ya

nkiy - Kjyh ML

lhik xU ghtbra
lhik xU bgUFw
lhik kjjikaw bra

jehL ghl fHf

f rhiy, brid - 600 006.
 jehL muR
Kj g - 2005
FGjiyt
nguh. j. rFz Og
ya Jiw
mud fiy f
ejd, brid - 600 035.
nkyhthsf

nguh. Kidt. J. k nguh. Kidt. J. Rjrd

l, ya Jiw l, Jiwjiyt,ya Jiw
R.M. ntfhdjh f ynahyh f
ikyh, brid - 600 004. Efghf, brid - 600 034.

Maf
Uk. M ~lh ru Uk. . K. fha uh
ya ya
KJfiy gljh Mia KJfiy gljh Mia
bgo kf nkiyg muR kf nkiy g
ntng, brid - 600 007. mnrh ef, brid- 600 083.

U. j. nrf
ya
KJfiy gljh Ma
b#. f. muR kf nkiyg
Nis nkL, brid - 600 094.

iy: %.
ghlf jah : jehL muRfhf gf aff, jehL.

60 .v.v. jh mlgLsJ.

Mbr Kiw mnlh :

 KDiu
ca bjhlghd vtif nk goF njitahd
jFid bgL tif ghl jahfgLsJ.
ca gy nkgl fis g fwjYfhz mojs
tFf ghllf csJ. vdnt, nkiy
tFfhd , ca gy f bjhlghd thd
sffis mgJ vjhsJ. ghlf 12tJ
tF ghlfSl bjhlilait. ghlfis eF mj
nk tF Jiz br.
ya bjhlghd gy fis gof Mt L
tif ghlf mikfgLsd. jfhd ghit
f goa, W csJ. nkY brfis bgw
f tiy jsfis gagLjyh.
xbthU ghl WY kh nff csd.
nffis nghW khztf m w, fw w
nghw gy wfis M brJ CFF tif w
nffis Maf mikJ bfhsyh.
iwa thif njitfS mjizahd
tsfS mfJs iy ca Jiwf KaJt
bgWsd. vdnt ca f Mt bfhSj
gadgjhf mik.

j. rFz Og
FGjiyt
ya
ghl yha FG

iii
 nkiy Kjyh ML - ya
ghll
brKiw gF
I. kG - cl lhfis vLJ ghitF itj (FiwjJ
_W)
II. Rwh - sfhL brfis ghitF itj
III. va kW TL Enzhf ghffis mj.
IV. jahfgl fzho jfLf - nehFj, gl tiuj,
F vGJj.
1. shnkhoa - VjhtJ U iyf
2. gunka - KG; gunka - iz Kiw
3. iAouh - KG
4. ehlhG - jiygF
5. kG - KG
6. M~ah[ - KG
7. M~ah[ - cl btntW lf
FWF btLnjhw
8. Rwh - sfhL brf
V. gjgLjgl cf
va gR, gtsf, ehlhG - KG, Mfh -
KG (M, bg), kG - KG, wh - KG, fugh
, KJFgf tWgf njhw, M eij, brah,
eru , fl m, M~ah, Rwh, vY , jtis,
Xzh, xU gh, wh, cUt wF, v.
VI. brJ fhj kL
1. fugh (cUl) wif uj Xlij
fhz.
2. kG - cSWf, eu bjhF.
3. jtis -cth, cl cSWf, brj kly.
VII. kj cl csik
1. g mikfSl nk, jhil vYf.
2. khf / cikahd vYf - ku, nuoa, mdh,
~k, oah, ~yh, KJF KbsY, L tisa.
iv
 nkiy Kjyh ML - ya
ghll - ghlgF
ghf - 1. gYa
tifghL tKiwf :- tifghL myF- mKf-
wd fUJ gotf-tifghL tKiwf-vif
tifghL-milahs FpLf-bra Kiw tifghL.
yd f:- yFfis bjhFghF Kiwf-
bgUbjhFf-bghJgf-jFj cjhuzfSl-
nuhnlhnrhth, ngh~bguh, byonulh, sho bAj-
knlhlh, mdlh, Mnuhnghlh, bkhyfh,
vifndhblnklh, fhnllh.
kh yF:- shnkhoa-kG-M~ah-
wh.

ghf - 2. brYa
mKf:- Enzha kW bra cf.
yF br - Ezik:- shkh r, cfU,
iknlhfhoah-iunghnrhf-mfshr tiy-
iynrhnrhf -nfhif cWf-brnuhnrhf-
Fnuhnkhnrhf.
Wneh ca:- Wneh-sf, tiff - fLghL.

ghf - 3. kj cSWgika
kj cW bjhFf tuyhW-wrlf, vY,jir,
brkhd, RthrRH, z- eu- cz- ehsyh Ru-
f f dbgUf - cWf.

ghf - 4. kua
mKf-gTL mf-msto gf-gh za
- gh rhj ghuga - nahnuh- Aho- g .
v
ghf - 5. fU tsa
mKf, Kil tiff-s bgUf tiff-jtis
Kil, jtis nfUyh Mf-cWghf-f-ja-
ts.

ghf - 6. bghUshjhuK yFyfK

ga jU yFf:- gtsf-kG-kG ts-
gagL f-wh-f wh-KJ -f-bfhtndh-
th cf ts iya-yF fhgf.
ik br yFf:- neh cUthF cf-gu
f-eR yFf-th nrjgLJtd-bgLf.

ghf - 7. cd njhw
nfhghLf-gHfhyf mltiz - yFf
mj - Tlkhf mj - gzhk ffhd rhWf - xL
cWa, fUa, clbraa, vr cWf, rhj gut.

vi
 bghUslf

gf

1. gYa 1

2. brYa 75

3. kj cSWgika 107

4. kua 184

5. fUa (fU tsa) 206

6. bghUshjhuK yFyfK 229

7. cd njhw 275

vii
1.3. kh yF 1. shnkhoa
bjhF - nuhnlhnrhth
t F - nghnuhnrhth
t i r - nkhnghoah

shnkhoa vD dij rhj xLf knyah

nehF fhuzkhdit. it cliy ghF knyah
fhriy clhFwd. F fhr vdgL. knyah
fhriy gbdLfhykhf eh mnth. vdnt bghJ
Rfhjhu fhriy xgJ KakhdjhsJ.
rJ y, rhfilfUJ njhW thfsh
fhr VgLwJ vd K fUjglJ. uhR eho rh
yhbtu(Charles Laveran) knyah nehilatf uj
shnkhoa cfis Kj (1880) flh. shnkhoa
nehlhF jik, gut Kiw Matiw r. nuhdhL uh
(Sir Ronald Ross) 1898 sdh. jbfd 1902 nehg
gid t bgwh. shnkhoafSF mdhy
bfhRfSF ilna cs bjhlfis uh(Grassi) vgh
fJakhf sdh (1890).
shnkhoa
X mfbr uj xLahF. j
thif RHbfd X KJbfY, uj cR
bfhRfS Unjhfshf njitgLwd. kj
clD it nghnuhnrhL vD iy EiHwd.
mdy bfhRf tiw kjfilna guwd. Plasmo-
dium vivax, P. falciparum, P. malaria, P. ovale vd ehFtif
shnkhoaf kj nehlhfyh.
shnkhoa thif RH kjf iliy
Unjhfsht. bfhRf iyahd Unjhf. uL
lfY shnkhoa thif ntWghLf cL.
kj fG RH - irn[hf
kj clD shnkhoa thif
wtgQ RH, mftgQ RH vd U iyfSL.
wtgQ RH fuY, mftgQ RH uj
tgQfYkhf fG.
35
wtgQ RH
RH ekJ fu brfD ghyh dbgUf
Kiwah fG. Mufzfhd ftot
nghnuhnrhLf mdy bfhRfodh ekJ clD
EiHwd. EiHj ekJ uj Xl rnwwFiwa 30
lf RWwd. it fu cwKs buoFnyh
vnlha brf jFwd.
nghnuhf
iknuhnf

fhnlhf

Cifd fUKil
khnuhfh
iuig

ngh njhw nghnuhLf

c Ru c z g h i j

ir[hL
c ehs
Kiu nkhu
nuhnrhL fu
mftgQ iy
br

..m

irn[hf nlh-nuhnrhLf

nlh irrhL

gl. 1.3.1 knyah xL thif RH

fu it nlhnrhL fshf cUbgWwd.

iy bfoahd cfUl cl wf, Ff
yhk it bjgL. mf ms czQ
nlhnrhLf js brfis u msF
36
 shnkhoa thif RH (knyah xL)
kj fG RH - irn[hf

bfhR c

nghnuh nrhLf

fu - K (m)
nlh nrhLf
wtgQ RH
nlh - nuhnrhLf

onuhnghnrhLf
mgh iy
mftgQ RH uj shkh Kiu nkhu iy
akhd jhFj ir[hL

nuhnrhLf

nfnlh irLf

bfhRD RH - nghnuhf (m) uh RH

uj
nfnlhirLf

nfLf (M : iknuh)
(bg : khnuh)

irnfh

fUKil (Cifd)

CL

nghnuhnrhLf

L kjD

37
bgjhwd. iy it nlh-irrhL vdgL.
brf gythf J (irnrhf) Ea nlh-
nuhnrhLfshf uj fywd. t xU y L a
fu brfD EiHayh. kwit ujYs t
mQfD EiH. j fu jF fhy 7 - 17 ehfshF.
mftgQ RH
tgQfSF EiH nlh-nuhnrhLf
mFs bghUfis czth bfhwd. it mgh
iy id bgWwd. iy it onuhnghnrhLf
vdgLwd. j ika njhW EF cfUit
XuF jL. nkhu mikila iyF Kiu
nkhu iy vW bga. j it EFia HJ
ms bgjh irrhL iyia bgWwd.
irrhLf gythf sJ nuhnrhLfshwd.
it KW tgQ Rtiu J shkh
btgLwd. tWl btgL fbghUf
(nkhnrh) fhrYF fhuzkhwd. nuhnrhLf
L tgQfis jhfyh. jF cneh gut (Au-
toinfection) vW bga.
j uj fG RHF nfhif RH
myJ irnrhf vW bga. bjhlU RHfsh
xLf vif mfF. gy RHfSF y
nuhnrhLf nfnlhirLfshf cUbgWwd.
khnuh-, iknuh- vd Utif nfnlhirLf njhW.
khnuhnfnlhirLf cfU aJ. irnlhshr
mlj czL. iknuhnfnlhnrhLf cfUf
bgait. irnlhshr bjthdJ. it X bfhRD EiHj
ntL.
bfhRD RH - nghnuhf
ujij cRgit bg bfhRfshF. bg
mdhy bfhRf shnkhoafis guwd. knyah
nehw xUt ujij cR bfhRfSD
shnkhoa midJ iyfS brY. UD
nfnlhirLf kLnk bfhRD iHF. kwit
mJL. nfnlhirLf khWjfisilJ nfLf
vD dbgUf brfshwd. jF nfnlhf vW
bga.
38
nfnlhf (Gametogony)
f bfhR czghij fG. iknuh
nfnlhirLf cfU gythf sJ irnlhshrK
tilwJ. jdh f to gy iknuhnfLf njhW.
fF vshnsr (exflagellation) vW bga.
khnuhnfnlhirL KailJ bg dbgUf
bryhwJ.
dbgUf brf xUiz nghnuhf
bfhR iuigD iknuhnfL, khnuhnfL
izwd. ntis mt cfUf xWl xwhf
fyJ Lwd. fF f(Syngamy) myJ
dbgUf brf xUiz vW bga. f
njhW iz brF fUKil myJ irnfh(Zygote)
vW bga.
fUKil efU jikilaJ. vdnt jid efU
fUKil(Ookinete) vdyh. iuig Rtiu JisJ
bttU fUKilahdJ mRt btw xobfhL
jid R X L ciwia mikF. iy
mfUKilia CL(Oocyst) vdyh.
Co cfU bjhlJ til. jdh gy Ea
ftot nghnuhnrhLf njhW. W L ciw
mtjh nghnuhnrhLf bfhR clF btl
gLwd. it clD efJ bfhR c RuD
brW j Lwd. bfhR ntbwhUtiu fojh
mbrf mtuJ ujD EiHJlyh. tif gutYF
cbrYj (inoculation) Kiw vW bga.

knyah tiff
shnkhofsh njhW neh knyah fhr.
neh bjhlJ ilbtf (L L) fhr VgL.
fhr gy k neu Ufyh. uj tgQUJ
nuhnrhLf btgL ntis uj bfhlgL eR
bghUfns fhrYF fhuz.

shnkhoa ehF tiffSL. mitf neh

wD ntWgL.
39
 shnkhoa gy tiff

t. v shnkhoa tiff VgL fhr

1. shnkhoa itth a Fiwj knyah
fhr
2. . ghghu Fj ghig VgLJ
fhr
3. . knyah ehF ehfSF xUKiw
VgL fhr
4. . Xntny _whtJ ehf njhW
fhr

shnkhoa thif RH fhzgL

gy gotf (m) gUtf

t. v gof fhzgL lf

1. nghnuhnrhLf kj uj Xl

2. nlhnrhLf kj fu

3. onuhnghnrhLf kj uj

4. myh got kj uj tgQf

5. d nkhu got kj uj tgQf

6. nuhnrhLf kj uj tgQf

7. khnuh nfLf bg bfhR t

8. iknuh nfLf bg bfhR t

9. fUKil bg bfhR t

40
1. shnkhoa itth(Plasmodium vivax) - jdh njhW
fhr _W ehfSF xU Kiw VgL. jid a Fiwj
knyah fhr vdyh.
2. . ghghu(P. falciparum) - it ka nuif ehLf
mf csd. t fhr Fj ghig VgLjyh.
knyahdh w nelyh. it jF uj
tgQf a uj FHhf milid VgLJ.
jdh cSWf ghgilwd.
3. . knyna(P. Malariae) - it cl EiHtjh ehF
ehfSF xU Kiw fhr njhW.
4. . xntny(P. ovale) - Mfh, bj mbkfh ehLf cs
tif bjhlJ _whtJ ehf fhr njhW.
nkFl ehF shnkhoafS mik, thif
RHfhd fhy ms Mat khWgoUF.
knyah neh fLghL
1. nehWtUF thuz
shnkhoaf veR cgia ekJ uj
Ltiy. vdnt jL Kiwah nehia jLfayhJ.
ekJ cl cs gy iyf shnkhoafis mgjfhd
kUJ bghUfis cbfhsyh. nfhdh kugilfUJ
ilF bfhdh kUJ flJ 300 MLfshf gagho
csJ. kUJ bghUis mogilahf bfhL ghYo,
ml, fnkhF, FnshnuhF, bunrh, ghkhF vW
gy kUJ bghUf cg bragLwd.
2. neh jL
knyah neh jL U tiff mikayh.
(i) ghJfh Kiwfshf bfhRtiy, bfhRf btWF
ff, RUf Matiw gagLjyh.
(ii) jfhghf shnkhoafis bfhY kUJ bghUfis
dnjhW cbfhsyh. jdh nghnuhnrhL myJ
nuhnrhL iyf mit mJLwd.
3. neh gufis fLgLJj
neh gufsha bfhRfis xgj _y knyah nehia
KYkhf fLgLjyh. njs rhfil f J
bfh kUJfis bjgj _y bfhR yhthfis
mfyh.
41
 bfhRfis mf DDT, khyah nghw kUJ
bghUfis o gagLjyh. igu rh nta
bghUsh ifLj, M bfhRfis kyLfshFj nghw
KiwfS eilKiwYL. bfhRf th yhthfis
mtiw cQ fhah, byl nghw fis e
iyf tsgj _y fLgLjyh.

kh yF 2. kG
bjhF - mdlh
t F - nlhnghlh
tir - Mnfhlh
c - yhnlh khoia
kGf Uis Uit. it gf ntis
JisfD xUJ u cz njLwd. mit thG
Jisf kiH uh udh kLnk it kQF nkyhf
bttUwd.
w mik

nuhnlha
KJFw Jis

kyJthu
KG mik
z jo cl EK
nuhnlha th
bgnlha

6 J
8 bfhig
10 KJFw Jis Jthuf

14 14 ml ehs
z jo Jthuf
17
18 M
dbgUf
cl
Jthuf
Kf
nk mik mik

gl. 1.3.2. kG wnjhw

42
 bj ah fhzgL kGf bghJthf
yhnlh khoia(Lampito mauritii) dij rhjit. t
cl L, cUis to, Ugf rk jikl fhzgL.
Gf 8 Kj 21 br sK 3 Kj 4 jokD cilait.
G KJFw mlahd gG wK tW w
bt jikKL. j cl gy flfshyhdJ. cl
flf il flil tgsf cL. tif
clfl id cl cwY fhzyh. cw
flfSilna brl(Septum) vD ilRt cL.
midJ clflfS xj mikilait. tif cl
mikF bklhbkr vW bga.
Kj clfl ika th JissJ. Kj
clflF bgnlha (Peristomium) vW bga. th
K w K cjL myJ nuhnlha (Prostomium) vD
L. cl fil fl kyJthuKsJ. jF
oa (Pygidium) vW bga. Kj Gf 14 Kj 17 tius
flf izJ joJsd. jF zjo myJ
isbly (Clitellum) vW bga.
cl EK
cl RtYs a Ff Ea tisj cl
EKf csd. mFfSF EK bfh Ff vW
bga. Kf cliy RY mikJsd. it ifo vD
bghUsh Mdit. t ikagF gUJ UKidf
FW mikJsd. Kf to csd. jirf
cjah Kfis l cGf aY. Kf
lbga cjwd.
wJthuf
(i) KJF wJisf: Ea Jisf cl nk w
ika fl ilgsf mikJsd. 10tJ cl
flfUJ bjhlJ csd. clF ut Jthu
tna btna cliy eidJ EQfUJ
ghJfh jUwJ.
(ii) Jig Jthuf: 6-7, 7-8, 8-9 Ma clflf
il mowkhf _W izJthuf csd. Kj
Gf tiw v fhzyh.
(iii) ml ehsJisf: it X iz Jisfshf 14 tJ
fl mowYsd.
43
(iv) J ehsJisf: X iz Jisfshf it 18 tJ
fl mowYsd.
(v) be~oaJisf: 14 tJ clflUJ Jt it
gy Ea Jisfshf cl KGtJ gusd.
cl Rt
kG cl Rt <ugirl bkikahdJ.
fl mLFfSL.
o: iw Gs wgil brfsh RufgLwJ.
vbl(Epidermis) myJ wgil : tik XuLF
va Rdh MdJ. Ru brfS cz
brfS cL.
bl: tLF bka iz Rdh MdJ. J
nkYs va brfSF cSs jir brfSF
mojskhf csJ.
jirf: U mLFfshf w tl jirfS c sjirfS
csd.
clF va: Jnt cl Rt cw mLfhF.
tLF clFia RsJ.

of clF
wnjh KJFw
sjir uj FHh
tljir Fl
Fl be~oa
cl EK
Fnshunfh#
tWw uj brf
FHh
csLF brf
tWw eu tl

gl. 1.3.3. kG - FWF btL njhw.

clF
cl RtUF cz FHYFil X mfw
clFL. F izRdhyhd ilRtuh gy
miwfshf fgLsJ. clF utjh uggl
44
Fia RY va csJ. wkw clF ut
gy mghL brfSL. ut KJFw Jisf _y
cl btw gu, njh <ujikia ghJfhF.
jdh njht Rthr vjhwJ. dbgUf brf
clF bfhlgL ehsf tna btnaWwd.
lbga
kGf cl Rtiu RU Ltjh lbgawd.
cl Rt tl jirf RUFjyh cl bkJ
ailwJ. K Kid ailj G jiuia g bfhL
cl gFia GJ bfhS. sjirf RUFtjh
cl s FiwwJ. j cl tl jirfis
sjirfis mLjLJ RU Ltjh efJ brY.
cz brkhd cWgik
th Kj kyJistiu czghij X l FHyhf
mikJsJ. Kj clfl thJissJ. mLJs
thF Kj uL flf mikJsJ. joj jir Rt
bfhl bjhilgF _whtJ, ehfhtJ flfY
csJ. jid RY bjhil Ruf cL. IjhtJ
clfl czFHY MwhtJ fl miuit ig
csd. miuitig cRt ifo ciw cL. l
FlgF miuit igUJ kyJthu tiu gusJ.
czFH nk RtUJ onyhnrh vD ko FlD
mikJsJ. tik Fl cgugsit mfF.

cth
bjhil Ru bjhil
miuitig cz FHh

Fl

gl. 1.3.4. kG - brkhd cW bjhF

45
czl
kYs ka mff bghUf kG
czthF. kQl fyJ cbfhS cz brfgL
cufgL. gaglhj kJf f bghUfSl ehT
fofshf btnaW.
uj Rwik
kG cl U Ka ika uj FHfSL.
mit cz FH nk uj FHh, czFH uj
FHhfshF. nk uj FH uj Kndh XL.
FH Rt RU ailaJ. uj FH
uj ndh XL. 6 Kj 13 clflf nk, uj
FHf vL iz FHfsh izfgLsd. tF
gf jaf vW bga. it ujij nk FHUJ
FHYF flJwd. nk FH cl cWfUJ
ujij bgW. FH cWfSF ujijaF.

cz ghij

KJFw uj FHh

gf jaf

tWw ujFHh

gl. 1.3.5. kG - uj RW cWf

f F cWf
kG f F cWfSF be~oaf vW
bga. it izWfshf clflf csd.
X be~oa, clFD be~nuhnlh vD
Jisdh wJsJ. jid RY af vD
EiHfSL. jidaLJ X Ru gF W X
jirRt bfhl gF cL. WgF be~oa Jis
_y btwJsJ. be~nuhnlhkh nrffgL f
af mirdh ikagFid mil. mF nkY
46
crgl ff fywd. fil be~oaJis tna
f bghUf btnawgLwd.

be~nuhnlh
clfl
FWiH gF
clfl f fhth
clfl

be~oa

gl. 1.3.6. kG - be~oa

be~oaf _W tiffSL. mit bkfhbe~oah,

iknuhbe~oah, bjhil be~oahthF.
f fbfd Fl Rt Fnshunfh# brf
vD w brfSL. it f bghUfis bgW
clFD GJ, be~oafsh btnawgLwd.
eu cW bjhF
bjhil nk eugQuf _isbadgLwd.
it _whtJ clflYsd. ehfhtJ clfl
bjhil eugQ ufSsd. nk- eugQ uf
Xiz bjhil N euizfsh izfgLsd.
bjhil eugQ uUJ Xiz tWw eu tlf
ndh mikJsd. xbthU clflY xU
eugQuf (a pair or one) cL.

_is

bjhilN
euiz

bjhil eugQf w eu tl

gl. 1.3.7. kG - eu cWf

47
 _isUJ bgnlhaF euf brwd.
clflYs eugQ uUJ _W iz euf cl
RtF cWfSF brwd.
bjhL cz cWf, nta cz cWf, btg cz
cWf nghwit cl RtYsd. it tot brfshf
E fSl mikJsd. x czth lgL x
czWf KJFwY Rit, thrid cz cWf c
thYkhf fhzgLwd.
dbgUf cWf
xnu G M-bg dbgUf cWf cL. vdnt
kGf Ughd(hermaphrodites) vdgL. jQf Kj
Kailtjh jfUWj jfgLwJ.
M dbgUf cWf
<iz J RufS, J ehsfS csd. J
Ruf 10tJ, 11tJ clflf csd. it u nghw
fsh mikJsd.

J bfh ig
J ig
J ig d J Ru
J Ru
J ig
ml Ru
J ehs ml ehs
z jo

uhnl Ru uhnl Ru

gl. 1.3.8. kG - dbgUf cWf

uL iz J igfSL. Jfis J
ehsfD brYj U iz J ehs df csd. J
ehsf 18tJ clfl M dbgUf Jthudh
48
bt wJsd. JthuD fy EKf cL.
Xiz uhnl Ruf 18tJ, 19tJ clflf csd.
t Ruut J brfis xUizf gagLwJ.
bjhFfSF bgknlhnghf vW bga.
bg dbgUf cWf

z jo

J igJthu
J ig Jthu
z jo

gl. 1.3.9. kG - z fy EK

X iz ml Ruf 13tJ flYsd.

tfhd ml ehsf 14tJ fl bt wJsd.
_W iz J bfhigf 7tJ, 8tJ, 9tJ flfYsd.
it 6-9 flf btna wJsd. igf
fynghJ bgW jQfis nrf cjwd.

J ig

J Ru
J ehs z
J Ru
J ehs

J ig

gl. 1.3.10. kG - J nr, fUWj

fy nghJ U kGf jiy l khWjyhf
izwd. ntis x jQf mLj G
bfhigD EiHwd. j Gf JL.
isbly gF nk cs Ru brf jfsJ Rudh
49
X joj tisaij njhWwd. kG jdJ cl
mirfsh mtisaij Kneh jL. mntis
ml mQfS bgwgl JbrfS tisaD brYj
gLwd. mtisa cl K Kid J bfhT(Cocoon)
vD tsigahwJ. jD fUWj fG. fUKilfUJ
fUtsdh s kGf njhW.

kh yF 3. Mahr
b j h F - KJF ehf
J i z b j h F - jiy KJF ehf
t i f - Mahr
Mahr, xU a, nghw mikila flth
cdkhF. JizbjhF uhnahnlhkh, Vbkuh
vd U df cL. uhnahnlhkh dF Mahr
vLJfhlhF. KJF ehf mogil gfis
bjthf btgLJ jikah f KaJt
bgWsd.
KJFehf mogil gf:
1. theh KGtJ iyUF l KJF eh
2. KJFw FHtot eu jL
3. bjhil gF gy br sf.
gut:
fl th cfshf it cy gy gFfY
gusd. Fghf kzgu Fj btg flgFf it
thtJL.
thlK thKiw:
cl KKidia bt JU bfhL cliy
kzD ijJ thtJ t tHf. KKidYs
FWiHfsh X RHia VgLJ wDKL. RH
bfhS EQf t czthwd.
ijUF f, y ntisf kzUJ btgL,
clyirth JtJL. VnjD fhuzfsh mRWjgo
it L kzD ijayh.

50
w mik:
xF clYila a cf 4.5 br. sKilait.
UKidfS Tikah, jilahd, l mikila
yFf mik fhuzjh 'yhbry' vD bga
bfhLsd. jF, '<otot' bfhlit vdbghU.
tF jiy iy. cl JLfSL. KJ ikaw
l KJFwJL mikJsJ. JL Kid
thJLghf mfW gu mow tW JLghf
khWgLsJ. JLf f fsh tYbgWsd.
ff thJL iy. cl KgF (2/3 gF gF)
FWF btL njhw Knfhz jik bgWsJ. cl
U gffY bklhu kof njhsd. cl
gF (1/3 gF gF) FWFbtL njhw Kil tot
bfhLsJ. bklhu ko thgFl bjhl
bfhLsJ.

jirJzlf KJF eh nkw f f

th JL
eu eh

kyJthu
tWw f fu bjhil
gh Ru thf
br sf

gl.1.3.11. Mahr

Kw ika d tot thK miw csJ.

jF bto vW bga. jid RY thiwsJ.
iw 22 bkikahd, th f csd. it
thJthuij ghJfhwd.
bto wYs r ika y vD
cWsJ. mj 12 cz f csd. it
bjhilgFD Lsd. th ciw cw
FWiHfis (af) bfhl a th nghw f
csd. t mirdh thneha X nuhl njhW.
nkY tir X rfu RHia xUF. vdnt WF

51
rfu cW vW bga. th _o nkw EiHf
bfhl X gs cL. mjF Ahbr gs vW bga.
thJL Kw kyJthuKsJ. kyJthunk Va
Jis xWsJ. Jis Va miw JisahF.
Va:
br sf neuoahf bt wfhk
bjhil kW cl RtF il cs Va vD
miwD wJsd. cl gf Rtuh NHgl tiw
cRt wgil Rf csd. tiw bjhil
gFid kW gftho NJsJ. tiwahdJ
clFF gyhf njha miwnghWsJ. btwkhf
Va Jisf _y tiw wJsJ. brf kz
goJlhk tiw ghJfhF.
cl Rt:
clRt x CLU jikl f bkikahdJ. J
bt vbl kW c vblrh MdJ. vbl XuLF
va brf csd. mt cz brfS xU br
RufSKL. bl btwkhf izR cwkhf
ehfSila kh gFKsJ. F uj FHfS eu
KofS mikJsd. bl mo iknahnlhf (m)
iknahaf vdgL jirJlf csd. jir
KJFw joJ mow bkJ csd.

vbl
o
eu
uj ehsf

eu
r-o

gl. 1.3.12.Mahr - clRt

52
clF:
Va miw fbga msdh nyh vD clF
f FWajhf mikJsJ.
clrlf:
clrlf KJF eh RdhY b#yho bghUshY
MfglJ. KJFeh cliy jhF Ka mik. w
mfrlf mikf th, JLf, bjhil mikf
csd.
czghij:
cl gs gF th mikJsJ. th
gFahdJ gftho xLa bjhilD wJsJ.
bjhil Rt UwY gy br sf (180) csd.
bjhil gFUJ njhW FWa, FH tot ilFl
(m) FlgF ndh kyJthu tiu LsJ. Fl
w X bga fu mikJsJ. bjhil
gF nk, guf ikaf U tgsf
mikJsd. mit Kiwna bjhil nktgs tgs
(m) vnlhil vdgL. nktgs FlgF Kotil.
tgs ehF jlfshf nfhiHRubrf cL.

KJFw ff

jir Jlf
eu eh
KJFeh
tWw jk

bjhil nk tgs

KJFw clF
bjhil
gh Ru
fu
bklhu ko
vnlhil

gl.1.3.13. Mahr - bjhilgF F.bt. njhw

53
 jlfSF il FWiHbrf mikJsd.
Rubrfsh njhW nfhiHbghUshdJ cz bghUf
xobfhs VJthditahF. Kw vnlhilY
bjhil nktgsK uL FWiH jlfsh
izfgLsd. jlf th w bjhilia
Rsd. jlfSF bjhil N gilf vW bga.

f
jirJlf
eu eh

KJF eh
KJFw jk
clF
Fl
jk
Va
f

gl. 1.3.14.Mahr - Fl gF F.bt. njhw

bjhilnktgs

bjhilF

br s
br jL
Va
Va
vnlhil
bklhqu kof

gl.1.3.15. Mahr - czl Kiw

54
czl Kiw : jJtU EQfis Mahr
czthf bfhwJ. czl nghJ bjhlj nuhljh
thD EiH VaJis tahf btnaW.
nuhlkhdJ rfu cW, br jL, cz nghw
cWf FWiHfsh fG. th w cs RH cW
czf kzJffis tofl cjwd. vnlhil
nfhiHbghU bfhS czbghUf gy
FWiHf mirdh FlgFid brwilwd.
brkhd FlgF fG. fu njhW
behbghUf brkhd cjwd. eLFl gFnyna
brfgl cz crgLjY eilbgW.
Rthj : br sf tahf btnaWif 02 kW
Co 2 lkhw fG. br jLfD cs ujJl
bt M# fyF. njnghW fhg-il-MirL
btnaW.
uj RW cWf :

btbrY ehsf
fhoa iu
Fnta ehs
gf jk ika KJFw ujFH

czghij
ujFH
czghijUJ
tU uj jJf

czghijUJ
tU iuf
fu Fliu
jk
c brY fu nghl iu fu iu
ehsf

gl. 1.3.16.Mahr - uj RW cWf

MahrF wgilj ja iy. Rthr wfS

iy. vdnt uj wkwJ. vnlhil w X
ika RUF FH ( jk) cL. jk cl Kw W
jJfshf KotilJsJ. jkUJ iz uj
FHhf brfD EiHJsd. tF br nehF
55
uj FHf vW bga. brfUJ uj br F
uj FHhf tna btna bjhil gF Uw
cs tyJ, lJ uj FHhf Kotil. gf uj
FHhf ndh brW izJsd. bghJ uj
FHhF, ika KJFw uj FH vW bga. FH nkY
ndh brW gy jJfshf FlgF KotilJsJ.
Fl kW cl wUJ, ujid Fl cs
Flyo ujFHh bgWwJ. FHh Kndh brW
fu Kotil. jF fu nghl mik vW
bga. fuUJ njhW iu jk KotilwJ.
cl Uw Kidf, jirf kW clRtUJ U fhod
uj FHhf ujid bgWwd. it jkl
izJsd.

f F cWf:

brhyndhirLf

gfthL Kid beoaf

btw be~oa Jisf

Kid be~oa

Kjiy jL (clF)

ulh iy jL

Kjiy brjL

gl.1.3.17. Mahr - ff cW

56
 Mahr f F cWf be~oaf vD
izWfshF. (90 izf) it wgil cWf. it
izfshf bjhilgF UwY cs gf
clRt mikJsd. X be~oa tisj FH tot _oa
mikghF. xbthU FHY K, kW gfthL
fSL. K br jo clFD mikJsJ.
FHYF wJis iy. gfthL clF
nkw mikJsJ. neuoahf btw, be~oa
Jisf _y wJsJ. be~oa U fY Rl
brf (m) brhyndhirLf mikJsd. xU be~oa 500
brhyndh irLf Ufyh. clw brhyndhiro cw
l firiH mikJsJ, it clFUJ
fbghUis bjLwd. UJfbghU
VaD bfhlgL Va Jis tahf btnawgL.

eu cW bjhF:

jLtl nkgF ikaeuFH mikJsJ.

jiyKj thtiuLs FH eufhthD
mikjsJ. j nkw x nk tgs csJ. _is,
jLtl nghw bjthd cWf iy.

dbgUf cW bjhF:

Mahr xU gh cahF, UD it w
mik M, bg ntWghLf bfhoUgiy. t
cl 26 iz dbgUf cWf cL, W ig nghw
mikila Wf ilgilUJ njhWwd.
tF dbgUf ehsf iy, dbgUf cWf
Va miwD ilfshf mikJsd, dbrf
Kailjl Wf btoJ mbrf Va
miwD bfhlgL. mit VaJis tna btnaW,
fUWjY fUts fl fK

57
 kh yF 4. wh
J i z b j h F - KJbfYf
tF - gwitf
t i r - bfhygh
t i f - bfhygh ah
gwitf cl KGtJ gwbjYbfd khWgLsJ.
it gwbjYbfd wFf, myF, fh mik nghwtiw
bgWsd.
whf gwF wDila gwitf(nfndLf). it
btg, F ehLf gutyhf thwd. a whf
VwFiwa 10 wdf cL. ts whf panter, fantail, tum-
blers vd gy tiffSL. it midJ bfhygh ah vD
tif t tjit. it jHf kwh, khlwh, nfh wh
vd gy tiffshf milahs fhzgLwd.

fGJ
th wF

wif

KG mik fh

myF tis
ef
a
u
jiy

fh
gl. 1.3.11. wh - w mik

58
 whf ftot cilait. t ms 20-25 br
MF. clyhdJ jiy, fGJ, eLl, th vD gFfSilaJ.
cUil tot jiygF Kw Tikahd myF
gFia bfhLsJ. myFf nkw joj
uhnghfh (rhampotheca) vD ciw cL. nk my
mow xU iz ehJthuf csd. mtiw RY
a(cere) vD gUj njh gF csJ. X iz ff cL.
ff rW bgait. ff ghJfhF nk ikfS
onlo r(nictitating membrane) vD bkglyK csd.
ff w xU iz brJthuf cL. it cshf
brgiw wJsd.
l fGJ cL. eLl gF Xiz wiffS
fhfS csd. cl Kid bghJftiw Jis
(cloaca) mjid bjhlJ thgF csd. th gF
nuha Ru(uropygeal gland) vD vbz Ruf csd.
it RuF vbz bghU wFfis mydh L
ghJfhf cj.
wFf
Kdfhfns gwitf wiffshsd. nk
if, eLif, if vd _W gFfSL. if _W u gFf
cL. wif gwfhj ntisf wiff cl gftho
Z to koJ mikJsd. Kw nkif, eLifia
izF njh gFF Kglha myJ myh gly vW
bga. nj nghW w nkifia clYl izF njh
gFF glha vW bga.
nk if vY
Mu vY Kif vY
Myhah

Kj iy wFf
ulh iy wFf
gl. 1.3.12. wh - wif wF mik
59
 wh gwfhj ntis cl vilia fhf jhFwd.
cliy uhf WJ tif(to balance) wiff rW Kwkhf
bghWjgLsd. fhf bjhilgFf cl
tlFshfnt mikUgJ X w mikghF. fhf
ehF uf cL. Kj u ndhsJ. fh gF
brf mikJsd. uf E tiseff csd.
cl th gF l th wFfsh NHgLsJ.

wif

Kglha
bgUu
cl
glha
Fnshnafh
th

gl. 1.3.13. wh - wF fglJ

wrlf
wFf wnjh khWghLfshF. it bjhlJ
JfgLwd. nknjh Fl Kiw wFf
mikfgLsd. it mikJs nfhoF blny(pterylae)
vW bga. ilbtgFfSF VOah(apteria) vW bga.
cl 3 tif wFf cL. mit wif wFf,
cUt wFf, iH wFf MF.

wif wF (Quill feather)

j ika X mRgFsJ. j nk gFF

uh(rachis) vW gFF F myJ fyhk(quill or cala-
mus) vW bga. F gF w mf (infe-
rior umbilicus) vD JissJ. jtahf wFfSfhd uj
FHf EiH. rW nkw nk mf JissJ.
j mU bkikahd wFgF (aftershaft) csJ. wF
gw uh mikJsJ. Ys izfshd fSF
iHf myJ ghf (barbs) vW bga. iHfns wF guig

60
mikwd. iHf UwY gh (barbules) vD
EiHfS mtiw xWlbdhW bghWJ bfhfS
csd.

uh gh
gh
bfh

ghf

wF gu gh ghfS

mR
nk mf

F (m) fyhk
mf
wif wF iHwF
iH wF

gl. 1.3.14. wh - wF tiff

wif 23 wif wFf csd. nkif

izJs 11 wFf Kj iy wFf vdgL. eLif
cs 12 wFf ulh iy wFfshF. th gF 12
wFf cL. it to izfgLsd.
cUt wFf rW ait, bkikahdit. t
EiHf bghWJ bfhf iy. it cl
btgij ghJfhF. iH wFf f bkikahdit. E
iHf iy.
mf rlf
gwitf mf rlf Fiwj vill tYthdJ.
vYfD k{i# iy. mit fhwh uggLsd. vdnt
tF fhbwYf vW bga. gy vYf iz
Jsjh vYf vif FiwthfntsJ. vYf
xUiz rlfF tYLwJ.

61
gwj jirf
gy iz jirf wiffSl izJ cjwd.
bgnlhuh nk#(Pectoralis major) it bgU kh jirfshF.
cl vil I xU gF cilait. t afjh
gwjnghJ wiff wf VgL. bgnlhuh
ikd (Pectoralis minor) it rW skhd a jirfshF.
itf afjh gwjnghJ wiff nknyw
VgL. nfhunfhuhah(Coracobrachialis) W jirf
wiffis wf cjwd.
cz brkhd cWf
th jhilf khWgL myFfshsd. tik
gf iy. c th jiugF izj FWfyhd
Knfhz tot ehF cL. eh nk w joj njhY Rit
mUfS cL. wkhf cth FWfyilJ bjhil
gFahsJ. gwitf th c Ruf iy.
tHtHghd bghUis RuF _W Ruf thD csd.

jiy

czFH

ig
fu
nuhbtoFy
fu ehs miuit ig
K W Fl
fza ehs
a fza

kyFl
nfhnuhoa
grh ghia nuhoa Fnshnafh
nuhnlhoa

gl. 1.3.15. wh - brkhd cWf

62
 czFH bjhil gF JtF. bjhilia
mLJ l czFH fGJ gF cL. FH
gF mfW ig njhsJ. ig Rt
jikilaJ. jD nfhiH Ruf csd. igid
mLJ iuig cL. iuig U gFfshf mikUF.
KgF nuhbtoFy(proventriculus) vdgL. uz
Ruf csd. jidaLJ miuitig csJ. ig Rt
joj jirRt bfhlJ. mj cRt joj njh gFsJ.
miuitigD W ff csd. tik czit eF
miuf cjwJ. j ig xUmiuit nghW
bragLtij fhzyh. miuitigid bjhlJ Fl
gFsJ. KFl gF Utot onahod(duodenum) MF.
tisj FlgF a(ileum) vdgL. a Ko gF
bgUFl myJ kyFlyhsJ. kyFl bghJftiw
Jis tna bt wJsJ.
Fnshnafh(cloaca) vD bghJftiw _W a
miwfSL. mit Kiwna Kw nfhnuhoa(coprodaeum), eLw
nuhoa(urodaeum), w uhnlhoa(proctodaeum) MF. kyFl
nfhnuhoa wJsJ. W uf dbgUf ehsf
nuhoa KotilJsd. uhnlhoa KJF gf grh
ghia vD Ruig cL. uhnlhoa bt wJsJ.
cz ghij uz Rufshf fuY fizaK
mikJsd. fu U fJfSilaJ. tyJ fJ bgaJ, lJ
aJ. fu jig iy. fu njhW U j
ehsf neuoahf jjna onahod wJsd. onahod
tis gF cs fiza ehsf _W onahod Ko
gF wJsd.
Rthr cWgik
gwjYF bjhlJ mf ms M# njit. mjid
bgL tif Rthr cWf wgik bgWsd. Rthr
cWfshf bt ehJis, bjhil, Futis, RthrFH,
Eiupu mikJsd.
nk my mow U w ehJisf csd. it
mf eh Jisfsh bjhil gF wJsd. cth
bjhlahf cs sho(glottis) vD gF bjhilD
wJsJ. bjhilia bjhlJ _RFH csJ. cUis tot
_RFH, fGJ gFYsJ. khgiw _RFH Fu x
bglfkhf(syrinx) mfWsJ. j U _R is
63
FHf csd. it uL U EiupufD EiHwd.
_RFH, isFH Mat Rt tYL
FUbjY tisaf csd. EiupufD _R
isFHf mLjLJ gy Ea FHfshsd. E
FHf Ko f Ea fhW jJfshsd.

fGJw fhWig _R FH
xbgo
nkif vY fhwiw
fhiu vYil fhwiw
Eiupu
kh w fhwiwf

tWw fhwiw

gl. 1.3.16. wh - EiupuY fhwiwfS

Eiupuf lkhd flgR nghw cWf. it yh
vYfSl xosd. EiupuYs _R is FHf
y vYf fhwiwfSl bjhl bfhLsd.
EiupufSl bjhlila xgJ fhW igfSL. mit
Kiwna ika njhgil ig, Xiz fGJ igf, <iz
kh igf kW Xiz tW igfshF. fhW igf
cl btgij mfJ cl vilia Fiwf cjwd.
jdh gwj vjhwJ.
Rthr Kiw
gwitf bt Rthr Kaah kLnk VgL.
cRthr vaJ. jhnd fG. gwfhj ntisf vYil
jirf, tW jirf afjh khbgY Rthbfd
ca jhjgLwJ. gwF ntis wiffis
jhs khbgYfis afayhJ. wiff nk-
affshY KJbfY mirfshY gwF ntis
Rthr fG.
uj RW cWgik
wh ja uL Mf, uL bto
f vd ehF miwf csd. jdh M# bgw,

64
Hj ujf ja fyf thiy. jdh gwitf
jkf t uj XlK iuf t uj XlK Jsd.
wh jkbjhF:

jkf
nua jk
kh jk
bgauw jk
l jk
rnsa jk

Eiupu jk

clF Fljh jk
KJFw bgUjk nk Fljh jk

ku jk
Wuf jkf raho jk

ah jk
rl jkf
th jk
gl. 1.3.17. wh - jkf
jaUJ ujij vLJ brY uj ehsf
bjhF jk bjhF vdgLwJ. ja RU jyh
cUthF, cJ iria jhF bghUL jkf
jirfisbfhL cWahf totikfgLsd. jaUJ
ujij vLJ brY jkf f Kakhdit Eiupu
jk kW l jk Mtd. tyJ btUJ Eiupu
jk btna ulhf J U EiupufSF brwJ.
Eiupuf uj Mfuz bragLwJ.
l jk tyJ mbaho tis xU gFahf
cUthwJ. J lJ btUJ Mfuz bragl
ujJl btnaWwJ. gwitf lJ mnaho tis
65
fhzgLtiy. tyJ lJ vd U bgayh (innominate) jkf
bljkUJ iswd. xbthU bgayhjk
fnuho kW rnsa jkfsh wJ. UwK fhzgL
rnsa jkf, nua kW khjkfshf
wd, jkfsh kh jirfSF gwj jirfSF
uj gjfgLwJ. fnuho jk jiygFfSF
ujij tHFwJ.
l jk nkY fhwkhf L KJFw
bgUjkahwJ. jjk tW cSWfSF
fhgFfSF ujijbfhLwJ. jkUJ
isF Ka jkf tUkhW.

1 . clF cljh jk kW K Fljh jk;

it czFHYF kw cSW fSF ujij
bfhLwd.
2 . Wufjk W uffSF tHFwJ.
3 . ku jk L tisa jirfSF, bjhil
btgFfSF mwJ,
4 . raho jk bjhil c gFfSFjUwJ.
5 . ah jk L gFF bfhLwJ.
6 . rl jk gf cSWfSFjUwJ.
7 . thjk thgFF bfhLwJ.

iu bjhF:

gntW cWfSF bttU iuf gythwhf izJ

U K nftfshf xU nftyhf, tyJ Mf
tJ Kowd. thwhf cl btbtW ghff
nrffgl uj W t tahf tyJ Mis
tjilwJ.

th gF uj th iu tahf Wuf nghl

iu brYjgLwJ. nghl iuf xbthW
Wuffis CLU brW ~bgku iul izwd.
fh gFfYs uj mgF aho iu tahf
Wufnghl iu izfgLwJ. Wufnghul
iuahdJ U Wuf iufis cUthwJ.
66
 fGJ iu

nua iu
kh iu

K nft iu

nft iu

fu iuf fu nghl iu
vfho iu

~nkhu iu ah iu

raho iu

Wuf nghl iu
c ah iu
th iu

gl. 1.3.18. wh - iuf

eu bjhFaik
wh _is K-, il-, _isf vd _W
gFf bjw csd. bgU _is miu nfhsf v
fhzToa _is gFf. it bga, nfhstot gFf. K
Kid Ef fJf fait. brbgy(cerebellum)
vD W_is Kndh Lsjh ila~gyh (dien-
cephalon) vD il_is gF kiwJsJ. ila~gyh
nk w a cW mow l
Rukhf mikJsd. ghit fJf _is
gffYsd. _is KFs w mikJsJ.

67
 ghit fJ
Ef fJ W_is
bgU_is
miunfhs
W_is
ghit fJ
shFy
KFs KFs
ghit ifahkh
nk mik
gf mik
gl. 1.3.19. wh - _is

cz cWf

nfhuhL ciw
I uho ciw
fhah
mFt miw iu
byR bgl
f eu
uho jL
a
gl. 1.3.20. wh - f
whf Ef cz wwiy. btfhJf iy.
brgiw njh gF rW ijJ mikJsJ.
wh ff bgait. gwj nghJ ffis
Rs uho jLfS ff nk gu onlo
glyfS ffis ghJfhwd. f utD cs w
F bgl vW bga. ughit bgl cjtyh vD
fUJ cL.

Wuf dbgUf cWf

wh f F cWf Xiz WuffshF. it
tj, _W fJfSila cWf. W ehsf tna
jjahf U WuffS nuhoa wJsd. W ig
iy. ieu# f btik w mykhf
fgLwJ.
68
 ml Ru
J Ru
ml ehs z
Wuf

W ehs
J ehs ml ehs

J ig
kyFl ml ehs
Fnshnafh
M bg
gl. 1.3.21. wh - Wuf, dbgUf cWf

Ra kL
gF - m
ca giy njbjLf
1. 2002 ML n#hAdbg elj c kheho
mogil jiy
m) xnu M) ekJ bghJthd tUfhy
) bjhlJ jhF <) r njit uridf
2. dt bjhlfis tifghoa mKfgLat
m) Fa M) yhkh
) rh lh <) da
3. uL myJ mjF nkgl mayh xU cia
ntWgl bgafsh FLtJ
m) xtot xj brh M) xU bghU gbkh
) kila bga <) bgaL Kiw
4. bfhLfglitf ngh clF bfhlit vit
m) jilGf M) tis jirGf
) bkYlf <) cUis Gf
5. IJ nguuR nfhgho l bgauhjit
m) irf M) ituf
) F jhtuf <) ghoahf

69
6. bfhLfglitf uj G vJ
m) nlhnlhkh M) oah nrha
) ngnahyh <) Mnf
7. vj bjhF KjKj jiy cUthf eilbgwJ.
m) fQfhf M) tisjir Gf
) bkYlf <) Knjhf
8. fhgtW, tisjir Gfis, fQfhfis
izghykh fUjgLwJ.
m) uh M) fugh
) bgngl <) yf
9. Knjhf bfhl w g
m) TL ff M) clFaw mik
) Ugly mik <) uj ehs bjhF
10. kilnahlw c vJ
m) f M) gwitf
) KJeh cf <) nuhfhnlLf
11. f flf fhzgL cl jirfis thW
miHfyh
m) iknahnlhf M) bk jirf
) vY jirf <) cSW jirf
12. fhgitf vit njhw tifia rhjit
m) U thf M) Ctd
) ghof <) f
13. Mnah cf fhzgL g
m)ehF fhf M) U thjik
) ml glyf <) cUkhw
14. fhgitf ghof fhzglhj g vit
m) cjujhd M) tyJ kfhjk tis
) gh Ruf <) fhgfnyhr
70
15. shnkhoa bjhW bfhl iy vJ
m) nlhbrh M) myh
) nghnuhbrh <) nuhbrh
16. kG isbly gF mikJs flf
m) 5 Kj 10 M) 14 Kj 17
) 13 Kj 18 <) 20 Kj 25
17. kG nkw Fl Rt fhzgL jirahyhd ko
m) cjujhd M) il~nyhnrh
) iknahnlh <) xkooa
18. kGf FlRt gF fhzgL nshnuhnfh#
brf g
m) brj M) RH
) f f <) dbgUf
19. nuha Ru, whf _______ gF fhzgLwJ.
m) th njhw M) czFH
) _is <) dbgUf kly
20. gwitf Jis bfhl vYf
m) Enko M) TL vYf
) kilnahL vYf <) tis vYf
21. vif tifghL Kiwia cUthat
m) Fa M) iknf Mlr
) yhkh <) rhy lh
22. tF : iunrhnghlh cslF cf
m) nghfhfSila xU br c
M) fQfhfSila cdf
) EKf
<) KdfhfSila yFf
23. _tLF cdij njbjL
m) iAouh M) kG
) mgh <) tth
71
24. ehlhGf ff eilbgW cW
m) Rlbrf M) be~oah
) Wuff <) br
25. xj mikila flf fhzgLtJ
m) xU br cf M) fQfhf
) tisjirGf <) bkYlf
26. bgngl izF U bjhFf
m) tifjirGf, bkYlf
M) fQfhf, bkYlf
) tisjirGf, fQfhf
<) bkYlf, Knjhf
27. FU Xl fhzgL bjhF
m) Knjhf M) tisjirGf
) bkYlf <) cUisGf
28. MnahLf Wuf tif
m) bklhbe~ M) nrhbe~
) Vbe~ <) nuhbe~
29. Fo <Dgit cs bjhF
m) f M) ghof
) KJFehQsit <) KJbfYf
30. fhyh Uthf
m) jtisf M) njiuf
) rykhlf <) af
gF - M
fa ila
1. cnfhs tiuaW?
2. c tifghoa jij vW mlho miHfgl
fhuz ahJ?
3. c tifghoa gf ahit?
4. _tLF cf vwh vd?
72
 5. bknlhLf bfhL brf vwiHfgl fhuz ahJ?
6. nuhnfh~ngh vwh vd?
7. mnahLf vwh vd?
8. nkikw Ctd vd gwitf miHfgl fhuz ahJ?
9. ghof tiff ahit?
10. iunkLf VjhtJ xU gid FLf?
11. nlh nrhthLf vwh vd?
12. efU fUKil vwh vd?
13. bg~igah knyah vwh vd?
14. gfthL jaf vwh vd?
15. bgl vwh vd?
16. tifghoa - tiuaW.
17. bjhF vwh vd?
18. Kjiyfis Ctd dkhf fUj U fhuzfis
FLf.
19. Flf Uj thiyfis FLf.
20. <uLF c vwh vd? cjhuz bfhL.
21. nfhby mik g W F tiuf.
22. kG fhzgL EKf tiffis FL.
23. kGf _Wtif be~oahfis FL.
24. Fnshnuhnfh# brf vwh vd?
25. F wF g F tiuf.
26. vwh vd?
27. gwF jirf ahit?
gF -
1. ah gY gid sFf?
2. wd d ga btntW nfhghLfis FLf?
3. yd bgaLj mogil fis vGJf?
4. xj d xUiz FpL, xgj FpL ntWgL
cjhuzJl sFf?
5. bjhF mdlh g F tiuf.
6. nuhfhnlLf ga W F vGJf.

73
 7. iunkLf g sFf.
8. knyah tiffis FLf.
9. kGf btw Jisf ga F vGJf.
10. wh gwf cj jirf ga F tiuf.
11. wh ff myJ Wuf kly g F tiuf.
12. be~oa mikig t.
13. kG FWF btLnjhwid neahf tiuJ
ghffis F.
14. wh _is mikig sFf.
15. kG M dbgUf cWbjhFid sFf.

gF - <
thd ila.
1. wd d tiuaW? yFf gntW FGf g
vGJf.
2. tifghoa gntW Kiwfis vGJf.
3. KJF ehQsitf bghJgf ahit?
4. shnkhoa thif RH g vGJf.
5. bfhygh ah btnjhwid tf.
6. kGf dbgUf kly kW dbgUf Kiw
g thf vGJf.
7. wh jk bjhF mikig t.
8. wh bg dbgUf cWbjhF mikig
sFf.
9. kG uz cW bjhF mikig glJl
sFf.

74
 1. gYa
ekJ nfhs gy tifgl cdf
thJtUwd. 5 Kj 30 atif cdf thHyh
vd fzLf bjwd. jnghJ VwFiwa 2.5 a
cdf milahs fhzgL ma Kiwgo
bgalgLsd. t 1.5 a cdf yF
tif rhjitfshF. yFf df kLnk
750,000 MF. cy 350,000 jhtutiff csd. t gy
tif Mfhf, irf, kh tiff kW ca iy
jhtuf mlF. ^, Eu^ gBku[ kV|^,
\V kV N W^, kuuV kVx^
gBkuB _KlB_A (Biodiversity) [VD.

tif khWgl jikfis bfhl gy

cdfS iyJ thjiy cWbrtjF mit thG
lfis RW NHiy bflhk ghJfhj ntL.
cdfsidJ cuw aif NHiy rhJs
KaJtid czJ tif cnfhs (biosphere)
vD fUJU cUthfgLsJ. gbdL fhykhf atU
a kW ca jikfis rhj RW NH bra w
fis cnfhs vD cUtf FL. jifa NH bra
w xWbfhW rhjikfisila gy bkikahd
bjhlf xL bkhj btghlhF. fhW, , yFf,
jhtuf, Ef, kjf vd midJ
xWlbdhW bjhll bra J cid jhF RW
NH njhsJ. cnfhsid mjDila EQfkhd
bra wfSl ghJfhf ntoaJ iwa njitahf
mikjsJ, jifa ghjfhbfd cyf ehLf midJ
xW To gy khdfis iwntsd.

jdogil Ia ehLf rig RW NH

mik kj RWNH Fj gdhL c khehL
xid 1972 ML lh nAh ToaJ. khehL

1
khdf mogil xnu xU vD w bjhl
VgLjgL gulglJ. 1982 ML enuh
RWNH bjhlghd I.eh. fUjuf eilbgwJ. L 1992
c khehL vD fbga fUjhF I.eh. rig rh
nah o b#nuh TlglJ. mkheho e midt
vfhy vD jiy thjf nk bfhsgld.
gjhLf fJ L fbga cyfsyhd khehL 2002
ML n#hfdbg TlglJ. midJ khehLfY
cUy gY jik mjid ghJfhjY
tWjgLsd.

ah gY jik
ah gytifgl cdf cL. cy cs
jhtu tiff 7 % ,yFf 6.5 % ah csd.
Fs yFf 62%, F njh gbdLfhykhf
thJ tUgit. cy Fj gYjik bfhl 12
ehLf ah xwhf milahs fhzgLsJ.
IRC - 1B, 1C, 1D nghw braif nfhfsh mfgl
juf mogil 1999 Mofhd nja tdts mif
btlgLsJ. jgo ah bkhj tdgu 637,293
rJunyh lf vd FlgLsJ. gughdJ
ah bkhjgugs 19.39% MF. 64
a bAnlf mlsd.
a jhtuf 15,000 F jhtuf cL.
mt 1,500 tiff kiwJ L Niy csd.
ghYotif yFf 672 dfshf csd. t 63
tiff m[h gF thJtUwd. ah 1,228
gwit df cL. J cy bkhj gwit vif
13% MF. ah 446 tif Ctd dfS 204 tif
y thfS csd.
cy gytif cdf cs iy mtid
milahs fL bfhS Kiwf njit. milahs fhgJ,
bgaLtJ nghw Kiwf gy MLfshfnt eilKiw
csd. ca tifghL Kiwf yhk fzfw
vif cs yFf jhtufis g ca Kiw
mJ bfhs ayhJ.
2
1.1. tifghL Kiwf
cdfis tifgLJ vzij mlho
(384 - 322 .K) Kj Kjyhf VgLdh. yFfis mt
thKiw, braf, gHff kW clgFf mogil
tifgLjyh vd mt bjjh. jbfd f, f,
gwitf, fyf nghw yFfis t TJ ftJ
tjh. d tLfSfhd nfhahouh,
<fSfhd oouh tirfis njhWjh. fhuzfsh
mt ca tifgho jij vdnghwgLwh.

jfhy tifghoa gid yh #h nu

1627 - 1705 Kj Jtdh. tifgLJj bjhlghd tuJ
gilgha Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini
Generis vD 1693 btlglJ. t yFfis
ujKilait, ujkwit vd tifgLdh. nkY
brf, Eiupuf, tiseff, gf Mat
mogil yFfis tifgLj Kawh. jfSF
dbgUf brgit X d rhjit vD Kiwahd
sfij Kj bjjt t.

l eho fh da (1707-1778) tifghoaiy

nkY nkgLdh. vdnt jh tiu tifghoa jij
vnwh. t 1758 jkJ ff Systema naturae (aif
tifghL) vD iy btlh. t KjKiwahf yF,
jhtu df tifgho wF goiy (hierarchy) Kiwia
njhWjh. yFfis tF, tir, d, wd vD
goiyf iyWdh. yFf jhtufSF t
UbgafL Kiwia VgLaJ Ka fthF.

f mf vif gfis fz bfhL

cdfis tifgLJj ntL vw fUid uhR
eho jhtuayh iknf Mlr (1727-1806) Kiy
gLdh. jdh vrh tifghoa cjakhW.

da njhWj Kiwia nkgLj Kawtf

Kjikahdt yhkh (1744-1829) Mth. ca bjhlghd jdJ

3
vzfis Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres vD
jiy VG jffshf btlh. yFfis gzhk
mogil tifgLdh. yFfis gzhk bjhl
bfhL mt njhWj tiugl X isj jhtu mikig
xUjJ. tif gzhk bjhl mogil
tifgLaJ X a Kiwahf mikjJ.
tifghlik gotfsha cfSF lKL vd
Fa (1769-1832) bjjh. tuJ Kiw yFf ehF
fshd. mit
KJbfYf - f Kj ghof tiuY.
bkhyfh- bkYlf, ghdf.
MoFnylh - unlah, df, y f.
nuonalh - Knjhf, cUis Gf, Flf.
rhy lh Origin of species (dkhj) vD
1859 btlglJ. t gzhk fUJf ey
tuntig bgwd. tifghoaiy gzhkfhd rhwhf
fUJ a vz njhaJ. tifghoayh jfsJ g
KaJtij mjd. gy df cUthd.
1930f ed tifghoa cUthf JtaJ. yd
vif (Population) KaJt bgwJ. . nka (1942) vGa
New Systematics (a tifghlik) tifghL Jiw X
ik fyhdJ. dbgUf bjhlf bfhl cd
Tlfns dbkdgL vd t bjjh. vdnt d
vgJ X Tl vwhdJ. jdh aif Tlf gf
tifghoa KaJt bgwd. nkY elij gf, Fu
x, Niyf, kugf, gut jikf, clbraa, c
nta nghwtiw fU bfhSj njitahdJ.
j ca mogil tifghL (Biological taxonomy)
cUthdJ.

1.1.1. bjhFf, wdf - KDiu.

tifghoa, bjhl bjhFgik, tifgLJ
Kiwf Mait ga bjthd tiuKiwfis tifghoayh
czUj njit. it _W khWgl bghUSilait.
Taxonomy vD nuf _y brh mogil tifghoa
(bjhFa), cdfis tifgLJ bfhiffS KiwfS
bfhl ma vdgLwJ (. nka, 1966).
4
 dbjhl bjhFgik, My Systematics
vdgL. Systema vgjF bjhl mik vw bghUSL.
vdnt aifahd gzhk bjhlf mogil
tifgLJjny dbjhl bjhFgik MF. cdf
tiffis khWghLfis ma mogil M brJ,
df cwKiwfis mtnj dbjhl bjhFgik
MF vd . r (1961) bjJsh.
tifgLJj vD brh tifghL Kiwia kLnk
FL. J X ma JiwaW. ydfis gy
fshf mikjny tifgLJj vd .. r
bjJsh.
bjhF myJ tifghL myF (Taxon)
Fl gf mogil yFf gFf
gLwd. tif VgLjgL f bjhFf myJ
tifghL myFf MF. vdnt X bjhF vgJ jthf
VgLJ tif khWgl gfis bfhl mikghF.
ya tifgho bjhF, tF, tir, FLg, d,
wd nghw gy bjhFf myJ myFf cL. bjhF
Kj wd tiu mikfgLs Kiw wF goiy Kiw
vdgL. xbthU Fl gf
mogilyhdJ. jifa mik Kiw kjuh VgLjglJ.
vD aif jF izahd bjhFf csij
fhQjY btntW bjhFf bghWJjY jtWf
nelyh.
bjhF vgJ X bga bjhFghF. yFyf gy
bjhFfis bfhLsJ. xbthU bjhFia rhj yF
Fl y gfsh Kj iy milahs fhzgLwJ.
gf bjhF
xU br yFf nuhnlhnrhth
Jis clf bgh~bguh (Jislf)
bghJthd cl-uz F byonulh (Flf)
jilGf shobA (jilG d)
nghw Gf knlhlh (cUis G d)
fQfhf Mnuhnghlh (fQfhf)
> \AB [oV (k>o^)
cu^
5
 bkikahd cl gu bkhyfh (bkYlf)
clnjh Kf vifndhblnklh(Knjhf)
KJF eh bfhlit fhnllh
X bjhF yFf ntWgy bghJgfis
bgUfyh. bjhF nkY gy bjhFfshf fgLsJ.
bjhF bjhF bjhF
JizbjhFf (m) (m) bgU tFf
tFf tFf tFf
goiy mik bjhF tFf csd. X
tF cs cWdf y Fl gfsh milahs
fhzgLwd. Kiw bjhF nuhnlhnrhth 4
tFf cL.
tF g
iunrhnghlh nt nghw nghfhf.
nalh afis bgUj.
~shb#nylh firiH bfhlit.
nghnuhnrhth nghf cilait.
X tF, L bgU tirfshfnth myJ
tirfshfnth gFfgL.
tF tF
JiztF
bgU tir (myJ)
tir
tir
tirf X Fl ggh khWgoUF. cjhuzkhf
tF. d 29 tirfshf gFfgLsJ. tirf
xbthW X Fl gdh milahs fhzgLwd.
tir g cjhuz
VOnuh wiffiy bykh (jf)
bynlhouh brfSila wiff tzJ
oouh uL wiff bfhRf
iAdhouh bka wiff Fsf
6
 X tir L gy FLgfshf gFfgL.
tir tir
bgUFLg (myJ)
FLg FLg
xbthU FLgK gy dfis cslaJ. d, L
gy wdfshf gFfgLsJ.
jifa goiy mik wdf Ka
bjhFfshF. wd X aif mikghF. w bjhFf
midJ khWjfSFait. wd X iyahd mikghF.
gzhk khWjf wdf iy jh neL. vdnt
wd Fj fUJf ca KaJt bgWsd.
wd fUJ gotf
Jtf wd vgJ xj gfis
mikid bfhl ydf vd bfhsglJ.
jfhy wd Fj, _W Ka fUJ gotf
VgLsd.
1. tifrhj wd :- fUJ mlho mta
gf bfhlit vD nfhgho mogil mikJsJ.
jgo X wd mj w mik bgWs mta
gfsh milahs fhzgLwJ vdyh.
2. bga rhj wd :- fUgo X wd kjuJ
vzjh VgLjgL bgalgLsJ. nkY aif
wdf vD bjhF njhWtiy. j cfns
cUthwd. vdnt X wd ekJ vz rhj mikghf
bfhsgLwJ.
3. ca wd :- fUgo aif jfSF
dbgUf brJbfhL w yFfUJ dbgUf
jikia bgw X Tlnk d vdgLwJ.

1.1.2. tifghL Kiwf

vif tifghL - ~bgdo Kiw
Kiw X bjhF myJ tifghL myF vgJ X
Tl vdfU bfhsgLwJ. xLbkhj xWikf
mogil df milahs fhzgLwd. jbfd
fzbyLF Tl myF O T U (Operational taxonomic units)
vdgLwJ.

7
 tif milahs fhQj bjhFfSF il
cs xWikfS ntWikfS KaJt bgWwd.
jfhd msnfh 0 Kj 1 tiuyhd FpLfis
bfhLsJ. 1 vgJ KG msyhd xWikia -1 vgJ
ntWikfis FL. Kiw f mf ms juf
(data) njitgL. bjhlila df juf a
Kiwfsh M bragLwd. ff f
cjwd.
1.1.3. bra Kiw tifghL
X br midJ Fnuhnkhnrhfis milahs fL
mikig tF KiwF fhnahil (Karyotyping) vW
bga. Kiw tifghoa cjwJ.
jfSF dbgUf fyf bfhl cdf
xnu khahd Fnuhnkhnrhf mik cL. w dfSl
xLif mik vif khWglyh. jiyHhj,
lkhw nghw Fnuhnkhnrhf wfis fhQ ntis
mj Ka mikig CJ mayh.
1.1.4. nta Kiw tifghL
Kiw virfsh njhWfgL y _yTWf
cjwd. tifgho nuhOfis milahs fhz
ft gut(Electrophoresis), mndh myfis milahs
fhgjF gw tiuglKiw (Chromatography) , Rf
Inrhvirfis xLj nghw Kiwf cL. cf
Fl w Ahnkhf (Pheromones) wf, eRf(Toxins)
cL. itfS X dij milahs fhz cjwd.
1.1.5. bjhYa tifghL Kiw
Kiw gotf milahs fhzgL mt taJ
khfgLwJ. wj KG msyhd gotf il
milahs fhQj vjhF. gy gotf btLnjhwf
nrhjid rhiy VgL gagLJnwh.
gotf, mit ilj l, cl thj w cf
nghw gy fhufis bfhL M bragLwd.
Kiwfsh X got c wd bgaiu khd
brtJ ayhJ. bjhF, tF, tir nghw iyfis tiuaiw
brayh.

8
1.1.6. bgaL Kiwf
ma Kiw bgaLtjh cfis mayh v
milahs fhz aY. jfhya tifghL Kiwf 1753
btahd da (Linnaeus) lkh (Systema) Kj gF
_ykhfnt njhd. da Kiw X c mj d,
wd Mat bgafsh FlgL. j uL
bgafis gagLJ KiwF UbgaL Kiw vW bga.
Kiw Wtiu ca eilKiw csJ.
j bgaLjfhd bghWid gdhL
bghWghik FGf VW bfhLsd. j
ca ma Kiw bgaLtij ffhf gy
bghWghik FGf cL. gdhL ya bgal
Kiw rlfSF cgnl bgal Ko(International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature, ICZN).
bgaL Kiwf rlfshf bjhFfgLsd.
rlfis khW cik ma nguhik fHffSnf
cL.
bgaLt mogil f
1. NlgL bgafSF X iyjik njit. xU
bjhFF X iyahd bga kLnk cL.
2. X bjhFF U bgaf U Kj btahd
bga VW bfhsgL. jF KDik vW bga.
3. Fl ntis X yif mayh khWgl
bgafsh Flh miyF xU bghU gbkh (Synonym)
vW bga. xU bga kLnk Vila bgauhF. KDik
mogil mbga khfgL.
4. U ntWgl bjhFfSF xnu khahf xF
bgaf U mtF xtot xjbrhf (Homonym)
vW bga. j xj xtot brhf giHa brh
KDik bgW.
5. mogil sfbfd gagl c KaJt
bgW. w dfis milahs fhz Jnt mogilahF. jF
kh fUJ got vW bga. jifa fUJ got
mogilnyna dfS wdfS khfgL.

9
 6. da btl Systema Naturae 10tJ g 1758
YF Kghf gagl bgaf ck bgwitaW.
7. ma bgaf y bkhd myJ mbkh
rhjit. bgaf ty rhj W vGJfshf (italics) vGjgl
ntL.
8. d bga (Genus name) xnu thijahf Uj
ntL. mj Kj vGJ bgajhf UF.
9. d bga (Species name) jbgauhfnth myJ
TLbgauhfnth Ufyh. bga a vG JtF.

1.1.7. milahs FpLf

yFfis milahs fhQj tifgLj mogil
gahF. jbfd MfLiuf, f, FpLf, glf,
kh fUJ got xL Matiw gagLjyh. t
FpLfis gagLJj gy lf tHf csJ.
FpLf jffnyh myJ f bk bghUshfnth
mikayh. jifa FpLfis mikj X tifghlhs
Ka gahF.
FpLf J myJ mJ vD mogil uil
gdjhf mik. gagL bkh. j t to f
RUfkhdJ.
FpLf xj d xUiz Kiwnyh myJ
xgj mogilnyh(Indented) mikayh.
X xj d xUiz Fpo tyJw FLs
v MFa mLjLj gfis FL.
xgj Fpo milahs fhgjbfd tirahf gy
gf FLsd.
tU cjhuz j ehoYs ehF tif jtis
dfsha Rana hexadactyla, R. tigrina, R. cyanophlictics and
R. limnochoris.
xj d xUiz FpL (d: Rana)
(1) bga cl, cl s 100 - 200 .................3
(1) a cl, cl s 100 ...............................2

10
 (2) Tj K Kid ..................................................... R. limnochoris
(2) mfW Tj K Kid ..................................... R. hexadactyla
(3) 4 tJ fh u skhdJ ..................................... R. tigrina
(3) 4 tJ fh u aghd sKilaJ ............ R. cyanophlictis
xgj FpL
bga cl
tHtHghd nk njh .............................. R. hexadactyla
kofSs nk njh ............................. R. tigrina
a cl
Tikaw K Kid .................................................... R. cyanophlictis
Tikahd myJ cUl K Kid .................. R. limnochoris

1.2. yd f
1.2.1. yFfis bjhFghF Kiwf
yFfis gy Kiwf J fhlyh. midJ
KiwfY mogil yd bjhFf ghfgLtiy.
bjhFf gy f khaikfgLwd. Kiwf
xnu khahd bjhFfis milahs fhz cjtyh.
I. X giHa Kiwgo yFyid KJbfYgwit,
KJbfYf vd fyh. Kiwid mlho
Jtdh. id nuhfhnllh vD bjhFF
liy.
II. xU br yFf, gy br yFf vd yFfis
fyh. nuhnlhnrhthf xU br yFfshF, gy br
yFf bklhnrhthf vdgLwd. Kiw Rf
yhj flgR cfSfhd l ilgiy.
III. kbwhU Kiw yFf fl bjhFfshwd.
1. nuhnlhnrhth - xU br yFf
2. ghunrhth - Rfyhj gy br yFf (flgRf)
3. bklhnrhth - RfSs yFf
fbga bjhFgha bklhnrhth L U
fshwJ.

11
 nm cl^

clz 1 clz 2 clz 3 clz 4 clz 5

nkhuh nuholh ir shnl mkhah

mkhah (szz)

bjhF : nuhnlhnrhth bklhnrhth

nuholh
(nghJ J yFyF)
v.fh : mgh

ghunrhth
bjhF : bgh~bguh bklhnrhth
v.fh : flgRf

Murk Ugf rk
<uLF cf _tLF cf
bjhF : byonulh
(m) Fl
v.fh : iAuh

clF mwJ bgh clF cf bk clF cf

bjhF : sho bjhF : knlhlh
bAj (m) cUisGd
(m) jilGd v.fh : mfh
v.fh : ehlhG

bjhF : mdlh bjhF : Mnuhnghlh bjhF : bkhyfh bjhF : vif

ndhblnklh
(m) tisjirlf (m) fQfhf (m) bkYlf (m) Knjhf
v.fh. kG v.fh. fugh v.fh. M eij v.fh. eru

fhnllh
(m) KJF ehf
v.fh. v

12
 1. <uLF yFf - cl Rt wgil, mfgil vD
uL mLFfSilait. cjhuz clFilait.
2. _tLF yFf - cl Rt wgil, ilgil,
mfgil vd _W mLFf bfhlit.
clFilait
clFawit
wgil
ilgil
mfgil
clF

gl. 1.2.1 clF

_tLF cf clF mogil L _W

fshf fglyh.
1. clFawit - cjhuz: jilGf
2. bghahd clFilait - cjhuz: cUis Gf
3. clFilait
IV. X mikfhy tifghogo cf IJ nguuRfshf
gFfgLsd. f Mfhf, irf, w
jhtuf Mad mlsd. jF IJ nguuRfshj Kiw
vW bga.
1. cUyF : nkhuh(Monera)
ghOafS irandhghOafS ylF t
irnlhshr tl tot DNA cL. br Rt iughdJ.
bjhF: irandhghOah
bjhF: ghOah
2. cUyF : nuhOlh(Protoctista)
xU br nfnahLf(Eukaryotes) mlF
nuhnlhnrhth, Mfh vd U Jizf csd.
3. cUyF : ir (Fungi)
4. cUyF : shnl(Plantae) (gRjhtuf)
5. yFyF : mkhah(Animalia) gy brfSila fhnaho
yFf.

13
1.2.2. bgUbjhFf
bjhF : nuhnlhnrhth myJ xU br cf (Protozoa)
gytif Ea cf Ysd. it midJ xU
br nfnahLf. f nghfh, FWiHf myJ
iHdh lbga brayh.

vlgh thth ghua

Trypanosoma

gl. 1.2.2 nuhnlhnrhth cf

czl jhfns cz jahgitfshfnth myJ

wtif czfshfnth Ufyh. ghKiw myJ ghyh
Kiw dbgUf cilait. cjhuz. mgh, ghua,
shnkhoa.
bjhF : bgh~bguh myJ Jislf (Porifera)
it midJ thtd. t gy brf UD
cl Rfiy. bjhF rhj flgRf cl gy
tif fhth mikf cL. ghKiw, ghyh Kiwf
dbgUf br ailait. cjhuz. flgRf.

gl. 1.2.3 flgRf

14
bjhF : byonulh myJ Flf (Coelenterata)
midJ FlfS thtd. bgUghY fl
thtd. cl MurkUilaJ. cl Rt wgil, mfgil
vd U mLFf cL. tLFfil nrhah
vD ml TkbghU cL. it <uLF cf vW
FlgL.

cl- uzF

bk^rh
wgil

mfgil

nrhah
gh

cl Rt

gl 1.2.4 Fl - cl Rt

gy Flf gYUt mik(pdymorphism) cL.

bghJthf it gh(polyp), bkLrh (Medusa) vd <UUt
mikilait.
wgil bfhL brf myJ knlhLf (Nema-
tocysts) mikJsd. Ljyh it iu vf
cliy fhagL eid brYj aY.

X iy af

gl. 1.2.5 bfhL br

15
 cl Rt jir brf, va R brf, Ru
brf, cz brf vd gytif brfSL. d cf
gh Kiw, ghyh Kiwf dbgUf brayh.
bjhF iAonuhnrhth(Hydrozoa), ifnghnrhth
(Scyphozoa), Mnjhnrhth(Anthozoa) vd _W tFfSL.
iAonuhnrhth iyahd cl mik gh MF.
bk^rh mik jfhfkhdJ. (cjhuz). iAouh, xah.

Mah fl mnkh

_is gts

gl. 1.2.6 Flf

ifnghnrhth bk^rh mikng iyahdJ. Mah

nghw b# f tF csd. it fl nk
kl jgit.
Mnjhnrhth cf iyj ghf. bkLrh
iy njhWtiy. clD rlf(mesenteries) vD Fl
jhf cL. (cjhuz). fl mnkhf, gtsf.
tU bjhFfYs yFf bghJthf fl
gf cilait.
1. midJ yFfY wgil, ilgil, mfgil vd
cl Rt _W mLFf csd. vdnt mtF _tLF
cf vW bga.
2. cl Ugf rk cilaJ.
bjhF : shobAj myJ jil G d. (Platyhel-
minthes)

16
 jil Gf bjhF csd. t nyh vD
clF iy. czghij gyt Ugiy. f fK
CLfy xGFghL Rl brfsh eilbgW.

iHf

gl. 1.2.7 X Rl br
tif Gf bgUghY Ughd. xnu G M,
bg dbgUf cWf UF. it bghJthf xL
Gf. bjhF _W tFf cL.
tF 1. lbgnyah(Turbellaria). it jJ thG
jilGf. tF cs sndah(planaria) njhw
(regeneration) jikilaJ.
tF 2. ouknlhlh(Ttrematoda). it xL Gf.
t cl nk w o(cuticle) vD ghJfh ciw
cL. Unjh clD xobfhs it
xLWfis bfhLsd.( cjhuz). ~ghnahyh myJ <u
G(Fasciola), nlhnrhkh myJ uj G(Schistosoma).

<u G uj G

sndah

ehlhG

gl. 1.2.8 jilGd Gf

tF 3. brnlhlh(Cestoda). ehlhGf tFig

rhjit. it mf xLf. t thif tuyhW rW
fyhdJ. Gf th uL xLf cL.
17
t clyik KGtJ xL thF caJ.
czFH, th nghwit iy. cl Rt tahf czit
cr Toait. jiygF nfhby(Scolex) vdgL.
gF tisa to bfhf cL. xLWfS cL.
cl cs gy flf nuhsho(Proglottids) vW bga.
(cjhuz). fheilf ehlhGf.
bjhF : knlhlh myJ cUisG d (Nematoda)
it cUis Gf vdgLwd. cl FW U
Kidf Tikahf cs Gf it. cl flf iy.
cl nkw o ciw csJ. it bghahd
clF cilait. czFH X l FHh mikilaJ. it
ghKiw dbgUf cilait. M, bg cf jjna
cL. njhlJ kY Gf thHyh. kwit midJ
xL Gf MF.( cjhuz). Mfh Yfho
(Ascaris lumbricoides).

gl. 1.2.9 mfh

jF nk tU bjhFf fl bghJgf
csd.
1. ilgil cs FF nyh myJ clF (Co-
elom) vW bga.
2. cl gy flfis bfhlJ. it jj
mikfSilait. gF bklhbkr myJ bklhbkr
flkhj vW bga. itf uj RW mikilait.
bjhF : mdlh myJ tisjirlf(Annelida)
it G mikila yFf. clflf gy
tisafshf mikUF. cwkhf clflf brlh(Septa)
vD ilRtuh fgLsd. cl nkw o
18
(Cuticle)vD ciw cL. f fK CL fy xGFghL
be~oaf(nephridia) cjah fG. t X ika eu
kly cL. jiyw eugQuf(ganglia) _isahf
mikJsd. eu tl mowYsJ(Ventral). Kj Kiwahf
bjthd, khWgl jiygF njhsJ. gid
jiyahf(cephalization) vdyh. it Ughd. t
yhthfSF onuhnfhngh(Trochophore) vW bga.

onuhnfhngh yhth
be~oa
gl. 1.2.10 tisjirl

bjhF ghlh(Polychaeta), Mnfhlh

(Oligochaeta), Uoah (Hirudinea) vd _W tFf cL.
ghLf fl th GfshF. t bjthd
jiygFL. Gf gftho gffhf (Parapodia)
mikJsd. (cjhuz). (Nereis), Mnfhyh(Arenicola).

mil

gl. 1.2.11 tisjirlf

kGf tF Mnfhlh mlsd. tF
Uoah milf mlF. milf uj cR w
xLf. t K, Kidf xLWf cL.

19
bjhF : Mnuhnghlh myJ fQfhf(Arthropoda)
bjhF gy w jikfSilaJ. bjhF
yFf vif f mfKsit. t cl gy
flfsh MdJ. cl nkw ifodh(Chitin) Md
ghJfh ciw cL. tsnghJ njhYj(moulting) vD
fL. it izfhfSilait. mfhf
fQfhfshF. jiy Xiz TLff cL.
TLf gy a cz mikfis bfhlJ. mtF
xkooa (Omatidium) vW bga.
t cl uj FHf iy. clF, nkh
(haemolymph) vD utjh uggLsJ. Jnt ujkhF.
jifa clF uj clFahF.
it midJ xU ghd gh mogil <uikf
cL. s c bgUghY khW s c myJ yhth
(Larva) vdgL. yhthf cUkhwjh Kailwd.
bjhF IJ tFfSL.
tF. 1 : Mnfhnghuh(Onychophora)
G nghw bgghl(Peripattus) cf tF
csd. it tis jirlfSF fQfhfSF
ilgl gf bfhlit. vdnt tiw U bjhFf
iz ghykhf fUjyh.
tF. 2 : anghlh (Myriapoda)

uh kutil

gl.1.2.12 aghLf

uh, kutil nghw yFf csd. uh

jiyw Xiz eR tis ef cL. Xiz fhfis
bfhl gy clflf csd.
20
tF. 3 : d (Insecta)
eh fhQ f midJ csd. t
cl jiy, kh, tW, vd _W gFfSilaJ. gy f
kh gF Xiz wiff cL. ouah vD E _R
FHfsh it RthF.

V jir tL ilf tL

Mya bjhG
MW tL
gl. 1.2.13 f

tF. 4 : unlah(crustacea) uh, eLf, fuh nghw

yFf tF cWdf. cl nkw fhung
vD ghJfh ciw bfhlit.
tF. 5 : muhlh(Arachnida)

c y

gl. 1.2.14 muhLf

nj, y nghw yFf tF csd.

cl jiykh, tW vd U gFfSL. ehF
izfhf jiykhl bghUsd.

21
bjhF : bkYlf myJ bkhyfh (Mollusca)
gytif bkYlfSL. yFy wdf
vif it ulhtJ l twd. it
clflfyhJ bkikahd cl mikig bfhlit.
cl jiy, ghj, c cW bjhF vd _W gFfSL.
cl nkw nko vD bknghit ghJfh XL
cL.
nko miwD cs brfsh myJ oajh
(Ctenidium) Rthj eilbgW.
bkYlf yhth bghJthf onuhnfhngh
yhththF (Trochophore larva).
tF 1 : bgnghlh myJ igthah(Pelecypoda or Bivalvia)
it U cl XLfSila th cf. it jiu
k ijUF. cl gftho xLUF. (cjhuz).
kof, f.
tF 2 : fhonuhnghlh (Gastropoda)
it myJ y th bkYlf. t cl RU
tot XoD csJ. ghj mfW jilahdJ. jiygF
wWsJ. jiy ffS cz fS cL. (cjhuz).
eijf.
tF 3 : gnyhnghlh myJ jiyfhf (Cephalopoda)

rF
e ko M eij

yhnfh

gl. 1.2.15 bkYlf

22
 it fl thgit. eF JjYfhd cl
mikilait. ghjgF 8 - 10 l fshsd. XL
btwnyh cshfnth mikUfyh. (cjhuz).
Mnlhg, yhnfh, brah.
bjhF: vifndhblnklh myJ Knjhf (Echinoder-
mata)
it KY fl thtd. t yhthf Ugf
rkU K cf MurkU bfhLsd. thgF
mowYsJ. t cl FHh fhfS FU Xl
mik csd. (cjhuz). eru f, fl mf, fl
bts.

eru
fl m
gl. 1.2.16 Knjhf

bjhF: fhnllh myJ KJF ehf (Chordata)

bjhF cs yFf cl KJF eh xW
cL. jik fhnllh bjhF w gghF.
KJbfYfS KJF ehzw nuhfhnllh yFfS
csd.
KJFehf gY jik
KJF ehf gytif mikf, thKiwf, clbra
ffSL. 49,000 wdf flagLsd. w
bjhFfSl xLif t vif Fiw.
UD cl msth it <Lfosd. Fghf
KJbfYf fbgait. y fyf 35 lf sK
120 lf vil cilait. yfyf (Blue whale)vD
fyfns cy bga yFf MF. 10 sKila
ig nfh f(Philipine goby) cy fa
KJbfYf MF.

23
 KJFehf gntW aif NHf thG gfis
bfhLsd. w yFfis l lnj wj khWghLf
bfhLsd. fl, e, y vd midJ gufY
wghf thG jikf bfhLsd. tl, bj JUtfUJ
ka nuif tiu midJ lfY gusd.
bghJgf
fl Ka gfsh yFf KJFehfshf
milahs fhzgLwd.

eu tl bjhil KJF eh

th th
br sf kyth

gl. 1.2.17 KJF ehf - X sfgl

1. KJF eh: fUts nghJ X Mju mikghf
KJF eh njhW. J cz ghijF KJFw eu
tlF il mik. KJFeh y KJFehf
theh KGik iyUfyh. gy cf j l
KJbfYf njh Lwd.
KJFeh, gy EFfSila brfsh MdJ. jid
RY jikila eh R gly cL. j iu
jik Ys ut ua brfshY iz R ciwahY
VgLwJ.
2. KJFw FH tot eu tl: clFl
bjhlyhk KJF ehQF nkyhf eu tl csJ. J X FH
mikilaJ. tik y theh KGtJ iyahf
F.
3. br sf myJ bjhil sf: it
iz sfshf bjhil U wY csd. f
tik theh KGtJ iyUF. jtis, njiu nghw
y thf yhth iy kLUF. nk iy
KJbfYfsha Ctd, gwgd, ghof tik
fUts iy brayw mikghf njh kiwJL.
24
 4. w ja: ja miwfSL. J cz
ghij Hhf csJ.
5. _oa uj FHf bjhF: KJFehf
bjhlila FHhfsha jkf, jJf, iuf tna
uj brY.
6. fu nghl mik: KJF ehf
czghij crgl cz fu jJ
tiydiy flJ jaF brY. j cz
ghij jJfshf njh fu jJfshf Kotil
iuF fu nghl iu vW bga.
t i fg h L
bjhF KJF ehf, ehF Jiz bjhFfsh Mdit.
Jiz bjhF 1. bAfhnllh (Hemichordata)
Jiz bjhF 2. gnyhfhnllh (Cephalochordata)
Jiz bjhF 3. nuhfhnllh (Urochordata)
Jiz bjhF 4. KJbfYf (Vertebrata)
Kj _W Jiz bjhFfS bkhj
nuhnlhfhnlLf myJ K KJF ehf(Protochordates)
vdgLwd. tF kilnahL yhjjh, Vnuah (Ac-
rania) vD bgaU cL.
nuhnlhfhnllh (Protochordata)
it KJbfYf Kndhofshf fUjgLwd.
KJF eh mik mogil it tifgLjgLsd.
Jiz bjhF: bAfhnllh myJ miu KJF ehf
(Hemichordata)
it fl th cf. jnjh myJ Tlkhfnth
thHyh. it bgUghY jiu Ff thgit. t cl
bkikahdJ. it G totKilait, clflkwit, Ugf
rkUilait. cl nk Rt XuLF wgil brf cL.
tF mf rlf iy.

gl. 1.2.18 gyndhshr

25
 bjhil gF nk wUJ Kndha ahf
a KJF eh csJ.
cz ghij l FH mikilaJ. it FWiH
afjh czl bfhwd. cjhuz. gyndhshr,
rhnfhshr.
Jiz bjhF: gnyhfhnllh myJ jiy KJF ehf
(Cephalochordata)
it tot fl th cf. KJF eh iyahdJ.
mJ jiy E tiu LsJ. wgil XuLF brfSL.
iz JLf iy. jirf, beoaf, dbgUf
cWf clfl mikig xJsd. bjhil gF eF
mfwJ. it czit tofogit. cjhuz. Mahr.

gl. 1.2.19 Mahr gl. 1.2.20 X moa

Jiz bjhF: nuhfhnllh myJ th KJF ehf

(Urochordata)
it gytif mikfisila cf. KJFeh yhth
iy th gF kLnk cL. K cf aghd
mikigHJ jiu xothgit. cliyRY o(tunic)
vD ciw cL. cl nk Kid U JisfSL. it
Ughd. t ts X jiyuil yhth iy cL.
(cjhuz). moa, nlhnahy, rhgh.
Jiz bjhF: KJbfYf (Vertebrata or Craniata)
d yFf kilnahL KJbfY bjhlU
cL. it cl ika mR gFahf mikUF.
tsiy mikgha KJFeh K FUbjY
myJ vYdh Md KJbfYghwJ. cl njh nkw
vblR mow blR cL. nk njh khWghlhf
Ruf, brf, wFf, tiseff, bfhf, nuhkf
njhsd. KJbfY bjhl cz ghijsJ.

26
 KJbfY bjhl
br sf

_is jLtl Wuf dbgUf cW

Fnshnafh
th
ja fu fza
W ig
Eiupu

gl. 1.2.21 X KJbfY - sf gl

jDl bga fuY fizaK izJsd. uj
Rwik ja, jkf, iuf, jJf cL. uj
t, btis mQf csd. br sf Fl
vif csd. uL izfshf lbga cWf
cL. eu jo K Kid _isahf khWgLsJ. f, fhJ,
_F nghw cz cWf neuoahf _isl bjhl
bfhLsd. Wuf, dbgUf cWf izJ
brawd.
KJbfYfis f, ehF fhf(Tetrapods) vd U
fshf fyh.
tF: f (Pisces)
it th, khW cl btg bfhl KJbfYf.
it K, wf Fj mikilait. clyhdJ jiy,
cl, th vd _W gFfis bfhlJ.

irshL
sfhL OdhL
gl. 1.2.22 brf
tF fGJ iy. iz JLfshY eL KJF
JLfshY brwd. cl, brfsh
nghjgLsJ. brf sfhL, irshL, OdhL,
nfdhL vd gy tiff cL. cl jirf knahnlhf
vD jir Jlf cL.
27
 cz ghij bjthd iuig, fiza nghw
cWf cL. brfsh Rthj fG. 5 - 7 izf
br sf cL. brf J br _o Ufyh. ja
M, bto vd U miwfis bfhlJ.

Rwh

fyh
gl. 1.2.23 f

ird ndhr mik Wuf nghl iu

bfhlit. uj t mQf cfU cL. Wuf
nrhbe~ tifia rhjJ. w ehJthuf cthD
wgiy. gfthL cz nfhLf wWsd. it
xU ghd. fUWj clDnsh myJ btwnyh fHyh.
(cjhuz). Rwh f, fyh f(Catla).
ehF fhf (Tetrapoda)
it <iz fhfSilait. fhf IJ u
mikL. t nknjh cuw brfSL.
ehJthukhdJ cth tna EiupuYl bjhlilaJ.
y thtd, Ctd, gwgd, ghof csd.
tF: y thtd
jtisf, njiuf, Lf (newts), rykhlf
(salamadders), fhfsw af(caecilians) tFYsd.
it, y thit nkbfhl Kj KJbfYfshF.
UD it KYkhf ythit nkbfhs ayhJ, Y
yYkhf thwd. fhuzjh -y thf
njhw d vd fUjgLwJ.
28
 gy khWgl Uthf cL. bghJthf d
cfSF fGJ gF iy. Mdh rykhl nghwitF
cL. jtis, njiuf dfhf skhdit. jtisf
dfhf uil r cL.

jtis

rkhl

gl. 1.2.24 - y thf

t njh tstsghdJ. njh nfhiH Ruf

cL. brf iy.
th bgaJ. nk jhil a gf cL.
wehJthuf cthl bjhl bfhLsd. brf,
Eiupuf, njh, bjhil gF tna Rthr eilbgwyh.
ja uL Mf xU bto cL. it xU
gh cf. M, bg cf cL. fUWj cl
cshfnth myJ btnyh eilbgW. ts cUkhw
cL.
mnahlh (Amniota)
Ctd, gwitf, ghof Ma _W mnahLf
MF. t fUtsF fUit RY mah vD ciw
cL. miw fUts cj. tik y th
cf dbgUf X jftikghF. mah,
nfhah, mylh, nghwit tif glyfshF.
tF: Ctd (Reptiles)
gf, ghf, Mikf, Kjiyf nghwit Ctd
id nrjit.
cl tot gy tifgL. cl nkw brf cL.
njh Ruf iy. XLj, kunkWj, Jj nghwtbfd
29
fhf khWgLsd. t Eiupu Rthr cL. ja
_W miwf fhzgL. (Kjiyf ehF miwf cL)
Wuf, bklhbe~uh tifdJ. it xUghd. fUWj
clD fG. Kilf joj njh nghw XL cL.

fif e Kjiy njh KJF Mik

rJ y Kjiy eru Mik

gl. 1.2.25 Ctd
tF: gwitf (Aves)
cy 8000 tif gwitf cL. it midY X
mogil mik xWikL. gwitf khwhbtgiy bfhl
cf. wFf cl btgiyia ghJfhF. fhf
brf cL. Kdfhf wFfshsd. cliy uhf
jhF tif fhf eF Kwkhf izfgLsd.
vYf bkikahdit. vYfD fhwiwf cL. gy cl
vYf izJsd. jiygF fod jikila myF
cL.
EiupuYl izj fhW igf cL. it vYD
bjhl bfhLsd. ja ehF miwf cL. uj
tgQf Kil to cfU bfhlit. Wuf, _W
fJfSilaJ. W my FUF.
eu klykhdJ wWsJ. wj ghit wDila
ff cL.it xU ghd. fUWj clD fG.
Kilf mf ms fUz cL. Kilf fodkhd
30
fha Fj XLilait. gy Kndwkhd gf UD,
gwitf Ctd d gfS cL. vdnt jh tid
nkikw Ctd vnwh. (cjhuz). wh, , fhf, FU,
k, nfh, bgF.

tF: ghof (Mammalia)

Fo <W ghL yFfSF da(1758)

kkhah vD bgalh. jF Kiyof vgJ bghU.

g
btL g

nfhiHg
Kfil F
th g

filth
g nfhlh mik
khWgl gf

gl. 1.2.26 gho gf

gy Niyf gy Kiwf thG ghof X bt

bgw dkhfnt fUjgLwd. t gf
1. cl nuhkf cL. cl njh ait Ruf,
vbz Ruf cL. ghL RufS njh
khWghLfns.
2. btfhJ kl cL.
3. khgiw, twiwF il cjujhd cL. tik
Rthj cj.
4. tgQf cfU iy. it tl to UwK
Fjit.
5. ja ehF miwfSilaJ. jaUJ njhW
jkf tyJ mnaho tis iy.
6. bgU_is fbgaJ. U bgU_is miu nfhsfis
izf mow fhg fnyhr vD euiHf
mik cL.
31
 7. gyik nfhlh, bAonuhlh, il~nahlh
jikf cL.
8. JRuf clYF btna mikUF. bghJ ftiw
iy.
9. Kilf ait. fUz iy. fUWj clYF
cnsna eilbgW.
10. it Fo <Dgit. jh-nr izR cilait.
tF _W JiztFf cL.
Jiz tF 1. khndhonklh myJ nuhnlhah
(Monotremata or Prototheria)

shog
vW
gl. 1.2.27 KilL ghof

it KilL ghof. cjhuz. vW f,

shog.
Jiz tF 2. khR ghah myJ bklhah (Marsupialia or
Metatheria)
it btw khRa vD igilait. ts
Kotilahk njhW Fof igD ghJfhfgL.
(cjhuz). ffhU.

ts ig

gl. 1.2.28 igila gho

32
Jiz tF 3. shbrlhah myJ ah (Placentalia or
Eutheria)
ghof fUtsahdJ fUigD
fG. tsU fUF njitahd cz jh-nr izR
tahf jh uj Xldh ilF. (cjhuz). ahid, ,
f, kj, FuF, eh, id, v, btsth.
tir: iunkLf (Primates)
ah JiztF tir X . kjf
tirnyna csd. FuFf, njthF nghw yFfS
tir csd. yFf wj _is tsilait.
gy yFf kuf thgit. gytif cz bghUfis
czToait. csif, csfh, Kf ju w gFf
mlj nuhk cL. Kdfhf ait. fhf IJ
ufSL. uf E eff cL. bgUu
mikY gaghoY wgilJsJ. _is wghd ts
bgWsJ. U ffS Kw nehsd. tif
ghitF igdhFy ghit vW bga.
bjJ bfh
Invertebrates
Scientific Names
Earthworm (kG) Lampito mauritii
Cockroach (fugh ) Periplaneta americana
House fly (<f) Musca nebula
Locust (btL) Schistocera gregaria
Bed bug (_il ) Cimex hemipterus
Leaf insect (iy) Phyllium sps
Stick insect (F) Carausius sps
Water-scorpion (nj) Nepa sps
Butterfly (tzJ ) Pieris sps
Rat flea (v bjS) Xenopsylla cheopis
Scorpion (nj) Palamnaeus swammerdami
King crab (uh# eL) Limulus sps

33
Spider (y) Aranea sps
Apple snail (M eij) Pila globosa
Freshwater mussel (e eij) Lamellidens marginalis
Star fish (eru ) Asterias rubens
Vertebrates
Angel fish (Vr ) Pterophyllum scalare
Guppy (f ) Poecilia reticulata
Frog (jtis) Rana hexadactyla
Garden lizard (Xzh) Calotoes versicolor
Cobra (ey gh) Naja naja
Peacock (k) Pavo cristatus
Crow (fhf) Corvus splendens
Sparrow (FU) Passer domesticus
Parrot () Psittacula Krameri
Rat (v) Rattus rattus
Dog (eh) Canis familiaris
Cat (id) Felis domesticus
Tiger () Panthera tigris
Lion (f) Panthera leo
Elephant (Ma ahid) Elephas maximus
Man (kj) Homo sapiens
Monkey (FuF) Macaca radiata
Mongoose (is) Herpestes edwardsii
Bear (fuo) Ursus arctos
Fruit bat (gH btsth) Cynopterus sphinx
Donkey (fGij) Equus hemionus
Rhinoceros (fhlhUf) Rhinoceros unicornis
Spotted deer ( kh) Axis axis
Man (kj) Homo sapiens

34
 2. br ca
cdf midJ brfsh Mdit. br vgJ
cf bra kW mik mogil myfhF. jid br
bfhif vdyh. bfhif 1838 - 39 kah brl(Mathias
Schleiden), nahl th(Theodor Schwann) vgtfsh
btlglJ.
br bfhif ehF Ka mrf csd.
midJ cf mik brfsh MdJ.
xU br, kbwhU brUJ br jdh cUthwJ.
brf mitf ts, cUthf kW
brafSfhd gufiscslsd.
19 who br caiy ga KGikahd
fUJf Enzh kW c- nta Jiwf gogoahd
tsah cUthd. W ca br mikig
maToa j thf br ca(cell biology) ts
bgWsJ.
ca gaghL mf ms magLsjh br
canyhL bjhlila gy a f njhsd. mit,
br tifghoa, br kua, br braa, br nta,
_yTW ca, br neha, br Na MF.

2.1. Enzha
fyhd jikfisila br fa mikghF. j
a mik x CLU jik mj EQWfS
bra tYefSF br mikig, brafis
fla uridfshf mikJsd. br mik,
_yTWf mik kW brafis g ma gy fUfS,
tKiwfS cUthf gLsd.
brf midJ 5-500m F ilgl l msid
bfhlit. Mdh gy brf 10-150m ms lF jh
fhzgLwd. lnk lned(Systemae International(SI))
my go s myF

75
 1 l(m) = 1000 lf(mm)
1 l(10-3m) = 1000 iknuhlf(m)
1 iknuhl(10 -6m) = 1000 nendhlf(nm)
1 nendhl(10-9m) = 1000 nfhlf(pm)
Mlhuh() vgJ 10 -10m
tyF brgly gUk kW bga _yTWf
msit FgjF cgnahfgLj gLwJ.
bghUfis cW nehF kj ffSF xU
Fl ms jh ntWgLJ w csJ. wid f
Ja ntWgLj w vdyh. J beUfkhd
UfSF ilgl fFWa ilbtia
fhQtjhF. kj ff ntWgLj w0.1mm 100 m
tiu MF. jidl Fiwj ilbtia eh fhz ayhJ.
vdnt fa bghUfis ghgjF ekF ca ntWgLj
w bfhl cgfuzf njitgLwJ.
cUbgUF jik vgJ ntWgLJj wUJ
ntWglJ cUbgUf vgJ bghU msit mj g
bgjh fhgjhF. ntWgLJ wid mffhk
cUbgUfij kL mfjh gkhdJ bjtwjhf
njhW. kj ffSF cUbgUF jik iy.
1950 uh n#br(Francis Janssen) kW rfah
n#br(Zacharias Janssen) Mnah Kj Kj TL
Enzhia cUthdhf. 10X kW 30X cUbgUF
jik bfhl uL byf Ujd. fnah f (Galileo
Galilei 1564-1642) vgt va Enzhia cUth, f
TLffis Muhjh. tuJ Enzh xnu xU
cUbgUf by bghUjgoUjJ. khbrnyh kh (Marcello
Malpighi, 1628-1694) vD jha E cSWgika
Muhahs Enzhia cgnahfgL yFf
Rfis Muh brjh. uhg A& (Robert Hooke)vD
Mnya Enzh Muhahs 1665 jh cUtha TL
Enzhah jifR bka gFid Muhjh.
jif R njTL ngh cs brfSF br vW
bgalh.
Ml th t Ah (1632-1723) (Anton Van Leeuwenhoek)
Enzh ju cajgl by cgnahfgLdh.
76
tUila Enzh cUbgUfw 300 X. cUs
jbrfis t Kj Muhjh. nkY TL Enzh
ju tswdh br ca nkghL milJsJ.
Kgf njhw gfthL njhw

by ghgt
bghU jh f

rbr UF

gl.2.1.1. th t Ah va Enzh

TL x Enzh
Enzhf, bghUfis xubrtjfhf, x
cgnahfgLwJ. cs fzho gofjh Md byRf
bghU cUtij bgajh FJ cW nehFgt
f buodh Hbrwd. uL byRf
clw FH KidgFf csd. cWnehF bghU
mU fhzgL by bghUsUF by vdgL. fQF
mU cs by, fzUF by vdgL. UJ tU
x _ykhf bghU xugLwJ. bth njhW
lF, bghUSF il _whtJ xFgh
byR mikJsJ. J xia bghU nk Fa cjwJ.
y U Enzh (Dark field Microscope)
tif Enzhf cjah ghahfis
bjw ghfyh. cs wghd Fgh bghU
tahf tU xff jW xffis kL bghUsUF
byRF mD gij cUthFwJ. j isthf
cUthF gf U y gbrW bj. g
bjjik mf bfhlJ. Na xfiw Rf
jgJ nghw is njhW.
77
gu ntWgL Enzh (Phase contrast Microscope)
Enzh bghUsUF byR kW Fgh
jhf wghf bghUjgLsd. jdh br c
bghUf mik ntWghLfis fbjthf fhLwd.
jdh c br c fhzgL mikfis rha Vwhk
fbjthf mf ntWgLJ wndhL fhzyh.
Enzh cWnehFtdh, brfis bfhynth kW
rha Vwnth njitiy.
vbz t Enzh
Enzh xia nrfF bghUsUF by
gig mfgjfhf iyLF bghUsUF byRF il
vbz itfgLsJ. j Kiw ujukhf gjgLjgl
bgkfis cWnehf gagLj gLwJ. vbz t
fhQ byRf mf w bfhl bghUsUF byRfis
fhoY Toa cUbgUF jik bfhlit.
dQ Enzh
3 ms nghw Fiwj ntWgLj msfis msl,
fFiwj miys bfhl dQf, dQ
Enzh ga gLjgLwd. UbgU, 20,000
Kj 100,000 nth ca iy, X cnyhf RUis
btggLJ nghJ cUthF dQ miyfis fLgL
Fa bra, fhj RUf fhj byrhf gagLwd.
dQfis fhz ntoa bghU tahf brYJ
nghJ, CLU bttU dQfis, bghUsUF fhj
RU (byR) Fa brwJ. RU (byR) cUbgUf brtjh
Ko gkhdJ iu njhWwJ. mjid ifgl RU
ga itJ tiu glkhf jah brayh. tif dQ
Enzh flJ dQ Enzh(Transmission electron mi-
croscope - TEM) vdgL.
TL x Enzh VgL g fhQ bghU
xia VW bfhS jij bghUJ njhW. dQ
Enzh cUthF gf bghU gFf dQit
jw br Kiwia bghUjit. bghU gUk kW
mlia bghUJ dQ jw ms khWgL. vdnt
dQ Enzhah fhzgL bghUf f bkajhf
Uf ntL. <ukhd cUs brfis dQ
Enzhah fhz ayhJ.
78
 g

nfnjh ciw
ll iH fzUF
Mndh by
Fgh by

bghU
bghU
jh
bghUsUF
by

ghFl
bghUsUF
by
bghU
cUbgUF nkil
by
Fgh
g by
xU iu ll
nfuh iH
sF
dQ Enzh x Enzh
gl.2.1.2. cUbgU gFfS, xbrY ghijia xLj

nf dQ Enzh (SEM)
j ntWgLJj wdhdJ flJ w
Enzhia(TEM) lFiwthdJ (>200) Uj nghY
bghU nkw gFfis fltjF J fwj
rhjdkhF. dQ fuh bghU KGikahf nf
bragLwJ. bghU nkgu GJ ugfgL
dQfsh g cUthwJ. Enzhah bjthd
kW Kgkhz gij fhzyh.

2.1.2. bra cf
bryhdJ x CLU jikl fhgjF
bjthdjhf csJ. jid neuoahfnth myJ gjgLnah

79
cW nehfyh. neuoahf fhgjF brD khWgl x F
jikf ntL. rhaf gaghlh brfis neuoahf
M bra Ko.
cbghU rhaf
cUs brf bfhyglhkny y rhafis VW
bfhSwd. rhaf br c cWfis mitf
tsij khw kW brafsh ghgilahk w VWwd.
cjhuzkhf n#d gir-B (Janus green-B), iknlhfhah,
nfhif cWfis rhankW. ij y (Methylene blue),
brf cfU Fnuhnkho iHia rhankWwJ. <L
brfis u t (Neutral red) myJ fhnfh t(Congo red)
rhaf wnkWwd.
Rfis gjgLJj kW rhankWj
Enzh _y Rf cs brfis g
KGikahf mJ bfhtjF Rf gy jah iyfSF
cgLjgLwd. fzho Jl nk bghUis jah
brtjF bfhYj, iygLJj, rhankWj kW gj
Ma iyf csd.
1. bfhYj kW iygLJj(Killing and fixation)
bradh brf myJ Rf Obud bfhygL
clnd gjgLjgL. jdh ciy nghw miknyna br
fhzgL. ey iygLf(fixative) ghahdh VgL
mGFj kW Mnlhiy nghw ffis jF.
brf gntW c cWfis bjthf fhgjF
brfis rhankWjYF mit jah br. mo my,
ghkhoiAL ngh fiur kW fhdh ut nghwit
bghJthf gagL iygLf MF.
2. btnaWj(Dehydration)
f brf myJ Rf cs
ntbghUf _y btnawgLwJ. vjdh kW bg
nghwitf bra <LgLwd.

80
3. ijj(Embedding)
cUa ghu bkGF RfSF brYjgL FU
nghJ RfSF fod jik cW ilgjh Jlhf
vjhwJ. dQ Enzhf cgnahf f bka
JLf njitgLtdh sho bghU ijjYF
cgnahfgLwJ.
4. JlhFj(Sectioning)
ijjYF cgl bghUf njitahd ms Jlhf
gl ntL. jfhf iknuhnlh(microtome) vD rhjd
cgnahfgLwJ.
5. rha nkWj
JLf rhaf _ vLfgL bghGJ rhankWj
y gFf kw gFfis fhoY eF eilbgWwJ.
cjhuzkhf nah(Eosin) _y irnlhshr s tghwJ.
klh(haematoxylin) myJ t fyj nruh (Red with
safranin)cfUit ywkhf rhankWwJ.

brnah
cfU k

cfU ciw
cfU
nfhif cW
UJthd vnlhshr tiy
bgMnrh
iknlhfhah
shkh gly
iynrhnrh
fod vnlhshr tiy

gl.2.1.3. dQ Enzh yF br kh mik

81
6. btnaWj(Dehydration)
rha nkwgl JLfis vjdh _f itJ id
btnawyh. Rf KGtJ x CLU jik bfhljhf
khL. btnaWj uhf eilbgW nghJ vjdh
mlid uhf ca bfhnl bry ntL. Ko
JLfis Mffh(absolute alcohol) nghlntL.
7. gj(Mounting)
Rj gLjgl JLfis fzho Jl nk ga
itgjF fdlh ghr(Canada balsam) vw bghUjkhd Clf
gagLjgLwJ. mjnk fzho bk jfodh(cover slip)
_od ClfbghUis cyu itf ntL.

2.2.1. shkh gly

gly, midJ brfY w viyahf mikJsJ.
J f bka, jikila cUs glykhF. J wghd
njbjLJ flJ jLghf mikJsJ.
shkh gly f bkaJ. vdnt jid vyuh
Enzh _ykhfjh fhzKo. j mikid fla
br UJ jid jahf bjLJ c nta
nrhjidfis gagLjyh.
uj ciw

bfhG glyf

uj ciw

gl.2.2.1. nla-nlr kh-br gly

1895 Xtlh (Overton) vgt TWgo gly
bfhG bghUfsh MdJ vdfUjglJ. tj
Muhahsf Ko go br glyf uL bfhG
mLFfsh Mdit vd flagLsJ.

82
 1935 nla(Danielli) kW nlr(Davson) bjj,
kh tot go br gly uL gfK ujfsh
NHgl bfhG mLFf cL.
1960 uhg[(Robertson) vgt vyuh E tiugl
cjl myFgly nfhghoid Tdh.
nfhghogo btw uj mLFf 2 nm gUkdhf csd.
itf bjthd 3.5 nm gUkDs bfhG gFia ika
bfhLsd. bfhG gF ghnghL _yTWfsh
MdJ.

br ciw isnfh uj

bfhyouh isnfh
nghuj U gly

nfh ghngh

gl.2.2.2. utjik Tlik kh br gly

1972 btahd f(Singer) kW bfhr

(Nicholson)vgtf fUJgo shkh glyfhd
utjik Tlik(fluid mosaic model) cUtf njhW.
Wtfgo shkh gly w bgw mikilaJ.
tik bgUghyhd uj _yTWf jJbfhL y
br c cs br EQWfis gbfhL
fhzgLwd. bfhG _yTWfS efU jik cilait.
kh gly vyh c glyfSF Vila xU bghJthd
mikghF.
br glykhdJ br cns myJ btna brY
bghUf affis fLgLJwJ. kW m
fiuJs bghUf c-bt efUjfis fLgLJwJ.
gly tahf rL guj _ykhf fiuJs
bghUf CLUt myJ bra F flj _ykhf
brYwd. fiu gy fiubghUf uj _yTWf _y
fljgLwd. bfhG fiu bghUf ntfkhf
ghngh gly fiuJ c brYwd.

83
2.2.2. iknlhfhah
ca yFf kW jhtuf brf fhzgL iH
myJ Jff nghw EQWf iknlhfhaf MF.
itf EQfshd Mfhf, nuhnlhnrhthf kW
irfY fhzgLwd.
nfhf (Kolliker) 1850 tjir brf Jf
mikig Kj fljh. bglh(Benda,1897-98) vgt jF
iknlhfha vd bgalh. iknlhfha
eilbgW isnfhiy gntW iyfis b#k c
nta Muhahsf vl(Embden) kW
nkaAh(Meyerhof) fLojd. jfhf 1922 vl nehg
gR bgwh. 1937 r nA mlh u(Sir Hans Adolph Krebs)
my RHia fljh. bfdo(Kennedy) kW
by#(Leninger) 1948-50 iknlhfha eilbgW
myRH, Mfuz ghng Vw kW bfhG my
Mfuz Matiw sd.
X br iknlhfhaf vif
mbr tif kW brafis bghWjJ. y brf
iknlhfhaf mfkhf fhzgL. (cjhuz) fl
m ml 140,000 Kj 150,000 tiufhzgLwd.
Uthf ml 300,000 iknlhfhaf csd.
v fu brf 500-1600 iknlhfhaf csd.
y Mfh brf xnu xU iknlhfha fhzgL.

c gly
nk
nl ilbt btgly

n l
ilbt
Mnrhf

nl lh

gl.2.2.3. iknlhfhoah Kgkhd njhw

iknlhfhaf iH myJ Jff mik

bfhlit. j ms 0.5m Kj 2.5m cilait. fajhf
84
csjh jid TL Enzhah fhz ayhJ.
iknlhfhahit R uL nkgl glyf csd.
btgly UJthf fhzgL. jF cglyF cs
ilbt 6-8nm. cglykhdJ tisJ beJ fhzgL.
jdh cUthF kof nl(cristae) vdgL.
iknlhfhah uL glyf Ugjh cgly
iknlhfhoa ilbtia uL miwfshf wJ.
btw cs miw, nkw iknlhfha ilbt
vdgL. J bt kW c glyfSF ilgl gFahF.
c miw mlahd Tk iknlhfha nk u
csJ. bfhG, uj kW tl DNA _yTWf csd.
bt, c, glyfSF il cs ilbt kW
nk gFf gy behf fhzgLwd. twh
iknlhfhaf brf gy Ka braf
<LgLwd. mit, Mfuz, iAu# btnaw,
Mfuz ghng Vw kW Rthr r MF.

jhtu br
yF br
gl.2.2.4. iknlhfhoah

iknlhfhaf, fhnghiAnu kW bfhG

bghUf Mfuz Ka gF tgjh tiw
brf cikahd Rthr cWf vdyh. j c
Mfuz f nghJ mf ms r btlgLwJ.
r iknlhfhah mondhir oiu ghng myJ
ATPfis cUthf gagLwJ. bradh iknlhfhah
brf r iyaf vdgL. yF brf 95% ATP
_yTWfis iknlhfhah cUthFwJ.

2.2.3. iunghnrhf
iunghnrhf a, mlahd, cUil to, Jff
mikilait. itf iungh uj fhzgLwJ.
itf iknlhfhah, gRfff kW irnlhshr

85
Mat nk jahf fhzgLwd. vnlhshr
tiy kW cfU xobfhL fhzglyh.
iunghnrhik g Kj sf mjt . .
ghynl(G.E Paladae-1952). 1958 M. . uhg(R.B. Roberts) vgh
jF iunghnrh vW bgalh.
iunghnrhf, nuhnfah kW nfah brf
fhzgLwd. uj nrif wghf eilbgW mj brf
iunghnrhf vnlh shrtiyglyf nk xo
bfhLsd. braf ntfkhf eilbgW brf fiza
brf, fu brf, vY brf, rnky Ru cs
ubrf, iuig cs Ka Ruf brf, ijuhL
brf kW ghRu brf MF.

JizgFf

gl. 2.2.5. iunghnrh

iunghnrhf cUil tot, 150 Kj 250 l

cilait. xbthU iunghnrhY uL gFf csd. xU
gF bga fyr tot cilaJ. kw gF ajhf bga
gF nkw bjh nghW fhzgLwJ.
iunghnrhfR.N.A (iungh my) kW ujfsh
Mdit. iunghnrh RNA(r.RNA), uj nrif Ka gF
twJ. iunghnrh ujf r.RNA brafSF ah
Cfsh bragLwd. r.RNAbrafis fLgLJtJ
ku fhufshF.

2.2.4.mfshr tiy- vnlhshr tiy

vyuh Enzh tahf br FWF
btL njhwid Muh nghJ Kgkhd njhw
fhzgL tiy nghw clw FHf lnd vdgL.
86
itf br c, glyfshF. itf mfshr
mfkhf fhzgLtjh tid mfshrtiy myJ
vnlhshr tiy vdyh. 1953 nghl (portar) bgaid
tHdh.
vnlhshr tiy mik brfSF brf khWgL
fhzgLwJ. uj tgQf, ml brf kW fUiy
brf tiy mik fhzgLtiy.

fod vnlhshr tiy

cfU
iunghnrh

UJthd vnlhshr tiy

vnlhshr tiy mLF

gl.2.2.6. vnlhshrtiy

cnt idfis fLgLJ behfis cUthF

vnlhshr tiy btw mf vif
iunghnrhf fhzgLwd. jdh it Jff bfhl
mikid bgWwd. tiyia fod (rough) vnlhshr
tiy (RER) vdyh. R E R uj cUthF lkhF. iunghnrhf
yhj vnlhshr tiy UJthd (smooth) vnlhshr tiy
(SER) vdgL. it Lf tsij khw gF
bfhwd.
w mik vnlhshr tiy _W mikfis
bfhlJ. mit jLf(Lamellar), Ff(Vesicular), FHf (Tu-
bular) mikf MF.
87
jLf myJ lnd
it l, jilahd, ig tot mikilait. j
l 40-50m. R.E.R itf beh jahF g
<LgLwd. bghJthf it fiza KJFeh kW eu
brf fhzgLwd.
Ff
it tlkhd, clKs mikf. itf
l 25-500m. bghJthf vyh brfY fhzgL.
FHf
it is nghw mik bfhlit. jLf kW
FfSl nrJ tiy mikig jUwd. itf l
50-190m. it vyh brfY fhzgLwd.
gf
1. it brfSF rlfkhf csd.
2. rL guj, CLUt kW bra F flj Ma
braghLf _y _yTWfis gkhw brwd.
3. tsij khwij fLgLJ behfis cUthFwd.
4. br c, bghUf flJtjF it cjwd.
5. brfSF c, cztiyfis flJwd.
6. br jYF, br gly cUthf cjwd.
7. UJthd vnlhshr tiy(SER) Lfis jahwJ.

2.2.5. nfhif cWf

jha eua z nfnyh nfh(Camillo Golgi) 1873
nfhif cWfis fljh.
nfhif cWf bghJthf vyh yF brfY
fhzgLwd. tgQ brfisju w yF brf
xU nfhif cW kL fhzgL. y brf gy nfhif
cWf fhzgLwd.
midJ wgil kW mfgil brfY it
cfUF w viyF il fhzgLwd. eu
brf it cfUit R fhzgL.
88
 Ru Ff

glykhd jLf

fod vnlhshrtiy

gl.2.2.7. nfhif cW

nfhif cWf myF, lnd vdgL. xU

lnd l 1 m. itf glyjh NHgL
ilbtf Ru bfhlit. lndf bjhF,
mLFfshf mikJsJ. xbthU mL ilbt ms
20-30nm. xU bjhFahd lndf, oonahnrh(dictyosome)
vdgL. nfhif cWghdJ FHf, Ff, lnd nghw
tiff xnwhL xW izJs X fyhd mikghF.
nfhif cW, cnt bghUf cUthF lkhF.
itf vnlhshrtiy cUthF uj, bfhGfis kw
bghUfis nrwd.

2.2.6. iynrhnrhf
it glyjh NHgl Ea Ff. iynrhnrh, br
c brkhd <LgLwJ. Kakhf br c fhzgL
njityh, Kailj br EQWfis mwJ.
iynrhnrhf Kj cfUN ml cWf vd
miHfgld. 1955 .o. ont(C.D. Duve) jF iynrhnrhf
vW bgalh. vyh yF brfY iynrhnrh
fhzglhY,ghof tgQf it fhzgLtiy.
jir brf itf vif fFiw. va
brf kW Ru brf j vif mf.
89
 iynrhnrhf cUil tot cilait. jD
mlahd bghUf iwJsd. iynrhnrhf mik,
ml khWgL fhzgLwJ. itf ms 0.2 Kj 5m
MF.
iynrhnrh fhzgL brkhd behf vif
ehgJ tiu csJ vd Muh flJsd.
btnaWj
brj

lbghU cbry

JfshFj

iynrhnrh

nfhif cWf

brayw EQW
gl.2.2.8. iynrhnrh braghLf

fhzgL bghJthd behf, nuhona,

na, isnfhirnl, ng, ghnghng, ghgnl
kW rgnl MF. iynrhnrhf, nfhif cWUnjh
myJ neuoahf mfshr tiyUnjh njhWwd.
fhzgL behf br cns myJ btna fhzgL
njitaw myJ ijj bga _yTWfis, ijgjnfh
myJ brgjnfh cjwd. cjhuzkhf, xU yF br
czF _ykhf czit cns bfhL tUnghJ
mzF cl izJ czid behf _ykhf
(brwd) JffshFwJ. Ys behf fhngh
iAnu, bfhG kW ujfis brf brwd. y uz
cWf cs Ruf, uz behfis bt brYJtjF
K iynrhnrhf nrJ itJsd. xU br Kdh
wJ L ntis mbr cs iynrhnrhf cilJ
mbriy KGikahf uJ Lwd. bra jidna
bfhYj myJ Mnlhiy(autolysis) vdgL.
90
bgMnrhf
it xU glyjh Md cUil tot EQWf.
itf nuhnlhnrhth, irf, jhtuf, KJbfYf
fu, Wuf Mat brf fhzgLwd. tF
1966 .o. ont(c.de.Duve) kW . ghL(P. Baudhuin) Mnah
bgMnrh vd bgald.
bgMnrh fhzgL nflny(catalase) vD beh
F isF iAu# bg Miril fw kW
M#dhf khWwJ. tsij khw nghJ cUthF
iAu# bg Mi[L xU F isF Mfu
fhuahF.

2.2.7. brnahf
cfU mU cs U cUis tot Ea FH
mikfns brnahf vdgL. brnahf, firiH
myJ FW iHl bjhl bfhoUjh mjid mou
cW myJ ngr gho(basal body) vdyh.
brnahf bghJthf yF brf, Mfh brf
kW y bgu brf kL fhzgLwd. itf
nuhnfnahLf, t Mfhf, < brf, F
jhtuf kW firiH myJ FW iH bfhl
nuhnlhnrhthf fhzgLtiy.
brnahf 0.15 Kj 0.25 m lK, 0.3 Kj 0.7 m
sK cilaJ.
xbthU brnah myJ mou cWY xgJ W
FHf w viy tlkhf rk ilbt mikJsd.
xbthU WFHY _W E FHf bfhlit. W FH
x l 200-260. W FH, mik ujkha
o(tubuline) _yTWfSl nrj mikghF.
bjhlf fhyf a brnahf, Vfdnt cs
brnahf tjdh cUthFwd vd fUjglJ.j
fUJ mf fhy iyfiy. a brnahf
cUthwd(de novo) myJ Vfdnt cs brnahfis
bfhL u vLfgLwJ.
gy yF brf brnah, brnuhnrh Ka
ahF. brnuhnrhf iklh brj
91
iliy irnlhshr EFHfis mikgjh U
JUtKidf cUthwd. brnahf, mou cW kW
FWiHfis clhFwd. jQ brnah th
iHia clhFwJ. nkY FWiH, th iHf
afY <LgLwJ.

2.2.8. cfU
brf f Kakhd EQW cfU. J br
tsij khw kW kua brafis fLgLJwJ. 1833
uhg u(Robert Brown) cfUit Kj fLoJsh.
1893 x. bA (O. Hertwig) cfU gly csJ vgid
btgLdh.
nfaho brfSila vyh jhtu, yF brfY
cfU fhzgLwJ. MdhY nfaho tifia rhj y
ca jhtuf cs ryil FHf, ghof uj
tgQf Mat cfU fhzgLtiy.
bghJthf brf xU cfU(mono nucleate)l fhzgL
it xiw cfU bfhlit vdgL. vD y brf
xF nk cfUf fhzglyh. mjgo uil cfU
bfhlit (binucleate) myJ gy cfU bfhlit(polynucleate)
vdyh. gy cfU bfhl yF brf iz br vdgL.
(cjhuz: vY br)
cfU mik cUil, tl, myJ jLtot
cilajhf Ufyh. y brf cfUf xGfw cUt
cilait.
cfU FWFl ms 3-25 m MF. cfU
ms, irnlhshr msF ne j mikJsJ.
cfU ms m fhzgL Fnuhnkhnrhf vif
myJ bjhFia bghWjJ. nAshL br cfU oshL
br cfUit fhoY aJ.
cfUid R cfU ciw csJ. it uL
glyfsh 5-10mm gUk cilait. cfU cgly, ciwdh
jhfgLsdh mjid cfU nydh(nuclear lamina) vdyh.
cfU cglyij R bt cfUgly csJ. uoF
il cs bt cfU glyF(perinuclear space) vdgL.
it 10-50nm mfy bfhL utjh uggl miwahF.

92
 cfU ciw
cfU shr

cfUJis
cfU k

gl.2.2.9. cfU

gl.2.2.10. TEM cfU njhw

cfU nydh ujjh Md tiy nghw gF. it

fwghd mikilait.
cfU ciw fhzgL Jisf cfUJisf
vdgL. xU Jis l 10nm Kj 100nm tiu csJ.
cfUJisf, cfU gly gugs VwFiwa 5 Kj 15
GfhL bfhlit. cfU ciw _ykhf bjhlahf brY
_yTWf Jisf tahfjh brYwd.
cfU uggl bjthd, Tk gF cfUshr
(nucleoplasm) vdgL. Fnuhnko iHf, cfUk
nghwitf cfU shr csd. cfUshr nah
uj, ujf, behf kW jhJ cfis bfhLsd.
cfU shr fhzgL RUl iHf nghw
mikf Fnuhnko iHf vdgL. itf br j
nghJ gUkdh jilahd Fnuhnkhnrhkhf khWwd.
Fnuhnko iHf o Miungh my (DNA)kW
ujfsh Mdit.
cfUD xW myJ gy cUilahd, bfhyhl
(Tk) mikf csd. mit cfUkf vdgL.
cfUk ms mitf braghoid bghUjJ. j
vif brf xW, uL myJ ehfhf fhzgL.
nta mik cfUk, cfUkia cUthF DNA,
ehF RNAtiff, 70 tifahd iunghnrh ujf, RNAit
93
izF ujkhd nahy kW RNAbtL nah
ujf csd.
iunghnrh JizgF cfUkia cUthFwJ.
iunghnrh cUthf cs bjhlf iy, ts iy, K
iy Mait cfUk _W btntW gFf
eilbgWwJ.
Fnuhnkhnrhf
br j nghJ Fnuhnko iHf xL
Fnuhnkhnrhfshwd. itf jhkhfnt uogil
jik kughf Ka g twd. Fnuhnkhnrhik
1842 fh eh(Karl Nagli) vgt jhtu brf Kj
fljh. 1873 V. brl(A. Schneider) br j nghJ
Fnuhnkhnrhf brafis sdh. 1887 bgl(Benden)
kW ngh(Bovery) Fnuhnkhnrhf vif xnu d
fhzgL cf khwhUF vd fljd. 1922 o.v.
khf(T.H.Morgon) kW v. Ky(H. Muller) vgtf
gH cs ehF Fnuhnkhnrhf 2000 tiu kugQf
csd vd fljd. 1924 uhg b#(Robert Feulgen)
vgh Fnuhnkhnrhf DNA ah Mdit vgid fhjh.
xU Fl dij rhj cf Fnuhnkhnrhf
vif khwhUF. dbrfshd J kW mlf
xU bjhF Fnuhnkhnrhf fhzgLwd. jid nAshL
bjhF(n) vdyh. cl brf uL bjhF myJ ndh
csJ. it oshL br vdgL. gh dbgUf
nAshL iy bfhl M kW bg dbrf
iztdh oshL iy VgLwJ.
Fnuhnkhnrhf vif
rhjhuzbga ma Fnuhnkhnrhf
bga vif
1. gunka g. Mnuah 30-40
2. iAuh iA. tnf 32
3. L < kfh blhbkofh 12
4. gH onuhnrhyh 8
5. wh bfhygh ah 80
6. bfhyh bfhyh bfhyh 48
7. kj nAhnkh nra 46
94
 Fnuhnkhnrh msid iklh br j eLiy
(metaphase) mslnghJ mj ms 0.25 m Kj 30 m tiu
csJ.
m M <

gl.2.2.11. Fnuhnkhnrhf tiff

(m) onyhbr, (M) mnuhbr,
() rbklhbr, (<) bklhbr

xbthU iyY Fnuhnkhnrh mik khWgLwJ.

xbthU FnuhnkhnrhY mj sth fhzgL xU
bjthd gF brnuha myJ ifdnlhnfh vdgL.
brnuha Fnuhnkhnrhik uL gFfshf wJ.
xbthU gF Fnuhnkhnrh fu vdgL. brnuha
mikJs lid bghUJ, Fnuhnkhnrh fu
mikid bghUJ Fnuhnkhnrhfis onyhbr,
mnuhbr, rbklhbr kW bklh br vdyh.

2.3. W neh ca
brf mgjkhd bgUF iy Wneh(cancer)
vdgL. jdh fLflfh ts, w Rfis Muj
kW uj myJ zf _y cl gy ghffSF gu
ulh iy njf myJ bklhnl iy VgLwJ.
nfr vw thijF y bkh eL vW
bghU. Wfo nfr vdgL. mfoia Rs gUj
iuf eo fhf ngh fhzgL. Wnehia ga
ma Mfhy(oncology) vdgL. Mfhy vgJ
nuf thij. Mnfh(onchos) vwh fo vW bghU.
mgjkhd R ts nahshr vdgL. nahshrR
gu nfL isjh mjid nkbd(Malignant) vdyh.

95
tuyhW
Wneh gHfhyfny magoUjJ. 19 who
b#k neh ayh neh jikia bj gLdh.
nkY mtf W br jik kW tiffis sd. 20
who Jtf vyh tifahd W nehfS
flagld. d mjfhd fhuzf kW ir
Kiwf ftd brYjglJ. 1775 bgt gh(Percivell pott)
vgh ifnghfis Rj brgtfSF W neh tUtij
fL W nehF fJff fhuz vd Tdh. jdh
Niy kW bjhrh fhuz vd flitf
flaglJ.
1. y vbz - njh Wneh -
(shale oil) bjhyhsfSF
2. faf jhJ - Eiupu Wneh-
(radio active ore) Ruf gahsfSF
3. lh bejyik - W ig Wneh-
(Beta-napthalamine) ug bjhrhiy
gahsfSF
4. if bghU (cigarettes) - Eiupu Wneh
y itufS W nehF fhuzkhfyh vd fhy
cW braglJ. uh rhnfhkh itu Kj W nehF
fhuz vd sfglJ. jfhy kj T-brf
VgL Ynfah vD W nehF HTLV-1 itu fhuz
vdfla gLsJ.
ytif Wnehf ghuga nehahf fUjgLwd.
buondhshnlhkh (Retinoblastoma) vD f VgL
Wfo ghugakhf VgLwJ. bkl ghugago J X
Xa gghF.
Wneh ca
Wneh ca ts f ntfkhf csJ. W
nehfhd KGikahd fhuzfis fla mj br myJ
_yTW ms Muhf eljgLwd. vD jrka
cs fUJf Wnehfhd irF nghJkhdjhf iy.
bghJthf ts cl cs brf iklho br
j _y J, ntWghLf milJ gntW w brfshf

96
khWwd. iklho br j, ts kW khWghL milj
nghw ffis br cs kugQf fLgLJwd.
j kugQf VgL O khw myJ mntf braghL
W nehF fhuzkhwJ. vdnt jid Xl
cUthf(monoclonal) vdyh. Wneh bjhlahd
ts cUthF nr brf O khwf VgLtdh
gy Jiz brf njhWwd. mitf y Jiz brf
ntfkhf cl ntW RfSF gu jik bfhlit. nkY
it Wnehfhd irf ghgilahk vF
rilitfshf csd.
W brfSbfW j gf csd. Enzh
_y W briy cW nehdh mit rhjhuz brfUJ
ntWgL fhzgLwJ. itf cfU bgjhf csJ.
jhrhugo cfU ms irnlhshrij l W
brf mf csJ. cfUk fbjthf csJ.
brf Mjhu Clf bjhlJ thG jik cilait.
Rf cs brf fFiwj ms jh ntWghL
milwd. kw brfis nghW yhk R ts bgw
it brj gig HJ nghtiy. Rs kw
Rfis W brf MuF jik bfhlit.
bjhlahd gy ffsh rhjhuz br W bryhf
khWtJ W br cUthf(carcinogenesis) vdgL. f
bjhlf iy, ts iy, bgUFiy, khW iy, j iy
kW gu iyf cL. gu iy Muj(invarion)
kW bklhlh(metastasis) Ma iyf csd.
K milj W brf fLflfh ts gig
bgWsd. rhjhuz brfis nghw br c kW bt
ts fLghL ff W brf fhzgLtiy.
bjhlf W brf mgjkhd ts VgL. ts
gogoahf uj Xlij FiwJ Ltdh mitf
ts FiwJ LwJ.
Wneh _yTW ca
_yTW ca Kiwfis gagL W br
mikid mJ bfhsyh. uL braghL Kiwf
_yTW ms eilbgWwd vd flagLsJ.
1. br tsia L ndh gF nuhnlh
Mnfhf (proto-oncogenes)vdgL. DNA iH cs
gF lgL nghJ br ts mfwJ.
97
DNA_yTW mik O khwdh nuhnlh Mnfhf,
Mnfhfshf khwglyh. nkY W brf Fnuhnkh
nrhf uoghFj, Fj kW l khaikj
Maitf VgLwd.
kj W foia cUthF Mnfhf
Mnfh Wneh tif braghL fhuz
1. Ah 11(hox) uj Wneh lkhw
(acute T-cell Leuckemia)
2. v B-2(Erb) khgf kW mlf M~nf
Wneh
3. L-ik(Myc) Eiupu Wneh M~nf
4. bu(ret) ijuhL Wneh DNA kh mikj
kj W fo Mnfhf xU jj braghodh
(amplification) lgLtJ. bradh W brf
kugQf bra w mfF. rhjhuz brfnshL
xLif Mu klFF mfkhfnt W brf jif
Ljf eilbgWwd. bghGJ _yTW ca
tYdf Mnfhf btghL bghUfis Muh
brJ tUwd.
2. rhjhuz brf tsia ffhgJ
fLgLJtJ(suppresor) kugQ MF. W brf cs
ndh gF fLgLJ kugQthf bragL gF brayW
nghwJ. brf tsia fLgLJ jikia br HJ
Ltjh mgjkhd br bgUf VgLwJ.
kugQ Wneh tif
APC nfhy gF / kyFl Wneh
BRCA 1 khgf / mlf Wneh
1NK 4 njhw br Wneh, Eiupu Wneh,
_isfo, uj Wneh, z Ru
Wneh
Rb buondh shnlhkh
PTEN _isfo, Wuf kW Eiupu W neh

98
 fLgLJ kugQfsh njhW y nuhOf
brf bgUFtij jLF. j kugQf brayW nghtjh
fof tsailwd.
kj W neh cUthF KGikahf ffis
Jtiu eh maiy. Mdh Mnfhf lgLjY
fLgLJ kugQf bra HgJ Wneh cUtht
kW guj Ka fhuzf vdbja tJsJ. xnu
ntis uL tif kugQgh Vglh isf
Jjkhf UF. J gykugQ is vdgL.jdh W
brf bgUF iy, Mu jik kW bklhnl
w mfwJ.

2.3.2. W neh tiff

W nehf mitf njhW RfSF Vg
bgalgLwd.
1. rhnfhkh(sarcoma) - mik Rf VgL fof.
(cjhuz) Monahrhnfhkh (vY).
2. fhndhkh(carcinoma) - va Rf Wneh.
(cjhuz) Eiupu fhndhkh, khgf fhndhkh.
3. nghkh(lymphoma) - z Rf
4. Ynfah(Leukemia) - uj btis mQf
W nehfhz fhuzf
ytif gHf tHff kW Niy fhufsh
Wneh VgL.
1. ifiy
35% W neh wF VjhtJ xU tif ifiyia
cgnahfgLJtJ fhuzkhf csJ. Eiupu W neh w
90% if ogdh VgLwJ. ifojyh iuig, Fl,
fiza, dbgUf W ehs kW Rthrghij ghgil.
bgho nghLj, ifiy ritjyh th kW Rthr ghijf
ghfgLwd. if oF gHf yhjtf, if
ogtf L ifia EfJ cGjh mtfSF
Eiupu kW uj W neh Vglyh.
2. mafshF fRfshd X-ff, fhkh ff, wCjh
ffsh W neh cUthfyh. f Rf DNA iHfis
99
cilgdh O khw VgLwJ. Na ffsh njh
Wneh clhwJ.
3. bjhl cWjf: y tif czfsh czghij
bjhlahd cWj VgL W nehtu fhuzkhfyh. mf
ms bfhG, ca r bfhl yF ujf, c myJ
ifdh gjgLjgl cz bghUf Matwh khgf,
bgUFl, iuig kW cz FHf W neh VgLwJ.
4. kUJtf Mnyhrid cgnahfgLJ kUJf W
nehF fhuzkhF.
5. itu kW xLfshd nlhnrhkh, fu GfS
W nehF fhuzkhwd.
W neh w
W neh K iy kj kuz KowJ.
jF W brf jj gf fhuzkhwd. rhjhuz
brf tsia yfhuf fLgLJwd. W
brfSF ts fhuf njitgLtiy. vdnt
brf br ts fLghLf tswd.
rhjhuz brf, R iy xnwhL xW nrJ
fhzgL. Mdh W brf xL jik Fiw. jdh
brf Rf tahf vujD bryyh.
cl kw gFfSF vLJ brygL a W tsF
fhuzkhfyh.
W brf j f ntfkhdJ. y W brf uj
ehsnjh fhufis cUthFtdh a uj ehsf
W foD njhWwd. itf vyh cz
bghUfis vLJ bfhtdh, rhjhuz brf cz
FiwghL VgLwJ. j Ko rhjhuz brf kW Rf
cz kowd.
W neh fLghL
bjthd gnrhjid mogil jh W nehfhd
ir mik. Enzh _y W brfis milahs
fhQj, (Biopsy tissue) brf nk fhzgL milahsfis
mj, br nta Kiwf, br kua kW nf,
X-ff gnrhjid Kiw Ma gnrhjidf cL.

100
 kUJtf jfSF kUJt Kofis xL, ir
Kiwfis gJ bfhtjF iyf mik Kiw mtakhwJ.
(cjhuz, iy 1, iy 2). iyfis tiuaWj W fo
Mug, R iy myJ mUYs Rf myJ cWfSF
gud iy Mat mogil mik.
gnrhjidfSF Wneh irf, mWit
ir, kUJ ir, f R ir kW Ahnkhf
ir Kiwf mik.
flj whL tiu mWit ir Kiw kL jh
wila ir Kiwahf fUjglJ. c R nehF
nrhjid(biopsy)F mWit ir Kiw njitgLwJ.
WfoahdJ Kj iy Fl lF Ujh
mWit ir _y lyh. jfhy mWit ir Kiw
ghfgl gF kL fgLwJ. jdh cWf KGtJkhf
fgL f jf gLsJ.
fR ir Kiw
1895 nuh#(Roentgen) X- ffis Kj fljJ
1899 (Curries) fR fLofS Wneh
irF a tf njhw fhuzkhd. f R ir
Kiw mf rbfhl mafshF X-ff, fhkh ff
myJ mQ Jiz Jffshd lh Jf, mf r bfhl
vyuhf, uhf gagL fRf Rfis
JisJ brY jikilait. itf DNAit ghgjh
brf w myJ O khw VgLwJ. ir Kiw
W brf kW rhjhuz brf jhF jiknfg
mikwJ. vdnt W brf fR Kiw brYJ
f ms rhjhuz brfis ghfhj ms Uf
ntL.
kUJ ir Kiw
ir Ka nehf W brf bgUfhk, kw
Rfis Mufhk kW guthk jLgJjh. ir
cgnahfgLJ ntbghUf brf bgUFj kW W
fo tsia ghw. jrka gntW kUJf
ilwd. mitfis jahfnth myJ Tlhfnth
cgnahfgLjyh. khgf Wneh nghw y tiff Ahnkh
rhjit. vdnt ir Kiwf AhnkhfS cgnahf
gLwd.
101
 nkgl fl Kiw, ir Kiwf UJ W
nehah VgL w j mfkhfnt csJ. neh tj
gnrhjid kW ir brtij l tuhk jLgnj wjjhF.
70% Kj 80% W nehfSF, Niy jh fhuzkhf csJ.
vdnt bghJ kfl RWwij ga z njit.
ah 33% Wneh ifiydh VgLwJ. vdnt
ifojiy jLj kW ifiy cgnahf gLjiy
fLgLJj nghw eltoiffis flhakhf ntL.
czghij VgL W nehia jf eh cz
bghUfis cL bfhG czfis jfyh.
Mug iyny flj kW rahd j Kiw f
nghwitf jh W nehF thF.
Ra kL
gF - m
ca giy njbjL
1. br nfhghil bjjtf
m) vl kW nka Ah M) l kW Rth
) o. bA. khf <) f kW fr
2. bghU msit fhoY g msit bgjh
fhF w thW miHfgL
m) ntWgLJ w M) CLU brY w
) cUbgUF w <) flJ w
3. br vW bgalt
m) t Ah M) uhg bs
) uhg <) fnah
4. Enzh bghU J x j tahf Ff
gLwJ
m) Fgh byR M) bghUsUF byR
) fzUF byR <) vbz t byR
5. bghU Kgzhk gij fhz cgnahfgLJtJ
m) TL Enzh M) y U Enzh
) flJ dQ Enzh
<) nf dQ Enzh
6. Enzh M cfUit rhankw cgnahfgLJtJ
m) u t M) n#d gir
) nah <) bAbklh
102
 7. bra cf ngh fiuriy cgnahfgLJtJ
m) iygLJj M) btnaWj
) RjgLJj <) ga itj
8. myF gly nfhghogo shkh gly mikig
Tat
m) xtl M) nlr
) uhgr <) nfhr
9. shkh gly cs U bfhG glyfis
NJsJ
m) nuhOf M) fhnghiAnuLf
) _yTWf <) my
10. Mfuz ghng Vw iknlhfhah gid
sat
m) by# M) vl
) u <) nka Ah
11. fhgitf br Rthr EQUf vW
miHfgLgit
m) iunghnrhf M) iynrhnrhf
) nfhif cWf <) iknlhfhahf
12. iunghnrhf Ka g
m) ghng Vw M) Rthj
) uj nrif <) Mfuz
13. fhQ EQWf vit br c, bghUfis
flJ bjhFig rhjJ
m) iknlhfhah M) iynrhnrhf
) vnlhshr tiy <) iunghnrhf
14. nfhif cWf yhj brf vit
m) va brf M) Ru brf
) uj tgQf <) Ru brf
15. iynrhnrhf cUthF l
m) iknlhfhah M) iunghnrhf
) cfU <) nfhif cWf
16. firiHf afij fLgLJtJ
m) shkh gly M) cfU
) mou cW <) iunghnrhf

103
17. ghof uj tgQ fhzgL cfUf
vif
m) xW M) gy
) uL <) xW iy
18. <ugjKs cUs brfisfhz cjthjJ
m) TL Enzh M) gu ntWgL Enzh
) dD cUbgU <) y U Enzh
19. fhnfh t rhankwToa brf
m) jhtu brf M) eu brf
) Ru brf <) <L brf
20. bfhG bghUf fhzgL iy
m) FSnfh _yTWf
M) ~ghnghLf _yTW
) uj _yTWf <) nkTa midJ
21. brf r iyafshf fUjgLgit
m) iynrhnrhf M) iunghnrhf
) iknlhfhoah <) brnuhnrhf
22. yF brf nfhif cW fhzgL iy
m) xiw M) uil
) gy <) yhj iy
23. iynrhnrhf nkbfhS g
m) br c brj M) br bt brj
) br Jf bfhs <) br bfhs
24. bg Mnrhf fhzgL brf
m) xU brf M) irf
) jhtuf <) nkTa midJ
25. brnah fhzgL KTL EFHf vif
m) VG M) vL
) gJ <) xgJ
26. cfU fhzgL brf
m) ngOah M) ituf
) nfnahLf <) midY
27. Eiupu Wneh cUthf fhuzkhf miktJ
m) ifoj M) y vbz
) fafjhJ <) lh eh~jhyik
104
 gF - M
Wil jUf
1. branyhL bjhlila a ma f bgaf
vd?
2. Enzh bragho ntWgLJ w vwh vd?
3. xU TL Enzh ghff ahit?
4. Ka rhankf ahit?
5. iknlhfhah eilbgW UKa c ntid
f bgaf ahit?
6. fulhd myJ bkikahd vnlhshr tiy vwh vd?
7. jidjhnd mj(autolysis) vwh vd?
8. bronah, mou cW vW vbghGJ miHfgL.
9. Fnuhnkhnrhf fuf mik mogil Fnuhnkh
nrhf tiff ahit?
10. shkh gly utjik Tlik kh vwh
vd?
11. mikY, cgnahfY gu ntWgL Enzh vthW
kw EnzhfUJ ntWgLwJ.
12. c iy rhaf vwh vd?
13. gj vwh vd?
14. vnlhshr tiy d U gfis FLf.
15. iynrhnrhf fhzgL ehF behfis FL.
16. brnahf gf uoid vGJ.
17. Utif myf ahit?
18. brnuhaf mogil Fnuhnkhnrhfis
tifgLJ.
19. Mfhy vwh vd?
20. Wneh cUthj ehF iyf ahit.

gF -
1. br nfhghil g F tiuf.
2. br ca cgnahfgL btntW myFf ahit?
3. TEM kW SEM f ntWghL jUf.

105
4. nfhif cW mikig sFf.
5. brnah mik iyia g F tiuf.
6. cUthF Rf mogil Wnehid tifgLJ.
7. kj W nehid clhF btntW
Mnfhfis g vGJ.
8. nfhif cWf fhzgL l, mik kW gfis
FLf.
9. iknlhfhoah neahd glid ghffSl
bfhL.
gF - <
1. Enzhf tiffis g bjhF jUf
2. Enzh _y nehf vthW bghUfis jah bra
ntL vgjid t
3. iknlhfhah mik kW brafis g fLiu
tiuf
4. br cfU mikid g bjthf sFf.
5. xU yF br mikid bjthd glkhf ghffSl
bfhL.
6. vnlhshr tiyd tiff, ntWgl totf kW
gfis t.
7. Wnehid vthW fLgLjyh?
8. Enzh fhz VJthf, fzho Jlf
Rfis mikF Kiw iyfis t.

106
 3. kj cSWgika
3.1. cSWgika tuyhW
yFf, jhtuf clYF cshf fhzgL
cWgikid ma KaY ma cSWgika
(Anatomy) vdgL. mWit ir, kUJt nghw gajU
Jiwf njh nkghL miljjF gfng fhuz.
. K. 2500 vaf kj cliy g eF
mUjd. mtf cliy uLfSFshf eF ghl brJ
itUjd. mjF k vW bga. jbfd cSWfis
mWit brJ, L ghJfh brjd. tf mWit
irY cilj vYfis rbrtY w bgUjd.
.K 500-491 MLf ah RUjh, fhluh(cataract) f
mWit ir brjh. mWit ir Kiwfis g . Kj
who brr vD nuhk kUJt X btlh.
. 1543 jf btpo X Ka ML. tho
cSWgika g Jakhf vGa X jfij moa
btrha vgt btlh. 1628 a Ah ja,
uj FHhf braghoid sdh. fL
ofis bjhlJ cl gntW cWfis ga midJ
brfS bttu Jtd. jfhy cWfYs
brf _yTW flik g mJ bfhS Ka
<LgLnsh.

nu cSWgika
(Grays Anatomy)
kj cSWf bjhlghf gy jff
btlgoUjhY bA nu mtfsh vGjgl
Anatomy : Descriptive and Surgical vD wghdjhf csJ.
Kj g Mf 1858 btahdJ. bjhlJ 145
MLfshf g csJ. mik 2000tJ Mo
thd 38tJ g btlgLsJ.
bA nu, yh, r vD l 1827
wjt. 1861 tiu thjh yl j. #h{ kUJtkid
f f wj khztuhf sat.
107
3.1.1 njhYWf (Integumentary organs)
njhyik cl nkw KGtJ nghitahf
mikJsJ. tik cl cSWfis ghJfhwJ. cl
Mahjiy jLwJ. cl btgij ghJfhwJ. clYF
itl D jahjwJ. bjhL cz, taj, btgkj
nghw czfis clYF czJwJ. j gyjugl
gfis brtjh njhiy gbjh gd vdyh.
nk njhyhdJ iAnghbl (bl) vD br
gu J mikJsJ. iAnghbl, njhiy mo cs
vY, jirfSl izF. nkY njh eufis uj
FHfis bgUF.

nuhk
vbz Ru

vbl

mbulhigiy (bkjir)
bl
nuhk gh
eu ait Ru
uj FHh
bfhG iAnghbl

gl.3.1.1. njhY iAnghblR

njh bl, vbl (nkbl) vd UKa
Rf cL. bl iz Rdh MdJ. bfhG
br, eh br nknuh~ng#] Mait cL. Rnt njhYfhd
mogil tYitjU. gF eu Kof, nuhkf
mogFf, bkik jirf kW Ruf csd.
bl gF uL mLFf bfhlJ. mit nkw
ghy mLF(Papillary layer), w buoFyh mLF(Reticular
layer) MF. ghy mL cs f ghyhf vdgL
buoFyh mLF bl Ka gFahF. gF
mlahd jikl blRl bjhl bfhoUF.

108
nkbl (Epidermis)
gF mLF va Rdh (stratified squamous
epithelium) MdJ. jF blRF il X gly cL.
nkbl njh wF fhuzkhd w brf csd.
nkbl brf bfuho(Keratin) vD ujbghUis
jahwd. vdnt tF bfuhondhirLf
(Keratinocytes) vW bga.
bfuho

onul fha

onul l

onul uhDnyhr
onul igndhr

onul ngr

ghyh

gl.3.1.2. vbl gly

vbl mow brf iklh br jyh a

brfis clhF. brf nkYs giHa brfis
btneh jL. btbrf, njhW a brfis
ghJfhF. btbrf mik nta jik
khWjyil. mbrf bfuho u. jF
bfuhodhf vW bga. ntis nkblR IJ
bjthd mLFfshwJ. mit mLF, igndhr mLF,
uhDnyhr mLF, l mLF, fha mLF MF.
mLF vbl mo csJ. XuLF
va brfSL. bfuhodhf F JtF. j
nkYs igndhr mL 8-10 mLFf gKf brf
cL. uhDnyhr mLF mLJ, nk csJ. 3-5 mLFf
jilahd brfSL. jF nkyhf l mLF csJ.
bka tL wj brfnssd. nk wkhf fha
mLF csJ. 20F nkgl wj br mLFf csd.
brf bfuhodh uggLsd. tF fod brf
vW bga.
njhyhdJ jonjh myJ bkikahfnth Ufyh.

109
joj njh nkFl IJ mLFfS cL. fha
mL mf brfUF. csfh, csif, u Ef
jojnjhYL.
clgu bkikahd njh bfhlJ. va
mLFf br mLFf FiwUF. uhDnyhr mL
ulLF brf kLnk UF.
njh jo(Callus): bjhlJ cuh cs lf njh jo
VgL. fha mLF, gy mLF brfis
bfhoUF.
njh w
wf njh wij clhFwd. fha
mL ml, mo cs uj Xl nghwitfS
wkfyh. wkhdJ bky wfsh njhW. w
njh, nuhk, ff nghw gFfSF wkF. Na, UV
ffUJ cliy ghJfhF. bky clhF brf
bkyndhirLf MF. jah kugQ rhjJ. Ahnkhf,
x nghwitfS wkhw clhfyh.
njh khWghLf
nuhkf : it njh khWghLf. xU nuhk
ntgF l jLgFKL. ntgF njhD csJ.
nt gF X mfw ignghw gFsJ. nuhk wj
bfuhodhd brfsh MdJ. nuhk ika bkLyh
gF mjid R fhbl, o gFfS csd.
bkLyh, nuhk ika mR. nuhk bgUgF X mLF
brfsh MdJ.

bkLyh

fhbl nuhk
o

c va nt ciw
bt va nt ciw
blk nt ciw

gl.3.1.3. gh gF nuhk F. bt. njhw

110
 nuhk wkhdJ bky ms, tif rhjJ. J X
kugQ g. tajhdh bky ms Fiw. nuhkf
btikahF. eiu Ko rW btikahd nuhkfSl
KY btikahd nuhkf fyUF.
ntw br mfgh nuhk tsU. ts X iy
WL. XF giHa nuhk cJ aJ njhW.
_W MLf tsU nuhk 1-2 MLf tsuhk XbtLF.
nuhkJl mulh igiy(arrector pili) vD jir brf
izJsd. nuhk gJ myJ FL gJ
nghwtF jir brfns fhuz.
ait RufS vbz RufS njh
csd. vbz Ruf bl csd. it RuF
vbz bghU g(Sebum) vdgL. it ehs tna
nuhkJl izJsd. gh Ruf khWghlilj ait
Ruf.

Ru fJ

fh gh ehs

bfhG

gl.3.1.4. gh Ru
ait Ruf FH totKilait. it RUshd FH
tot Ruf. it neuoahf njh wJsd. Ru
gF X RUshf nkgF lFHyhf csJ.
csiff csfhf it mf csd.
ef: ef uL gFfis cilaJ. mit efnt kW cl gF.
ef cl gF bjthf bj. efnt njhdh
_lgLsJ. ef K kW gfthL gFf efkofsh
NHgLsJ.
efko fha mLF gha vD ef clyhwJ.
j EgF iAgha MF. ef mo btgF YDyh
MF. J ef tsgF MF. ef efgLif nk
mikJsJ. ef Rkhuhf 0.5 - 1.2 l xU eh tswJ.

111
 bt Xu
cl iAgha ef gLif
ef gs
efnt
ef ko
YDyh
gha
efnt
nk mik btL njhw
gl.3.1.5. ef

3.1.2. vYf (mfrlf)

kilnahL

jhil
fhiubaY
njh gil vY
khbgY
yh vYf
nkif vY
KJbfY bjhl
mdh
fh[h
UbtY nuoa

kfL vYf
csif vYf
u vYf

bjhil vY

KHfh Y

Kfh vY

fh bt vY
Ffh vYf
csfh vYf
uf
gl.3.2.1. cl vYf

112
 ekJ cl mfrlf vYf, FUbjYf,
fbkLf mikJsd. tik clYF X totij
jUwJ. nkY jirf iztjF vYf lkwd.
mfrlf cl vilia jhF. kilnahL nghwit
cSWfis ghJfhwd. rlf lbga
cjwJ. bfhG, jhJcfis nrF lkhwJ. tgQf
vY k{i# cgahwd.
vYf nlh, ajhfnth, jilahfnth myJ
xGfw totnyh Ufyh. if, fhf l vYf
csd. a vYf mfw tot bfhoUfyh. kfL
vYf(Carpals), Ffh(Tarsals) vYf ait. jil
vYf bka, jilahd jikilait. kilnahL
vYf, yh vYf, khbgY, njhgil vYf
nghwit jil vYf. KbsYfS KfbjYfS
xGfw totKilait.
X l vY mik
vYghdJ bgahoa(periosteum) vD ciwah
_lgLsJ. iw nkgF ehfis bfhlJ.
gF uj FHfS eufS cL.

_L jiy
fGJ _L FUbjY
vig
vig jL

bkik vY
fod vY
bg Moa
cl ilahig
bkLyh F
vlhoa

KHfh Ygs

gl.3.2.2. l vY - bjhilbaY

113
 tsU s vY _W gFfSL. l gF
ilaig myJ vY jL vdgL. gF mlahd
vY Rdh MdJ.
vY jo KogF vig vD rW
bkikahd gFsJ. j nk ciw fodkhdJ. vig,
ilahig il X tsjL csJ. gF Aa
FUbjYdh MdJ. vY sthL ts gF
fG.
vY jo ika bkLy F csJ. F
cwkhf vlhoa myJ vY cgly csJ. FD
kr k{i# csJ. J bfhG Fj mongh Rdh
MdJ. vigr gFD cs bkLy FD t k{i#
csJ. J uj brf jah cjwJ.
g, ff fwYfhd cyj vYf gagLj
gLwd. vYf mit mikUj lij bghWJ
bgalgL. j bgalgl vYf uL tiffshf
fgLsd. mit 1. mR rlf, 2. izW rlf.
mR rlf kilnahL, AahL vY, KJbfY,
khgiw vYf csd. izW rlf if, fhf
vYfS mit izJs khbgY, LbgYf mlF.
kj cl 206 vYfSL. mit mR rlf 80
vYf izW rlf 126 vYfSkhf csd. mR
rlf kilnaho 28 vYfS, KJbfY bjhl 26
vYfS, khgiw 25 vYfS, 1 AahL vY vd vYf
csd. (skD B [kD z] VD)
mR rlf
cliy neuhf itUf rlf cj. Ys
kilnahL _isia ghJfhF. KbsYf jLtlF
ghJfhgwd.
m) kilnahL
kjf kilnaho bfhss 1500 fd br. MF.
nkgF 22 vYf csd. it _isia ghJfhwd.
f, fhJ nghw czWfSF Mju mikfshsd.
kho myJ jhilbaY kilnahLl izJs
wbgYghF. kilnaho vL vYf csd. mit

114
 EjbyY

RtbuY
f F
MUbtY
_bfY
fdbtY

fd tisbaY

nk jhilbaY

jhilbaY

gl.3.2.3. kilnahL
RtbuY myJ bgiul(Parietal) - 2
fdbtY myJ blbghu(Temporal) - 2
EjbyY myJ ~uhl(Frontal) - 1
MUbtY myJ dhL(Sphenoid) - 1
luUbfY myJ Ml(Occipital) - 1
vkhblY(Ethmoid) - 1
btYf midJ mir bghUJjfsh
(sutures) xWlbdhW bghUsd. tif bghUJjf
mirah _L tifia rhjit.
jiy Kw 14 KfbtYf csd. mit,
nkjhilbaYf (m) khyh(maxilla) - 2
fd tisbaYf (m) irnfhkho(zygomatic) - 2
mzbtYf (m) ghyil(palatine) - 2
f Ruaik vYf (m) yhk(lachrymal) - 2
_iljblYf (m) ner (nasal) - 2
_il fhrh(inferior nasal koncha) - 2
115
 jhil vY (m) kho (mandible) - 1
iluhbaY (m) nthk (vomer) - 1
> z]l_ 6 cVm KDAD c|. k
\VoB - 2
- 2
- 2

mir _L
EjbyY
RtbuY
MUbtY
_bfY
luUbfY

fd tisbaY
fdbtY
nk jhilbaY

jhilbaY
gl.3.2.4. kilnahL - gf mik

kilnaho w cs bga vYf RtbuY

(parietal) luUF(occipital) vYfSnkahF. U vYfS
mir bghUJj bfhLsd. jiy UgffY
RtbuYf uL fdbtYfSl(temporal) izJsd.
fdbtYYs bga JisahdJ btfhJJis vdgL.
Jis tahfnt x miyf brgiw J Gwd.
jiy gftho fdbtYf Kw
MUbtYf(sphenoid bones) izJsd. MUbtY
K fd tisbaY myJ irnfhkho vY(zygomatic
bone) bghUsJ. btY Kf f vLghd vYghF.
nk jhilahdJ khyh vYghyhdJ. jhil
kho(mandible) vYghF.
Kf Kwkhf bjgL Ka vYf
Ej byY(frontal), fdtisbaY(zygomatic), nkjhil, jhil
vYfns. kilnaho bjgL KaJthuf fnfhs

116
FfS, btfhJ JisfSkhF. f Jisfis Rs
vYf ffis ghJfhwd. nkY it ffis mirF
jirf iz lkhwd. j fnfhsfis
Rs vYf EjbyY(frontal), MUbtY(sphenoid),
fd tisbaY(zygomatic), nkjhil vY(maxilla), f
Ruaik vY(lacrimal), vkhL vY(ethmoid),
mzbtYfshF.
mR vY
l mR vY

fGJ gF

KbsY iljL

kh gF
KbsYil Jis

gf

L gF

UbtY th vY UbtY
gF

th vY

gl.3.2.5. KJbfY bjhl

117
 kilnaho mow kilnahL bgUJis
sJ. j tahf _is KFsUJ jLtl
njhsJ.
M) KbsYf
KbsYf rnw S totKila KJbfYbjhliu
mikJsd. 26 vYfSL. it 5 gFfsh csd.
mit fGJ (7), kh(12), L(5), UbtY (rhu) -1, th vY(1)
MF. ks_ zB 34 xmKDA^ c|. ku_ 5
V_ KDA^ m 1 ]kKDD 4 _m 5 kV_
KDA^ m - 1 kV_ KDD >Vus[.
KbsY mik
X KbsY Ka, viljhF gF brou(centrum)
vD ikagFahF. mLjLj U KbsYf
ikagFf il FUbjY iljLf cL. X
K vY ikagF nkw X KbsY tis
cL. tis X eu fhthia NJsJ.
fhth jLtl csJ. KbsY tis gy vY
f cL. ikagF UwfY Ugf f
csd. nk w X u K cL. f jirf
iztjF lkwd. nkY, K, KbsYfSl
bghUJ tif Unk, U fSsd.

yh vY
K
gf
cl
Jis
tis gF
gf
cl
iljL K

cl (bru)
ilJis
gl.3.2.6. KbsY

Kj fGJ KbsY my myJ mbrY vdgL.

ikagFaw btY kilnahil jhF tif tot
118
bgWsJ. ulhtJ KbsY l mbrY(axis) vdgL.
UbtY gF KbsYf izJ Knfhz tot
X UbtYghaJ. th KbsY X gadw va cWghF.

UbtY

th vY

gl.3.2.7. UbtY th vY
) khgiw
ekJ cl 12 iz yh vYfSL. it jjna
kh KbsYfSl izJsd. Kw Kj 10
izyh vYf khbgYl (sternum) izJsd.
izbfd iz FUbjYf csd.
khbgYl neuoahf izJs Kj 7 iz yh vYf
cik yh vYf vdgL. 8,9,10tJ yh vYf izJ
7tJ yh vYl bghUsd. it bgh yh vYf
vdgL. 11, 12tJ iz yh vYf khbgYl
izaiy. tF jF yh vYf vW bga.

fhiubaY Kj kh KbsY

njhgil vY
khbgY nkif vY

ghL
izFUbjY
12tJ kh KbsY

gl.3.2.8. yh vY TL

119
izW rlf
rlf if, fh vYfS, khbgY tisa,
LbgY tisaK csd.
khbgY tisa myJ njhgilaik
if vYf tisaJl izJsd.
itaidJ jirfsh Wf clYl izJsd.
tikgh cl mirf vjhsd. iffis gy
iyf itl aY.

VFnuha

ifbaY bghUJ F

gl.3.2.9. njhgil vY

fhiubaY

njhgilbaY

nkifbaY

KifbaY

MubaY
kfL vYf
csifbaYf

u vYf
gl.3.2.10. ifbaYf
120
 khbgY tisa myJ njhgil, uLiz
vYfSL. xbthU izY xUnjhgilbaY (scapula)
xU fhiubaY(clavicle) csd. Knfhz tot njhgil
baY jilahdJ. j nk Xu if vY bghUJ F
csJ. gF nkifbaYl izJsJ. l fhiu vY,
rW S totKilaJ. jid eh v njh fhzyh.
btY iffis clYl cuuhk itJbfhS.
LbgY tisa myJ bg (Pelvis)

a
UbtY

z F bgY

gl.3.2.11. LbgY tisa

tisa rhu vD UbtYghY Xiz fhnr

vD LbgYfshY MdJ. LbgYghdJ _W
vYf izth MdJ. mit a myJ ftL vY,
a myJ LizbgY, myJ bgY
MF. tisa cs zF(acetabulum), fhf
iza cj.
LbgY

bjhil vY

KHfh Y

Kfh vY
fh btbaY

Ffh vYf
csfh vYf
uf
gl.3.2.12. LbgY fhfS
121
ifbaYf
njhgilUJ KHiftiuYs ifgF nkif
vdgL. gFD ku(humerus) vD nkifbaY
csJ. btY nkgF njhgilbaY bghUJ
FD bghUjgLsJ. gF Kif vYfSl
_likJ izJsJ.

gl.3.2.13. bjhilbaY
K if
gF nkifF kfL gFF ilYsJ.
uL vYfSL. mit KifbaY(ulna),
MubaY(radius)fshF. KifbaY RLu gfkhf
MubaY filu gfYkhf mikJsd.
kfL
W gF vL kfL vYfisilaJ. it ehF
ehfhf uL tirf csd. btYfS fbk
vdgL ehgF izJ kfo KgF X
fhth mikig VgLsd. jF kfL fhth
vW bga. jir ehf, euf, uj FHhf j tahf
ifD EiHwd.
if
if rlf, csif vYfsh MdJ. it kfL
vYfSl _likJsd. csif vYf mik
Kiwah csif F jiksJ.
if IJ ufSL. m X filuY ehF
ufS mlF. xbthU uY l u vYfsh MdJ.
fil u uL u vYfS w uf _W u
vYfS cL.

122
 kfL vYf

csif vYf

uf

gl.3.2.14. ifbaYf
fh vYf
fhf vY tir if vYf mikig xJsJ.

vY
ehciw
_L ut

iz FUbjY

gl.3.2.15. _Lut iz

nkfh gF, bjhil vdgL. cs jj, l

vY bjhil vY myJ ~k(femur) vdgL. btY
nk Kid LbgY zF bghUJ jiy
gFsJ. Kid fh vYfSl iz uL
ilf csd.
KHfh X mfw, jilahd KHfh Y(patella)
vYsJ. J bjhil vY gF bghUsJ.
fh (fh)- gF KHfhYF fQfhYF il
csJ. KfhbyY fh btbaY csd. t
KfhbyY bgaJ. btY fh vilia jhF.
fQfh (Ankle)
gF VG fQfh vYfsh MdJ. btYf
fh KfhbyY, btbaYfSl fQfh vYf
lhy(talus) vD gFah izJsd.
123
csfh
gF csfh vYfS u vYfS csd.
it, if csif vYf, u vYfSF
izahdit.
_Lf
cl cWf midJ tif mirfS, jirfsh
VgL. ekJ vYf vY jirfSl eF izjit.
mt afjh vYf GfgL. vdnt cl
mirF _Lf njit.
X _L uL vYf bghUJjyh VgL. midJ
_LfS mir jikilait mW. gy _Lf Fl
ms kLnk mir clhf Toait.
_L tiff
_W tifahd _LfSL. it ehiz _Lf,
FUbjY _Lf, vY _Lf vdgL.
ehiz _Lf
tif, _Lf eh mikgh izfgLsd.
_Lf mir Fiw myJ iy. kilnahL vY
mir _LfS fhYs KfhbyY,
btfhbyY ilyhd iz tif Mdit.
FUbjY _Lf
tif U vYf Aa FUbjY myJ
ehUila Aa FUbjYgh izJsd. Kj tifF
LbgYfS ulh tifF KbdY iljLfS
cjhuzfshF.
ut _Lf
_Lf il X ut bghU cL. ut
TLrfiu, nuhOf, bfhG nghwitsd. J X
cuh utkhF. (cjhuz). KHif, KHfh _Lf.

3.1.3. jirf
yFf midJ cl mir kW lbga gf
cilait. ff FWiHf, firiH nghw br
cWfshnyh myJ jirfshnyh VgL. jiraff rW mf
124
rthj mirf MF. ekJ cl vY jirf mirfis
VgLJtnjhL clYF mHa totij jUwd. clD
cs c cWf Rt jirf theh KGtJ X
ciHwd. t jirbrf a aufis nghW
bragL fhf, ja nghw gy cWf braYF
irawd. j f nkgl jir Rfns cl
midJ affSF fhuzkhsd.
mik, braw, ciw Mat mogil jir
R _W tifgL.
1) vY jirf myJ til jirf
it vYfSl izJsd. jirbrf L,
l to csd. aF jirfshf ekJ vzfSF
fLgL cl mirfis clhFwd.
2) c cW jirf myJ taw jirf
it ujFHhf, iuig, Fl nghw c cW
f Rtf csd. jir brf ftot cilait.
it ekJ irF fLglhj aF jirfshF.
3) ja jirf
it ja Rt csd. jir brf cUis
to isUF. it ekJ irF fLglhj aF
jirfns.
vY jirf
it jir ehfsh vYfSl bghUsd.
jirf af iria vYfSF flj jirehf
cjwd. jirf jirgly(facia) vD izRth
_lgLsd.
jirehf
it jikila iz R cWfshF. it
tYthd gilfis nghW vYfSl bjhl bfhLsd.
t Gw VwFiwa O f w ghas
cilaJ. 10 . FWfs cs jir eh 600 - 1000 nyh vilia
jhfyh.

125
jir r (facia)
iz Rth Ma r vY jir J X
gly nghitahf csJ. gly nkwkhfnth myJ
MHkhfnth mikUfyh. nkw cs r, fLjsila
mikghf njhYF jirF il UF. MHkhd r
bfhyh# iHfsh MfgL jikaw ciwahf
jirfis RUF. it jirfSF ilahf brW
vYfSl izUF.
jir totf
jirf toY msY gy khWghLf cL. mik,
G ir jiriy Mat mogil jirf
uL tifgL.
1. iz jirf : tif jir ehf G irF
izahfsd. jilahd a jirf ehfl myJ l
gil to Ufyh. X j jirahdJ eh jir
KGsK oUfyh.
2. rh jirf : tif jirehf G irF
rhthf csd. jirf Knfhz tot myJ wF tot
bfhoUF. wF tot jirf xiw iswF, uil
iswF, gy iswF myJ RWiswFfshf Ufyh.
y jirf RU mikilait.
jirf bgaf
ms, mik, Ul,braw Mait mogil
jirf bgalgLsd.
tot ms
bllhL (m) Knfhzjir nk# (m) bgUjir
Fthonul (m) ehnfhzjir ikd (m) W jir
nu (m) bkj jir yhf (m) jir
yhok (m) mfw jir
jir Kidf l
igbr (m) Ujiy jir lhir - KJFw jir
iubr (m) Kjiy jir bgblhuh - kh jir
Fthbr (m) ehFjiy jir uhia - ifjir,
K jir, jir
126
gu iy af
Ngah - nkgu jir vblrh - jir
ld - cgu jir bsrh - klF jir
nuhgl - MHjir fol - RUF jir
jir Ulf
m) jiyw jirf
jiyw uL tif jirf cL. mit,
kilnahL-Kfjirf, bkYjirf MF. kilnahL-
vngh nuh
gh nuhnlh MFyh jirf

MFyh MFiy
gh Mlh
nythl ny
irnfhnkof jirf
khl
MFyh M lndhisnlh khlhL
bklh

shokh

gl.3.3.2. kj - jiyw jirf

Kfjirf Kf cs, fnfhs RW gF, f f, _F,
ehJisf, cjLf, fdf, th, fhJ klf, nk jiy Ma
gFfSl bjhlilait. it Kfghtid
jirfvdgLwd. t cjlir jirf wghdit.
Kfghtid bghJthf cjlirdhY cjil itUF
KiwdhY VgLwJ. jifa vz rhj cjlirf
cjLl izj gy jirfshY thia NJs njh
gudhY fwd. cjo KjL mirF MFyh
M(Orbicularis oris), gndl jirf(buccinator muscles) fhuzkh
csd. vdnt tF Kj jirf vW bga. j Kf
mik i[nfhkhof nk#- ikd, ntl MF X
kW nrha(zygomasticus major and minor, levator anguli oris and
risorius) nghw jirfsh VgLwJ. cjL jirfsh f
ghit, KfR nghw Kfnjhwfis VgLj aY.
127
 cz ritF jirf(ngR jirf) jhil
mirid VgLJwd. jirf, khbrl blbghuh
(masseter temporalis), blfhL(pterygoid) MF. eh mirf
cshj jirfshY btw jirfshY fG. cth,
bjhil nk gF, c ehF nghw cWf jirf
czit Gf cjwd.
M) fGJ gF jirf
fGJ gF mirf britf(cervical), nk
AahL (suprahyoid), AahL (infrahyoid) kW KJF KbsY
jirfsh VgLwd.
) cl gF jirf
KJbfY bjhlUl izj jirf. cliy tisf
Ug cjwd. cliy neuhf f j tYthd
jirf cj. gF cs Ka jirf vbulh
ignd (erector spinae) yhk (longissimus) kW igdh
(spinalis) MF.
oua

blkhL
bgnlhuh
nk#
igbr

K brnul

bul
mlh

gl.3.3.3. eLl jirf

RthjYbfd ehF Ka jirfSsd. cRthrkhdJ
f(scalene), bt yh vYil jirfsh fG. c yh
vYil jirfS bjhuh(thoracis) jirfS btRthr
jirfshF. cjujhdK Rthr cjwJ. W
jirehjodh MdJ.

128
 tWw jirf mntfkhd btRthr(JKj),
thbaLj, ky fj, W fj, FHij bgWj nghw
ff cjwd.
LbgY gF bg cjujhdjh _l
gLsJ. mj bga (perineum) vD gFsJ. bga
kW w jiujirf Wuf dbgUf jirRt
vdgLwd. gF bgf fUWs iy fU
vildh GFshUF. FHij w wF
Fl clgfsh jid r brayh.
<) nkif jirf
iff khbgY tisaJlD KJbfY bjhlUlD
bga jirfsh izfgLsd. mit oua(trapezius),
bga, a nuhghLf(rhomboid major and minor), ntl
nfny(levator scapulae), yhok lhir(lattissimus dorsi)
nghw jirfshF.
oua jirf Knfhz, jil totJl fG
w, nk KJ mikJsJ. njh tot iy kW
njhgil vY K jSjYF fhuzkhwJ. gdh
iffis nkYaj cjtJl fG mirfSF Jiz
brwJ.
yhok lhir jilahd, bga, Knfhz tot
jirahF. jir bgaJ. J khgiw gFY
L gFYkhf gusJ. jirf nkif vYig K
f, l, RHw gagLwd. jirf cjah
iffis w rKo. jiyF nk iffis ca cliy
nkGfyh. Uk, JKjY it cjwd. Mj
cRthrY it cj.
nk brnul (serratus anterior), bgnlhuh nk#
(pectoralis major) jirf yh vYfis njhgilbaYl
izJsd. bgnlhuh nk# nk khgiwUJ
twiw tiu gu nk ifia aF. jir
totKsJ. jirahdJ njh fhiu vYF kh
Kwkhf cs 7tJ yh vYF il gusJ. oa
iffis Kdhf gfthoY mirf cjwJ. kunkWj
nghw affSF cj. cRthr Jiz brwJ.
129
 nkif nfhunfhuhah(coracobrachialis),
Ujiy jir, Kjiy jir, uhah(brachialis) nghw
jirf csd. nfhunfhuhah jirf njh
nfhufhL vYf njh iff Kif vYf
Kotilwd. iffis Kwkhf gfthoY mirf
cjwd. Ujiy jir, bga, ftot jir. nkw U
iz gFf bfhlJ. mit Kiwna nfhufhL vYlD
njh_LlD izJsd. Kid if Mu vYl
izJsJ. Kjiy jir _W nk KidfSilaJ. it
njhgil vYlD nkif vY nkwY izJsd.
kfL, if, uf mirf gy mf, wjirfsh VgL.
mtiw ga thd sffis ca tFf bgwyh.
2) fh jirf
fh bjhil gF mirf nkgF, gfgF,
MHgFf cs jirfsh VgL. nkjirf ahf
(iliacus) kW nrhth nk#(psoas major) jirfshF. it
bjhilgFid Kndh mirf fhuzkhwd.
lgF(buttocks) FSoa khk jirfsh MdJ. fh
mirf nk bjhil jirfsha Fthobr
~nkh(quadriceps femoris) kW rhnlha(sartorius)
jirfsh VgL. ekJ cl rhnlha X skhd jirahF.
jir LUJ KHfh tiu gusJ. fQfh, u
E nghw gFf mirf gy mf, w jirfsh VgL.
mtiw ga thd sffis ca tFf bgwyh.

3.1.4. cz brkhd cWf

kj czl nAhnyhnrh tifia rhjJ.
tif clYfhd cz bghUf brkhz _y
ilwd.
brkhd nghJ bga cz _yTWf uh gFj
vD nta fah ijW a _yTWfshwd.
f virf vD behfsh fG. tif
brkhd cWfshf cz ghij mjDl izj brkhd
RufS csd. cz ghij th Kj kyJthu tiuY
oUF.

130
 cth
bjhil

czFH

fu
jig iuig

fza

WFl
bgUFl

Flth
kyJthu

gl.3.4.1. czghij

thgF bt cjLf csd. kofsha

cjLf cwkhf bka glyjh _lgLsd. cth U
gffY fd Rtf csd. Rt <ujikila
mLF Fthk va csJ. cjLfS fdK czit
RitgY, ngRjY cjwd.
ehF
J mfw jirWghF. W cth
jiugFl izJsJ. eh EgF izahJ
csJ. eh mow Dy(frenulum) vD gF mjid
cth jiu gFl izJsJ. eh nkw gy
Rit mUfSl Toa ghyhf csd. bld rf
vw ika gsdh ehF U gFfshf fgLwJ.
gf
kjuJ th 32 gfSL. it iyj gf vdgL.
it ehF tifgL. iyF khWgl gyik vW bga.

131
 btL g
nfhiug
I K filth g
nk jhil
II K filth g
I filth g
II filth
gIII filth
g

jhil

gl.3.4.2. g mik

mgf Kiwna btL gf(8), nfhiugf(4), K

filthgf(8), filthgf(12) MF. g Nu
tU Kiw mik.

bt.g ; nfh.g ; K.f.g ; .f.g 2

myJ 2

vdhk

g fu
blil

fGJ

gT F

nt
brbkl

ntfhth
gT FJthu
gl.3.4.3. X g mik

132
 xbthU gY _W gFf csd. mit nkw
gl, fGJ, nt gFfshF. gl nk xU y nk
tsf(cusps) csd. g bgUgF blil vD
bghUsh MdJ.
nkw gf, vdhk vD fodkhd gFdh
NHgLsd. g ijl lf blildhdJ, bkl
vD bghUsh _lgLsJ. bghU giy jhilf
bghUJtjF cjwd. g cwkhf gT F vD
F gFsJ. gF g nt fhth vdgL.
uj FHhfS eufS csd. FHh mow
wJsJ.
nk, jhilf f cs Ff gf
ijJsd. gF jhilf mlahd eh iz
RdhY mLF va RdhY _lgLsd.
gFF g <W vW bga.
c Ruf
it cth KGtJ gu fhzgLwd. t _W
izf bgait. mit nk mz Ruf, jhil
Ruf, ehto RufshF. nk mz Ruf bgait. it
fh Kwkhf jiy UgffY csd. jhil
Ruf jhil idbaho csd. ehto Ruf
ait. it th jiugF nfhiH gly csd.
nkY gy, a, RUtot Ruf th cL. mit nkehF
Ru, mz Ru, cth Ru, cjL RufshF.

nk mz Ru nk mz Ru

jhil ehto Ru
Ru

gl.3.4.4. c Ruf

133
bjhil
gF ga thd sf Rthr cWf gF
csJ.
czFH
FH bjhilUJ iuig tiu LsJ. J
25br. sKilajhF. FH KJbfY Kwkhf, _R
FH dh khgiw oahod gF csJ. cjujhd
tna w iuigl bjhl bfhLsJ. j Rt
jojJ. j cw Rt <ujiks nk, gFf
RUF jirf csd.
iuig
iuig X mfw ig nghw cWghF. twiw nk
gF ilkl ig csJ. igahdJ ja gF,
ignyh gF vd ulhf fgLsJ. cz FH
iuig jagF wJsJ. gF lJ w
~gl (fundus)vD gFsJ. iuig bgUgF ika
gFahF. gF FWfyilJ ignyh gFahsJ.
gFF FlgFF ilYs Jthu ignyh RUF
jirfsh MdJ.
cz FH
~gl
czFH Jthu
ja gF
cl
ignyh Jthu

ignyh gF

gl.3.4.5. iuig btL njhw

WFl
Fl _W gFfSilaJ. mit KWFl,
#&d(jejunum), WFl(ileum) MF. WFl gF 6 l
sKilaJ.
onahod (KWFl)
gF 25 br.l sKilaJ. gF twiwD 1800
tisthfsJ. fuY fzaK jDl izJsd.
134
#&d, a
it Kiwna 2.5 l 3.5 l sKilait. it
mik KWFliy xJsd. UD WFl FWfs
wkhf ajh brY. WFl, bgUFl iz l
nah-f r vdgL. gF gy bka tisa
jirf RUF jirfsh csd. jF nah-nfh th
vW bga.
fu
W cl bga cSWghF. j vil 1.36
.uh. bga lJ, tyJ fJf cL. fhnl, Fthonu
vD Ua fJfS cL. fuyh RufgL j
jig nrffgL. fuYl uL j ehsf
bjhl bfhLsd. it izJ jig ehsJl
bghJthd j ehsij VgLsd. ehs KWFl
wJsJ.

fu
j ig

fza

bghJthd jehs fza ehs

fu fza
Myh
onahod

gl. 3.4.6. onahod gF

j ig
igahdJ fu mogF csJ. J 8 br sK
4 br mfyK cilaJ.
fiza
Ru ehsKs, ehsyh Ru Rfsh MdJ.
ehsyh Ru gF fiza Lf csd. it
R, FSffh nghw Ahnkhfis Ruwd.
ehsKs Ru gF Vird vD ilbtf csd.
it X uz beh bjhFig Ruwd. fiza gy
135
fJf cL. fJfUJ njhW a ehsf
izJ bga fiza ehskhsd. ehs bghJthd j
ehsJl izJsJ.
bgUFl
f : gF bgUFl, WFlf iz
lYsJ. J 6 br.l sKilaJ. jDl izJs
Fl th 9 brl s bfhlJ.
bgUFl : gF 1.5 - 1.8 l sKilaJ.
VWFl ilFl, wF Fl vd _W gFfSL.
tiwaLJ khL bgUFl csJ. FlyhdJ
kyFl Kotil.
kyFl : l FH Rt, jirfsh MdJ. FH
kyfhth Kotil.
kyfhth : gF 2 br.l sKilaJ. fhth
kyth Kotil. gFD uL RUF jirf cL.

3.1.5. Rthr cWf

Rthr f fhW Eiupuiy u, th khw fG.
M#, fhg-il Mi[L flJj fG. f
fSbfd Rthr cWfS uj RW mikfS csd.
Rthr cWfshf ehaiw, bjhil, Futis,
_RFH, isFH, Eiupuf nghw cWf csd.
it nk, Rthr ghijfshf mikJsd.
nk Rthr ghij
ehaiw
_F

Cyh
ehgFbjhil
cth bjhil
Fu
tisbjhil c
ehF

czFH _RFH
gl. 3.5.1. nk Rthrghij
136
 1. ehgs : ehgs vD gF btehid
mLJsJ. _F, Kf vLghd mikghF. _ cshf
mj Mjubfd FUbjY jLf csd. U eh
ghijfSF il ilbaYfS kilnaho
EjbyY, nkjhil vY Mat fS csd. twh
Rthr ghijahdJ. U miwfshfsJ.
2. bjhil : c th ehghij bjhilD
wJsd. cz ghij cz FHYF, Rthr cW
fSF bry bjhil gF X bghJthd ghijahf csJ.
bjhil _W gFfSL. mit ehgF
bjhil, cth bjhil, Futis bjhilahF.
ehgF bjhil, cehJisUJ c ehF
gF tiu mikJsJ. cehF, cth gFF
bjhil gFF il cs bkikahd btts
ahF. cz, Rthr ghijD EiHtij cehF jLJL.
bjhil cRt FWiH vaf
mikJsd. eLfhJ gF U cfhJ FHfsh
bjhil wJsJ. tik btwF
eLfhF il fh mGj rkiygLjgL. nkY
gF cRt lh vD modhL mikf csd.
it nehjL cj. UD lh tsah
Rthr jilnagL.
cthbjhil gFahdJ cehF Futis
_oF il csJ. cth wF l mU U
iz nk mz lh tsfS ehto lh
tsfS csd. Futis bjhil gFahdJ
Futis _oF cz FHYF il csJ.
3. yh(larynx) myJ Futis : gF bjhil gF
kW cthid mLJsJ. gFid RY 3
izyh, 6 iz FUbjYf csd. it jirf,
fbkLfsh izfgLsd. ijuhL, fhL,
vsho nghwit izyh FUbjYfshF.
itf ijuhL FUbjY bgaJ. btYng fGJ rF
vdgLtjhF. fhL FUbjY yh mojskhF. w
FUbjYf fho nk mikfgLsd. vsho
ijuhL FUbjY J mikJsJ. W Futis
Jis K X ghJfh _oahf csJ. cz bghUf _R
FHD EiHtij jLJL.

137
 vsho
AahL vY
ijnuhAahL gly
ijuhL FUbjY
fhL FUbjY
FUbjY tisaf

gl. 3.5.2. Futis

FutisD cs fbkLf Fu x ehfshf

mikJsd. t il cs JisF sho vW bga.
Fu x ehf mtiw flF fhdh mtilJ x
vGwd. mfis mfgjh xid mffyh. Fu
x ehf sij khaikgjh x jikia khl
brayh. jF FUbjYl izj jirf cj.
MfSF Fu x ehf s mfkhdJ. Fu ehfsh
njhW x jikia ehF, cjLf, gf nghw
mikfsh kh gytif thij crfis clhfyh.
4. _R FH : FH X r mikghF. j Rt
iz RthY bkikahd jirfshY MdJ. 15-20 C tot
FUbjY tisaf j Rt tYl mikJsd.
tik _RFHiy iyahf wJitf cj. _R
FH cRt X nfhiH gly csJ. gly FWiH
va Rf csd. FWiHf btUJ tU
RbghUfis nfhiH utJl btjs cjwd.
_RFHyhdJ 10-12 br.l sKilaJ. j c l
12 .luhF. FH bjhil gFUJ 5tJ kh
KbsY gFtiu LsJ. FH gF U a
Kjiy _Ris FHfshf JsJ. VgL
lYs FUbjY fhdh(carina) vdgL. btUJ
jtWjyhf cEiH bghUf lij miljh Fj
irl Uk VgL.
5. Eiupuf : izWfsha Eiupufns Rthr
cWfshF. Eiupu T totKilaJ. Eiupu gF
cjujhd nk mikJsJ. tyJ Eiupu 620 uh
vilsJ. Eiupu rW bgaJ. lJ Eiupu vil 560 uh
MF. tyJ Eiupu _W fJfS lJ Eiupu uL
fJfS csd.

138
 Fu tis
_R FH
Kjiy _R is FH
fhdh
uh
ulh iy _R
is FH _R E FHf

gl. 3.5.3. Eiupuf

Eiupuf khgiwD csd. Eiupufis RY
uh gly csJ. glyF EiupuYF il
u ilbtsJ. ilbt u ut
csJ.
EiupufSF il cs gF oahod vdgL.
ikagFaha oahod ja, _RFH, czFH
Mait csd.
Kjiy _Ris FH, uj FHhf, euf,
z ehsf Eiupuf c Xu X Fl gF
tahf c EiHwd myJ btnaWwd. gF iAy
vdgL. gF EiH midJ mikfS bghJthf
Eiupu nt vW FlgLwd.
EiupuD Kjiy _R is FHf tilJ
ulh iy _R is FHfshwd. tif lJ
Eiupu uL isFHfS tyJ Eiupu _W is
FHfS njhW. it nkY tilJ _wh iy _R
is FHfshwd. _wh iy FHf L J _R
E FHfshwd. EFHf l 1 .l msU
fyh. it nkY gy Kiw tilJ Ea Ko EFH
fis cUthFwd.
_R FHiynghW Kj iy _R isFHfS C
tot FUbjYfshY bkikahd jirfshY tYl
gLsd.
Ko EFHf a _R wiwf KotilJsd.
wiwf bka Rtuhyhd fhWigfshF. igf Rt
Rthr jskhwJ. Rt f bkikahf mikJsjh v
thkhw fHyh. Rt jo 0.05 ikuhf msUF.

139
kj Eiupu 300 a wiwf cL. tiwf
bkhj gugs 143 rJu lfshF.
6. khgiw RtU Rthr jirfS : Eiupuf
cRthrK, bt RthrK neuoahf ftiy. khgiw
bfhss kW fhwGj ntWghLfshnyna Rthr fG.
Rthj khgiw bfhss khWghLf gy jirfsh
fGwd. tid cRthr-btRthr jirf vdyh.
cjujhd, yh vYil jirf, kh jirf, nf
nghwit tif jirfshF.

3.1.6. uj RW cWf
yFf gzhk khwfsh gybr cl mik
njhaJ. jikah uj RW mikf njhwyhd.
tikdh cl gy gFfSF njitahd bghUf
fljgLwd. bgUghyhd yFf _oa uj FHhf
tna uj brY. tik uj RWF fhuzkhf
ja mikJsJ. kj w ghofis nghW
uilRW mik Kiw cL. tik mogil R
ja afjh uj cl gy ghffSF brW U
tU. jF l myJ cl uj Xl vW bga.
njnghW jaUJ EiupuYF uj brW S. jF
Eiupu uj Xl vW bga.
cl, Eiupu uj Xlf
R jJf

Eiupu jJ

ja lJw
ja tyJ w
jkf

iuf

R jJf

gl. 3.6.1. cl, Eiupu uj Xlf

140
 uj Xl f Ka gF jakhF. W X
mfw, jirWghF. jD ehF miwfS thfS cL.
tyJ Va, lJ Va, tyJ bto, lJ bto
nghwit miwfshF. tyJ, lJ gff X ilRtuh
fgLsd.
l myJ cl uj Xl
Eiupu jk M# bgw ujid Eiupu
fUJ lJ VaF vLJ brY. ja aF
ntis lJ VaUJ lJ btoSF brY
uj , bgUjk _y jaUJ btnaW.
bgUjk Wfzfhd W jkfshf J cl KGtJ
ujij gu. jkf gyKiw isJ 4 X 106 E jkf
njhW vdfzlgLsJ. cWfD ijl ehF
klFfSF jJf njhwyh. nj vif Eiuf
(btf) njhW. Eiuf izJ iuf njhW.
W nk, bgUiuf njh ujij tyJ MSF
vLJ brwd. j lJ bto UJ cl KGtJ
RL, uj L tyJ Vaij miltij l
myJ cl uj Xl vnwh.
Eiupu uj Xl
R Kj iy tyJ VaUJ uj tyJ
btois mil. UJ Eiupu jk _y uj
Eiupuiy mil. EiupuUJ M# bgw uj Eiupu
iu _y L ja lJ Vaij tjil. j
tyJ btoUJ Eiupu tahf uj L lJ
btois brwiltij Eiupu uj Xl vdyh.
nghl uj Xl
cl myJ l uj Xl ku, fiza,
iuig, WFl nghw cWfUJ S iuf neuoahf
jaijailtiy. WfUJ fu nghl iu
_y uj, fuiy brwil. iu cSWf
jJfshf Jt fu L jJfshf Kotil.
fu jJf L xUizJ fu iuahsd.
iu, bgUiul nrJ tyJ Vaij brwil.
jidna nghl uj Xl vnwh.

141
uj RW cWf
uj FHhf: jaUJ ujij btnaW
FHhfSF jkf vW bga. iuf jaF ujij
L bfhL tUwd. jkfS iufS mit mikJs
lnfg bgalgLsd. FHhfis ms kW Rt
mik mogil tifgLjyh. g mogil
jkfis flJ FHhf, gutbr FHhf, jil VgLJ
FHhf vd tifgLjyh.
1. flJ FHhf : jaUJ btnaW
bgUjk mj Ka isfS tifia rhjit.
FHhf Rt jikilaJ.
2. gutbr FHhf: it cWfis brwil
a jkfshF. it cWfD isJsd. t
Rtf jir jikilait.
3. jilnagLJ FHhf: Monahf myJ E
jkf tifahF. it a FHfshf UD t
Rt jir jikilajhf sF. vdnt it nkw
jillhF jikah uj mGjij Fiwfyh.
4. bfhLf - thf FHhf: it jJf.
FHhf Rtf tna ujF RfSF
il bghUf lkhw bgwyh. tif M#,
fhg il Mi[L, czbghUf, , maf, itlf,
Ahnkhf, veR nghwit Rtf tna fljglyh.
5. uj nj FHhf: bga iufns tif
FHhfshf csd. jaij neh ujij bfhLtU
FHhf gy msf csd. it jfsJ Rt
jikah ujij njF a bfhLsd. jdh
Fiwj mGjY it Fj ms ujij bfhLsd.
tif iuf vif mf.
jkbjhF :
jaUJ ujij kw RfSF vLJ brY
Ka ehs mnahlh vD bgUjk MF. mnahlh js
nkneh L, tisJ wF gFahwJ. gF
khw mnahlh vdgL. FH cjujhdij JisJ
bfhL nH w tWw mnahlh MwJ.
142
1. mnaho VWgF bfhnuhd jk

2. mnaho tis nunah r~gh jk tyJ fnuho jk

(bgayh jk) tyJ rnsajk
lJ bghJfnuho jk
lJ rnsa jk
cSW jkf clRt jkf

_RFH jk kh yh il jk
3. kh w jk czFH jk kh yh jk
(wF jk) bgfhoa jk nk cjujhd jk
oahod jk

cSW jkf clRt jkf

ah jk cjujhd jk
nk rl jk ygh jk
4. tWw jk dbgUf Ru jk
ca Wuf eLjk
Wuf jk
Rl jk

Wisf
eL rhu jk
5. bghJ ah bt ah jk
c ah jk

mnahlh VW gF :
mnahlh moKid tyJ, lJ fnuho jkf
njh ja RtfSF ujij bfhLwd.
mnaho tisgF :
bgayh jk, lJ bghJ fnuhojk lJ rnsa
jk vd _W isfis bfhlJ.
bgayh jk : (nunah ~gh)
tis gF KjgFahd jk, tyJ fnuho, lJ
rnsa vD U isfshwJ. fGJ gF fnuho
J bt, c fnuho jkfshwJ. c fnuho _isF,
bt fnuho Kf kW jiy btgFf, jirf, Ruf,
njh nghw gFfSF ujij mwJ.

143
 njh-jiyjk
bghJ fnuho jk
lJ bghJ fnuho jk
rnsa rnsa

mnaho tis

VW mnahlh wF mnahlh

tyJ ja jk yhjir jk

cjujhd
tWw jk

nk twiw jk

Wuf jk
tWw bgUjk
jfjk

twiw jk

lJ bghJ ah jk

gl3.6.2. kj mnahlh (bgUjk) mj isfS

144
 tyJ rnsa jk nkif w My jk
vd d nua jk vd miHfgLwJ. d K
if nuoa, mdh vD U isfsh kfL csif,
ufSF ujkwJ.
ulhtJ isahd bghJ fnuho bgayhj jkF
mU csJ. J ulhf wJ. tyJ w csij
nghW J csJ. rnsa jk neuoahf cUth lJ
ifF ujijawJ.
khw mnahlh :-
J cSWfSF clRtDF ujkwJ.
mWf _RFH, czFH, bgfhoa, Eiupu, yh
vYiljirf, cjujhd vdyh.
tWw mnahlh :-
J tWw midJ gFfSF ujij
bfhLwJ. mj isf
m. ah jk :- cjujhdF dh Jt fu,
jig, iuig, onahod KjatF ujkwJ.
M. nk rl jk :- W FlDF bgUFlDF
ujkwJ.
. nk Wuf eLjk :- md RufSF
<. d jk :- WuffSF bfhLwJ.
c. c jf jk MY mlf jk bgY
dbgUf Ru ehskhf sFwJ.
C. brl jk bgUFlYF kyFlYF ujij
bfhLwJ.
v. bghJ ah jk fhfSF ujij bfhLwJ. mF
ulhf J ~bgbkhu kW raho vd U jkfshwJ.
iubjhF :-
RfUJ jaF ujij bfhLF uj
ehsfshF. Ka iuf m) bfhud ird M) nkbgUiu
) bgUiu kW nghl iuf vdgLtd MF.
145
 tyJ bghJ fnuho jk lJ bghJ fnuho jk
c kh jk
tyJ ifjk
tyJ njh-jiyjk lJ ifjk
njh jk VW mnahlh
wF mnahlh
tWw bgUjk
nk twiw jk
Wuf jk
dbgUf klyjk
nuoa jk twiw jk
bghJ ah jk
mdh jk

bjhiljk

gl.3.6.3.kj - jkbjhF
bfhud ird :
J ja w mikJsJ. ja RfUJ
uj F nrffgLwJ.
nk bgUiu mj isf :
jiy, fGJ, kh nghw gFf cs ujij
nrfJ tyJ Va KowJ. J tyJ, lJ bgayh
iuf iztjh cUthwJ.
jiy kW fGJ gF uj bt kW c #]Fyh
iuf iztjh cUthwJ. lJ, tyJ rnsa iuf
cl nk wUJ ujij bfhL tUwd. tyJ,
lJ gF c #]Fyh iu rnsa iu
iztjh bgayh iu cUthwJ. J c #]Fyh
iuUJ nua iuUJ ujij nrfJ
bfhwJ.
146
 c #]Fyh iu
tyJ ifiu bt #]Fyh iu
lJ if iu
njh-jiyiu
nua iu
nk bgUiu
fu iu
nuoa iu bgUiu
mdh iu dbgUf kly iu
Wufiu
bghJ ah iu
c ah iu

bjhiliu

K oa iu

gl.3.6.4. kj - iubjhF

U bgayh iufS nkY gy iufis jfSl

izJ bfhwd. mit KJbfY, c gh Ru,
ijuhL nghw iufshF. lJ bgayh iu, nkY ijk,
_RFH, czFH bgfhoa ngw cWfUJ
ujij nrfwJ.

bgUiu mj isfS
cjujhdF >s mnef ghffUJ uj
iu tahf tyJ VaD brwJ. Jnt ekJ cl
cs fbga iu. U ah iuf izJ bghJ ah
iu cUthwJ. cjujhd, fu, Wuf, nk Wuf, J
myJ mlf nkY L kW bghJ ah iuf izJ
bgUiu cUthwJ.

147
uj FHhf mik
uj FHhf gy mik ntWghLf cL. UD
t y mogil mikfis fhzyh.
X uj FHh Rt gF c lK csd. Rt
gF, _W bjthd o(tunic) vD mLFf cilaJ.
mit ofh okh myJ c mLF, ofh oah
myJ ilaLF, ofh vldh myJ btaLF
MF.

ofh mbtoah
ofh oah
ofh bldh

jik gly
vnlha
(m) (M)

gl.3.6.5. m-jk, M-iu mik xL

c mLfhdJ vnlha, bka iz R,

jik ehf nghwtwh MdJ. eLtL bka jir
brf csd. tLF FH RUFjYF jYF
fhuzkhwJ. btaLF iz RfshyhdJ. uj FHh
jok mFHh l kW tifiabghWjJ.
uj FHh tiff
1. bga jik jkf: tif jkf Rt
jikila ehf cL. t Rt 1 ikuh msilaJ.
it ja Jogh RU .
2. jir Rt jkf : it bga, a jirjik
bfhl jkf. bga jir jik jkf RtF
jikiy. t Rt jojJ. Rt 30 - 40mLFf
bkikahd jirf cL. uj Xlij fLgLJtjh
tF uj gu jkf vW bga. t l 30-
40 ikuhf msilaJ. a jir jkf Rt RU,
ailaJ.
3. E jkf myJ Monahf: it
jkfUJ ujij jJfSF flJwd. it
RU, aila a FHhfshF.

148
 4. jJf: it E jkfSF E iufSF
il gusd. t ms 5-8 ikuhfshF.
jJ vnlha br
cfU

gl.3.6.6. jJ FHh

5. E iuf: it jilahd, Kil myJ gynfhz

vnlha brfshyhd FHhfshF. Eiu, gy jJf
xUizgh njhW. j FWfs 30 ikuhf.
6. iuf: it E iufSF bga iufSF
il csd. bga iuf ujij jaF flJwd.
2 .l FWfsF nkgl iufD thf cL.
thf iw ru totKilait. thf jaij
neh uj brtij cWgLJwd.
uj FHhf isf
yrka jk U rk isfshf tjdh KoWwJ.
isfSF Ko isf vW bga. jk Uwf
njhW FHhfSF gf isf vW bga. U ntW jkf
iz lfSF mdhlnkh myJ iz lf
vW bga.
uj FHhfSF uj Xl
w clgFf cs cWf, Rf, brfis nghW
uj FHhf RtF czbghUf njit. Xus
bghUf mFHhf cs ujUJ RtfD
EiHayh. UD 1 .l msF nk FWfs cila
FHhf J ayhJ. mjifa FHhf nkw thrh
thnrhu(vasa vasoram) vD f Ea uj FHhf
gusd. it uj FHhf Rtf cshf EiHJ
mtF ujij mwd.
uj FHhf euf
uj FHhf Rtf g euf gusd. it
FHhf jir Rt afij fLgLJwd.

149
ja
ja X clw jir-eh mikila cWghF. J
rW T tot myJ u tot cilaJ. VwFiwa
ufis eF kl _oa ekJ ifas Ufyh. bghJthf
UJ nkyhf j s 12 br.l Ufyh. j mfw
gF, FWfs 8-9 br. Ufyh. X M cl
ja vil 230-280 uh.
lJ bghJ jiyjk
tyJ jiyjk
lJ ifjk
tyJ ifjk
njh- jiyjk
tyJ M nkbgUiu
Eiupu kfhjk(mnahlh)

oahod Eiupu jk
lJ M
cjujhd

gl.3.6.7. ja miklK, btw njhwK

kh cWfsha czFHh, ja, czFH nghw

gFf mikJs X cUtf nfhLgFF oahOd
(mediastinum) vW bga. ja oahOd gF rW rhthf
mikJsJ.

mnahlh
Eiupu jk
nkbgUiu
tyJ Va lJ Va
Eiupu iu
iw ru th
_j th <j th
bgUiu fhnl blond
btoFyh ilRt
tyJ bt
lJ bto

gl.3.6.8. ja - c mik

150
 ilRt
jaij RY ulLF glykha bgfhoa
ciw mikJsJ. iw btgly ehiHbgfhoa
vdgL. j cwkhf brgly bgfhoa mikJsJ.
jaF bgfhoaF il cs ilbt
bgfhoa ut usJ.
ja Rt, _W Rt mLFfsh MdJ. mit
vfhoa, iknahfhoa, vnlhfhoa MF. vfhoa
ja btw csJ. ikagF cs iknahfhoa
jajir Rth MdJ. ja af gF Ka
gfhWwJ. mLF vajhyhd vnlhfhoa ja
cRt csJ.

3.1.7. z cWf
cl ut jikia ghJfhg uj RW
cWfSl z cWfS Ka gfhWwd. z, cl
Rf jikia ghJfhf cz ghijUJ
bfhG bghUfis cuf cj. EQf jhFj,
c EiH eRbghU gh MatUJ z ghJfhF.
z, z brf (nghirLf), z ehsf, z
Ruf, lhf, ku, ijk Ru nghwit z
cWfshF.
z brfS RfS
z cWf z Rf csd. Rf
nghirLf vdgL z brf csd. nkY F
khnuhng#(macrophages), iloiuo brf,
tiyd brf nghwit csd. nghirLf
xUtif uj btisaQfshF. it t vY k{i#
cgah uj _y w z cWfSF RfSF
vLJ brygLwd. nghirLf gy tiffSL.
B-nghirLf myJ B brf btwUJ clD
EiH nta _yTWfis milahs fL mF v
eRfis cg braToait. T-nghirLf
itufsh ghfgl brfis milahs fL mF. B,
T nghirLf vY k{i# cs _ybrfUJ
njhWwd. T-nghirLf ijk vD z cWD
brw wnf Kailwd. B brf K vY
k{i#nyna fG. fhuzfsh ijk, vY k{i#
nghwtiw ika z cWf vdyh.
151
ijk
UfJf bfhl W rnwwFiwa Knfhz
totKilaJ. ijk oahod gF khbgYF
bgfhoaF il csJ. j ms ekJ
taijbghWJ khWgL. wj FHij cl ijk vil
10-15 uhf MF. ts ms FiwgL.
ijk fJid RY bka iz Rdhyhd
ciw csJ. ijk, uL mLFfis bfhlJ. cw mLF
bkLyh vdgL. btwkhf w myJ fhbl
gFsJ. nghirLf fhbl gF fhzgLwd.
z Ruf
it a, nfhstot mikf. t ms 1-25
.l Ufyh. it z ehsf gus gFf
midY csd. UD bjhilgF(inguinal nodes),
iffSfo (axillary nodes), fGJ gF(cervical nodes) Ma
_W lfY it mf csd. X Ru cwkhf
ird vD iliy gFL. jid RY ghnfhiro
brf mikUF.
lh myJ moeh rijf
it cl fbga z RufshF. ghOahf,
w ntabghUf jhFjUJ cliy ghJfhf
cjwd. bgatf bjhil gF it gogoahf
kiwJ lyh. bjhil gF cRt _W tif
lhf cL. t nk mz lhfns, tHf
lhf vd FlgLwd. it cth miwF
bjhil gFF il csd. bjhilw
lhf(pharyngeal tonsils), modhLf vdgL. it c
ehaiw bjhilgF iz lYsd. eh
mogu cs z Ruf ehFw lhf vdgL.
ku(Spleen)
W Wfkhf _oa ifasilaJ. twiw lJ
gFYsJ. ku t T, btis T vd
Utif z Rf cL.

152
z Xl

rnsa iu

kh FHh

z Ruf

z ehs

gl.3.7.1. z cWf

cl RfUJ z jJf _y z
btnaW. jifa jJf wnjh nuhkf, eff,
fhah, FWbjYf, ika eu kly, vY k{i# nghw
gFf iy. z jJf izJ z ehsfis
njhW Jsd. ehsf z Rufis neh
brwd. ehsfS z RufS Mfhnf cl
gFf bjhFfshf csd. jifa bjhFfis (1) jiy
kW fGJ (2) nkif gF (3) fh gF (4) tW-L gFf
(5) kh nghw gFf fhzyh.
gy gFf z ehsf tyJ kW lJ z iu
nghlf tahf iuf Kotilwd. KJbfY
gF VwFiwa vL z ehsf iu nghl
FHhf fGdU wJsd.

3.1.8. euW bjhF

kj eu cWf midij g KGikahf
mJ bfhtJ ma X rthyhfntsJ. gy a
brf t csd. brf gy khWgl brafns
kjf elijF gfSF fhuzkhwd. vdnt
153


( 2016)
30. brgiw vwh vd?
31. Kl gFfis bgaLf.
32. md fhbl fhzgL mLFfis bgaLf.
33. fhg oa vwh vd?
34. ghf vwh vd?

gF
1. ef mikig g t?
2. kj KbsY mikig vGJf.
3. kj fh jirid g F tiuf.
4. kj fu tf.
5. yh iz kW izaw FUbjYf g vGJf.
6. `nghl RH g F vGJf.
7. ijk Ru g vGJf.
8. btbr eu mik g vGJf.
9. kj f bjhF mikig sFf.
10. fiza ehsyh Ruahf bragLtJ vd?
11. kj Wuf mikig t.
12. fhg Yhoa vwh vd?
13. njh gy mLFf gl tiuJ ghffis Ff.
14. xU l vY mikig t.
15. _Lf tiffis tf.
16. xU g mikig gl tiuJ ghffis Ff.
17. iuigia glJl tf.
18. Futisia glJl tf.
19. uj FHh tiffis tf.
20. ja c mikig gl tiuJ ghffis Ff.
21. sf jUf :- m) z Ruf, M) lhf
22. eu br mikig glJl tf.
23. jLtl FWF btLnjhwij glJl tf.
24. kj f btLnjhwij glJl tf.
25. cbrmikig tf.
26. ijuhL Ruia glJl tf.
27. kj Wuf btL njhwij gl tiuJ ghffis Ff.
28. ml Ru ghfis tf.
29. ml Ru mikig glJl tf.

149
4. Gf braghLfsh ilF cfk ff
m) muF M) sh
) fy G cu <) bfhtndh
5. nj tsgff tsfgL rhjhuz a nj
m) V lhbrlh M) ~nshuh
) V ofh <) nkTa midJ
6. ghf bkhUJ ilF gL
m) l[ gL M) Kfh gL
) MuogL <) kbggL
7. oJQ f.............. tifia rhjit
m) vlnkh~ngf M) yhnthu
) xL ) bgLf
8. `KJ ts l bjhlila Wtd
m) CIBA M) CMFRI ) NIO <) MPEDA
9. wh tsgh gagLjgL Ka d
m) nknuhnua d M) bklhnda d
) nda d <) gDu d
10. uhf j-------------------- vwiHfgLwd
m) f whf M) eLf ) whf <) brehF
11. oukhoa mb#oa
m) f M) tht ) jf <) iy
12. gF sh jah gagL
m) njh M) fu ) fhWig <) vY
13. gwit vrdh bghUshjhu yhg bgWs ehL
m) USA M) bgU ) Mnuah <) btO
14. ts iyafis KjKj cUtha bgUik bgwtf
m) irdf M) #ghaf
) t a <) Mff
15. ej fd ca fh cs l
m) bl M) x[h ) fh <) m[h
16. gtsghiw cUthFtd nfhu yhth
m) onuhnfhngh M) shDyh ) bkLrh <) gh
17. xU tis totghiw flYl xU w bjhl bfhl V
m) tisghiwf M) jL ghiwf
) fiunahu ghiwf <) f tisFlh
18. MguzfSF gagL gts
m) nfhuy %gu M) FHgtsf ) Mf g <) bfhtndh

223
 lh ~R (finche) f vD ghL gwitfis F flh. gntW
f thG W gwitfS tiff, sfY
bghJfY xJs fis oF bghUL l L nghw
myFfSl csd. jhtu cf, bfhilfis cilJz trahf
ghFbto nghw tik thj myFf bfhLsd. vkiyrhg
iwj gF thG gwitf fUikahf, gRikgF thG
gwitf girahf fhzgld. ff iwj flfiu gF thtd
rhg tzK bfhL sd. thW `jG gutYF (adaptive
radiations) gwitf fwj rhwhf sFwd.

j kL
gF m
1. c njhWjYF fhuzkhf jhFw bfhl nghf bga
m) nuhnlhnrhth M) fhnkhnthth
) ituRf <) ghOaf
2. c%lgl cuw bghUfns cf vd bjjt.
m) vlh M) nj ) yhkh <) mlho
3. Kjik br mik khahf bfhlJ
m) nfhabrntLf M) nuhOf
) Xnrh <) nj
4. nrhnrh fhy bga
m) ghYhof fhy M) f fhy
) Ctd d bghfhy <) gHik cf bjho
5. Kj KJbfYf bjhF
m) y thf M) Vndjh (Agnantha) ) fhndlh <) gwitd
6. ndhnrh bgUfhy fhy ms
m) 210 65 .M.K M) 65 M. Kj W tiu
) 600 400 . M. K <) 210 . M. Kj - W tiu
7. yf, bgnuha ilF fhLf Uj fhy
m) ontha fhy M) nrhnrh bgUfhy
) nla fhy <) bgnta fhy
8. `fg ahidf gotfshf ilj l
m) irah M) rfhuh ) Inuhngh <) gntah
9. Fiuf Mug fhy Kndhof
m) nahg M) <Ft ) _ah <) ilndhrhf
10. -y thtd Ctd df iliy c ahJ
m) ilndhrhf M) _ah ) Mahbl <) iAunfha
11. xghdJ nfhghL
m) ct njhw M) Kjiy cyh tnjhw
) t cnjhw <) w gilj nfhghL.
246