714 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO.

3, MAY/JUNE 1997

PV Water Pumping with a Peak-Power Tracker Using

a Simple Six-Step Square-Wave Inverter
Eduard Muljadi, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract The application of photovoltaics (PVs) has been

increasingly popular, especially in remote areas, where power
from a utility is not available or is too costly to install. PV-
powered water pumping is frequently used for agriculture and
in households. Among many available schemes, the system under
study consists of a PV array, a variable-frequency inverter, an
induction motor, and a water pump. The inverter feeds the
induction motor, which drives the water pump. To seek the
optimum power output of the PV array, the inverter is operated
at variable frequency, to vary the output of the water pump. The
inverter is operated to generate a six-step quasi-square wave, Fig. 1. Block diagram of the system analyzed.
instead of a pulsewidth modulated (PWM) voltage output, to
reduce the switching losses. The inverter acts as both a variable-
frequency source and a peak-power tracker of the system, thus, night. However, with the battery module, the battery needs to
having the number of switches minimized. The system is a be checked regularly. In the system with a battery, the peak-
low-cost design, with a simple control strategy. The dc bus is power tracking can be handled by varying the duty ratio of
supported by a dc capacitor; thus, a balance-of-power flow must
be maintained to avoid the collapse of the dc-bus voltage. Another a dc-dc converter, which is generally installed between the
advantage of the system is that the current is limited to an battery and the PV array.
upper limit of the PV-array current. Thus, in case a short circuit While many of the references for residential applications are
is developed, the motor winding and the power semiconductor available in technical details, it is difficult to locate technical
switches can be protected against excessive current flow.
references for the interaction between PVs and an electric
Index Terms Peak-power tracker, photovoltaic, PV array, machine, especially in water pumping without battery storage
renewable energy, village electrification, water pumping. [7], [8].
The system analyzed in this paper is a water pumping
I. INTRODUCTION system without battery module, utilizing a six-step inverter
to vary the frequency and track the peak power of the PV
E NERGY CONVERSION from PV arrays received a
lot of attention, especially in outer-space power system
applications [1]. Different methods of peak-power tracking
array. With no battery module available, the power generated
by the PV array must be used entirely to pump the water; thus,
the water storage tank can be viewed as an indirect energy
have been proposed to capture the maximum power at different
storage device. The size of the storage tank should be suitable
levels of insolation [2][4]. Many peak-power trackers are
for the size of the PV array and the annual local insolation
implemented with a microprocessor or microcontroller, by
level. The peak-power tracking is done by utilizing the dc-ac
using different control strategies [3][5].
Water pumping from a PV array is a valid option to inverter. The inverter is modulated to adjust the frequency of
pollution-generating diesel and human-powered water pumps. the induction motor to search for the optimum power output
Different types of pumps can be used, such as the multistage of the PV array. Without the battery to act as energy storage,
centrifugal pumps or eccentric helical pumps [6]. PV-array the voltage across the dc bus may collapse when there is
water pumping can be accomplished with or without a battery an unbalanced input-output power relationship in the dc bus.
module. With a battery module, the system energy generated Thus, the control of the system is more complicated than that
by the sun can be stored in the battery, hence, the application for the system with a dc battery on the dc bus.
of the water pump can be extended, even to a cloudy day, or at The block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 1. The
PV array receives energy from the sunlight. The PV array
generates electric power, which is fed to the induction motor
Paper IPCSD 9712, approved by the Industrial Drives Committee of the via an inverter. The induction motor is mechanically coupled
IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1996 Industry to the water pump. As the insolation level varies during the
Applications Society Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, October 610. This
work was supported by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) day, the output of the PV array follows the change. The water
under the Directors Development Fund 19921993. Manuscript released for pump is a centrifugal pump, with the output torque varying
publication January 22, 1997. as the square of its rotor speed. To increase the output of
The author is with National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO
80401-3393 USA. the water pump, the speed of the water pump is increased by
Publisher Item Identifier S 0093-9994(97)03942-X. adjusting the frequency of the inverter.
00939994/97$10.00 1997 IEEE
MULJADI: PV WATER TRACKING WITH A PEAK-POWER TRACKER 715

Fig. 3. PV/inverter/induction motor representation.

connects the three optimum operating points for three different

conditions.
To optimize the energy captured, the PV array should always
be operated at its maximum output power as the insolation
level changes. The output power of the motor can be varied
by varying the speed of the water pump. The speed of the water
pump is regulated by controlling the frequency of the inverter.
Thus, the inverter is the interface between the electric motor
and the PV array.

Fig. 2. Typical VI and power characteristics of the PV array for three III. WATER PUMP, ELECTRIC MOTOR, AND INVERTER
different levels of insolation.
The water pump chosen is a centrifugal type, where the
output power is proportional to the cube of its rotor speed.
The output of the inverter is variable-frequency ac. By The output power of the water pump can be written as
operating the six-step square wave inverter to change the
frequency output, and using the inverter as the peak-power (1)
tracker, the number of switches and the switching losses can be where is the constant of the water pump in watts/(mech
minimized. The output power of the PV array, the dc voltage, rad/s) and is the rotor speed in mech rad/s.
and the dc current are fed back to the controller, to adjust the The output torque can be written as
frequency output of the inverter and keep the system operating
at a maximum power capture. (2)
Thus, to vary the output of the water pump, the frequency
supply of the electric motor driving the pump must be varied.
II. PV ARRAY AND OUTPUT POWER CHARACTERISTICS The inverter and the electric motor are represented in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 shows a typical VI curve for a PV array as the The method of switching chosen is a six-step quasi-square-
conditions change. In the same figure, the output power wave output voltage. An example of per-phase voltage and
versus terminal voltage of the PV array is also drawn. The line-current output of the induction motor are shown in Fig. 4.
optimum operating voltage is the voltage where the PV array The operation of the inverter and electric motor is related
generates maximum power. Thus, by adjusting the voltage at to the characteristics of the PV array. The PV array, as can be
the terminals of the PV array, the output power will vary seen from Fig. 2, behaves approximately as a current source
accordingly. It is shown that the insolation level and the when the voltage output of the PV array is lower than the
temperature of the PV array affect its VI characteristics. optimum voltage, and it behaves as a voltage source when the
Therefore, the optimum output voltage of the PV array changes output voltage of the PV array is higher than the optimum
at different conditions. In Fig. 2, three different levels of voltage.
insolations are illustrated. Curves I1 and P1 correspond to the In the dc representation shown in Fig. 5, the fundamen-
highest insolation level, while curves I3 and P3 correspond to tal component of voltage and current of the motorinverter
the lowest insolation level. The dashed line shown in Fig. 2 relationship is reflected to the dc side as a variable resistor.
716 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 1997

(a)

Fig. 4. Per-phase voltage (Vas ) and line-current (Ias ) waveforms for an

induction motor fed by a six-step square-wave inverter. (b)
Fig. 7. Torque-speed characteristics of the induction motor. (a) Voltage
source and current source. (b) Connected to PV inverter for different fre-
quencies.

The torque-speed characteristics of the induction motor

connected to the voltage source differ from the characteristics
of the induction motor connected to a current source. The slip
frequency where the peak torque occurs can be computed. For
a voltage source, the slip frequency is

Fig. 5. DC representation of the system. - (3)

For a current source, the slip frequency is

- (4)

An example of the torque-speed characteristics for two

different sources is shown in Fig. 7. The behavior of the system
depends on the operating voltage of the PV array. In the low-
slip region, the impedance of the system is high. For the same
Fig. 6. Per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction machine.
amount of current, the terminal voltage is higher in the low-slip
region than in a high-slip region; thus, the PV inverter operates
As the slip of the motor is varied, the resistance of the as a voltage source. As the slip increases, the terminal voltage
variable resistor follows the change accordingly. The slip of the induction motor is lower, so it tends to behave as if in
is adjusted indirectly, by controlling the frequency of the a more current-source mode. Near the optimum voltage, the
inverter. Thus, at any speed slip can be changed from unity to torque-speed condition of the induction motor connected to a
zero, or even to a negative value, by changing the frequency PV inverter is between the current-source and voltage source-
applied to the induction motor. modes, as illustrated by the torque-speed (dashed) line shown
The equivalent circuit of the induction machine is given in Fig. 7(a). The operation of the system is related to the range
in Fig. 6. Assuming the stator resistance is negligible, it is of slip between peak slip and zero slip.
apparent that the slip frequency and the flux To compute the approximate optimum frequency, the fol-
applied to the induction motor determine the torque at any lowing assumptions should be made.
frequency. Unfortunately, the characteristics of the PV array 1) The optimum voltage of the PV array is constant.
are affected by both the light intensity and the temperature of 2) The mechanical output power of the water pump is
the PV array. Thus, the optimum operating point cannot be approximately proportional to the cube of the frequency.
kept constant; instead, it moves along the dashed line shown 3) There are no mechanical and electrical losses in the
in Fig. 2 as the condition varies. conversion process.
MULJADI: PV WATER TRACKING WITH A PEAK-POWER TRACKER 717

The mechanical output power of the water pump and the output
power of the PV array are equal if the losses in the motor and
the power converter are neglected. They can be written as

(5)
- - (6)

The frequency output of the inverter can be written as

-
(7)
-
where
- average optimum voltage of the PV array Fig. 8. Torque-speed characteristics for starting and at optimum condition.
(known);
- current of the PV array at low voltage or short
output taken consistently at the same time step, the maximum
circuit for rated conditions (known);
power can be detected.
- current of the PV array at low voltage or short
circuit for normal conditions (measured);
B. Starting Procedure
power coefficient of the water pump.
The PV array current can be measured, and - can be The starting procedure for the system begins by computing
found from rated conditions. Knowing these values, the ap- the power capability of the PV array at the present condition.
proximate frequency at the optimum operating conditions can The predicted operating frequency is computed, and the fre-
be predicted at any insolation level. Knowing the approximate quency of the inverter is increased from zero to the predicted
optimum frequency, the search can be targeted within a closer operating frequency. As the slip decreases from unity to a
range to the optimum frequency. Hence, the only variable small value, the impedance of the induction motor presents a
is the short-circuit current measured, which depends on the higher value as the slip becomes smaller and corresponds to
insolation and the temperature of the PV panel. The short- a more inductive load. In a dc representation, this condition
circuit current is the indirect sensor of the power capability of is represented as a high resistance. The voltage across the
the PV panel under any insolation level. output of the PV array increases above the optimum operating
voltage.
The output power and slip frequency increase, as the fre-
IV. COMPUTER SIMULATION
quency is increased and the induction motor presents a higher
load to the PV array. Thus, in a dc representation, the fictitious
A. Power Output resistive load appears across the PV array, as shown in Fig.
The output power of the PV array can be tracked by sensing 5, and corresponds to a lower resistance. The voltage across
the power output of the PV array. To vary the output power the PV array is lowered, approaching the optimum voltage.
of the PV array, the frequency of the inverter is varied in As the frequency keeps increasing, the slip also increases,
steps. As the frequency is increased, the speed of the water until at one point the slip reaches that for peak torque.
pump increases. Thus, the power entering the motor increases Any small perturbation around this point (X1 in Fig. 8)
approximately proportionally to the cube of the frequency will bring the system to another operating point much lower
output of the inverter. The current (dc) generated by the PV than the optimum operating point (X3). This condition can
array increases from zero to maximum as the voltage across be illustrated with the curve f1, shown in Fig. 8. To avoid
the PV array decreases from the maximum to an optimum this condition, the frequency must be quickly reduced to one
(smaller) value. step lower (refer to curve f2 in Fig. 8). The change must
Thus, referring the output power versus the PV array be done before the rotor speed decreases to a much lower
voltage, the variation of the output power moves the operating speed. The operating point will eventually settle at point X2
point from lower power (high voltage, lower current) to the on curve f2. Otherwise, if the slip is allowed to increase to
higher power (low voltage, higher current). The power is a large value, the voltage across the PV array will collapse.
varied by varying the inverter frequency. The frequency should Therefore, it is important to detect the optimum frequency
be kept constant at the optimum voltage to get peak power where the maximum power can be tapped from the PV array.
transfer. The process is repeated periodically to account for The detection of maximum power can be done by sensing
any change in insolation. the power output of the PV array at every step. If, in the
The frequency is incremented stepwise. The transition time next step, the power output becomes smaller, it means the
between the old frequency and the new operating frequency maximum power has been passed. The controller should reset
must include the mechanical transient of the system to reach the frequency to one step lower than the current frequency
its new steady state, which is determined mostly by the (from f1 to f2).
mechanical time constant of the system. The data are sampled In the starting procedure, when the system is first started,
just before the new frequency is set. With the filtered PV-array the sensor may react as if a peak value has been detected,
718 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 1997

Fig. 9. Frequency and output power of the PV array.

although the frequency is much smaller than the predicted Fig. 10. DC voltage and PV current as the frequency is increased.
optimum frequency. This condition occurs as the operating
point moves from point 0 to point A in the curve shown in It is important to note that moving from point 0 to point
Fig. 8. The phenomenon corresponds to a condition where the A, the power increases and then decreases, while the dc
operating point moves from the left of the peak torque (point voltage keeps increasing. The sensor must be capable of
0), passes the peak torque, and then moves to the right of the recognizing the difference between the peak power detected
peak (point A). When the steady-state condition is achieved, during starting procedure and the normal operating condition.
the operating PV voltage is stable. The movement of operating A simple algorithm in the controller can avoid a wrong
point from point 0 to point A in Fig. 8 corresponds to the detection, especially when the starting procedure is in progress,
power characteristics of the PV array. The power change is or when the optimum power has been achieved. In the control
accompanied by a change in the dc voltage from a lower value strategy implemented, the subsection added to the control
(lower than the optimum voltage) to a higher value (higher algorithm can be explained as follows.
than the optimum voltage).
1) During starting, the dc voltage is very low, the short-
The phenomenon depicted above is illustrated in Fig. 9,
circuit current can be sensed, and the predicted optimum
where the power (PFILT is the filtered output power of the PV
frequency is computed from the equation.
array) increases as the frequency is increased. It can be seen
2) The frequency is then set to start the induction motor by
from Fig. 9 that the power reaches its peak at a frequency
adding a variable
of about 90 rad/s. This peak value is not the optimum power,
but is the first peak power when the speed begins to increase
and the operating point moves from point 0 to point A. The
power decreases from the first peak, and then the operating
point reaches point A. As the frequency is increased, the power 3) The value negative of variable is increased every
begins to increase again until it reaches the second peak. The sample time by a certain frequency increment
second peak is related to point X1 in Fig. 8. Since, at this point,
the condition is unstable, the frequency must be stepped back
one step to operate the system at point X2.
The corresponding dc voltage and PV current are presented 4) Thus, varies from 0 to approximately
in Fig. 10. As the system is started from standstill, the slip is The system controller should monitor the value of
high and the operating voltage of the PV array is very low. As If output power begins to decline while the value of
the slip is reduced and the frequency is gradually increased, is negative, the system detects a false optimum. This false
the PV voltage increases. The knee point of the VI curve, optimum occurs in the process of starting (moving from points
where the optimum power is located, is passed for the first 0 to point A in Fig. 8), where the PV power increases and
time, when the operating point moves from point 0 to point then decreases after reaching the peak between points 0 and
A. The voltage keeps increasing, and the current begins to A. In this case, the controller should continue to increase
decrease. The power decreases as the operation from point 0 the frequency until the actual optimum frequency is reached.
to point A involves reducing the slip of the induction motor. Thus, the conditions for the wrong detection during the starting
As the slip begins to increase, the PV voltage decreases, and procedure can be avoided. The speed (r/min) and the load
the PV power begins to increase. After reaching the optimum (water pump) torque of the system are given in Fig. 11. It can
point, the power begins to decrease. This power reduction is be seen that some time is required for the speed to settle down
the signal used to detect the maximum power of the PV array. as the frequency is increased step by step.
MULJADI: PV WATER TRACKING WITH A PEAK-POWER TRACKER 719

(a)

Fig. 11. Motor speed and water pump load torque as the frequency is
increased step by step.

C. Normal Operating Condition

It can be seen from Fig. 9 that the dc voltage and the output
power change as the frequency is increased step by step, until
the maximum is achieved when the power begins to decrease.
At this point, the frequency is reduced one step to stabilize
the system and the new steady-state condition is maintained.
(b)
The last step of frequency change can be illustrated in Fig. 8,
Fig. 12. Torque speed characteristics at different insolation levels. (a) High
where the frequency is reduced one step as soon as the peak is intensity to low intensity. (b) Low intensity, optimum operation is searched.
detected. At this point, the frequency is kept constant until the
next search procedure is initiated or when the light intensity
changes to a lower intensity.
When the insolation level changes to a lower value, the
output power versus the PV-array voltage curve will shrink
from curve I1 to curve I2 , as shown in Fig. 2. As a result, the
steady-state condition is disturbed. The load torque is higher
than the torque produced by the induction motor, and the
system becomes unstable as the available current becomes
smaller. The curves of torque-speed characteristic are shown
in Fig. 12(a), where a shrunken torque-speed characteristic is
anticipated. As a result, the load torque is not supported by
the motor torque any longer, and the speed of the water pump
begins to decrease. As the speed reduces at constant frequency,
the operating slip begins to increase. The increment of the
slip presents a lower fictitious dc resistance load in the dc
representation of the system in Fig. 5. Thus, the dc voltage
decreases as the slip increases.
When the dc voltage decreases below a preset lower limit,
the controller should reduce the frequency until the voltage
comes back up above the lower limit and the torque load is
supported by the motor torque. The new condition is shown Fig. 13. Power and frequency for changing conditions.
as curve f2 in Fig. 12(a). Hence, changing from f1 to f2 when
the insolation level is lower stabilizes the system. A search for once every minute or longer. Thus, if the insolation increases,
a new optimum frequency at the new level of insolation will the next searching period will find a new operating frequency.
bring the system from curve f2 to a new condition, curve f3, in The scenario described in Fig. 12 can be observed from
Fig. 12(b). The frequency should be kept at this value until a the actual simulation response of the system. The response is
new search period is initiated. The searching period can be set presented in Fig. 13. The actual power output of PV (not the
720 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 1997

the new search is initiated, the frequency is reset to a lower

value to make room for the new search. As a result, as the
speed remains constant and the frequency is lowered, the
induction machine enters the negative-slip (generating) mode.
The induction machine energizes the dc capacitor, and no
power can flow back to the PV array, due to the diode installed
to block the reversing power. Thus, there is a spike of voltage
during the generation. As the frequency is again increased, the
slip increases and the voltage decreases closer to the optimum
voltage; when the optimum power is reached, the frequency is
again fixed to stay the same, until the new searching period.
The dc voltage of the PV array is shown in Fig. 14. The
dc voltage initially decreases as the frequency is increased to
search the optimum power. As soon as the optimum power is
found, the frequency is locked, so the dc voltage is stabilized
at a constant value. At s, the insolation level decreases,
the voltage starts to drop below the specified lower limit,
and the frequency must be reduced to maintain the voltage.
Once the dc voltage is higher than the lower limit, the dc
voltage is stabilized, and the frequency is again fixed. When
the new search is initiated, the frequency is reset to a lower
value to make room for the new search. As a result, as the
Fig. 14. DC-bus voltage as the condition varies.
speed remains constant and the frequency is lowered, the
induction machine enters the negative-slip (generating) mode.
filtered power) and the frequency are shown. At the beginning The induction machine energizes the dc capacitor and no
(at s), the system is still searching the optimum power can flow back to the PV array, due to the diode installed
operation. As the frequency is increased, the output power to block the reversing power. Thus, there is a spike of voltage
increases gradually. When the maximum power is detected, during the generation. As the frequency is again increased, the
the frequency is set back by one step (at about 21.5 s). It can slip increases and the voltage decreases closer to the optimum
be seen that the frequency is reduced by one step. During the voltage; when the optimum power is reached, the frequency is
next 3.5 s, the system is operated at optimum condition. Thus, again fixed to stay the same, until the new searching period.
the frequency is kept constant. At s, the insolation
level drops and the motor torque cannot support the water
pump torque any longer; thus, the speed decreases. As the D. Modeling the System Insolation
speed decreases at constant frequency, the slip increases and The system is simulated by using two separate data sets
the voltage across the PV array decreases. To avoid further to represent the PV-array characteristics. One set of data
drop, as soon as the dc voltage drops below a certain lower corresponds to the data of the basic VI characteristics of the
limit, the frequency of the system must be reduced to lower PV array for a typical solar cell, and the other set corresponds
the slip and prevent further drop in dc voltage. When the dc to the coefficients to scale the voltage and current of the PV
voltage has been stabilized, the system frequency is locked to array as time changes. The data of the VI characteristic of
this particular frequency (between and s) until the solar cell are illustrated in Fig. 15(a), and the data for the
the next searching period is initiated. coefficient to scale the voltage and current are presented in Fig.
At s, the new searching period is started. The 15(b). With these two sets of data, the system representing a
frequency is reset to 290 rad/s, which is about 20% below real system can be simulated. The parameters of the induction
the previous stable operating frequency (351 rad/s). The new machine and the water pump can be changed to simulate
search must be started from the new frequency. Note that the another system. Similarly, the data representing the PV array
system is not started from zero speed and zero frequency. and the operating condition can be changed for different
Thus, the new search will be accomplished in a much shorter system conditions. The controller parameter can be changed to
time than the searching time from the initial start. simulate different responses. The controller senses the power,
The dc voltage of the PV array is shown in Fig. 14. The voltage, and current output of the PV array. In a normal con-
dc voltage initially decreases as the frequency is increased to dition, the frequency is increased stepwise. At every
search the optimum power. As soon as the optimum power is the frequency is changed by a small predetermined increment
found, the frequency is locked, so the dc voltage is stabilized of frequency The sample time is chosen to be
at a constant value. At s, the insolation level decreases, appropriate to let the induction motor reach a steady-state
the voltage starts to drop below the specified lower limit, condition before the measurement can be taken. To reduce the
and the frequency must be reduced to maintain the voltage. ripple reflected by the inverter, the output power of the PV
Once the dc voltage is higher than the lower limit, the dc array is filtered by a low-pass filter before it is fed back to the
voltage is stabilized, and the frequency is again fixed. When controller. The output power is used to detect the maximum
MULJADI: PV WATER TRACKING WITH A PEAK-POWER TRACKER 721

APPENDIX
INDUCTION MACHINE AND WATER PUMP DATA

(a) ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank L. Flowers from the Wind
Technology Division, National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
N. Rau, Y. H. Wan, R. Taylor, and L. Pohle for valuable
discussions and for reviewing this paper.

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a centrifugal water pump, and the controller is set to adapt to Hill, 1986.
changing conditions. The system can be implemented by a
simple microcontroller. The only control variables needed are
the power, voltage, and current output of the PV array to be
fed back to the microcontroller. The PV-array power is used
to detect the maximum power, the dc-bus voltage is used to Eduard Muljadi (S83M84SM94) received the
B.S.E.E. degree from Surabaya Institute of Technol-
detect the operating voltage of the PV array, and the current ogy, Surabaya, Indonesia, in 1981 and the M.S. and
output of the PV array is used to compute the approximate Ph. D. degrees from the University of Wisconsin,
optimum frequency. Madison, in 1984 and 1987, respectively.
From 1988 to 1992, he was with the Department
The insolation level is simulated by changing the coef- of Electrical and Computer Engineering, California
ficients of the voltage and current at different times. The State University, Fresno, where he became an Asso-
data for the basic VI characteristics are stored in one file, ciate Professor in 1991. In June 1992, he joined the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),
while another file stores the light-intensity characteristics. The Golden, CO. His current research interests are in the
parameters of the induction machine and the water pump fields of electric machines and power electronics, with emphasis on renewable
can be changed to simulate different systems. The controller energy applications.
Dr. Muljadi is a member of the IEEE Industry Application Society Industrial
parameters, the size of the steps, can be changed to observe Drives, Electric Machines, and Industrial Power Converter Committees. He is
different responses. also a member of Eta Kappa Nu and Sigma Xi.