Research Paper

Of
Chemistry I
Pilar,Patricia Jane M.
BSHRM/3RD Year-NS
Mon/Wed-10:30/1:30
Prof. Mabilin

The Element Selenium

Atomic Number: 34
Atomic Weight: 78.971
Melting Point: 493.65 K (220.5C or 428.9F)
Boiling Point: 958 K (685C or 1265F)
Density: 4.809 grams per cubic centimeter
Phase at Room Temperature: Solid
Element Classification: Non-metal
Period Number: 4 Group Number: 16 Group Name: Chalcogen

History and Uses:

Selenium was discovered by Jns Jacob Berzelius, a Swedish chemist, in 1817 after
analyzing an impurity that was contaminating the sulfuric acid (H2SO4) being
produced at a particular factory in Sweden. Originally believing the material was
tellurium, Berzelius eventually realized that it was actually a previously unknown
element. Selenium occurs in minerals such as eucairite (CuAgSe), crooksite
(CuThSe) and clausthalite (PbSe), but these minerals are too rare to use as a major
source of selenium. Today, most selenium is obtained as a byproduct of refining
copper.
Selenium's resistance to the flow of electricity is greatly affected by the amount of
light shining on it. The brighter the light, the better selenium conducts electricity.
This property has made selenium useful in devices that respond to the intensity of
light, such as electric eyes, photo cells, light meters for cameras and copiers.
Selenium can also produce electricity directly from sunlight and is used in solar cells.
Selenium is also a semiconductor and is used in some types of solid-state electronics
as well as in rectifiers, devices which convert alternating current electricity into direct
current electricity. In addition to its use in electrical devices, selenium is also used to
make a ruby-red color in glasses and enamels, as a photographic toner and as an
additive to stainless steel.

Definetion
a nonmetallic element that exists in several allotropic forms. It occurs free in
volcanic areas and in sulphide ores, esp pyrite. The common form is a grey
crystalline solid that is photoconductive, photovoltaic, and semiconducting: used in
photocells, solar cells, and in xerography. Symbol: Se; atomic no: 34; atomic wt:
78.96; valency: 2, 4, or 6; relative density: 4.79 (grey); melting pt: 221C (grey);
boiling pt: 685C (grey)
Laboratory and Preparation
-Several modifications exist
-Selenium is considered a semi-metal
-Above 60 C a glass like modification occurs
-The forming above 80 C grey, semi-metal modification is the most stable form
-Selenium occurs in nature as a native metal
-Melting point 221 C
-Mohs hardness 2
>The provided sample was ultra-pure selenium. In order to comminute this sample,
the Planetary Mono Mill PULVERISETTE 6 classic line was equipped with the 250
ml zirconium oxide grinding bowl and 15 x 20 mm grinding balls were chosen;
although we recommend in our technical documents a maximum feed size of 10
mm. The chunks shown in the photo are clearly larger though. For the pre-
comminution no technology was available which excluded a contamination.
Therefore the sample was added as shown.
>After a processing of 5 minutes at a maximum rotational speed (650 r/min), it was
assessed and exactly as expected, a fine powder with several, few rough chunks was
found. On the photo those are seen next to the coin (comparison of size) and on the
lower rim of the photo. These chunks were sorted out and the remaining sample
was ground further.
>After a total of 11 minutes, a fineness was obtained, which allowed the weighted
sample of a representative sample amount of 1 g.

Properties
IN a letter headed Anomalous behaviour of Selenium, which appeared in
NATURE (vol. xii., p. 187), Mr. Gordon states that it has lately been observed that
the electrical resistance of selenium is greater in light than in the dark. I am anxious
to learn where an account of this remarkable observation is to be found.

Chemical&Physical Uses
Humans may be exposed to selenium in several different ways. Selenium exposure
takes place either through food or water, or when we come in contact with soil or air
that contains high concentrations of selenium. This is not very surprising, because
selenium occurs naturally in the environment extensively and it is very widespread.
The exposure to selenium mainly takes place through food, because selenium is
naturally present in grains, cereals and meat. Humans need to absorb certain
amounts of selenium daily, in order to maintain good health. Food usually contains
enough selenium to prevent disease caused by shortages.

The Element of Bromine

Symbol: Br
Atomic mass: 79.904 u 0.001 u
Electron configuration: [Ar] 3d104s24p5
Atomic number: 35
Electronegativity: 2.96
Discoverers: Antoine Jrme Balard, Carl Jacob Lwig

History and Uses

Antoine-Jrme Balard discovered bromine while investigating some salty water
from Montpellier, France. He took the concentrated residue which remained after
most of the brine had evaporated and passed chlorine gas into it. In so doing he
liberated an orange-red liquid which he deduced was a new element. He sent an
account of his findings to the French Academys journal in 1826.
A year earlier, a student at Heidelberg, Carl Lwig, had brought his professor a
sample of bromine which he had produced from the waters of a natural spring near
his home at Keruznach. He was asked to produce more of it, and while he was doing
so Balard published his results and so became known at its discoverer.

Definition
-hundredth of that of chlorine. Bromine is a chemical element with symbol Br and
atomic number 35. It is the third-lightest halogen, and is a fuming red-brown liquid
at room temperature that evaporates readily to form a similarly coloured gas. Its
properties are thus intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine. Isolated
independently by two chemists, Carl Jacob Lwig (in 1825) and Antoine Jrme
Balard (in 1826), its name was derived from the Ancient Greek "stench",
referencing its sharp and disagreeable smell.
Elemental bromine is very reactive and thus does not occur free in nature, but in
colourless soluble crystalline mineral halide salts, analogous to table salt. While it is
rather rare in the Earth's crust, the high solubility of the bromide ion (Br) has
caused its accumulation in the oceans. Commercially the element is easily extracted
from brine pools, mostly in the United States, Israel and China. The mass of
bromine in the oceans is about one three-hundredth of that of chlorine.

Laboratory and Preparation

Mixtures of oxone and sodium chloride or sodium bromide afford solutions of
chlorine or bromine, respectively. These solutions effectively add chlorine and
bromine to ,-enones and alkenes. The method affords improved yields of 3-alkyl-
2-halo-2-cycloalkenones which are sometimes difficult to prepare.
Aqueous mixtures of oxone and NaCl or NaBr afford solutions of chlorine and
bromine, respectively, which add to ,-enones and alkenes. Treatment of the keto
vicinal dihalides with Et3N affords 2-haloenones with improved yields for the 3-alkyl
derivatives.

Chemical & Physical Uses

Bromine is used in many areas such as agricultural chemicals, dyestuffs, insecticides,
pharmaceuticals and chemical intermediates. Some uses are being phased out for
environmental reasons, but new uses continue to be found.
Bromine compounds can be used as flame retardants. They are added to furniture
foam, plastic casings for electronics and textiles to make them less flammable.
However, the use of bromine as a flame retardant has been phased out in the USA
because of toxicity concerns.
Organobromides are used in halon fire extinguishers that are used to fight fires in
places like museums, aeroplanes and tanks. Silver bromide is a chemical used in
film photography.
The Elements of Krypton

Symbol: Kr
Atomic mass: 83.80
Electron configuration: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6
Atomic number: 36
Electronegativity: 3
Discoverers: William Ramsay, Morris Travers

History & Uses

Krypton was discovered in Britain in 1898 by Sir William Ramsay, a Scottish
chemist, and Morris Travers, an English chemist, in residue left from evaporating
nearly all components of liquid air. Neon was discovered by a similar procedure by
the same workers just a few weeks later.[9] William Ramsay was awarded the
1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of a series of noble gases, including
krypton
Krypton is used in some types of photographic flashes used in high speed
photography. Some fluorescent light bulbs are filled with a mixture of krypton and
argon gases. Krypton gas is also combined with other gases to make luminous signs
that glow with a greenish-yellow light.

Definitions
Krypton (from Greek: kryptos "the hidden one") is a chemical element with
symbol Kr and atomic number 36. It is a member of group 18 (noble
gases) elements. A colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas, krypton occurs in trace
amounts in the atmosphere and is often used with other rare gases in fluorescent
lamps. With rare exceptions, krypton is chemically inert.
Krypton, like the other noble gases, is used in lighting and photography. Krypton
light has many spectral lines, and krypton plasma is useful in bright, high-powered
gas lasers (krypton ion and excimer lasers), each of which resonates and amplifies a
single spectral line. Krypton fluoridealso makes a useful laser. From 1960 to 1983,
the official length of a meter was defined by the 605 nm wavelength of the orange
spectral line of krypton-86, because of the high power and relative ease of operation
of krypton discharge tubes.

Laboratory and Preparation

Krypton was one of three noble gases discovered in 1898 by Scottish chemist and
physicist Sir William Ramsay (1852-1916) and English chemist Morris William
Travers (1872-1961). Ramsay and Travers discovered the gases by allowing liquid air
to evaporate. As it did so, each of the gases that make up normal air boiled off, one
at a time. Three of those gaseskrypton, xenon, and neon, were discovered for the
first time this way.
The term noble gas refers to elements in Group 18 (VIIIA) of the periodic table.
The periodic table is a chart that shows how chemical elements are related to each
other. These gases have been given the name "noble" because they act as if they are
"too arrogant" to react with other elements. Until the 1960s, no compound of these
gases
Chemical & Physical Uses
This gas is inert and is classified as a simple asphyxiant. Inhalation in excessive
concentrations can result in dizziness, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness, and
death. Death may result from errors in judgment, confusion, or loss of
consciousness which prevent self-rescue. At low oxygen concentrations,
unconsciousness and death may occur in seconds without warning.
The effect of simple asphyxiant gases is proportional to the extent to which they
diminish the amount (partial pressure) of oxygen in the air that is breathed. The
oxygen may be diminished to 75% of it's normal percentage in air before appreciable
symptoms develop. This in turn requires the presence of a simple asphyxiant in a
concentration of 33% in the mixture of air and gas. When the simple asphyxiant
reaches a concentration of 50%, marked symptoms can be produced. A
concentration of 75% is fatal in a matter of minutes.
The Elements Of Rubidium

Symbol: Rb
Atomic mass: 84.468
Electron configuration: Kr 5s1
Atomic number: 37
Electronegativity: 0.82
Discoverers: Robert Bunsen, Gustav Kirchhoff

History & Uses

Rubidium was discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, in
Heidelberg, Germany, in the mineral lepidolite through spectroscopy. Because of
the bright red lines in its emission spectrum, they chose a name derived from
the Latin word rubidus, meaning "deep red".[25][26]
Rubidium is a minor component in lepidolite. Kirchhoff and Bunsen processed
150 kg of a lepidolite containing only 0.24% rubidium oxide (Rb2O). Both potassium
and rubidium form insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid, but those salts show a
slight difference in solubility in hot water. Therefore, the less-soluble
rubidium hexachloroplatinate (Rb2PtCl6) could be obtained by fractional
crystallization. After reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen, the process
yielded 0.51 grams of rubidium chloride for further studies.[clarification needed] Bunsen and
Kirchhoff began their first large-scale isolation of caesium and rubidium compounds
with 44,000 litres (12,000 US gal) of mineral water, which yielded 7.3 grams
of caesium chloride and 9.2 grams of rubidium chloride.[25][26] Rubidium was the
second element, shortly after caesium, to be discovered by spectroscopy, just one
year after the invention of the spectroscope by Bunsen and Kirchhoff.[27]
The two scientists used the rubidium chloride to estimate that the atomic weight of
the new element was 85.36 (the currently accepted value is 85.47).[25]They tried to
generate elemental rubidium by electrolysis of molten rubidium chloride, but instead
of a metal, they obtained a blue homogeneous substance which "neither under the
naked eye nor under the microscope showed the slightest trace of metallic substance

Definitions
a silver-white, metallic, active element resembling potassium, used in photoelectric
cells and radio vacuum tubes. Symbol: Rb; atomic weight: 85.47; atomic
number: 37; specific gravity: 1.53 at 20C.
As with all the other alkali metals, it forms amalgams with Mercury. It alloys with
Gold, cesium, sodium, and Potassium. Its flame is yellowish-violet. It is used in
photocells and in the manufacture of vacuum tubes. The Atomic Number of this
element is 37 and the Element Symbol is Rb.

Laboratory and Preparation

Sr has now been produced by the spallation of Molybdenum by protons of up to
82

800 MeV. The radiochemical recovery of strontium is described together with a

description of the analytical techniques used to estimate recovered yields of the
various radionuclides generated. A radionuclide generator is described for the
rapid recovery of82Rb, the 1.25 min half-life decay product of82Sr. An outline is
given of the quality control procedure adopted to ensure that the 82Rb is suitable for
clinical use.

Chemical & Physical Uses

Rubidium is little used outside research. It has been used as a component of
photocells, to remove traces of oxygen from vacuum tubes and to make special types
of glass.

It is easily ionised so was considered for use in ion engines, but was found to be less
effective than caesium. It has also been proposed for use as a working fluid for
vapour turbines and in thermoelectric generators.
Rubidium nitrate is sometimes used in fireworks to give them a purple colour.

The Elements of Strontium

Symbol: Sr
Atomic mass: 87.62
Electron configuration: Kr 5s2
Atomic number: 38
Electronegativity: 0.95
Discoverers: Adair Crawford, William Cruickshank

History & Uses

Strontium is the chemical element with symbol Sr and atomic number 38.
An alkaline earth metal, strontium is a soft silver-white yellowish metallic element
that is highly reactive chemically. The metal forms a dark oxide layer when it is
exposed to air. Strontium has physical and chemical properties similar to those of its
two vertical neighbors in the periodic table, calcium and barium. It occurs naturally
in the mineralscelestine, strontianite, and putnisite, and is mined mostly from the
first two of these. While natural strontium is stable, the synthetic 90Srisotope is
radioactive and is one of the most dangerous components of nuclear fallout, as
strontium is absorbed by the body in a similar manner to calcium. Natural stable
strontium, on the other hand, is not hazardous to health.
Both strontium and strontianite are named after Strontian, a village in Scotland near
which the mineral was discovered in 1790 by Adair Crawford and William
Cruickshank; it was identified as a new element the next year from its crimson-
red flame test color. Strontium was first isolated as a metal in 1808 by Humphry
Davy using the then-newly discovered process of electrolysis.
Definitions
a bivalent, metallic element whose compounds resemble those ofcalcium, found in n
ature only in the combined state, as instrontianite: used in fireworks, flares, and trace
r bullets. Symbol: Sr;atomic weight: 87.62; atomic number: 38; specific gravity: 2.6.

Laboratory and Preparation

Strontium is a divalent silvery metal with a pale yellow tint whose properties are
mostly intermediate between and similar to those of its group
neighbors calcium and barium.[6] It is softer than calcium and harder than barium. Its
melting (777 C) and boiling (1655 C) points are lower than those of calcium
(842 C and 1757 C respectively); barium continues this downward trend in the
melting point (727 C), but not in the boiling point (2170 C). The density of
strontium (2.64 g/cm3) is similarly intermediate between those of calcium
(1.54 g/cm3) and barium (3.594 g/cm3).[7] Three allotropes of metallic strontium exist,
with transition points at 235 and 540 C.[8]
The standard electrode potential for the Sr2+/Sr couple is 2.89 V, approximately
midway between those of the Ca2+/Ca (2.84 V) and Ba2+/Ba (2.92 V) couples, and
close to those of the neighboring alkali metals.[9]Strontium is intermediate between
calcium and barium in its reactivity toward water, with which it reacts on contact to
produce strontium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

Chemical & Physical Uses

Strontium compounds that are water-insoluble can become water-soluble, as a result
of chemical reactions. The water-soluble compounds are a greater threat to human
health than the water-insoluble ones. Therefore, water-soluble forms of strontium
have the opportunity to pollute drinking water. Fortunately the concentrations in
drinking water are usually quite low. Strontium is a soft, silver-yellow, alkaline-earth
metal. It has three allotropic crystalline forms and in its physical and chemical
properties it is similar to calcium and barium. ...
Principal uses of strontium compounds are in pyrotechnics, for the brilliant reds in
fireworks and warning flares and in greases.
The Elements Of Yttrium

Symbol: Y
Atomic mass: 88.906
Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d15s2
Atomic number: 39
Electronegativity: 1.22
Discoverers: Johan Gadolin

History & Uses

In 1787, army lieutenant and part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy
black rock in an old quarry near the Swedish village of Ytterby (now part of
the Stockholm Archipelago).[5]Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing
the newly discovered element tungsten,[29] he named it ytterbite and sent samples to
various chemists for analysis. Johan Gadolin at the University of bo identified a
new oxide (or "earth") in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed
analysis in 1794.[30][note 5]Anders Gustaf Ekeberg confirmed the identification in 1797
and named the new oxide yttria.[31] In the decades after Antoine Lavoisier developed
the first modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed that earths could be
reduced to their elements, meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent
to the discovery of the element within, which in this case would have been yttrium.[note
6]

In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander found that samples of yttria contained three oxides:
white yttrium oxide (yttria), yellow terbium oxide (confusingly, this was called 'erbia'
at the time) and rose-colored erbium oxide (called 'terbia' at the time).[32] A fourth
oxide, ytterbium oxide, was isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de
Marignac.[33] New elements were later isolated from each of those oxides, and each
element was named, in some fashion, after Ytterby, the village near the quarry where
they were found (see ytterbium, terbium, and erbium).[34] In the following decades,
seven other new metals were discovered in "Gadolin's yttria".[5] Since yttria was found
to be a mineral and not an oxide, Martin Heinrich Klaproth renamed it gadolinite in
honor of Gadolin.[5]
Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Whler heated
anhydrous yttrium(III) chloride with potassium:[35][36]
YCl3 + 3 K 3 KCl + Y

Definitions
a rare trivalent metallic element, found in gadolinite and other
minerals. Symbol: Y; atomic weight: 88.905; atomic number: 39; specific
gravity: 4.47. Yttrium is a chemical element with symbol Y and atomic number 39. It
is a silvery-metallic transition metal chemically similar to the lanthanides and has
often been classified as a "rare-earth element".[4] Yttrium is almost always found in
combination with lanthanide elements in rare-earth minerals, and is never found in
nature as a free element. 89Y is the only stable isotope, and the only isotope found in
the Earth's crust.

Laboratory and Preparation

-Sialons are attractive materials for high-temperature engineering applications
because they offer the potential of incorporating the densifying additive present in
the starting mix into the crystal structure after densification. In this way, essentially
single-phase ceramics can be produced which contain a minimum of grain-boundary
glass; such materials would be expected to exhibit good mechanical properties at
both high and low temperatures.

Detailed phase relationships have been determined in the -plane of the yttrium
sialon system and the results show a very limited region over which occurs in
equilibrium with a liquid phase. The fabrication of single-phase -sialons is further
complicated by the small amount and the high viscosity of the liquid phase which
occurs in equilibrium with and this makes the dual requirement of complete
densification and complete reaction difficult.

Chemical & Physical Uses

Uses: Yttrium oxides are a component of the phosphors used to produce the red
color in television picture tubes. The oxides have potential use in ceramics and
glass. Yttrium oxides have high melting points and impart shock resistance and low
expansion to glass Yttrium iron garnets are used to filter microwaves and as
transmitters and transducers of acoustic energy. Yttrium aluminum garnets, with a
hardness of 8.5, are used to simulate diamond gemstones. Small quantities of
yttrium may be added to reduce the grain size in chromium, molybdenum,
zirconium, and titanium, and to increase strength of aluminum and magnesium
alloys. Yttrium is used as a deoxidizer for vanadium and other nonferrous metals.

It is used as a catalyst in the polymerization of ethylene.

The Elements Of Zirconium

Symbol: Zr
Atomic mass: 91.224
Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d25s2

Atomic number: 40
Electronegativity: 1.33
Discoverers: Martin Heinrich Klaproth

History & Uses

Zirconium was discovered by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a German chemist,
while analyzing the composition of the mineral jargon (ZrSiO4) in 1789.
Zirconium was isolated by Jns Jacob Berzelius, a Swedish chemist, in 1824
and finally prepared in a pure form in 1914. Obtaining pure zirconium is very
difficult because it is chemically similar to hafnium, an element which is always
found mixed with deposits of zirconium. Today, most zirconium is obtained
from the minerals zircon (ZrSiO4) and baddeleyite (ZrO2) through a process
known as the Kroll Process.Zirconium is a corrosion resistant metal that is
used in high performance pumps and valves. Since it also does not easily
absorb neutrons, zirconium is widely used in nuclear reactors. The nuclear
power industry uses nearly 90% of the zirconium produced each year, which
must be nearly free of hafnium. Zirconium is also used as an alloying agent in
steel, to make some types of surgical equipment and as a getter, a material that
combines with and removes trace gases from vacuum tubes
Definitions
Zirconium is a chemical element with symbol Zr and atomic number 40. The
name zirconium is taken from the name of the mineral zircon, the most important
source of zirconium. The word zircon comes from the Persian word zargun ,
meaning "gold-colored".[5] It is a lustrous, grey-white, strong transition metal that
resembles hafnium and, to a lesser extent, titanium. Zirconium is mainly used as
a refractory and opacifier, although small amounts are used as an alloying agent for
its strong resistance to corrosion. Zirconium forms a variety
of inorganicand organometallic compounds such as zirconium
dioxide and zirconocene dichloride, respectively. Five isotopes occur naturally, three
of which are stable. Zirconium compounds have no known biological role.

Laboratory and Preparation

A new method, Hydrothermal Oxidation Method, has been developed to prepare
fine grained zirconia powders. Under 100 MPa, Zr metal and H 2O sealed in the
capsule reacted above 250C and yielded fine grained ZrO 2 powders. The powders
were sole monoclinic modification having the average grain size of 2k nm. The
use of Ca solutions instead of H2O led to a partiale formation of cubic zirconia fine
grains, particularly in the case of Ca(NO 3)2 with excess an amount of Zr and at high
temperatures, 700C. The cubic zirconia seemed to be stabilized both by calcium
and by nitrogen.
Chemical & Physical Uses
Its chemical and physical properties are similar to those of titanium. Zirconium is
extremely resistant to heat and corrosion. Zirconium is used in alloys such as
zircaloy, which is used in nuclear applications since it does not readily absorb
neutrons. Zirconium 95 is one of the radionuclides involved in atmospheric testing
of nuclear weapons. It is among the long-lived radionuclides that have produced and
will continue to produce increased cancers risk for decades and centuries to come.
The Elements Of Niobium

Symbol: Nb
Atomic mass: 92.9064
Electron configuration: [Kr] 4d45s1

Atomic number: 41
Electronegativity: 1.6
Discoverers: Charles Hatchett

History & Uses

Niobium was discovered by Charles Hatchett at 1801 in England. Origin of name:
from the Greek word "Niobe" meaning "daughter of Tantalus" (tantalum is closely
related to niobium in the periodic table)
Niobium was discovered in 1801 by Charles Hatchett in an ore called columbite sent
to England in the 1750s by John Winthrop the Younger, the first goveror of
Connecticut, USA. Hatchett called the new element columbium. He was not able to
isolate the free element. There was then considerable confusion concerning the
distinction between niobium and tantalum as they are so closely related. This
confustion was resolved by Heinrich Rose, who named niobium, and Marignac in
1846. The name niobium is now used in place of the original name "columbium".
The metal niobium was first prepared in 1864 by Blomstrand, who reduced the
chloride by heating it in a hydrogen atmosphere.
Definitions
Niobium, formerly columbium, is a chemical element with symbol Nb (formerly Cb)
and atomic number 41. It is a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, which is often
found in the pyrochlore mineral, the main commercial source for niobium,
and columbite. Its name comes from Greek mythology, specifically Niobe, who was
the daughter of Tantalus, the namesake of tantalum. The name reflects the great
similarity between the two elements in their physical and chemical properties,
making them difficult to distinguish a steel-gray metallic element resembling
tantalum in its chemical properties; becomes a superconductor below 9 K; used
chiefly in alloy steels. Symbol: Nb; atomic number: 41; atomic
weight: 92.906; specific gravity: 8.4 at 20C.

Laboratory and Preparation

1
Refractory Metals Division, Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-
MET), IDA Phase-III, HCL (PO), Cherlapally, Hyderabad 500051, India
2
Department of Physics, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500007, India
Received 19 November 2012; Revised 5 June 2013; Accepted 21 June 2013
Academic Editor: Herbert Ipser
Copyright 2013 T. Satish Kumar et al. This is an open access article distributed
under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Chemical & Physical Uses

Niobium and its compounds may be toxic (niobium dust causes eye and skin
irritation) , but there are no reports of human being poisoned by it. Apart from
measuring its concentration, no research on niobium in humans has been
undertaken.
Niobium, when inhaled, is retained mainly in the lungs, and secondarily in bones. It
interferes with calcium as an activator of enzyme systems. In laboratory animals,
inhalation of niobium nitride and/or pentoxide leads to scarring of the lungs at
exposure levels of 40 mg/m3.