Sedimentary Structures

A.Bedding and bed forms

Nature of bedding:

1.Beds:
Beds are tabular or lenticular layers of sedimentary rock having characteristics that distinguish
them from strata above and below by the composition, size, shape, orientation, and
packing of sediment.

Beds are separated by bedding planes.

Beds are thicker than 1 cm while laminae are thinner than 1 cm.

A distinct discontinuity, such as an erosional surface, that is present between two beds of similar
composition is called an amalgamation surface.

Beds separated by such a discontinuity are called amalgamated beds.

Beds that contain internal layers that are essentially parallel to the bounding bedding surfaces
are said to be planar-stratified.
Groups of similar planar beds are called Bedsets.

Simple bedsets are characterized by similar compositions, textures, and internal structure.

Composite bedsets consist of groups of beds that differ in these characteristics but that are
genetically associated.

Beds displaying internal layers deposited at a distinct angle to the bounding surfaces are Cross-
stratified.

2.Laminated bedding:

Individual laminae in these planar-stratified beds may range in thickness from a .few grain
diameters to as much as 1 cm

The laminae are distinguished on the basis of differences in grain size, clay and organic mat ter
content, mineral composition, and in rare cases microfossil.

Formation of Ripple laminations:

1. As a result of suspension settling of fine-size sediment in a variety of depositional
environments.
 2. By traction transport mechanisms. The laminae are believed to result from the spillove r of
the dilute upper parts of channelized turbidity currents.

3.Graded bedding:

Characterized by gradual but distinct vertical changes in grain size.

A. Normal Grading:
Beds that display gradation from coarse r particles at the base to finer particles at
the top.
B. Reverse Grading:
Beds grade from finer particles at the base to coarser at the top.
ranging from a few centimeters to a few meters.

C. Bouma Sequence:
It is ideal graded bedding sequence. Probable turbidity current
origin.

E) Structureless mud unit

D) Parallel laminae

C) A ripple cross-laminated
B) Parallel laminae
A) A massive, well-graded basal portion

Formation of Graded Beds:

Normal Bedding:
1. Result from any process that produces a suspension of sediments of various sizes, which
may then settle according to size.
2. May have formed through the bioturbation activities of organisms.
3. Deposition from waning turbidity currents.
4. Under the influence of storm-wave surges.

The graded units repeat one after another, producing what is commonly called rhythmic
bedding.

Reverse Bedding:

Sediment -gravity-flow deposits such as debris flows and possibly some turbidites.following are
some processes which may be responsible for formation

1. Dispersive pressures owing to interparticle collisions.

2. kinetic sieving the process whereby smaller particles fall down ward through
layers of coarser particles when agitated.
 3. The strength loss that clays undergo on deformation.

4.Massive bedding:

Beds of sedimentary rock that contain few or no visible internal laminae.

Actually to contain internal structures when examined on micro level e.g. X-Radiography.
Most common in sandstones.

Formation:

1. Sediment gravity flow.

2. Rapid deposition of material from suspension.
3. Deposits of some grain flows, fluidized or liquefied flows, and debris flows may also appear
massive.
4. Homogenizing activities of bioturbating organisms.
5. Post depositional sediment liquefaction.

5.Cross- bedding:
Strata in which internal layers, or foresets, dip at a distinct angle to the surfaces that bound the sets of
cross beds.

Cross -bedding is called cross-lamination if thickness of the foresets is less than 10 mm.

A. Tabular cross-bedding: bounding surfaces that are planar.

B. Trough cross-bedding: Curved bounding surfaces.
C. Festoon bedding: Bedding that is markedly trough-shaped or scoop-shaped.

Formation:

1. Formed mainly by the migration of large-scale two-dimensional bedforms i.e. Dunes.

2. Trough cross -bedding originates by migration of 3-D bedforms.
3. Trough cross -bedding formed by migration of large-scale ripples.
4. Form by filling of scour pits & channels, deposition on the point bars of meandering streams,
and deposition on the inclined surfaces of beaches and marine bars.

Reactivation surfaces:

Cross stratified un its contain inclined surfaces that separate adjacent foresets, with
similar orientations, and truncate the lower foreset laminae.

Mechanism:

1. Erosion during a decrease in water depth owing to wave action or flow around the bed forms.
2. Erosion during a change in current flow direction, as during a tidal reversal.
3. Modification at constant water depth and flow direction.

6.Ripple cross-lamination:

Forms when deposition takes place very rapidly during migration of current or wave ripples.

Superimposition of one ripple on another will be form as the ripples migrate.

Crest s of vertically succeeding ripples are out of phase appear to be climbing on one another, therefore
called as Climbing Ripples Lamination.

Formation:

Forms under conditions where abundant sediment is present (Particularly in suspension)

Combined with enough traction transport to produce ripples & their migration.

When balance is achieved between sedimentation and migration then In-phase ripple laminae are form.

It occurs in 2 conditions:

1. the ripples are oscillating ripples and remain active but non migrating during deposition.
2. Ripples are inact ive and are being pa ssively draped by suspen sion settling

It can be occur in fluvial flood plains, point bars, river deltas, environments of turbidite sedimentation.
7.Flaser and Lenticular bedding

Ripple cross-lamination in which thin streaks of mud occur

between sets of ripple laminae.

The mud streaks tend to occur in the ripple troughs but may
partly or c ompletely cover the crests.

Formation:

1. Form in fluctuation deposition conditions. Traction

transport and rippling of fine sands takes place, alternating with periods of quiescence, when
mud is deposited.
2. Current activity erode previous deposited ripple beds, allowing new ripple sand to bury with
preservation of mud.
3. Form in environments that favor deposition of sand over mud.

Lenticular bedding
interbedded mud and ripple cross -laminated sand in which the ripples or sand lenses are
discontinuous and isolated.

Form in environments that favor deposition of mud over sand.

Both structures common in tidal flats and some subtidal environments, marine and lacustrine
delta-front.

fluctuations in sediment supply and current velocity is essential.

8.Hummocky cross stratification:

Also known as truncated wave-ripple laminae

characterized by undulating sets of cross-laminae

that are both concave- up (swales) and convex- up
(hummocks).

The cross - bed set s cu t into each

other with curved erosional surfaces.

The lower bounding surface of a hummocky

unit is sharp and is commonly an erosional surface with sole marks.

Common in fine sandstone and coarse silts with plenty mica and carbon content debris.
 Formation:
Form by deposition on shore-face and shelf.
Mechanism still not properly understood.
originates by a combination of unidirectional and oscillatory flow related to storm
activity.
indicator of deposition in shelf and shoreface environments.

9. Ripple marks

Most Common in Sedimentry environment with siliceous as well

carbonaceous sediments.
Form due to unidirectional as well as Bidirectional flow.
bedforms develop in granular materials undergoing traction
transport as flow condition s change from lower-flow regime to
upper-flow regime.
A. low-flow velocities: small ripples ( 0.05 0.2 m in length
and 0.005 0.03 m in height)
B. Higher Flow Velocity: larger ripples ( 0.05 100 m in length & tens of meter height)

Larger sand Bedforms are called dunes.

Dunes form at lower flow regime.
At upper flow regime Dunes get eroded & destroyed. Plane bed sedimentary transport occur.
At still higher velocity Antidunes are formed, which migrate up-current direction.
Ripples developed under unidirectional current flow are asymmetrical in cross-sectional
shape, with a gently sloping upcurrent stoss side and a more steeply sloping lee side.
Ripples of this type are called Current ripples.
In plan view, the crests of current ripples may have a variety of shapes: straight, sinuous , catenary,
linguoid, and lunate.

Oscillation ripples or wave ripples:

Ripples generated by wave action tend to be symmetrical in cross-sectional shape.

typical plan-view shape of oscillation ripples are shown in figure.

Ripple marks in ancient sedimentary rocks furnish extremely useful information about paleoflow
conditions and paleocurrent directions.

It has- been observed under natural conditions that the more Complex forms tend to develop in
shallower water and at higher velocities than the less eomplex farms

the order in which the succession of bedforms develops with decreasing water depth and velocity is
straight to sinuous to symmetric linguoid to asymmetric linguoid for ripples and straight to sinuous to
catenary to lunate for dunes.
Formation of Current ripples:

1. The formation of transverse bed-forms is related to a phenomenon called flow separation.

2. Sediment is transported in suspension or by traction up the stoss side of the bedform to the
brink or crest.
3. At the brink, the flow separates from the bed to form a zone of reverse circulation producing a
separation eddy.
4. A zone of diffusion is pre- sent between the zone of backflow and the main flow above, owing to
turbulent mixing with the main flow.
5. Downstream from the point of separation the flow becomes reattached to the bottom.
6. The bedload fraction accumulates at the ripple crest & ultimately avalanche.
7. suspended load settle in the lee of the ripple.

Formation of Symmetrical or Wave Ripple:

1. The oscillatory motion of the top surface of a water body produced by waves generates a
circular pathway for water molecules in the top layer.
2. This motion sets up a series of circular cells in the water below.
3. At depth the circular motion changes to elliptical motion.
4. This motion creates Wave ripples if the base is shallower i.e. in the range of wave base.
5. Wave base is the depth till what surface wave affects.
Rolling grain ripples:

At low energies rolling grain ripples form The peak velocity of grain motion is at the mid-point of each
oscillation, reducing to zero at the edges.

This sweeps grains away from the middle, where a trough forms, to the edges where ripple crests
build up.

Rolling grain ripples are characterized by broad troughs and sharp crests.

Vortex ripples:

At higher energies grains can be kept temporarily in suspension during each oscillation. Small clouds
of grains are swept from the troughs onto the crests where they fall out of suspension.

These vortex ripples have more rounded crests but are other-wise symmetrical.

Irregular stratification:

Convolute bedding and lamination:

complexly folded or intricately crumpled beds or laminations.
Strata above and below this unit may show little or no evidence of deformation.
Axial planes of some folds may lean in the paleocurrent direction.
common in fine sand- to silt-size siliciclastic sediment.
They may either die out in the top part of the unit or be truncated by the upper bedding surface.
Convolute lamination is particularly common in turbidit es but can occur also in a varie ty of
other sediments, including intertidal-flat, deltaic, river-floodplain, point-bar, and eolian
deposits.
Formation:

3 different stage with respect to time:

1. Post-depositional convolute lamination arises some time after the start of burial
2. Meta-depositional convolute lamination arises just before or immedi ately after depositi on
ceases.
3. Syn-depositional con volute lamination forms episodically to continuously during deposition.

it appears to be caused by plastic deformation of partially liquefied sediment soon after deposition.

Liquefaction of sediment can be caused by such processes as differential overloading, earthquake

shocks, and breaking waves.

Flame structures:

Flame structures are wavy or flame-shaped

tongues of mud that project upward Into an
overlying layer, which is commonly sandstone.
The crest show bending.
Commonly associated with other structures
caused by sediment loading.
They are probably caused mainly by loading
of water-saturated mud layers which are less
dense than overlying sands and are
consequently squeezed upward into the sand
layers.
The orientation of over-turned crests suggests that loading may be accompanied by some
horizontal drag or movement between the mud and sand bed.
Ball and Pillow Structures:

consist of hemispherical or kidney-shaped

masses of sandstone or limestone that show
internal laminations.
Ball and pillow structures are present in the
lower part of sandstone beds, and less
commonly in limestone beds, that overlie shales
The balls and pillows may remain connected to
the overlying bed.
or they may be completely isolated from the bed
and enclosed in the underlying mud.

Formation:

Form as a result of foundering and breakup of semi-

consolidated sand, or limy sediment, owing to partial
liquefaction of underlying mud, possibly caused by
shocking.

Liquefaction of the mud causes the overlying sand beds or limy sediment to deform into
hemispherical masses.

Dish and Pillar Structures:

Dark-colored, sub-horizontal, flat to concave-upward, clayey

laminations present in Sandstone is known as Dish.

typically occur in thick beds where dish and pillar structures

together.

Pillars are vertical to near- vertical, cross-cutting columns and

sheets of structure less or swirled sand that cut-through.

Both are most abundant in gravity flow deposits.but also seen in

deltaic, alluvial, lacustrine and shallow marine environment.

Formation:

During gradual compaction and dewatering,

semipermeable laminae

act as partial barriers to upward-moving water

carrying fine sediment.

The fine particles are retarded by the laminae and

are added to them, forming the dishes.
Some of the water is forced horizontally beneath the laminations until it finds an easier escape route
upward.

This forceful upward escape of water forms the pillars.

Therefore, both dish structures and pillars are dewatering structures.

Erosional Structures

Flute cast:

Flute casts are elongated welts or ridges that have a

bulbous nose at one end that flares out in the other
direction and merges gradually with the surface of the
bed.

Formation

flute casts are formed by filling of a depression scoured

in cohesive sediment by current eddies created behind
some obstacle forming a asymmetrical depressions in
which the steepest and deepest part of the depression
is oriented upstream or upslope.

the filling forms a positive-relief structure with a bulbous nose oriented upstream.

Prevalent in Sole of turbidity sequence but can be seen in sediments deposited in shallow marine and
nomnarine environments.

Bounce, Brush, Prod, Roll, and Skip Marks