice, Obligations, and Regrets About the Past Past Permission and Necessity WRITING: Write a Review of a Movie, TV Show, or Short Story PART 3 TEST: Modals 170 176 180 186 189 167GRAMMAR IN DISCOURSE The Really Early Birds A1 Before You Read © or ws Read this magazine article to find out what new evidence has been found about how Discuss these questions. Have you ever thought about how birds are able to fly? Do you know what makes it possible? Have you ever dreamed or wished you could fly? A2 Read birds first learned to fly. The Really Early Birds ‘A new theory explains how the first feathered creatures to fly may have gotten off the ground. Researchers believe that a prehistoric bird that descended from dinosaurs, archaeopteryx (pronounced “ar-kee- op-te-riks”), had a good wingspan for ahalf-pound bird—more than 20 inches. That has to have been enough to enable the crow-sized bird to fly, or at least glide, through the Jurassic skies. But the toughest part of flying is the takeoff. And the first birds and their dinosaur ancestors just didn't have the same specialized muscle power for liftoff that their modern descendants do. It’ a question that scientists have been arguing about for 168 | CHAPTER 8 Past Modals 20 2 more than 200 years. How did the first fliers get into the air? A study in the journal Nature shows how it could have happened. Fly or die? According to this popular theory, a tree-dwelling prehistoric bird could have launched itself—or could have fallen—from its perch and managed to stay up by flapping its wings. That solves the gravity issue, but Luis Chiappe, a palaeontologist at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, points out a problem. “We don't know of any bird ancestors that lived in trees.” A running start? This could have helped a bird like archaeopteryx intothe air, but the ancient bird’s estimated speed wasn't fast enough for liftoff. Chiappe worked with an expert in aerodynamics, Phillip Burgers, to simulate the takeoff of the archaeopteryx. They found that the bird’s wings were able to rotate ina way that may have provided the extra burst of speed needed to outrun a hungry predator or catch a quick- running lizard. And, the new calculations show, the wing flapping could have generated sufficient speed so for takeoff. During the early phase of liftoff, archaeopteryx’s wings must have acted more like an airplane's engines, providing extra speed. Then, when the archaeopteryx was in the 55. air, it must have rotated its wings back to horizontal position, to maintain altitude. 45 Adapted from Newsweek 60 6s 70 a Modern birds do exactly the same thing, so why hasn't anyone noticed until now? Experts have been fascinated by lift, probably because it’s something humans can't do. Chiappe and Burgers have shown that the archaeopteryx could have taken off from the ground, but whether or not it actually did may never be known. According to the researchers, the answer to this question is not really important. Rather, the importance of their discovery is that the wings could have helped the archaeopteryx gain speed. Flying might have developed as the archaeopteryx ran faster and faster while flapping its wings, not by falling out of trees. Perhaps flying is just the continuation of running by other means. aerodynamics: the science that studies forces that act on things moving through air altitude: height in the air Jurassic: the time period when dinosaurs and the earliest birds lived A3 After You Read paleontologist: a scientist who studies fossils to learn about the history of life on earth predator: an animal that lives by killing and eating, other animals wingspan: measurement across the wings when the ‘wings are extended Check ( /) the facts that scientists who study prehistoric birds are certain about. . They had feathers. . They had wings. . They could fly. 5. They lived in trees. . They descended from dinosaurs. . They were much smaller than modern birds. Grammar in Discourse CHAPTER 8 | 169 aPast Modals 2 Think Critically About Form A, Look back at the article on page 168 and complete the tasks below. 1. IDENTIFY An example of a past modal is underlined. Find six more examples. 2. COMPARE AND CONTRAST Find two past modals with singular subjects, and two with plural subjects. Is there any difference in form between them? 3, EVALUATE What auxiliary follows the modals? What is the form of the main verbs? B. Discuss your answers with the class and read the Form charts to check them. > Past Modals @ See ONLINE td | PAST ‘Mopat + PAST SUBJECT MODAL HAVE PAST supsect Nop TE OT eee may not might might not could have passed —the test. couldn't “have passed the tes, etould shouldn't must not © Past modals have only one form with all subjects. * Past modals have two auxiliary verbs: a modal and have. Only the modal forms contractions. * May not have, might not have, and must not have have no contracted forms as past modals. * Could have and should have may be used to ask questions with past modals. Notice that short answers contain modal + have and optional main verb be if appropriate. A: Could they have called? A: Should she have been at the meeting? B: No, they must not have. B: Yes, she should have been. © See Appendix 14 for contractions with can, could, and should. © See Appendix 6 for irregular verbs and their past participles. 170 | CHAPTER 8 Past Modals> Past Phrasal Modals SUBJECT MODAL+NoT Have PAST. SUBJECT — MODAL HAVE PARTICIPLE He ought to have come. has to | | has got to | have known, | have come. | © Ought to have has only one form. Have to have and have got to have have different third- person singular forms. © Ought to have can be used in the affirmative or negative. Have to have and have got to have are used only in the affirmative. © Have got to have has contracted forms. Have to have and ought fo have do not. © Had to have + past participle can often replace have to have + past participle. You ey fo have nown the answer. had to have Form CHAPTER 8 | 171B1 Listening for Form © 01 44 Listen to this podcast and write the past modals you hear. ‘Most scientists now agree that an | asteroid collision or a similar event — been responsible for starting the mass extinction of dinosaurs and other animals about 65 million years ago. But there is still disagreement about another wave of extinction that occurred more recently, just 13,000 years ago. ‘That's when great woolly mammoths, mastodons, saber-tooth tigers, and other large animals known as megafauna died off in northern Eurasia and the Americas. What ____ caused the disappearance of these great beasts? Some say that human colonizers from Siberia done the damage over a period of a thousand years, But others disagree. In their opinion, a relatively small group of hunters killed off so many animals across three whole continents. As one researcher told me, “We found evidence of such overhunting, but we haven't. So humans —_-—— been the cause.” Others think it been climate change. Scientists know that there was a cold snap that led to a partial return to Ice Age conditions between 12,900 and 11,500 years ago, and some believe that this__________put stress on the megafauna. Again, for the theory to be true, they _______ found proof, but so far they haven't, ‘The most recent theory is that a major cosmic catastrophe such as an airburst or impact from a comet____caused the extinctions. Evidence to i support this ___already been found in soil samples at more than 50 sites across North America, and glacier scientists think they 2 found signs in the Greenland ice sheet as well. 172 | CHAPTER 8 Past ModalsB2 Completing Conversations wa Work with a partner, Complete these conversations using the past modal form of the words in parentheses. Then practice the conversations using contractions where appropriate. Conversation 1 At 1 could have gone _ (could/go) to the movies with you, but I decided to study instead. B: You didn't miss anything, You ___(might/not/like) it anyway. ‘There _____ (must/be) ten different violent scenes! Conversation 2 A: |____(should/not/drive) to work this morning, There was so much traffic. B: You____(should/take) the bus. It was empty. Conversation 3 As She ______(could/not/leave) yet. We're not that late. B: Butshe______(might/forget) to wait for us. Conversation 4 Az You ____(must/not/got) much sleep last night. B: You're right. I was up coughing and sneezing most of the night. I = (should/go) to the doctor yesterday, He = (could/write) me a prescription for some cold medicine. Conversation 5 Az [lost my keys last night, 1__(might/leave) them at your house, B: No, you 2 ay (could/not). You drove home with them. A: That's right. Then ] ____________ (must/drop) them after I parked the car. 3 B: You __(might/lock) them in your car. Have you checked? Form CHAPTER 8 | 173B3 Asking and Answering Questions with Past Modals QW) Work with a partner. Switch roles for each question, Student A: Ask a question about prehistoric birds. Use the words below with could have. Student B: Answer the question in your own opinion, Use short answers with modals. 1. have feathers A: Could prehistoric birds have had feathers? B: Yes, they could have. on They must have. 2. descend from dinosaurs A: Could prehistoric birds have descended from dinosaurs? B: No, they couldn't have. . have wings jump from trees run fast 3. 4. 5. 6. live on the ground 7. eat smaller animals 8. eat seeds B4 Forming Past Modals Rewrite these sentences. Change the modals to past modals. 1. The researchers might be wrong. There may be some data they ignored. The researchers might have been wrong. There may have been some data they ignored. The report should be available on April 12, }.. He ought to study more for the test. . I could work harder. . She has to be home. ._Ishould do things differently. I should exercise more. I know I could find the time. . Ishould relax more. Perhaps I could learn yoga. PN Awe wD . Ishouldn't worry so much. Worrying couldn't be good for my health. 174| CHAPTER 8 Past Modals@) Informally Speaking Reducing Past Modals — © 1 45 Look at the cartoon and listen to the conversation. How is each underlined form in the cartoon different from what you hear? { This traffic is terrible. We should have stayed in the of In informal speech, affirmative and negative past modals are often reduced. Have may sound like /aV/. If itis reduced even more, it sounds like /o/. Standard Form What You Might Hear | could have come. “I Pkudav/ come." on “I/'kuda/ come.” They must have come. “They /'mastav/ come.” or "They /'masta/ come.” He may not have come. “He /'meiatav/ come.” on "He /'meinada/ come.” We should not have come. “We /'fudntav/ come.” ok “We /\Judnda/ come.” BS5 Understanding Informal Speech © oi us Listen and write the standard form of the words you hear. A: T'm sorry T'm late, I___should ave _ called you. Then you met me downtown. B: ‘That ___ worked anyway. I didirt get out of work until six. ‘And then there __ been fifty people waiting for the elevator. It took me ten minutes to get out of the building. A: So where's Linda? She ____________ been here by now. She ; forgotten. B: I doubt that. She ——— potten stuck in traffic, or she left work late, too. Let's sit down over there and wait for her. Form CHAPTER 8 | 175C WES KROL Modals of Past Possibility Think Critically About Meaning and Use A. Read the sentences and answer the questions below. Prehistoric birds must have been able to fly. They had wings. Prehistoric birds could have been able to fly. They were small. Prehistoric birds might have been able to fly. They were light enough. Prehistoric birds couldn't have been able to fly. They had no way of getting into the air. aoge 1. EVALUATE In which sentences is the speaker more certain? 2. EVALUATE In which sentences is the speaker less certain? B. Discuss your answers with the class and read the Meaning and Use Notes to check them. Meaning and Use Notes + ae eee OnLine mere 4 Modals of past possibility are used to make guesses or inferences about the past. The ‘modal you choose shows how certain you are that something was true. ‘A: Where was Jim this morning? Less Certain + might have, might not have, _B: He might have been outside. could have i'm not sure. + may have, may not have C: He may not have been awake yet. * must have, must not have, _D: He must have been in bed. have to have, have got tohave —_He never gets up before noon. More Certain « can't have, couldn't have E: He can’t have been upstairs. He wasn’t home. >2 Use may (not) have, might (not) have, and could have to guess about a past situation when you don't have much proof. Dinosaurs may have perished because of a climate change, or they might have perished | because of disease. Some people think they could have perished because a large | meteor hit Earth. 176 | CHAPTER 8 Past Modals>3 Use must (not) have, have to have, and have got to have to draw conclusions about the past when you are certain of something, and you believe there is only one logical explanation. Problem: Someone stole the money from the drawer. No one was in the room except Sally. Sally must have taken it. Sally has (got) to have taken it. > 4A Use can't have and couldn't have when you are certain something was unlikely or impossible. No one believes him, He can’t have been home at the time of the crime. The police have evidence that he was at the crime scene. > 4B Can't have and couldn't have sometimes express surprise or disbelief about the past. A; You got an A on the exam. B: | couldn't have gotten an A! That's impossible. Didn't | get the last question wrong? C1 Listening for Meaning and Use D> Notes 1-3, 4A, 4B © «01 7 Listen to the different opinions among archaeologists about Neanderthals. Is each speaker expressing less certainty or more certainty? Check ( /’) the correct column. LESS CERTAINTY | MORE CERTAINTY ee ON Meaning and Use 1 CHAPTER 8 | 177c2 Understanding Degrees of Certainty D> Notes 1-3, 4A Work with a partner. Read what two different archaeologists (A and B) have said about the “Iceman,” a 5,000-year-old frozen mummy that was discovered in 1991 in the Alps. Rewrite their opinions with modals of possibility. 1. As Maybe the Iceman was a shepherd. : We dont believe he was a shepherd. : The Iceman may have been a shepherd. : He couldn't have been a shepherd. : It was impossible for him to build a fire, : Pethaps he built a fire. : He almost certainly froze to death. : We can conclude that he lived in a valley. : Its not likely he lived in a valley. B: A B: A: B 3. A: It is possible he froze to death. B; A B; ‘A: Perhaps he wasn’t older than 25. B: : We can assume he wasn't older than 25. Making Guesses and Drawing Conclusions > Notes 1-3, 4A Work in small groups, Read about a mysterious incident and discuss what might have happened. Use different affirmative and negative past modals. Unfriendly Native Americans may have killed the first group. The Croatoans were friendly. They can't have killed the second group. The “Lost Colony of Roanoke” is one of the great mysteries of early American history. When John White and a group of English settlers arrived on Roanoke Island in July 1587, the only sign they found of the previous colonists were some bones. What happened is still a mystery. White quickly established good relations with the Native Americans on the nearby island of Croatoan, but a second group remained unfriendly. The settlers convinced White to sail back to England to arrange for food and supplies, but war with Spain delayed him. When he arrived three years later, in August 1590, there was no sign of the 118 settlers. Even their homes had disappeared. The only clue was the word “Croatoan’ carved into a post of the fort and “Cro” carved into a tree. Many questions remain, What happened to the first settlers? Did the second group go to live with the Croatoans? Did unfriendly natives kill them? Did they die of disease? Why was there no sign of their houses? Did they split up and go off to live in different areas? 178 | CHAPTER & Past Modals