IE 312 Product Design and Manufacturing Processes

Casting Lab #1: Introduction to Sand Casting Processes and Metal Castability

Prerequisite Reading: Kalpakjian Chapter 5: Metal Casting Processes and Equipment;

Heat Treatment
Preliminary lab report is due by 5:00 pm of the assigned due date in the course syllabus.
Lab Execution Requirements: Watch Casting Lab #1 video and record fluidity spiral data
into the table in the appendix.
Final lab report is due by 5:00 pm of the assigned due date in the course syllabus.

PRELIMINARY REPORT

Provide answers to the following questions.

1. What sand casting processes will be demonstrated in this lab?

2. What two methods will you use to create green sand molds?
3. What metal alloy will be poured in this lab?
4. What four factors have the greatest impact on metal alloy fluidity
5. What two casting process variables will have the greatest impact on metal fluidity during
pouring?
6. A metal alloy in a solid form consists of one or more phases. A phase may be a solid
solution, a single metal, or an intermetallic compound. What is difference between a
solid solution and intermetallic compound?
7. Assume that a tin-lead alloy comprised of (40% tin, 60% lead) is heated to 200 C. What
are the compositions of the two phases that exist in equilibrium and what are their weight
percentages?
8. What are the purposes of a pouring basin, sprue, gates, runners, and risers?
9. What are the general concerns in designing a gating system?
10. What type of gating system (pressurized or unpressurized) should provide more uniform
flow to the mold cavities?
11. What is the yield rate of a mold?

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IE 312 Product Design and Manufacturing Processes
Casting Lab #1: Introduction to Sand Casting Processes and Metal Castability

1. LAB SUMMARY
Shape casting is one of the principal processes used to create near net shape parts from metal.
Casting involves the following general steps:

Creation of a mold
Melting of metal alloys within a crucible inside an oven
Pouring the molten metal composition into the mold
Allowing the metal to solidify within the mold cavity for the purpose of taking on
the external shape of the mold cavity and the internal shape of the core
Removing the solid from the mold

There are many different shape casting processes in use. They differ primarily by their
method of mold creation and metal pouring. Metal alloys that are commonly cast to near net
shape are formulated to enhance their castability.

The purpose of this lab is for you to become familiar with various sand casting processes and
metal castability.

This lab consists of two parts. In the first part, you will learn how to:

Create a green sand mold for casting a fluidity specimen using a permanent pattern
and bench molding equipment
Create a green sand mold for casting dog statues using a permanent
pattern and a squeeze-jolt machine
Create a EPC sand mold for casting a mug using a disposable pattern and a vibratory
shaker
Fill the molds with molten 356 aluminum
Shake out the molds and post process the castings
Take measurements from a pre-executed fluidity test

In the second part of this lab, you will use your text book and the internet to conduct research
on various facets of the casting processes that you observed as well as others.

2. GATING
The gating system of a mold is the series of channels through which molten metal flows from the
ladle to the mold cavities. It consists of a sprue, runners, inlet gates, and wells. An illustration of
a typical design is provided in Figure 1.

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 Figure 1. Example Gating System

The sprue is the initial channel through which molten metal travels. It is always oriented vertical
to take advantage of gravity. In fact, with the exception of die casting, gravity is the only source
of flow actuation. The runners are oriented horizontally. Their purpose is to split up the flow
from the sprue and direct it to two or more mold cavities and/or to multiple inlets to a mold
cavity.

They also serve another important purpose. They are intended to slow down the velocity of the
molten metal reaching the inlet gates. The reason that they are run horizontally is that the right
angle turn from the sprue results in a dramatic loss of kinetic energy in the fluid.

Inlet gates are the conduits between a runner and one or more mold cavities. Like runners, they
are typically oriented horizontally. Inlet gates are typically attached to the thickest parts of a
casting in order to help prevent liquid-to-solid shrinkage defects.

Wells are cavities placed at the bottom of the sprue and/or runners. Their purpose is to slow
down the velocity of the initial liquid exiting either. They are also used to trap dross that is
denser than the cast metal.

The general concerns in designing a gating system are:

Insuring that the mold cavities are completely filled before the gating system solidifies
Insuring that the flow into the mold cavities is as steady as possible
Insuring that the flow into the mold cavities is as uniform as possible
Minimization of turbulent flow in order to minimize the entrapment of gas, dross, and
slag that will ultimately leads to porosity and inclusion defects
Minimization of sand mold erosion to insure no sand inclusions in the metal casting or
destruction of the mold cavity
Entrapment of slag and dross before it enters the mold cavities
Maximizing the yield rate of the mold (e.g. percentage of the net casting weight in
comparison to the weight of the metal poured)

The relative significance of these concerns is dependent upon a number of factors. However the
most important is the chemistry of the metal being poured and the casting geometry. Some

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metals are much more sensitive to turbulence than others. Examples of metals that are very
sensitive are aluminum and magnesium alloys. Examples of metals that are relatively insensitive
are steel, cast iron, and copper alloys. Another important factor is metal fluidity. It is relatively
easy to pour metals with good fluidity. Metals with poor fluidity are notorious for cold shuts and
must be poured quickly.

Given the relative importance of these factors, special considerations are given to the design of
the gating system. For example, the surface to volume ratios of the runners and gates are
designed to insure proper heat transfer to minimize the possibility of cold shut.

To minimize turbulent flow, the sprue is typically funnel shaped to insure that the molten metal
does not break contact with the sprue wall. The geometry of the runners and gates are often
designed to be streamlined Wells are designed to dissipate the kinetic energy of the initial fluid
entering the bottom of the sprue or in-let gates.

To enable dross and slag entrapment, runners often bottom drop into the inlet gates, thus
enabling the filtering of dross that is less dense than the cast metal. Wells are used to filter dross
that is more dense than the cast metal. For cases in which the dross has a density that is close to
the parent metal, wells are often placed at the end of extended runners. During pouring, the
dross typically leads the pour and falls into the wells first before having the ability to back wash
into the inlet gates.

Gating system design was at one time a cut and try process that depended primarily upon the
experience and judgment of the gating designer. Software tools are now available which use the
basic laws of fluid mechanics to assist the gating designer to develop gating systems with greater
delivery rates to produce castings of higher quality.

A gating system may be described by its gating ratio, which is the ratio of the cross-sectional
area of the sprue at its lower end compared to the total cross-sectional areas of the runners and
in-gates. Thus the gating ratio of 1:4:4 means that the total area of the runners and also of the
in-gates are four times the area of the sprue base. Such gating systems with the total in-gate
cross-sectional area is greater than the sprue cross-sectional area are known as unpressurized
gating systems because they tend to reduce the velocity of the flowing metal and minimize
erosion and turbulence.

Gating systems in which the total in-gates cross sectional area is less than the sprue cross-
sectional area are known as pressurized or choked systems (Ex: 4:8:3). Higher velocities result
along with increased erosion and turbulence, but with more uniform flow through each in-gate.

The smallest cross-sectional area in the gating system is referred to the choke. The choke in most
gating systems is located either at the base of the sprue or at the in-gates. The total flow rate in
any gating system is controlled by the cross sectional area of the choke, regardless of where the
choke is located.

As stated before, different metals and alloys require different gating system designs. Steel
castings are always poured fast and bottom gated. Aluminum and magnesium castings are often

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poured with large gating ratios and in streamlined gating systems to minimize turbulence and
aspiration as well as to reduce dross and slag inclusions.

3. GREEN SAND MOLDING

Sand casting (e.g. sand molding) is the most common casting process. An illustration of the
typical components of a sand mold is illustrated in Figure 2. Of the sand molds used, green sand
molding is by far the most common and least expensive sand molding process. Since green sand
molds can be used to create parts of virtually any size, there are many methods by which green
sand molding can be done. Nevertheless the steps are similar to those shown in Figure 3. Two of
these methods: bench molding and jolt squeeze molding, are explored in this lab.

Figure 2. Sand Mold

3.1 Bench Molding

Bench molding is the simplest, yet most time consuming method of creating a green sand mold.
It requires the most manual labor to pack and flip the molds. In this lab, you will observe the
creation of a green sand mold using this technique. The mold will be used to cast the fluidity
specimen illustrated in Figure 4. To create the sand mold, you will use the cope flask, pattern
plate, and drag flask illustrated in Figures 5 7.

The steps to be taken are as follows:

1) Place flask onto work area, making sure that the flask is locked
2) Remove the cope flask
3) Place the plate with the pattern onto the drag flask
4) Replace the cope flask
5) Flip the entire flask over
6) Apply parting dust
7) Shake enough sand into the drag flask so that the pattern is covered (when getting sand
from the hopper, pull the handle down slightly, then push it back up quickly)
8) Fill the flask about way with sand

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9) Ram around the edges of the flask with the wedged end of the rammer
10) Fill the flask
11) Ram around the edges of the flask with the wedged end of the rammer
12) Fill until the sand is heaped over the top of the flask
13) Ram the entire flask with the flat end of the rammer
14) Strike off the drag flask
15) Place the bottom board onto the mold and flip the flask over
16) Repeat steps #6-14 for the cope flask
17) Cut the sprue hole into the mold
18) Carefully remove the cope half of the mold and the pattern plate
19) Blow out any lose sand
20) Carefully reassemble the mold
21) Unlock the flask and remove from the mold
22) Place a jacket over the mold and place on pouring floor (see Figure 8)

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Figure 3. Sand Molding Procedure (Jolt Squeeze Method)
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 2 Travel Marker
Cope Flask

Pattern Match Plate

Drag Flask

Figure 5. Match Plate and Flask

Figure 4. Aluminum Fluidity Specimen
Used to Create Fluidity Specimen

Figure 6. Top View of Assembled Figure 7. Bottom View of Assembled

Match Plate and Flask Used to Match Plate and Flask Used to
Create Fluidity Specimen Mold Create Fluidity Specimen Mold

3.2 Jolt Squeeze Molding

Jolt squeeze molding is similar to bench molding, with one critical exception. Rather than using
a rammer to manually pack sand around the pattern, a jolt squeeze machine is used as presented
in Figure 3. In this lab, you will observe the creation of a green sand mold using this technique.
The mold will be used to cast dog statues similar to the one shown in Figure 9. You will use the
pattern plate and flask illustrated in Figures 10 and 11.

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 Figure 8. Molds with Jackets on Figure 9. Aluminum Dog Statue
Pouring Floor

Figure 11. Bottom View of

Figure 10. Top View of Assembled Assembled Match Plate and Flask
Match Plate and Flask Used to Used to Create Dog Statues Mold
Create Dog Statues Mold

The steps to be taken are as follows:

1) Place flask onto work area, making sure that the flask is locked
2) Remove the cope flask
3) Place the plate with the pattern onto the drag flask
4) Replace the cope flask
5) Flip the entire flask over
6) Apply parting dust
7) Shake enough sand into the drag flask so that the pattern is covered (when getting sand
from the hopper, pull the handle down slightly, then push it back up quickly)
8) Fill until the sand is heaped over the top of the flask
9) Place the bottom board onto the mold and hold it in place while you jolt the mold by
pressing the large button on the right with your knee
10) Flip the flask over

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 11) Make sure that the bottom board is centered in the flask
12) Repeat steps #6-8 for the cope flask
13) Place the board on top of the sand, and center within the flask
14) Pull the top part of the machine forward so that it is on top of the mold
15) Push the lever on the right down until the pressure reaches 90 (watch to make sure
that the bottom and top boards do not catch on the flask as it is being squeezed)
16) Hold it there for about 5 seconds
17) Pull up on the lever to release the pressure
18) Push the top of the machine back to its original position
19) Cut the sprue hole into the mold
20) Carefully remove the cope half of the mold and the pattern plate
21) Blow out any lose sand
22) Carefully reassemble the mold
23) Unlock the flask and remove from the mold
24) Place a jacket over the mold

4. EVAPORATIVE PATTERN CASTING

Evaporative pattern casting (EPC) is a sand molding technique that is significantly different then
the green sand molding techniques described previously. The principal differences are that a
single flask mold is used instead of a two part mold. A disposable, styrofoam pattern is left
inside the sand mold as opposed to being removed. Sand within the internal passages of the
pattern serves as the core, eliminating the need for a separately created core. Lastly dry rather
than green sand is used in the mold.

In this lab, you will observe the creation of an EPC mold. The mold will be used to cast a PSU
mug similar to the one shown in Figure 12. The styrofoam pattern to be used is shown in Figure
13.

The steps to be taken are:

1. Cover the styrofoam mug pattern with slurry (done before hand to permit drying)
2. Place the cylindrical flask on the shaker (Figure 14)
3. Fill the flask partially with sand
4. Place the mug pattern in the flask at a 45 angle (Figure 15)
5. Fill sand on top of the pattern and fill the flask, make sure the attached sprue is visible
6. Run the shaker to compact the sand around the pattern (Figure 16)
7. Place the ceramic pouring sleeve into the sand so that it surrounds over the sprue
8. Fill sand around the sleeve
9. Run the shaker to compact sand around the sleeve (Figure 17)
10. Use the hoist to transport the flask to the pouring flour

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 Figure 12. Aluminum PSU Mug Figure 13. Styrofoam Pattern used to
Cast Aluminum PSU Mug

Figure 14. Flask on Vibratory Shaker Figure 15. Styrofoam Pattern at 45

Orientation in Flask

Figure 16. Exposed Styrofoam Sprue Figure 17. Exposed Sleeve in

in Compacted Dry Sand Compacted Sand

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5. METAL CASTABILITY AND FLUDITY TESTING
The term metal castability is used to describe the ease with which a metal alloy can be melted,
poured into a mold, and solidified into a shape free of defects. In this portion of the lab, you will
explore metal castability and standard methods of quantifying metal fluidity.

5.1 Metal Castability

There are a number of factors that affect the castability of a metal. These include its liquidus
temperature and latent heat of fusion. The higher the values, the greater the thermal energy that
must be supplied to melt the alloy and the greater demand on the mold design. Another factor is
the propensity of the metal alloy to absorb and chemically react with atmospheric gasses and/or
suffer porosity defects due to outgassing during solidification. However the two biggest factors
by far are the fluidity of the metal alloy and its propensity to suffer hot tears during
solidification. Both are related.

Metal fluidity relates the ability of the molten alloy to flow from the pouring basin to the mold
cavity. In actual practice, metal fluidity is a function of both metal chemistry and the casting
process. With regard to the former, the following affect its general fluidity:

Viscosity: The greater the fluid viscosity, the less its fluidity. In general the viscosity of
any metal is heavily influenced by its temperature. The greater the temperature is above
the liquidus temperature, the lower the viscosity and the greater the fluidity.

Surface Tension: The greater the surface tension of the fluid, the lower the fluidity.
Metals that readily form oxide layers at the metal-air interface are especially prone to
enhanced surface tension.

Inclusions: Insoluble particles, free floating dendrites, and inclusions such as slag can
significantly reduce fluidity.

Solidification Behavior: Solidification behavior directly influences fluidity via dendrite

formation. Metals that exhibit minimal dendrite formation exhibit the greatest fluidity.

In general, the metals that exhibit the best fluidity are either pure metals or metal alloys at or
near eutectic composition. A pure metal has a well defined melting point and has a cooling
curve similar to the one presented in Figure 18. During solidification, the temperature of the
metal at the solid-liquid interface remains at this temperature until solidification is complete.
During a casting process, solidification will always occur first at the walls of the runners, gates,
and mold cavities. As the metal cools from the outside in, the solid-liquid interface will advance
from the walls along a relatively smooth, plane front as shown in Figure 19. Fluid flowing past
this interface will experience minimum drag.

In contrast, most metal alloys have no defined melting temperature, but rather a liquidus
temperature and a solidus temperature. Above the liquidus temperature, all constituents are
liquid. Below the solidus temperature, all constituents are solid, typically in two or more phases.
In between these two temperatures, metal alloy phases of varying composition exist in either

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 Temperature
TM

Liquid
Liquid +
Solid
Solid

Time
Figure 18. Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal

Figure 19. Planar Solid-Liquid Interface

of a Solidifying Pure Metal

liquid or solid state. Metal alloys such as these have a cooling curve that resembles the one
illustrated in Figure 20. Furthermore they do not have a clean, well defined solid-liquid
interface. Instead they have a mushy zone whose temperature ranges from the liquidus to the
solidus and whose solidification is defined by dendrite formation as illustrated in Figure 21.

TL
TS
Temperature

Liquid
Liquid +
Solid
Solid

Time
Figure 20. Cooling Curve for a Binary Metal Alloy
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 Figure 21. Dendrite Formation at the Mushy
Solid-Liquid Interface of a Solidifying Metal Alloy

In general, dendrites tend to grow from the fully solidified surface toward the liquid interior.
However it is very much possible for them to nucleate in the free standing liquid. In this case,
they are free floating particles. If the metal fluid is flowing, these free dendrites will
significantly reduce the fluidity of the flowing metal in much the same way that ice slush reduces
the fluidity of water in a stream. Likewise the dendrites anchored at the solid interface will
impose significantly greater drag on the moving fluid.

Hot tears are typically associated with the solidification of metal alloys. They originate in
regions of the mushy zone in which the fraction solid is typically between 85% to 95%. Within
these regions, the branches of the dendrites make contact and can entrap liquid within small
regions. As this entrapped liquid solidifies it forms microvoids. At the same time, the solid
metal on which the dendrites are anchored is contracting due to shrinkage. This invariably
induces internal, tensile stresses at the interface, which in turn can plastically deform the soft,
newly solidified metal. Cracks can initiate at the microvoids and grow with continued
contraction. If liquid metal were able to reach and fill in these cracks as they formed, the defects
would be mostly eliminated. However since there is no free path for the liquid, the cracks
remain after the casting has fully solidified.

Pure metals are substantially less prone to this problem, since they do not form dendrites.
Instead the smooth, planar solid-interface provides an unobstructed path for liquid metal to reach
and fill in any micro cracks that initiate.

The fluidity of a metal alloy along with its propensity for hot tears is heavily influenced by the
weight percentages of its constituent components. As a case in point, consider the phase diagram
(Figure 22) for the tin-lead alloy system. With the exception of the compositions consisting of
either pure tin (TM = 232 C) or pure lead (TM = 327 C), the only other composition in which
the freezing range (i.e. difference between TL and TS) is zero is the eutectic composition (61.9%

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tin, 39.1% lead). The temperature at which this composition solidifies is known as the eutectoid
temperature, which in this case is 183C. Just below the eutectoid temperature, the eutectic forms
a two phase solid. The phase is a solid solution in which lead is the solvent and tin is the
solute. The phase is a solid solution in which tin is the solvent and lead is the solute.

The cooling curve for this composition and any other binary eutectic composition looks like the
one in Figure 23. Similar to a pure metal, the eutectic composition undergoes isothermal
solidification at the eutectoid temperature. Likewise it forms a solid-liquid interface that is
approximately planar with minimal dendrite formation.

Figure 22. Phase Diagram for Tin-Lead Alloy System

Temperature

TL= TS = TE

Liquid
Liquid +
Solid
Solid

Time
Figure 23. Cooling Curve for a Binary Metal Alloy at
Eutectic Composition

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Metal alloys with compositions close to the eutectic exhibit cooling curves similar to the one in
Figure 24. As the temperature dips below the liquidus, a proeutectic (e.g. solidifies above
eutectic temperature) solid begins to form. As the temperature continues to drop, the
composition of the liquid phase increasingly approaches the eutectoid composition, which in turn
increasingly solidifies like a eutectoid composition.

Temperature

TL
TS =TE

Liquid
Liquid +
Solid Solid

Time
Figure 24. Cooling Curve for a Binary Metal Alloy at a
Composition Near Eutectoid

Alloy compositions at or near eutectoid have another significant advantage with regard to
castability. The eutectoid temperature is often lower than the melting points of the individual
alloying elements. Consequently metal alloys that have the greatest castability are ones that have
compositions close eutectoid.

It was stated previously that the casting process also influences metal fluidity. Specifically the
thermal properties of the mold will directly influence fluidity. Molds with good insulation
properties will slow down the cooling of the molten metal and extend fluidity. The other factor
is pouring temperature. The higher the pouring temperature, the longer fluidity will be
maintained.

In general, shape casting processes that involve rapid cooling and solidification (e.g. permanent
mold) require metal alloys with excellent castability. Shape casting processes that involve slow
cooling and solidification (e.g. sand casting) can utilize metal alloys with substantially less
castability. Ingot casting processes, which are used to create bulk shapes for subsequent bulk
deformation processing, require the least degree of castability.

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5.2 Metal Fluidity Test
A common means by which to quantify metal castability is to execute a fluidity test. This
involves using a fluidity spiral pattern such as the one illustrated in Figures 5 and 6 to create a
green sand mold. The pattern has a sequence of travel marks spaced 2 in. apart along the entire
spiral. A fluidity test involves heating the metal alloy to a predetermined temperature, and then
pouring it continuously into the mold. As the leading metal solidifies in the spiral cavity, the
molten metal in the pouring basin will begin to back flow, resulting in the end of the experiment.

The fluidity specimen is allowed to solidify and then it is removed from the mold. The length of
the spiral is then measured by counting the number of travel marks that it contains. The greater
the number of travel marks, the greater the fluidity.

In the lab video, the lab instructor will evaluate four fluidity test specimens labeled A, B, C, and
D. You are to record their fluidity number and enter the results in Table A1 in the appendix.

6. CASTING PROCESSES RESEARCH

You are to research and derive answers to the following questions using your course text and the
internet. Make sure to cite the source of your information.

6.1 Green Sand Composition and Properties

What are the four principal components of green sand used for green sand molding? What is the
purpose of each constituent? What is a muller used for? What are the two most critical
properties of green sand composition with regard to its ability to serve as a mold material?

6.2 Green Sand Molds

Green sand molds are comprised of two halves, a cope and drag. The external surfaces of the
casting are created by the cavities within these two halves. Describe four factors which a process
engineer must consider when deciding how to position and orient the casting in the mold relative
to these two halves? What is a parting line? For green sand molds, what is the typical range of
draft relative to the parting line?

6.3 Cores
What is the purpose of a core in green sand molding? What are cores made from and how are
they made? What is the purpose of a core print?

6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of EPC

In comparison to green mold sand casting, what are the principal advantages and disadvantages
of EPC? In answering this question, you are going to need to go on the internet rather than rely
on your text.

6.5 Advantages and disadvantages of Permanent Mold Casting

In comparison to green mold sand casting, what are the principal advantages and disadvantages
of permanent mold casting?

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6.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Investment Casting
In comparison to green mold sand casting, what are the principal advantages and disadvantages
of investment casting? Is it possible to create internal passageways using this process? If so,
how is it done?

6.7 Research on 6061 Aluminum and 356 Aluminum

6061 aluminum and 356 aluminum are two alloys that are used in a very large number of
applications. A critical difference between the two is the level of silicon that they contain. You
are to discuss the following for each alloy:

is it a wrought alloy that is cast as an ingot and plastically deformed into near net shape
or is it an alloy that is typically cast into a near net shape
the allowable range of silicon
the liquidus temperature and the solidus temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
the principal means by which the alloy is hardened
typical yield strength and ductility in the hardened condition

In addition, you are to provide a technical argument as to why one alloy has the greater
castability than the other. Hint: Refer to the aluminum-silicon phase diagram.

6.8 Analysis of Fluidity Test Results

In the lab video, four fluidity test specimens were evaluated. They were fabricated from one of
the following aluminum alloy-pour temperature combinations listed in the table below. It
should be noted that specimen C was poured at a temperature approximately 200F higher than
its liquidus temperature.

Aluminum Alloy Pour Temperature (F) Specimen Fluidity Number

6061 1270

6061 1470

356 1200

356 1400

You are to identify which one of the fluidity test specimens (A, B, C, and D) correspond to each
alloy-pour temperature combination. List your selections in the table along with their
corresponding fluidity numbers. Include this table in your report. In addition, provide a
technical argument for your selections.

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7. REPORT REQUIREMENTS
The results of your laboratory are to be presented in a technical report. The report must contain
the following elements:

Title Page
Table of Contents
Investigation Results
References

The contents of these sections are as follows.

TITLE PAGE
The organization of the title page is:
TITLE OF REPORT IN CAPITAL LETTERS

Technical Report Submitted to: Dept. of Industrial & Manufacturing Engineering

Prof. Edward C. De Meter
310 Leonhard Building
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802

Submitted by:

Team: Team Number

Names of Team Members

Date: Submission Date

TABLE OF CONTENTS
The technical report must be paginated. The title page is not numbered. The table of contents
appears on page 1. It should list the page number of every section and subsection, including the
appendix. Note that the title page should not have a page number.

INVESTIGATION RESULTS
This section should provide the results of your research pertaining to the questions posed in
section 6. A subsection should be devoted to each investigation. The subsection heading should
be equivalent to the corresponding heading in section 6. Make sure you cite all sources of
information, including your text.

REFERNCES
Provide reference data for all sources cited in this report.

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 APPENDIX

Table A1. Fluidity Measurements

Specimen Fluidity Number
A
B
C
D

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