Structural Analysis

Fourth Edition

Aslam Kassimali
Southern Illinois UniversityCarbondale

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Structural Analysis, Fourth Edition 2010, 2005 Cengage Learning.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09
IN MEMORY OF AMI
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 Contents

Preface xi

PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND LOADS 1

1 Introduction to Structural Analysis 3

1.1 Historical Background 4

1.2 Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects 6
1.3 Classication of Structures 7
1.4 Analytical Models 12
Summary 16

2 Loads on Structures 17

2.1 Dead Loads 18

2.2 Live Loads 21
2.3 Impact 24
2.4 Wind Loads 24
2.5 Snow Loads 32
2.6 Earthquake Loads 35
2.7 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures 37
2.8 Thermal and Other Eects 37
2.9 Load Combinations 37
Summary 38
Problems 39

v
vi Contents

PART TWO ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES 41

3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions 43

3.1 Equilibrium of Structures 43

3.2 External and Internal Forces 46
3.3 Types of Supports for Plane Structures 47
3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability 47
3.5 Computation of Reactions 60
3.6 Principle of Superposition 78
3.7 Reactions of Simply Supported Structures Using Proportions 79
Summary 80
Problems 82

4 Plane and Space Trusses 89

4.1 Assumptions for Analysis of Trusses 91

4.2 Arrangement of Members of Plane TrussesInternal
Stability 95
4.3 Equations of Condition for Plane Trusses 100
4.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane
Trusses 100
4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints 106
4.6 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Sections 121
4.7 Analysis of Compound Trusses 128
4.8 Complex Trusses 133
4.9 Space Trusses 134
Summary 144
Problems 145

5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment 160

5.1 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment 161

5.2 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams 167
5.3 Qualitative Deected Shapes 172
5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 173
5.5 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy and Instability of Plane
Frames 195
 Contents vii

5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames 201

Summary 215
Problems 217

6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods 226

6.1 Dierential Equation for Beam Deection 227

6.2 Direct Integration Method 230
6.3 Superposition Method 233
6.4 Moment-Area Method 234
6.5 Bending Moment Diagrams by Parts 248
6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 253
Summary 269
Problems 269

7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods 275

7.1 Work 276

7.2 Principle of Virtual Work 278
7.3 Deections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method 282
7.4 Deections of Beams by the Virtual Work Method 293
7.5 Deections of Frames by the Virtual Work Method 301
7.6 Conservation of Energy and Strain Energy 312
7.7 Castiglianos Second Theorem 316
7.8 Bettis Law and Maxwells Law of Reciprocal Deections 325
Summary 326
Problems 328

8 Influence Lines 337

8.1 Inuence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium

Method 338
8.2 Mueller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Inuence Lines 353
8.3 Inuence Lines for Girders with Floor Systems 367
8.4 Inuence Lines for Trusses 377
8.5 Inuence Lines for Deections 389
Summary 392
Problems 393
viii Contents

9 Application of Influence Lines 401

9.1 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Single Moving

Concentrated Load 401
9.2 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Uniformly
Distributed Live Load 403
9.3 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Series of Moving
Concentrated Loads 408
9.4 Absolute Maximum Response 415
Summary 421
Problems 422

10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures 425

10.1 Symmetric Structures 426

10.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loadings 432
10.3 Behavior of Symmetric Structures under Symmetric and
Antisymmetric Loadings 443
10.4 Procedure for Analysis of Symmetric Structures 447
Summary 455
Problems 456

PART THREE ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES 459

11 Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Structures 461

11.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Indeterminate Structures 462

11.2 Analysis of Indeterminate Structures 465
Summary 470

12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames 471

12.1 Assumptions for Approximate Analysis 472

12.2 Analysis for Vertical Loads 475
12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method 481
12.4 Analysis for Lateral LoadsCantilever Method 497
Summary 504
Problems 505
 Contents ix

13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method 508

13.1 Structures with Single Degree of Indeterminacy 509
13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants 531
13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 544
13.4 Support Settlements, Temperature Changes and Fabrication
Errors 568
Summary 577
Problems 578

14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work 586

14.1 Derivation of Three-Moment Equation 587
14.2 Application of Three-Moment Equation 592
14.3 Method of Least Work 599
Summary 606
Problems 607

15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures 609

15.1 Inuence Lines for Beams and Trusses 610
15.2 Qualitative Inuence Lines by Muller-Breslaus Principle 627
Summary 631
Problems 632

16 Slope-Deflection Method 635

16.1 Slope-Deection Equations 636
16.2 Basic Concept of the Slope-Deection Method 644
16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 651
16.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway 673
16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 681
Summary 702
Problems 702

17 Moment-Distribution Method 707

17.1 Denitions and Terminology 708
17.2 Basic Concept of the Moment-Distribution Method 717
17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 725
x Contents

17.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway 741

17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 744
Summary 761
Problems 762

18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis 767

18.1 Analytical Model 768
18.2 Member Stiness Relations in Local Coordinates 772
18.3 Coordinate Transformations 780
18.4 Member Stiness Relations in Global Coordinates 786
18.5 Structure Stiness Relations 787
18.6 Procedure for Analysis 795
Summary 813
Problems 814

Appendix A Areas and Centroids of Geometric Shapes 817

Appendix B Review of Matrix Algebra 821

B.1 Denition of a Matrix 821
B.2 Types of Matrices 822
B.3 Matrix Operations 824
B.4 Solution of Simultaneous Equations by the Gauss-Jordan
Method 831
Problems 835

Appendix C Computer Software 837

Starting the Computer Software 837
Inputting Data 837
Results of the Analysis 844
Problems 849

Bibliography 851
Answers to Selected Problems 853
Index 863
Preface

The objective of this book is to develop an understanding of the basic

principles of structural analysis. Emphasizing the intuitive classical ap-
proach, Structural Analysis covers the analysis of statically determinate
and indeterminate beams, trusses, and rigid frames. It also presents an
introduction to the matrix analysis of structures.
The book is divided into three parts. Part One presents a general
introduction to the subject of structural engineering. It includes a chap-
ter devoted entirely to the topic of loads because attention to this im-
portant topic is generally lacking in many civil engineering curricula.
Part Two, consisting of Chapters 3 through 10, covers the analysis of
statically determinate beams, trusses, and rigid frames. The chapters on
deections (Chapters 6 and 7) are placed before those on inuence lines
(Chapters 8 and 9), so that inuence lines for deections can be included
in the latter chapters. This part also contains a chapter on the analysis
of symmetric structures (Chapter 10). Part Three of the book, Chapters
11 through 18, covers the analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
The format of the book is exible to enable instructors to emphasize
topics that are consistent with the goals of the course.
Each chapter of the book begins with an introductory section de-
ning its objective and ends with a summary section outlining its salient
features. An important general feature of the book is the inclusion of
step-by-step procedures for analysis to enable students to make an easier
transition from theory to problem solving. Numerous solved examples
are provided to illustrate the application of the fundamental concepts.
A computer program for analyzing plane framed structures is
available on the publishers website www.cengage.com/engineering.
This interactive software can be used to simulate a variety of structural
and loading congurations and to determine cause versus eect rela-
tionships between loading and various structural parameters, thereby
enhancing the students understanding of the behavior of structures.
The software shows deected shapes of structures to enhance students

xi
xii Preface

understanding of structural response due to various types of loadings. It

can also include the eects of support settlements, temperature changes,
and fabrication errors in the analysis. A solutions manual, containing
complete solutions to over 600 text exercises, is also available for the
instructor.

A NOTE ON THE REVISED EDITION

In this fourth edition, while the major features of the third editon have
been retained, over 15 percent of the problems from the previous edition
have been replaced with new ones. The chapter on loads has been revised
to meet the provisions of the ASCE 7-05 Standard, and the treatment of
the structures with internal hinges has been expanded in Chapter 3. The
computer software has been upgraded to make it compatible with the
latest versions of Microsoft Windows. Finally, most of the photographs
have been replaced with new ones, and the page layout of the book has
been redesigned to enhance clarity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my thanks to Christopher Carson and Hilda Gowans
of Cengage Learning for their constant support and encouragement
throughout this project, and to Rose Kernan for all her help during the
production phase. The comments and suggestions for improvement
from colleagues and students who have used previous editions are
gratefully acknowledged. All of their suggestions were carefully consid-
ered, and implemented whenever possible. Thanks are due to the
following reviewers for their careful reviews of the manuscripts of the
various editions, and for their constructive suggestions:

Ayo Abatan Thomas T. Baber

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and University of Virginia
State University
Gordon B. Batson
Riyad S. Aboutaha
Clarkson University
Georgia Institute of Technology
Osama Abudayyeh George E. Blandford
Western Michigan University University of Kentucky
 Preface xiii

Ramon F. Borges Eugene B. Loverich

Penn State/Altoona College Northern Arizona University
Kenneth E. Buttry L. D. Lutes
University of Wisconsin Texas A&M University
Steve C. S. Cai David Mazurek
Louisiana State University US Coast Guard Academy
Ahmad Namini
William F. Carroll
University of Miami
University of Central Florida
Arturo E. Schultz
Malcolm A. Cutchins
North Carolina State University
Auburn University
Kassim Tarhini
Jack H. Emanuel Valparaiso University
University of MissouriRolla
Robert Taylor
Fouad Fanous Northeastern University
Iowa State University C. C. Tung
Leon Feign North Carolina State University
Faireld University Nicholas Willems
Robert Fleischman University of Kansas
University of Notre Dame John Zachar
George Kostyrko Milwaukee School of Engineering
California State University Mannocherh Zoghi
E. W. Larson University of Dayton
California State University/
Northridge

Finally, I would like to express my loving appreciation to my wife.

Maureen, for her constant encouragement and help in preparing this
manuscript, and to my sons, Jamil and Nadim, for their enormous un-
derstanding and patience.

Aslam Kassimali
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Part One
Introduction to
Structural Analysis and Loads
This page intentionally left blank
 1
Introduction to
Structural Analysis
1.1 Historical Background
1.2 Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
1.3 Classification of Structures
1.4 Analytical Models
Summary

Marina City District, Chicago

Hisham Ibrahim / Photographers Choice RF /Getty Images

Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given struc-

ture under prescribed loads and/or other external eects, such as support
movements and temperature changes. The performance characteristics
commonly of interest in the design of structures are (1) stresses or stress
resultants, such as axial forces, shear forces, and bending moments; (2)
deections; and (3) support reactions. Thus, the analysis of a structure
usually involves determination of these quantities as caused by a given
loading condition. The objective of this text is to present the methods
for the analysis of structures in static equilibrium.
This chapter provides a general introduction to the subject of struc-
tural analysis. We rst give a brief historical background, including
names of people whose work is important in the eld. Then we discuss
the role of structural analysis in structural engineering projects. We de-
scribe the ve common types of structures: tension and compression
structures, trusses, and shear and bending structures. Finally, we con-
sider the development of the simplied models of real structures for the
purpose of analysis.

3
4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis

1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Since the dawn of history, structural engineering has been an essential
part of human endeavor. However, it was not until about the middle of
the seventeenth century that engineers began applying the knowledge
of mechanics (mathematics and science) in designing structures. Earlier
engineering structures were designed by trial and error and by using rules
of thumb based on past experience. The fact that some of the mag-
nicent structures from earlier eras, such as Egyptian pyramids (about
3000 b.c.), Greek temples (500200 b.c.), Roman coliseums and aque-
ducts (200 b.c.a.d. 200), and Gothic cathedrals (a.d. 10001500), still
stand today is a testimonial to the ingenuity of their builders (Fig. 1.1).
Galileo Galilei (15641642) is generally considered to be the origi-
nator of the theory of structures. In his book entitled Two New Sciences,
which was published in 1638, Galileo analyzed the failure of some sim-
ple structures, including cantilever beams. Although Galileos predic-
tions of strengths of beams were only approximate, his work laid the
foundation for future developments in the theory of structures and

FIG. 1.1 The Cathedral of Notre Dame

in Paris Was Completed in the
Thirteenth Century
Ritu Manoj Jethani / Shutterstock
 SECTION 1.1 Historical Background 5

ushered in a new era of structural engineering, in which the analytical

principles of mechanics and strength of materials would have a major
inuence on the design of structures.
Following Galileos pioneering work, the knowledge of structural
mechanics advanced at a rapid pace in the second half of the seven-
teenth century and into the eighteenth century. Among the notable in-
vestigators of that period were Robert Hooke (16351703), who devel-
oped the law of linear relationships between the force and deformation
of materials (Hookes law); Sir Isaac Newton (16421727), who formu-
lated the laws of motion and developed calculus; John Bernoulli (1667
1748), who formulated the principle of virtual work; Leonhard Euler
(17071783), who developed the theory of buckling of columns; and C.
A. de Coulomb (17361806), who presented the analysis of bending of
elastic beams.
In 1826 L. M. Navier (17851836) published a treatise on elastic
behavior of structures, which is considered to be the rst textbook on
the modern theory of strength of materials. The development of struc-
tural mechanics continued at a tremendous pace throughout the rest of
the nineteenth century and into the rst half of the twentieth, when most
of the classical methods for the analysis of structures described in this
text were developed. The important contributors of this period included
B. P. Clapeyron (17991864), who formulated the three-moment equa-
tion for the analysis of continuous beams; J. C. Maxwell (18311879),
who presented the method of consistent deformations and the law of
reciprocal deections; Otto Mohr (18351918), who developed the con-
jugate-beam method for calculation of deections and Mohrs circles
of stress and strain; Alberto Castigliano (18471884), who formulated
the theorem of least work; C. E. Greene (18421903), who developed
the moment-area method; H. Muller-Breslau (18511925), who pre-
sented a principle for constructing inuence lines; G. A. Maney (1888
1947), who developed the slope-deection method, which is considered
to be the precursor of the matrix stiness method; and Hardy Cross
(18851959), who developed the moment-distribution method in 1924.
The moment-distribution method provided engineers with a simple iter-
ative procedure for analyzing highly statically indeterminate structures.
This method, which was the most widely used by structural engineers
during the period from about 1930 to 1970, contributed signicantly to
their understanding of the behavior of statically indeterminate frames.
Many structures designed during that period, such as high-rise buildings,
would not have been possible without the availability of the moment-
distribution method.
The availability of computers in the 1950s revolutionized structural
analysis. Because the computer could solve large systems of simulta-
neous equations, analyses that took days and sometimes weeks in the
precomputer era could now be performed in seconds. The development
of the current computer-oriented methods of structural analysis can be
attributed to, among others, J. H. Argyris, R. W. Clough, S. Kelsey,
6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis

R. K. Livesley, H. C. Martin, M. T. Turner, E. L. Wilson, and O. C.

Zienkiewicz.

1.2 ROLE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING PROJECTS

Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing, and
constructing safe and economical structures that will serve their intended
purposes. Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural engi-
neering project, its function being the prediction of the performance of
the proposed structure. A owchart showing the various phases of a
typical structural engineering project is presented in Fig. 1.2. As this di-
agram indicates, the process is an iterative one, and it generally consists
of the following steps:
1. Planning Phase The planning phase usually involves the establish-
ment of the functional requirements of the proposed structure, the

FIG. 1.2 Phases of a Typical Structural

Engineering Project
 SECTION 1.3 Classification of Structures 7

general layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration of the

possible types of structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be
feasible and the types of materials to be used (e.g., structural steel
or reinforced concrete). This phase may also involve consideration
of nonstructural factors, such as aesthetics, environmental impact
of the structure, and so on. The outcome of this phase is usually a
structural system that meets the functional requirements and is ex-
pected to be the most economical. This phase is perhaps the most
crucial one of the entire project and requires experience and knowl-
edge of construction practices in addition to a thorough under-
standing of the behavior of structures.
2. Preliminary Structural Design In the preliminary structural design
phase, the sizes of the various members of the structural system se-
lected in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate
analysis, past experience, and code requirements. The member sizes
thus selected are used in the next phase to estimate the weight of the
structure.
3. Estimation of Loads Estimation of loads involves determination of
all the loads that can be expected to act on the structure.
4. Structural Analysis In structural analysis, the values of the loads
are used to carry out an analysis of the structure in order to de-
termine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the
deections at various points of the structure.
5. Safety and Serviceability Checks The results of the analysis are used
to determine whether or not the structure satises the safety and
serviceability requirements of the design codes. If these requirements
are satised, then the design drawings and the construction speci-
cations are prepared, and the construction phase begins.
6. Revised Structural Design If the code requirements are not sat-
ised, then the member sizes are revised, and phases 3 through 5
are repeated until all the safety and serviceability requirements are
satised.
Except for a discussion of the types of loads that can be expected to
act on structures (Chapter 2), our primary focus in this text will be on
the analysis of structures.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES

As discussed in the preceding section, perhaps the most important deci-
sion made by a structural engineer in implementing an engineering pro-
ject is the selection of the type of structure to be used for supporting or
transmitting loads. Commonly used structures can be classied into ve
basic categories, depending on the type of primary stresses that may
develop in their members under major design loads. However, it should
8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis

be realized that any two or more of the basic structural types described
in the following may be combined in a single structure, such as a build-
ing or a bridge, to meet the structures functional requirements.

Tension Structures
The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under
the action of external loads. Because the tensile stress is distributed uni-
formly over the cross-sectional areas of members, the material of such
a structure is utilized in the most ecient manner. Tension structures
composed of exible steel cables are frequently employed to support
bridges and long-span roofs. Because of their exibility, cables have
negligible bending stiness and can develop only tension. Thus, under
external loads, a cable adopts a shape that enables it to support the load
by tensile forces alone. In other words, the shape of a cable changes
as the loads acting on it change. As an example, the shapes that a single
cable may assume under two dierent loading conditions are shown in
Fig. 1.3.
Figure 1.4 shows a familiar type of cable structurethe suspension
bridge. In a suspension bridge, the roadway is suspended from two main
cables by means of vertical hangers. The main cables pass over a pair
of towers and are anchored into solid rock or a concrete foundation at
their ends. Because suspension bridges and other cable structures lack
stiness in lateral directions, they are susceptible to wind-induced oscil-
lations (see Fig. 1.5). Bracing or stiening systems are therefore provided
to reduce such oscillations.
Besides cable structures, other examples of tension structures include
vertical rods used as hangers (for example, to support balconies or tanks)
and membrane structures such as tents.

FIG. 1.3
 SECTION 1.3 Classification of Structures 9

FIG. 1.4 Suspension Bridge

FIG. 1.5 Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Oscillating before Its Collapse in 1940
Smithsonian Institution Photo No. 72-787

Compression Structures
Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the
action of external loads. Two common examples of such structures are
columns and arches. Columns are straight members subjected to axially
compressive loads, as shown in Fig. 1.6. When a straight member is
subjected to lateral loads and/or moments in addition to axial loads, it is
called a beam-column.
An arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an in-
verted cable, as shown in Fig. 1.7. Such structures are frequently used to
support bridges and long-span roofs. Arches develop mainly compres-
10 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis

sive stresses when subjected to loads and are usually designed so that
they will develop only compression under a major design loading. How-
ever, because arches are rigid and cannot change their shapes as can
cables, other loading conditions usually produce secondary bending and
shear stresses in these structures, which, if signicant, should be con-
sidered in their designs.
Because compression structures are susceptible to buckling or in-
stability, the possibility of such a failure should be considered in their
designs; if necessary, adequate bracing must be provided to avoid such
failures.

Trusses
Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by
hinged connections to form a stable conguration (Fig. 1.8). When the
loads are applied to a truss only at the joints, its members either elon-
gate or shorten. Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always either
FIG. 1.6 Column in uniform tension or in uniform compression. Real trusses are usually
constructed by connecting members to gusset plates by bolted or welded
connections. Although the rigid joints thus formed cause some bending
in the members of a truss when it is loaded, in most cases such secon-
dary bending stresses are small, and the assumption of hinged
joints yields satisfactory designs.
Trusses, because of their light weight and high strength, are among
the most commonly used types of structures. Such structures are used in
a variety of applications, ranging from supporting roofs of buildings to
serving as support structures in space stations.

FIG. 1.7 Arch

FIG. 1.8 Plane Truss

Shear Structures
Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls (Fig. 1.9), are
used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral movements due to wind
loads and earthquake excitations. Shear structures develop mainly in-
plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the action of
FIG. 1.9 Shear Wall external loads.
 SECTION 1.3 Classification of Structures 11

Bending Structures
Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of
external loads. In some structures, the shear stresses associated with the
changes in bending moments may also be signicant and should be con-
sidered in their designs.
Some of the most commonly used structures, such as beams, rigid
frames, slabs, and plates, can be classied as bending structures. A beam
is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis
(Fig. 1.10). Recall from previous courses on statics and mechanics of
materials that the bending (normal) stress varies linearly over the depth
of a beam from the maximum compressive stress at the ber farthest
from the neutral axis on the concave side of the bent beam to the max-
imum tensile stress at the outermost ber on the convex side. For ex-
ample, in the case of a horizontal beam subjected to a vertically down-
ward load, as shown in Fig. 1.10, the bending stress varies from the
maximum compressive stress at the top edge to the maximum tensile
stress at the bottom edge of the beam. To utilize the material of a beam
cross section most eciently under this varying stress distribution, the
cross sections of beams are often I-shaped (see Fig. 1.10), with most of
the material in the top and bottom anges. The I-shaped cross sections
are most eective in resisting bending moments.

FIG. 1.10 Beam

Rigid frames are composed of straight members connected together

either by rigid (moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections
to form stable congurations. Unlike trusses, which are subjected only
to joint loads, the external loads on frames may be applied on the
members as well as on the joints (see Fig. 1.11). The members of a rigid
frame are, in general, subjected to bending moment, shear, and axial
compression or tension under the action of external loads. However, the
design of horizontal members or beams of rectangular frames is often
governed by bending and shear stresses only, since the axial forces in
such members are usually small.
Frames, like trusses, are among the most commonly used types of
structures. Structural steel and reinforced concrete frames are commonly
used in multistory buildings (Fig. 1.12), bridges, and industrial plants.
Frames are also used as supporting structures in airplanes, ships, aero-
space vehicles, and other aerospace and mechanical applications.
It may be of interest to note that the generic term framed structure is
frequently used to refer to any structure composed of straight members,
including a truss. In that context, this textbook is devoted primarily to
FIG. 1.11 Rigid Frame the analysis of plane framed structures.
12 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis

FIG. 1.12 Skeletons of Frame Buildings

Racheal Grazias / Shutterstock

1.4 ANALYTICAL MODELS

An analytical model is a simplied representation, or an ideal, of a real
structure for the purpose of analysis. The objective of the model is to
simplify the analysis of a complicated structure. The analytical model
represents, as accurately as practically possible, the behavioral char-
acteristics of the structure of interest to the analyst, while discarding
much of the detail about the members, connections, and so on, that
is expected to have little eect on the desired characteristics. Estab-
lishment of the analytical model is one of the most important steps of the
analysis process; it requires experience and knowledge of design practices
in addition to a thorough understanding of the behavior of structures.
Remember that the structural response predicted from the analysis of the
model is valid only to the extent that the model represents the actual
structure.
Development of the analytical model generally involves consid-
eration of the following factors.

Plane Versus Space Structure

If all the members of a structure as well as the applied loads lie in a
single plane, the structure is called a plane structure. The analysis of
plane, or two-dimensional, structures is considerably simpler than the
analysis of space, or three-dimensional, structures. Fortunately, many
 SECTION 1.4 Analytical Models 13

actual three-dimensional structures can be subdivided into plane struc-

tures for analysis.
As an example, consider the framing system of a bridge shown in
Fig. 1.13(a). The main members of the system, designed to support
vertical loads, are shown by solid lines, whereas the secondary bracing
members, necessary to resist lateral wind loads and to provide stability,
are represented by dashed lines. The deck of the bridge rests on beams
called stringers; these beams are supported by oor beams, which, in
turn, are connected at their ends to the joints on the bottom panels of
the two longitudinal trusses. Thus, the weight of the trac, deck, string-
ers, and oor beams is transmitted by the oor beams to the supporting
trusses at their joints; the trusses, in turn, transmit the load to the foun-
dation. Because this applied loading acts on each truss in its own plane,
the trusses can be treated as plane structures.
As another example, the framing system of a multistory building is
shown in Fig. 1.14(a). At each story, the oor slab rests on oor beams,
which transfer any load applied to the oor, the weight of the slab, and
their own weight to the girders of the supporting rigid frames. This ap-
plied loading acts on each frame in its own plane, so each frame can,
therefore, be analyzed as a plane structure. The loads thus transferred to
each frame are further transmitted from the girders to the columns and
then nally to the foundation.
Although a great majority of actual three-dimensional structural
systems can be subdivided into plane structures for the purpose of
analysis, some structures, such as latticed domes, aerospace structures,
and transmission towers, cannot, due to their shape, arrangement of
members, or applied loading, be subdivided into planar components.
Such structures, called space structures, are analyzed as three-dimen-
sional bodies subjected to three-dimensional force systems.

Line Diagram
The analytical model of the two- or three-dimensional body selected
for analysis is represented by a line diagram. On this diagram, each
member of the structure is represented by a line coinciding with its
centroidal axis. The dimensions of the members and the size of the
connections are not shown on the diagram. The line diagrams of the
bridge truss of Fig. 1.13(a), and the rigid frame of Fig. 1.14(a) are
shown in Figs. 1.13(b) and 1.14(b), respectively. Note that two lines
*
*

( ) are sometimes used in this text to represent members on the line

diagrams. This is done, when necessary, for clarity of presentation; in
such cases, the distance between the lines does not represent the mem-
ber depth.
14 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis

FIG. 1.13 Framing of a Bridge

Connections
Two types of connections are commonly used to join members of struc-
tures: (1) rigid connections and (2) exible, or hinged, connections. (A
third type of connection, termed a semirigid connection, although rec-
ognized by structural steel design codes, is not commonly used in prac-
tice and, therefore, is not considered in this text.)
 SECTION 1.4 Analytical Models 15

FIG. 1.14 Framing of a Multistory Building

A rigid connection or joint prevents relative translations and rota-

tions of the member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends con-
nected to a rigid joint have the same translation and rotation. In other
words, the original angles between the members intersecting at a rigid
joint are maintained after the structure has deformed under the action of
loads. Such joints are, therefore, capable of transmitting forces as well
as moments between the connected members. Rigid joints are usually
represented by points at the intersections of members on the line dia-
gram of the structure, as shown in Fig. 1.14(b).
A hinged connection or joint prevents only relative translations of
member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to a
hinged joint have the same translation but may have dierent rotations.
Such joints are thus capable of transmitting forces but not moments be-
tween the connected members. Hinged joints are usually depicted by
small circles at the intersections of members on the line diagram of the
structure, as shown in Fig. 1.13(b).
16 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis

The perfectly rigid connections and the perfectly exible frictionless

hinges used in the analysis are merely idealizations of the actual con-
nections, which are seldom perfectly rigid or perfectly exible (see Fig.
1.13(c)). However, actual bolted or welded connections are purposely
designed to behave like the idealized cases. For example, the connec-
tions of trusses are designed with the centroidal axes of the members
concurrent at a point, as shown in Fig. 1.13(c), to avoid eccentricities
that may cause bending of members. For such cases, the analysis based
on the idealized connections and supports (described in the following
paragraph) generally yields satisfactory results.

Supports
Supports for plane structures are commonly idealized as either xed
supports, which do not allow any movement; hinged supports, which can
prevent translation but permit rotation; or roller, or link, supports, which
can prevent translation in only one direction. A more detailed descrip-
tion of the characteristics of these supports is presented in Chapter 3.
The symbols commonly used to represent roller and hinged supports on
line diagrams are shown in Fig. 1.13(b), and the symbol for xed sup-
ports is depicted in Fig. 1.14(b).

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we learned about structural analysis and its role in struc-
tural engineering. Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance
of a given structure under prescribed loads. Structural engineering has
long been a part of human endeavor, but Galileo is considered to be the
originator of the theory of structures. Following his pioneering work,
many other people have made signicant contributions. The availability
of computers has revolutionized structural analysis.
Structural engineering is the science of planning, designing, and
constructing safe, economical structures. Structural analysis is an in-
tegral part of this process.
Structures can be classied into ve basic categories, namely, tension
structures (e.g., cables and hangers), compression structures (e.g., col-
umns and arches), trusses, shear structures (e.g., shear walls), and bend-
ing structures (e.g., beams and rigid frames).
An analytical model is a simplied representation of a real structure
for the purpose of analysis. Development of the model generally involves
(1) determination of whether or not the structure can be treated as a
plane structure, (2) construction of the line diagram of the structure, and
(3) idealization of connections and supports.
 2
Loads on Structures
2.1 Dead Loads
2.2 Live Loads
2.3 Impact
2.4 Wind Loads
2.5 Snow Loads
2.6 Earthquake Loads
2.7 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures
2.8 Thermal and Other Effects
2.9 Load Combinations
Summary
Problems

Earthquake-Damaged Building
Robert Yager / Stone / Getty Images

The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will

be able to withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving
its intended purpose throughout its intended life span. In designing a
structure, an engineer must, therefore, consider all the loads that can
realistically be expected to act on the structure during its planned life
span. The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be
grouped according to their nature and source into three classes: (1) dead
loads due to the weight of the structural system itself and any other
material permanently attached to it; (2) live loads, which are movable or
moving loads due to the use of the structure; and (3) environmental
loads, which are caused by environmental eects, such as wind, snow,
and earthquakes.
In addition to estimating the magnitudes of the design loads, an
engineer must also consider the possibility that some of these loads
might act simultaneously on the structure. The structure is nally de-
signed so that it will be able to withstand the most unfavorable combi-
nation of loads that is likely to occur in its lifetime.
The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the
structures must be designed are usually specied in building codes. The
national codes providing guidance on loads for buildings, bridges, and
other structures include ASCE Standard Minimum Design Loads for

17
18 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE/SEI 7-05) [1],* Manual for Rail-
way Engineering [26], Standard Specications for Highway Bridges [36],
and International Building Code [15].
Although the load requirements of most local building codes are
generally based on those of the national codes listed herein, local codes
may contain additional provisions warranted by such regional con-
ditions as earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, heavy snow, and the like.
Local building codes are usually legal documents enacted to safeguard
public welfare and safety, and the engineer must become thoroughly
familiar with the building code for the area in which the structure is to
be built.
The loads described in the codes are usually based on past experi-
ence and study and are the minimum for which the various types of
structures must be designed. However, the engineer must decide if the
structure is to be subjected to any loads in addition to those considered
by the code, and, if so, must design the structure to resist the additional
loads. Remember that the engineer is ultimately responsible for the safe
design of the structure.
The objective of this chapter is to describe the types of loads com-
monly encountered in the design of structures and to introduce the basic
concepts of load estimation. We rst describe dead loads and then dis-
cuss live loads for buildings and bridges. We next consider the dynamic
eect, or the impact, of live loads. We describe environmental loads,
including wind loads, snow loads, and earthquake loads. We give a brief
discussion of hydrostatic and soil pressures and thermal eects and
conclude with a discussion about the combinations of loads used for
design purposes.
The material presented herein is mainly based on the ASCE Stand-
ard Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE/
SEI 7-05), which is commonly referred to as the ASCE 7 Standard and
is perhaps the most widely used standard in practice. Since the intent
here is to familiarize the reader with the general topic of loads on struc-
tures, many of the details have not been included. Needless to say, the
complete provisions of the local building codes or the ASCE 7 Standard
must be followed in designing structures.

2.1 DEAD LOADS

Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and xed positions
that act permanently on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights
of the structural system itself and of all other material and equipment

*
The numbers in brackets refer to items listed in the bibliography.

Copies of this standard may be purchased from the American Society of Civil Engineers,
1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191-4400.
 SECTION 2.1 Dead Loads 19

permanently attached to the structural system. For example, the dead

TABLE 2.1 UNIT WEIGHTS OF
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS loads for a building structure include the weights of frames, framing and
bracing systems, oors, roofs, ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and air-
Unit Weight conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical systems, and so forth.
Material lb/ft 3 kN/m 3 The weight of the structure is not known in advance of design and is
usually assumed based on past experience. After the structure has been
Aluminum 165 25.9
analyzed and the member sizes determined, the actual weight is com-
Brick 120 18.8
puted by using the member sizes and the unit weights of materials. The
Concrete, reinforced 150 23.6
actual weight is then compared to the assumed weight, and the design
Structural steel 490 77.0
is revised if necessary. The unit weights of some common construction
Wood 40 6.3
materials are given in Table 2.1. The weights of permanent service
equipment, such as heating and air-conditioning systems, are usually
obtained from the manufacturer.

Example 2.1

The oor system of a building consists of a 5-in.-thick reinforced concrete slab resting on four steel oor beams, which
in turn are supported by two steel girders, as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). The cross-sectional areas of the oor beams and the
girders are 14.7 in. 2 and 52.3 in. 2 , respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beams CG and DH and the
girder AD.

FIG. 2.1
continued
20 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

Solution
Beam CG As shown in Fig. 2.1(a), the portion of the slab supported by beam CG has a width of 10 ft (i.e., half the
distance between beams CG and BF plus half the distance between beams CG and DH) and a length of 24 ft. This
surface area (24  10 240 ft 2 ) supported by beam CG (the shaded rectangular area in Fig. 2.1(a)) is referred to as the
tributary area for beam CG.
We use the unit weights of reinforced concrete and structural steel from Table 2.1 to compute the dead load per
foot of length of beam CG as follows:
 
5
Concrete slab: 150 lb=ft 3 10 ft1 ft ft 625 lb=ft
12
 
14:7 2
Steel beam: 490 lb=ft 3 ft 1 ft 50 lb=ft
144
Total load 675 lb=ft Ans.

This load is uniformly distributed on the beam, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b). This gure also shows the reactions exerted by
the supporting girders at the ends of the beam. As the beam is symmetrically loaded, the magnitudes of the reactions are
equal to half of the total load acting on the beam:

RC RG 12 675 lb=ft24 ft 8100 lb

Note that the magnitudes of these end reactions represent the downward loads being transmitted to the supporting
girders AD and EH at points C and G, respectively.
Beam DH The tributary area for beam DH is 5 ft wide and 24 ft long. The dead load per foot of length of this
beam is computed as follows:
 
3 5
Concrete slab: 150 lb=ft 5 ft1 ft ft 312:5 lb=ft
12
Steel beam: same as for beam CG 50:0 lb=ft
Total load 362:5 lb=ft Ans.
As shown in Fig. 2.1(c), the end reactions are

RD RH 12 362:5 lb=ft24 ft 4350 lb

Girder AD Because of the symmetry of the framing system and loading, the loads acting on beams BF and AE are
the same as those on beams CG and DH, respectively. The load on girder AD consists of the uniformly distributed load
due to its own weight, which has a magnitude of
 
52:3 2
490 lb=ft 3 ft 1 ft 178 lb=ft
144

and the concentrated loads transmitted to it by the beams at points A, B, C, and D, as shown in Fig. 2.1(d). Ans.
 SECTION 2.2 Live Loads 21

2.2 LIVE LOADS

Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by
the use of the structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to
all loads on the structure that are not dead loads, including environ-
mental loads, such as snow loads or wind loads. However, since the
probabilities of occurrence for environmental loads are dierent from
those due to the use of structures, the current codes use the term live
loads to refer only to those variable loads caused by the use of the
structure. It is in the latter context that this text uses this term.
The magnitudes of design live loads are usually specied in building
codes. The position of a live load may change, so each member of the
structure must be designed for the position of the load that causes the
maximum stress in that member. Dierent members of a structure may
reach their maximum stress levels at dierent positions of the given
load. For example, as a truck moves across a truss bridge, the stresses in
the truss members vary as the position of the truck changes. If member A
is subjected to its maximum stress when the truck is at a certain position
x, then another member B may reach its maximum stress level when the
truck is in a dierent position y on the bridge. The procedures for de-
termining the position of a live load at which a particular response
characteristic, such as a stress resultant or a deection, of a structure is
maximum (or minimum) are discussed in subsequent chapters.

Live Loads for Buildings

Live loads for buildings are usually specied as uniformly distributed
surface loads in pounds per square foot or kilopascals. Minimum oor
live loads for some common types of buildings are given in Table 2.2.

TABLE 2.2 MINIMUM FLOOR LIVE LOADS FOR BUILDINGS

Live Load
Occupancy or Use psf kPa
Hospital patient rooms, residential 40 1.92
dwellings, apartments, hotel guest rooms, school
classrooms
Library reading rooms, hospital operating rooms 60 2.87
and laboratories
Dance halls and ballrooms, restaurants, gymnasiums 100 4.79
Light manufacturing, light storage warehouses, 125 6.00
wholesale stores
Heavy manufacturing, heavy storage warehouses 250 11.97

Source: Adapted with permission from ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures.
22 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

For a comprehensive list of live loads for various types of buildings and
for provisions regarding roof live loads, concentrated loads, and reduc-
tion in live loads, the reader is referred to the ASCE 7 Standard.

Live Loads for Bridges

Live loads due to vehicular trac on highway bridges are specied by
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation O-
cials in the Standard Specications for Highway Bridges [36], which is
commonly referred to as the AASHTO Specication.
As the heaviest loading on highway bridges is usually caused by
trucks, the AASHTO Specication denes two systems of standard
trucks, H trucks and HS trucks, to represent the vehicular loads for de-
sign purposes.
The H-truck loadings (or H loadings), representing a two-axle
truck, are designated by the letter H, followed by the total weight of the
truck and load in tons and the year in which the loading was initially
specied. For example, the loading H20-44 represents a code for a two-
axle truck weighing 20 tons initially instituted in the 1944 edition of the
AASHTO Specication. The axle spacing, axle loads, and wheel spacing
for the H trucks are shown in Fig. 2.2(a).
The HS-truck loadings (or HS loadings) represent a two-axle tractor
truck with a single-axle semitrailer. These loadings are designated by the

0.2 W 0.8 W 0.2 W 0.8 W 0.8 W 10 ft Lane

width

Curb

14 ft 14 ft 14 ft to 30 ft 2 ft 2 ft
6 ft
W = total weight of truck and load W = weight of the corresponding H truck
= total weight on the first two axles

H20-44 8 k 32 k HS20-44 8 k 32 k 32 k
H trucks HS trucks End view
(a) Standard Truck Loadings
18 k for moment
26 k for shear Concentrated load Uniform load 0.64 k/linear foot of lane

(b) H20-44 and HS20-44 Lane Loading

FIG. 2.2 Live Loads for Highway Bridges

Source: Taken from the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. Copyright 2002. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used by permission.
 SECTION 2.2 Live Loads 23

letters HS followed by the weight of the corresponding H truck in tons

and the year in which the loading was initially specied. The axle spac-
ing, axle loads, and wheel spacing for the HS trucks are shown in Fig.
2.2(a). Note that the spacing between the rear axle of the tractor truck
and the axle of the semitrailer should be varied between 14 ft and 30 ft,
and the spacing causing the maximum stress should be used for design.
The particular type of truck loading to be used in design depends on
the anticipated trac on the bridge. The H20-44 and HS20-44 are the
most commonly used loadings; the axle loads for these loadings are
shown in Fig. 2.2(a).
In addition to the aforementioned single-truck loading, which must
be placed to produce the most unfavorable eect on the member being
designed, AASHTO species that a lane loading, consisting of a uni-
formly distributed load combined with a single concentrated load, be
considered. The lane loading represents the eect of a lane of medium-
weight vehicles containing a heavy truck. The lane loading must also be
placed on the structure so that it causes maximum stress in the member
under consideration. As an example, the lane loading corresponding to
the H20-44 and HS20-44 truck loadings is shown in Fig. 2.2(b). The
type of loading, either truck loading or lane loading, that causes the
maximum stress in a member should be used for the design of that
member. Additional information regarding multiple lanes, loadings for
continuous spans, reduction in load intensity, and so on, can be found in
the AASHTO Specication.
Live loads for railroad bridges are specied by the American Rail-
way Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA)
in the Manual for Railway Engineering [26]. These loadings, which are
commonly known as Cooper E loadings, consist of two sets of nine con-
centrated loads, each separated by specied distances, representing the
two locomotives followed by a uniform loading representing the weight
of the freight cars. An example of such a loading, called the E80 load-
ing, is depicted in Fig. 2.3. The design loads for heavier or lighter trains
can be obtained from this loading by proportionately increasing or de-
creasing the magnitudes of the loads while keeping the same distances

FIG. 2.3 Live Loads for Railroad Bridges

24 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

between the concentrated loads. For example, the E40 loading can be
obtained from the E80 loading by simply dividing the magnitudes of the
loads by 2. As in the case of highway bridges considered previously, live
loads on railroad bridges must be placed so that they will cause the most
unfavorable eect on the member under consideration.

2.3 IMPACT
When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger
stresses than those that would be produced if the same loads would have
been applied gradually. The dynamic eect of the load that causes this
increase in stress in the structure is referred to as impact. To account for
the increase in stress due to impact, the live loads expected to cause such
a dynamic eect on structures are increased by certain impact percen-
tages, or impact factors. The impact percentages and factors, which are
usually based on past experience and/or experimental results, are speci-
ed in the building codes. For example, the ASCE 7 Standard species
that all elevator loads for buildings be increased by 100% to account for
impact.
For highway bridges, the AASHTO Specication gives the ex-
pression for the impact factor as

50
I a 0:3
L 125

in which L is the length in feet of the portion of the span loaded to cause
the maximum stress in the member under consideration. Similar em-
pirical expressions for impact factors to be used in designing railroad
bridges are specied in [26].

2.4 WIND LOADS

Wind loads are produced by the ow of wind around the structure. The
magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the
geographical location of the structure, obstructions in its surrounding
terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational
characteristics of the structure itself. Although the procedures described
in the various codes for the estimation of wind loads usually vary in
detail, most of them are based on the same basic relationship between
the wind speed V and the dynamic pressure q induced on a at surface
normal to the wind ow, which can be obtained by applying Bernoullis
principle and is expressed as
 SECTION 2.4 Wind Loads 25

q 12 rV 2 (2.1)

in which r is the mass density of the air. Using the unit weight of air of
0.0765 lb/ft 3 for the standard atmosphere (at sea level, with a temper-
ature of 59 F), and expressing the wind speed V in miles per hour, the
dynamic pressure q in pounds per square foot is given by
  
1 0:0765 5280 2 2
q V 0:00256V 2 (2.2)
2 32:2 3600

The wind speed V to be used in the determination of the design loads

on a structure depends on its geographical location and can be obtained
from meteorological data for the region. The ASCE 7 Standard provides
a contour map of the basic wind speeds for the United States (Fig. 2.4).
This map, which is based on data collected at 485 weather stations, gives
the 3-second gust speeds in miles per hour (m/s). These speeds are for
open terrain at the heights of 33 ft (10 m) above ground level. To account
for the variation in wind speed with the height and the surroundings in
which a structure is located and to account for the consequences of the
failure of structures, the ASCE 7 Standard modies Eq. (2.2) as
qz 0:00256K z K zt K d V 2 I (2.3)

in which qz is the velocity pressure at height z in pounds per square

foot; V is the basic wind speed in miles per hour (Fig. 2.4); I is the im-
portance factor; K z is the velocity pressure exposure coecient; K zt is the
topographic factor; and K d is the wind directionality factor. When con-
verted to SI units, Eq. (2.3) becomes

qz 0:613K z K zt K d V 2 I SI units (2.4)

with qz and V now expressed in units of N/m 2 and m/s, respectively.

The importance factor I accounts for hazard to human life and
damage to property in the event of failure of the structure. The values
of I to be used for estimating wind loads for the various categories of
buildings are listed in Table 2.3.
The velocity pressure exposure coecient, K z , is given by
8
> 2=a
< 2:01z=zg for 15 ft 4:6 m a z a zg
 
Kz 15 ft4:6m 2=a (2.5)
>
: 2:01 for z < 15 ft 4:6m
zg

in which z height above ground in feet (or meters); zg gradient

height in feet (or meters); and a power law coecient. The constants
zg and a depend on the obstructions on the terrain immediately sur-
rounding the structure. The ASCE 7 Standard classies the terrains to
which the structures may be exposed into three categories. These three
categories are briey described in Table 2.4, which also provides the
 26
CHAPTER 2
90(40)

100(45)

Loads on Structures
110(49)
85(38)
120(54)

90(40)

90(40)
130(58)

140(63)

72

120(54)
68 110(49)
100(45) 130(58)
130(58) 90(40)
140(63) 140(63)
140(63) 150(67)
64
90(40) 150(67)
Special Wind Region
90(40)
60 100(45) 130(58)
Location V mph (m/s)
90(40) 110(49) 120(54) Hawaii 105 (47)
Puerto Rico 145 (65)
Guam 170 (76)
56 Virgin Islands 145 (65)
130(58) American Samoa 125 (56)
130(58) 100(45) Notes:
110(49) 1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s)
52
130(58) at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for Exposure C category.
120(54)
2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed
contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions
shall be examined for unusual wind conditions.

FIG. 2.4 Basic Wind Speeds for the United States

Source: Reproduced with permission from ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. This information is extracted from ASCE/SEI 7-05; for further information, the complete text of the
manual should be referenced.
 SECTION 2.4 Wind Loads 27

TABLE 2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS

Importance Factor, I
Wind Snow Earthquake
Occupancy or use Category loads loads loads
Buildings representing low hazard to human life in the case of I 0.87 for V a 100 mph 0.8 1.00
failure, such as agricultural and minor storage facilities 0.77 for V > 100 mph
All buildings other than those listed in Categories I, III, and IV II 1.00 1.0 1.00
Buildings representing a substantial hazard to human life in the III 1.15 1.1 1.25
case of failure, such as: those where more than 300 people
congregate in one area; day-care facilities with capacity
greater than 150; schools with capacity greater than 250;
colleges with capacity greater than 500; hospitals without
emergency treatment or surgery facilities but with
patient capacity greater than 50; jails; power stations and
utilities not essential in an emergency; and buildings
containing hazardous and explosive materials
Essential facilities, including hospitals, re and police IV 1.15 1.2 1.5
stations, national defense facilities and emergency shelters,
communication centers, power stations, and utilities
required in an emergency

Source: Adapted with permission from ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. This information is
extracted from ASCE/SEI 7-05; for further information, the complete text of the manual should be referenced.

TABLE 2.4 EXPOSURE CATEGORIES FOR BUILDINGS FOR WIND LOADS

Constants
Exposure Category zg ft(m) a

Urban and suburban areas with closely B 1,200(365.76) 7.0

spaced obstructions of the size of single
family houses or larger. This terrain must
prevail in the upwind direction for a
distance of at least 2,600 ft (792 m) or 20
times the building height, whichever is
greater
Applies to all buildings to which exposures C 900(274.32) 9.5
B or D do not apply
Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces D 700(213.36) 11.5
outside hurricane-prone regions. This
terrain must prevail in the upwind direction
for a distance of at least 5,000 ft (1,524 m)
or 20 times the building height, whichever
is greater

Source: Adapted with permission from ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures. This information is extracted from ASCE/SEI 7-05; for
further information, the complete text of the manual should be referenced.
28 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

qhGCp qhGCp qhGCp

qzGCp
Wind
B
qzGCp qhGCp h
Z qhGCp

qhGCp L
L
Plan Elevation

Gable, Hip Roof

qhGCp qhGCp
qhGCp

Wind qzGCp qzGCp qhGCp

B
qzGCp
qhGCp h h
qhGCp
qhGCp
L L L
Plan Elevation Elevation

Monoslope Roof (Note 4)

qhGCp qhGCp qhGCp

Wind B qzGCp qhGCp

qhGCp
qzGCp
h

qhGCp
L L
Plan Elevation

Mansard Roof (Note 6)

FIG. 2.5 External Pressure Coecients, Cp , for Loads on Main Wind-Force

Resisting Systems for Enclosed or Partially Enclosed Buildings of All Heights
Source: Reproduced with permission from ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures.
This information is extracted from ASCE/SEI 7-05; for further information, the complete text of the manual should be
referenced.
 SECTION 2.4 Wind Loads 29

Wall Pressure Coecients, Cp

Surface L=B Cp Use with
Windward wall All values 0.8 qz
01 0.5
Leeward wall 2 0.3 qh
b4 0.2
Side wall All values 0.7 qh

Roof Pressure Coecients, Cp , for use with qh

Wind Windward Leeward
direction Angle, y (degrees) Angle, y (degrees)
h=L 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 b60# 10 15 b20
0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.0*
0.3 0.5 0.6
a0.25 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.01y
Normal to
ridge for 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.0*
0.5 0.5 0.6
y b 10 0.5 0.18 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.01y
1.3** 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.0*
0.7 0.6 0.6
b1.0 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.0* 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.01y
Horiz distance from * Value is provided for interpolation
Cp
windward edge purposes.
Normal to 0 to h=2 0.9, 0.18
ridge for a0:5 h=2 to h 0.9, 0.18 ** Value can be reduced linearly with area
y < 10 and over which it is applicable as follows.
Parallel to h to 2 h 0.5, 0.18
ridge for all y >2 h 0.3, 0.18
Area (sq ft) Reduction factor
0 to h/2 1.3**, 0.18
b1.0 a100 (9.3 sq m) 1.0
200 (23.2 sq m) 0.9
>h/2 0.7, 0.18
b1,000 (92.9 sq m) 0.8
Notes:
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of L=B; h=L; and y other than shown. Interpolation shall only be carried out between values
of the same sign. Where no value of the same sign is given, assume 0.0 for interpolation purposes.
3. Where two values of Cp are listed, this indicates that the windward roof slope is subjected to either positive or negative pressures and the
roof structure shall be designed for both conditions. Interpolation for intermediate ratios of h=L in this case shall only be carried out
between Cp values of like sign.
4. For monoslope roofs, the entire roof surface is either a windward or leeward surface.
5. Notation:
B: Horizontal dimension of building, in feet (meters), measured normal to wind direction.
L: Horizontal dimension of building, in feet (meters), measured parallel to wind direction.
h: Mean roof height in feet (meters), except that eave height shall be used for y a 10 degrees.
z: Height above ground, in feet (meters).
G: Gust eect factor.
qz ; qh : Velocity pressure, in pounds per square foot (N/m 2 ), evaluated at respective height.
y: Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.
6. For mansard roofs, the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shall be treated as leeward surfaces from the table.
7. Except for MWFRSs at the roof consisting of moment resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that determined
by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
#For roof slopes greater than 80 , use Cp 0:8.

FIG. 2.5 (contd.)

30 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

values of the constants for each of the categories. A more detailed de-
scription of the exposure categories can be found in the ASCE 7 Stand-
ard. The topographic factor, K zt , takes into account the eect of
increase in wind speed due to abrupt changes in topography, such as
isolated hills and steep clis. For structures located on or near the tops
of such hills, the value of K zt should be determined using the procedure
specied in the ASCE 7 Standard. For other structures, K zt 1. The
wind directionality factor, K d , takes into account the reduced proba-
bility of maximum winds coming from the direction that is most un-
favorable for the structure. This factor is used only when wind loads are
applied in combination with other types of loads (such as dead loads,
live loads, etc.). For structures subjected to such load combinations, the
values of K d should be obtained from the ASCE 7 Standard. For struc-
tures subjected only to wind loads, K d 1.
The external wind pressures to be used for designing the main
framing of structures are given by

pz qz GCp for windward wall

(2.6)
ph qh GCp for leeward wall; sidewalls; and roof

in which h mean roof height above ground; qh velocity pressure

at height h (evaluated by substituting z h in Eq. (2.3) or (2.4));
pz design wind pressure at height z above ground; ph design wind
pressure at mean roof height h; G gust eect factor; and Cp external
pressure coecient.
The gust eect factor, G, is used to consider the loading eect of
wind turbulence on the structure. For a rigid structure, whose funda-
mental frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz., G 0:85. For exi-
ble structures, the value of G should be calculated using the equations
given in the ASCE 7 Standard.
The values of the external pressure coecients, Cp , based on wind
tunnel and full-scale tests, have been provided in the ASCE 7 Standard
for various types of structures. Figure 2.5 shows the coecients specied
for designing the main framing of structures. We can see from this gure
that the external wind pressure varies with height on the windward wall
of the structure but is uniform on the leeward wall and the sidewalls.
Note that the positive pressures act toward the surfaces, whereas the
negative pressures, called suctions, act away from the surfaces of the
structures.
Once the external wind pressures have been established, they are
combined with the internal pressures to obtain the design wind pres-
sures. With the design wind pressures known, we can determine the
corresponding design loads on members of the structures by multiplying
the pressures by the appropriate tributary areas of the members.
 SECTION 2.4 Wind Loads 31

Example 2.2

Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the rigid gabled frame of a nonessential industrial building shown
in Fig. 2.6(a). The structure is located in a suburb of Boston, Massachusetts, where the terrain is representative of ex-
posure B. The wind direction is normal to the ridge of the frame as shown.

FIG. 2.6

Solution
Roof Slope and Mean Roof Height From Fig. 2.6(a), we obtain
16:83
tan y 0:842; or y 40:1
20
16:83
h 11:58 20:0
2
h 20
0:5
L 40
Velocity Pressure at z h 20 0 From Fig. 2.4, we obtain the basic wind speed for Boston as
V 110 mph
From Table 2.3, we can see that the importance factor for wind loads for nonessential buildings (category II) is
I 1:0
and from Table 2.4, for the exposure category B, we obtain the following values of the constants:
zg 1; 200 ft and a 7:0
By using Eq. (2.5), we determine the velocity pressure exposure coecient:
 2=a  
h 20 2=7
Kh 2:01 2:01 0:62
zg 1; 200

continued
32 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

Using K zt 1 and K d 1, we apply Eq. (2.3) to obtain the velocity pressure at height h as
qh 0:00256Kh K zt K d V 2 I
0:002560:6211110 2 1:0
19:2 psf
External Wind Pressure on Roof For rigid structures, the gust eect factor is
G 0:85

For y & 40 and h=L 0:5, the values of the external pressure coecients are (Fig. 2.5):
For windward side: Cp 0:35 and 0:1
For leeward side: Cp 0:6
Finally, by substituting the values of qh , G, and Cp into Eq. (2.6), we obtain the following wind pressures: for the
windward side,
ph qh GCp 19:20:850:35 5:71 psf Ans.
and
ph qh GCp 19:20:850:1 1:63 psf Ans.
and for the leeward side
ph qh GCp 19:20:850:6 9:79 psf Ans.
These wind pressures are applied to the roof of the frame, as shown in Fig. 2.6(b). The two wind pressures (positive
and negative) on the windward side are treated as separate loading conditions, and the structure is designed for both
conditions.

2.5 SNOW LOADS

In many parts of the United States and the world, snow loads must be
considered in designing structures. The design snow load for a structure
is based on the ground snow load for its geographical location, which
can be obtained from building codes or meteorological data for that re-
gion. The ASCE 7 Standard provides contour maps (similar to Fig. 2.4)
of the ground snow loads for various parts of the United States. These
maps, which are based on data collected at 204 weather stations and
over 9000 other locations, give the snow loads (in pounds per square
foot) that have a 2% probability of being exceeded in any given year.
Once the ground snow load has been established, the design snow
load for the roof of the structure is determined by considering such fac-
tors as the structures exposure to wind, and its thermal, geometric, and
functional characteristics. In most cases, there is less snow on roofs than
on the ground. The ASCE 7 Standard recommends that the design snow
load for at roofs be expressed as
pf 0:7Ce Ct Ipg (2.7)
 SECTION 2.5 Snow Loads 33

in which pf design at-roof snow load in pounds per square foot

(kN/m 2 ); pg ground snow load in pounds per square foot (kN/m 2 );
Ce exposure factor; Ct thermal factor; and I importance factor.
In Eq. (2.7), the numerical factor 0.7, which is referred to as the
basic exposure factor, accounts for the general eect of wind, which is
likely to blow some of the snow o the roofs. The local eects of wind,
which depend on the particular terrain surrounding the structure and
the exposure of its roof, are accounted for by the exposure factor Ce .
The ASCE 7 Standard provides the values of Ce , which range from 0.7
for structures in windy areas with exposed roofs to 1.2 for structures
exposed to little wind.
The thermal factor, Ct , accounts for the fact that there will be more
snow on the roofs of unheated structures than on those of heated ones.
The values of Ct are specied as 1.0 and 1.2 for heated and unheated
structures, respectively. As in the case of wind loads, the importance
factor I in Eq. (2.7) accounts for hazard to human life and damage to
property in the case of failure of the structure. The values of I to be used
for estimating roof snow loads are given in Table 2.3.
The design snow load for a sloped roof is determined by multiplying
the corresponding at-roof snow load by a slope factor Cs . Thus,
ps C s pf (2.8)

in which ps is the design sloped-roof snow load considered to act on the

horizontal projection of the roof surface, and the slope factor Cs is given
by
8
>
> Cs 1 for 0 a y < 30
>
<
For warm roofs y  30
Ct a 1:0 > C s 1   for 30 a y a 70 (2.9)
>
> 40
:
Cs 0 for y > 70
8
>
> Cs 1 for 0 a y < 45
>
<
For cold roofs y  45
Ct 1:2 > C s 1   for 45 a y a 70 (2.10)
>
> 25
:
Cs 0 for y > 70

In Eqs. (2.9) and (2.10), y denotes the slope of the roof from the hori-
zontal, in degrees. These slope factors are based on the considerations
that more snow is likely to slide o of steep roofs, as compared to shal-
low ones, and that more snow is likely to melt and slide o the roofs of
heated structures than those of unheated structures.
The ASCE 7 Standard species minimum values of snow loads
for which structures with low-slope roofs must be designed. For such
structures, if Pg a 20 psf (0.96 kN/m 2 ), then Pf shall not be less
than Pg I ; if Pg > 20 psf (0.96 kN/m 2 ), then Pf shall not be less than
20I psf (0.96I kN/m 2 ). These minimum values of Pf apply to monoslope
34 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

roofs with y a 15 , and to hip and gable roofs with y less than the larger
of 2.38 and 70=W 0:5, where W is the horizontal distance from the
eave to the ridge in feet.
In some structures, the snow load acting on only a part of the
roof may cause higher stresses than when the entire roof is loaded. To
account for such a possibility, the ASCE 7 Standard recommends that
the eect of unbalanced snow loads also be considered in the design
of structures. A detailed description of unbalanced snow load dis-
tributions to be considered in the design of various types of roofs can
be found in the ASCE 7 Standard. For example, for gable roofs with
[larger of 2.38 and 70=W 0:5  a y a 70 and W a 20 ft, the ASCE
7 Standard species that the structures be designed to resist an un-
balanced uniform load of magnitude Pg I applied to the leeward side of
the roof, with the windward side free of snow.

Example 2.3

Determine the design snow loads for the roof of the gabled frame of an apartment building shown in Fig. 2.7(a). The
building is located in Chicago, Illinois, where the ground snow load is 25 psf. Because of several trees near the structure,
assume the exposure factor is Ce 1.

Solution
Flat-Roof Snow Load
pg 25 psf
Ce 1
Ct 1 heated structure
I 1 from Table 2:3 for nonessential building; category II

W = 20 ft 15.4 psf 25 psf

Wind

= 35

40 ft
(a) (b) Balanced Snow Load (c) Unbalanced Snow Load

FIG. 2.7
 SECTION 2.6 Earthquake Loads 35

From Eq. (2.7), the at-roof snow load is obtained as

pf 0:7Ce Ct Ipg 0:711125
17:5 psf
From Fig. 2.7(a), we can see that W 20 ft. Thus,
70 70
0:5 0:5 4
W 20
The slope is y 35 , which is greater than 4 , so the minimum values of pf need not be considered.
Sloped-Roof Snow Load By applying Eq. (2.9), we compute the slope factor as
y  30 35  30
Cs 1   1 0:88
40 40
From Eq. (2.8), we determine the design sloped-roof snow load:
ps Cs pf 0:8817:5 15:4 psf Ans.
This load is called the balanced design snow load and is applied to the entire roof of the structure, as shown in
Fig. 2.7(b).

Unbalanced Design Snow Load Pg I 251

25 psf Ans.
This load is applied only to the leeward side of the roof, as shown in Fig. 2.7(c).

2.6 EARTHQUAKE LOADS

An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earths surface.
Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical di-
rections during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component
of ground motion is usually small and does not have a signicant eect
on most structures. It is the horizontal component of ground motion
that causes structural damage and that must be considered in designs of
structures located in earthquake-prone areas.
During an earthquake, as the foundation of the structure moves
with the ground, the above-ground portion of the structure, because of
the inertia of its mass, resists the motion, thereby causing the structure
to vibrate in the horizontal direction (Fig. 2.8). These vibrations pro-
duce horizontal shear forces in the structure. For an accurate pre-
diction of the stresses that may develop in a structure in the case of
an earthquake, a dynamic analysis, considering the mass and stiness
characteristics of the structure, must be performed. However, for low- to
medium-height rectangular buildings, most codes employ equivalent
36 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

FIG. 2.8 Eect of Earthquake on a

Structure

static forces to design for earthquake resistance. In this empirical ap-

proach, the dynamic eect of the earthquake is approximated by a set of
lateral (horizontal) forces applied to the structure, and static analysis is
performed to evaluate stresses in the structure.
The ASCE 7 Standard permits the use of this equivalent lateral-
force procedure for earthquake design of buildings. According to the
ASCE 7 Standard, the total lateral seismic force that a building is de-
signed to resist is given by the equation
V CS W (2.11)
in which V total lateral force or base shear, W dead load of the
building, and CS seismic response coecient. The latter is dened by
the equation
SDS
CS (2.12)
R=I
in which SDS is the design spectral response acceleration in the short
period range; R denotes the response modication factor; and I repre-
sents the importance factor. The ASCE 7 Standard further species
upper and lower limits for the values of CS to be used in design.
The design spectral response acceleration (SDS ), used in the evalua-
tion of the design base shear, depends on the geographical location of
the structure, and can be obtained using the contour maps provided in
the ASCE 7 Standard. The response modication factor R takes into
consideration the energy-dissipation capacity of the structure; its values
range from 1.25 to 8. For example, for plain unreinforced masonry
shear walls, R 1:5; whereas, for moment resisting frames, R 8. The
values of I to be used for estimating earthquake loads are given in
Table 2.3.
The total lateral force V thus obtained is then distributed to the
various oor levels of the building using the formulas provided in the
ASCE 7 Standard. For additional details about this equivalent lateral-
 SECTION 2.9 Load Combinations 37

force procedure, and for limitations on the use of this procedure, the
reader is referred to the ASCE 7 Standard.

2.7 HYDROSTATIC AND SOIL PRESSURES

Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as
coastal structures partially or fully submerged in water must be designed
to resist hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the
submerged surface of the structure, with its magnitude varying linearly
with height, as shown in Fig. 2.9. Thus, the pressure at a point located
at a distance h below the surface of the liquid can be expressed as
p gh (2.13)
in which g unit weight of the liquid.
Underground structures, basement walls and oors, and retaining
walls must be designed to resist soil pressure. The vertical soil pressure is
given by Eq. (2.13), with g now representing the unit weight of the soil.
The lateral soil pressure depends on the type of soil and is usually con-
siderably smaller than the vertical pressure. For the portions of struc-
tures below the water table, the combined eect of hydrostatic pressure
and soil pressure due to the weight of the soil, reduced for buoyancy,
FIG. 2.9 Hydrostatic Pressure must be considered.

2.8 THERMAL AND OTHER EFFECTS

Statically indeterminate structures may be subjected to stresses due to
temperature changes, shrinkage of material, fabrication errors, and dif-
ferential settlements of supports. Although these eects are usually not
addressed in building codes, they may cause signicant stresses in struc-
tures and should be considered in their designs. The procedures for de-
termining the forces induced in structures due to these eects are con-
sidered in Part III.

2.9 LOAD COMBINATIONS

As stated previously, once the magnitudes of the design loads for a
structure have been estimated, an engineer must consider all loads that
might act simultaneously on the structure at a given time. For example,
it is highly unlikely that an earthquake and the maximum wind loads
will occur simultaneously. Based on past experience and probability
analysis, the ASCE 7 Standard species various load combinations to be
38 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

considered when designing structures. It is important to realize that the

structure must be designed to have adequate strength to resist the most
unfavorable of all the load combinations.
In addition to the aforementioned strength or safety requirements, a
structure must also satisfy any serviceability requirements related to its
intended use. For example, a high-rise building may be perfectly safe,
yet unserviceable if it deects or vibrates excessively due to wind. The
serviceability requirements are specied in building codes for most
common types of structures and are usually concerned with deections,
vibrations, cracking, corrosion, and fatigue.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we learned about the loads that act on common civil
engineering structures. These loads can be grouped into three classes: (1)
dead loads, (2) live loads, and (3) environmental loads.
Dead loads have constant magnitudes and xed positions, and they
act permanently on the structure. Live loads have varying magnitudes
and/or positions and are caused by the use or occupancy of the struc-
ture. Each member of the structure must be designed for that position of
the live load that produces the most unfavorable eect on that member.
For structures subjected to rapidly applied live loads, the dynamic ef-
fect, or the impact, of the loads should be considered in design.
The external wind pressures used for designing the main framing of
structures are given by
pz qz GCp for windward wall
(2.6)
ph qh GCp for leeward wall; sidewalls; and roof
where h is the mean roof height, G is the gust eect factor, Cp is the ex-
ternal pressure coecient, and qz is the velocity pressure at height z,
which is expressed in psf as
qz 0:00256K z K zt K d V 2 I (2.3)
with K z velocity pressure exposure coecient, K zt topographic fac-
tor, K d directionality factor, V basic wind speed in mph, and I
importance factor.
The design at-roof snow load for buildings is given by
pf 0:7Ce Ct Ipg (2.7)
where pg ground snow load, Ce exposure factor, and Ct thermal
factor. The design sloped-roof snow load is expressed as
ps C s p f (2.8)
with Cs slope factor.
 Problems 39

The total lateral seismic design force for buildings is given by

V CS W (2.11)
in which CS seismic response coecient, and W dead load of the
building.
The magnitude of the hydrostatic pressure at a point located at a
distance h below the surface of the liquid is given by
p gh (2.13)
in which g unit weight of the liquid.
The eects of temperature changes, shrinkage of material, fab-
rication errors, and support settlements should be considered in design-
ing statically indeterminate structures. The structure must be designed
to withstand the most unfavorable combination of loads.

PROBLEMS
Section 2.1 that, in turn, are supported by two steel girders (A 25;600
2.1 The oor system of an apartment building consists of mm 2 ), as shown in Fig. P2.3. Determine the dead loads
a 4-in.-thick reinforced concrete slab resting on three acting on beam BF and girder AD.
steel oor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel
girders, as shown in Fig. P2.1. The areas of cross section of
the oor beams and the girders are 18.3 in. 2 and 32.7 in. 2 , Steel floor beam
Steel girder (A = 25,600 mm2)
respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beam (A = 9,100 mm2)
CD and the girder AE. A D Steel
B C
column
2.2 Solve Problem 2.1 if a 6-in.-thick brick wall, which is 7 ft
high and 25 ft long, bears directly on the top of beam CD.
See Fig. P2.1. 130 mm
10 m concrete
slab

H
E F G
3 at 5 m = 15 m

FIG. P2.3, P2.6

2.4 The roof system of an oce building consists of a 4-in.-

thick reinforced concrete slab resting on four steel beams
FIG. P2.1, P2.2, P2.5 (A 16:2 in. 2 ), which are supported by two steel girders
(A 42:9 in. 2 ). The girders, in turn, are supported by four
2.3 The oor system of a gymnasium consists of a 130-mm-thick columns, as shown in Fig. P2.4. Determine the dead loads
concrete slab resting on four steel beams (A 9;100 mm 2 ) acting on the girder AG.
40 CHAPTER 2 Loads on Structures

A 20 ft B Steel
Steel girder column Wind 5m
(A = 42.9 in.2) 4 in.
C D concrete slab

3 at 9 ft = 27 ft 12 m
E F
Steel floor beam
(A = 16.2 in.2)
G H 12 m
FIG. P2.4, P2.7
FIG. P2.9, P2.13
Section 2.2 2.10 Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of
2.5 For the apartment building whose oor system was de- the rigid-gabled frame of a building for an essential disaster
scribed in Problem 2.1, determine the live loads acting on operation center shown in Fig. P2.10. The building is lo-
the beam CD and the girder AE. See Fig. P2.1. cated in Kansas City, Missouri, where the terrain is repre-
sentative of exposure C. The wind direction is normal to the
2.6 For the gymnasium whose oor system was described in
ridge, as shown in the gure.
Problem 2.3, determine the live loads acting on beam BF
and girder AD. See Fig. P2.3. 2.11 Determine the external wind pressures on the wind-
ward and leeward walls of the building of Problem 2.10. See
2.7 The roof of the oce building considered in Problem
Fig. P2.10.
2.4 is subjected to a live load of 20 psf. Determine the live
loads acting on the beam EF , the girder AG, and the col-
umn A. See Fig. P2.4. 30 ft

Section 2.4
2.8 Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the Plan
rigid-gabled frame of an apartment building shown in Fig.
P2.8. The building is located in the Los Angeles area of Wind
11 ft
California, where the terrain is representative of exposure B.
The wind direction is normal to the ridge as shown.
30 ft
Wind
15 ft 40 ft
Elevation
FIG. P2.10, P2.11, P2.12
40 ft
Section 2.5
2.12 Determine the balanced design snow load for the roof
30 ft
of the disaster operation center building of Problem 2.10.
FIG. P2.8 The ground snow load in Kansas City is 20 psf. Because of
trees near the building, assume the exposure factor is
Ce 1. See Fig. P2.10.
2.9 Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the
rigid-gabled frame of a school building shown in Fig. P2.9. 2.13 Determine the balanced design snow load for the roof
The structure is located in a suburb of Chicago, Illinois, of the school building of Problem 2.9. The ground snow
where the terrain is representative of exposure B. The wind load in Chicago is 1.2 kN/m 2 . Assume the exposure factor
direction is normal to the ridge as shown. is Ce 1. See Fig. P2.9.
Part Two
Analysis of Statically
Determinate Structures
This page intentionally left blank
 3
Equilibrium and Support
Reactions
3.1 Equilibrium of Structures
3.2 External and Internal Forces
3.3 Types of Supports for Plane Structures
3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability
3.5 Computation of Reactions
3.6 Principle of Superposition
3.7 Reactions of Simply Supported Structures Using Proportions
Summary
Problems

Bridge Construction on an
Expressway
Donovan Reese / Photodisc / Getty Images

The objective of this chapter is to review the basic concept of equili-

brium of structures under the action of forces and to develop the analy-
sis of reactions exerted by supports on plane (two-dimensional) struc-
tures subjected to coplanar force systems.
We rst review the concept of equilibrium and develop the equa-
tions of equilibrium of structures. Next we discuss the external and in-
ternal forces. We then describe the common types of supports used to
restrict movements of plane structures. Structures can be classied as
externally statically determinate, indeterminate, or unstable. We discuss
how this classication can be made for plane structures. We then develop
a procedure for determining reactions at supports for plane statically
determinate structures. Finally, we dene the principle of superposition
and show how to use proportions in the computation of reactions of
simply supported structures.

3.1 EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES

A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains
at rest when subjected to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is
in equilibrium, then all its members and parts are also in equilibrium.

43
44 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

FIG. 3.1

In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all the forces and cou-

ples (including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,
and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting
on the structure. Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional)
structure subjected to three-dimensional systems of forces and couples
(Fig. 3.1), the conditions of zero resultant force and zero resultant cou-
ple can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system as

P P P
Fx 0 Fy 0 Fz 0
P P P (3.1)
Mx 0 My 0 Mz 0

These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space

structures and are the necessary and sucient conditions for equilibrium.
The rst three equations ensure that there is no resultant force acting on
the structure, and the last three equations express the fact that there is
no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a co-
planar system of forces and couples (Fig. 3.2), the necessary and su-
cient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed as
P P P
Fx 0 Fy 0 Mz 0 (3.2)

These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of

plane structures. The rst two of the three equilibrium equations express,
respectively, that the algebraic sums of the x components and y com-
ponents of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating that the resultant
 SECTION 3.1 Equilibrium of Structures 45

FIG. 3.2

force acting on the structure is zero. The third equation indicates that
the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any point in
the plane of the structure and the moments of any couples acting on the
structure is zero, thereby indicating that the resultant couple acting on
the structure is zero. All the equilibrium equations must be satised si-
multaneously for the structure to be in equilibrium.
It should be realized that if a structure (e.g., an aerospace vehicle)
initially in motion is subjected to forces that satisfy the equilibrium
equations, it will maintain its motion with a constant velocity, since the
forces cannot accelerate it. Such structures may also be considered to
be in equilibrium. However, the term equilibrium is commonly used to
refer to the state of rest of structures and is used in this context herein.

Alternative Forms of Equations of Equilibrium

of Plane Structures
Although the equilibrium equations as expressed in Eq. (3.2) provide
the most convenient means of analyzing a majority of plane structures,
the analysis of some structures can be expedited by employing one of the
following two alternative forms of the equations of equilibrium:
P P P
Fq 0 MA 0 MB 0 (3.3)
in which A and B are any two points in the plane of the structure, pro-
vided that the line connecting A and B is not perpendicular to the q axis,
and
P P P
MA 0 MB 0 MC 0 (3.4)
in which A; B, and C are any points in the plane of the structure, pro-
vided that these three points do not lie on the same straight line.

Concurrent Force Systems

When a structure is in equilibrium under the action of a concurrent
force systemthat is, the lines of action of all the forces intersect at a
single pointthe moment equilibrium equations are automatically sat-
ised, and only the force equilibrium equations need to be considered.
46 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

Therefore, for a space structure subjected to a concurrent three-

dimensional force system, the equations of equilibrium are
P P P
Fx 0 Fy 0 Fz 0 (3.5)
Similarly, for a plane structure subjected to a concurrent coplanar force
system, the equilibrium equations can be expressed as
P P
Fx 0 Fy 0 (3.6)

Two-Force and Three-Force Structures

Throughout this text, we will encounter several structures and structural
members that will be in equilibrium under the action of only two, or
three, forces. The analysis of such structures and of structures composed
of such members can be considerably expedited by recalling from statics
the following characteristics of such systems:
1. If a structure is in equilibrium under the action of only two forces,
the forces must be equal, opposite, and collinear.
2. If a structure is in equilibrium under the action of only three forces,
the forces must be either concurrent or parallel.

3.2 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES

The forces and couples to which a structure may be subjected can be
classied into two types, external forces and internal forces.

External Forces
External forces are the actions of other bodies on the structure under
consideration. For the purposes of analysis, it is usually convenient to
further classify these forces as applied forces and reaction forces. Applied
forces, usually referred to as loads (e.g., live loads and wind loads), have
a tendency to move the structure and are usually known in the analysis.
Reaction forces, or reactions, are the forces exerted by supports on the
structure and have a tendency to prevent its motion and keep it in equi-
librium. The reactions are usually among the unknowns to be determined
by the analysis. The state of equilibrium or motion of the structure as a
whole is governed solely by the external forces acting on it.

Internal Forces
Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a member or por-
tion of the structure by the rest of the structure. These forces develop
 SECTION 3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability 47

within the structure and hold the various portions of it together. The
internal forces always occur in equal but opposite pairs, because each
member or portion exerts back on the rest of the structure the same
forces acting upon it but in opposite directions, according to Newtons
third law. Because the internal forces cancel each other, they do not ap-
pear in the equations of equilibrium of the entire structure. The internal
forces are also among the unknowns in the analysis and are determined
by applying the equations of equilibrium to the individual members or
portions of the structure.

3.3 TYPES OF SUPPORTS FOR PLANE STRUCTURES

Supports are used to attach structures to the ground or other bodies,
thereby restricting their movements under the action of applied loads.
The loads tend to move the structures; but supports prevent the move-
ments by exerting opposing forces, or reactions, to neutralize the eects
of loads, thereby keeping the structures in equilibrium. The type of re-
action a support exerts on a structure depends on the type of supporting
device used and the type of movement it prevents. A support that pre-
vents translation of the structure in a particular direction exerts a re-
action force on the structure in that direction. Similarly, a support that
prevents rotation of the structure about a particular axis exerts a re-
action couple on the structure about that axis.
The types of supports commonly used for plane structures are
depicted in Fig. 3.3. These supports are grouped into three categories,
depending on the number of reactions (1, 2, or 3) they exert on the
structures. The gure also gives the types of reactions that these sup-
ports exert, as well as the number of unknowns that the various supports
introduce in the analysis. Figures 3.4 through 3.6 illustrate roller,
rocker, and hinged supports.

3.4 STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND INSTABILITY

Internal Stability
A structure is considered to be internally stable, or rigid, if it maintains
its shape and remains a rigid body when detached from the supports.
Conversely, a structure is termed internally unstable (or nonrigid) if it
cannot maintain its shape and may undergo large displacements under
48 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

Category Type of support Symbolic representation Reactions Number of unknowns

1
The reaction force R acts
perpendicular to the supporting
surface and may be directed either
Roller into or away from the structure.
The magnitude of R is the
unknown.

I Rocker

1
The reaction force R acts in the
direction of the link and may be
Link
directed either into or away from
the structure. The magnitude of R is
the unknown.
2
The reaction force R may act in any
direction. It is usually convenient to
represent R by its rectangular
II Hinge components, Rx and Ry . The
magnitudes of Rx and Ry are the
two unknowns.

3
The reactions consist of two force
components Rx and Ry and a
III Fixed
couple of moment M. The
magnitudes of Rx , Ry , and M are
the three unknowns.

FIG. 3.3 Types of Supports for Plane Structures

small disturbances when not supported externally. Some examples of

internally stable structures are shown in Fig. 3.7. Note that each of the
structures shown forms a rigid body, and each can maintain its shape
under loads. Figure 3.8 shows some examples of internally unstable
structures. A careful look at these structures indicates that each struc-
ture is composed of two rigid parts, AB and BC, connected by a hinged
joint B, which cannot prevent the rotation of one part with respect to
the other.
 SECTION 3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability 49

Image not available due to copyright restrictions

Image not available due to copyright restrictions Image not available due to copyright restrictions

It should be realized that all physical bodies deform when subjected

to loads; the deformations in most engineering structures under service
conditions are so small that their eect on the equilibrium state of the
structure can be neglected. The term rigid structure as used here implies
that the structure oers signicant resistance to its change of shape,
50 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

FIG. 3.7 Examples of Internally Stable Structures

FIG. 3.8 Examples of Internally Unstable Structures

whereas a nonrigid structure oers negligible resistance to its change of

shape when detached from the supports and would often collapse under
its own weight when not supported externally.

Static Determinacy of Internally Stable Structures

An internally stable structure is considered to be statically determinate
externally if all its support reactions can be determined by solving the
equations of equilibrium. Since a plane internally stable structure can be
treated as a plane rigid body, in order for it to be in equilibrium under a
general system of coplanar loads, it must be supported by at least three
reactions that satisfy the three equations of equilibrium (Eqs. 3.2, 3.3, or
3.4). Also, since there are only three equilibrium equations, they cannot
 SECTION 3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability 51

FIG. 3.9 Examples of Externally

Statically Determinate Plane Structures

be used to determine more than three reactions. Thus, a plane structure

that is statically determinate externally must be supported by exactly
three reactions. Some examples of externally statically determinate
plane structures are shown in Fig. 3.9. It should be noted that each of
these structures is supported by three reactions that can be determined
by solving the three equilibrium equations.
52 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

FIG.3.10 Examples of Externally

Statically Indeterminate Plane
Structures
 SECTION 3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability 53

If a structure is supported by more than three reactions, then all

the reactions cannot be determined from the three equations of equili-
brium. Such structures are termed statically indeterminate externally. The
reactions in excess of those necessary for equilibrium are called external
redundants, and the number of external redundants is referred to as the
degree of external indeterminacy. Thus, if a structure has r reactions
r > 3, then the degree of external indeterminacy can be written as
ie r  3 (3.7)
Figure 3.10 shows some examples of externally statically indeterminate
plane structures.
If a structure is supported by fewer than three support reactions, the
reactions are not sucient to prevent all possible movements of the
structure in its plane. Such a structure cannot remain in equilibrium
under a general system of loads and is, therefore, referred to as statically
unstable externally. An example of such a structure is shown in Fig.
3.11. The truss shown in this gure is supported on only two rollers. It
should be obvious that although the two reactions can prevent the truss
from rotating and translating in the vertical direction, they cannot pre-
vent its translation in the horizontal direction. Thus, the truss is not
fully constrained and is statically unstable.
The conditions of static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy
of plane internally stable structures can be summarized as follows:

r<3 the structure is statically unstable externally

r3 the structure is statically determinate externally (3.8)
r>3 the structure is statically indeterminate externally

where r number of reactions.

It should be realized that the rst of three conditions stated in Eq.
(3.8) is both necessary and sucient in the sense that if r < 3, the struc-
ture is denitely unstable. However, the remaining two conditions, r 3
and r > 3, although necessary, are not sucient for static determinacy
and indeterminacy, respectively. In other words, a structure may be sup-
ported by a sucient number of reactions r b 3 but may still be un-
stable due to improper arrangement of supports. Such structures are

FIG.3.11 An Example of Externally

Statically Unstable Plane Structure
54 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

FIG.3.12 Reaction Arrangements

Causing External Geometric Instability
in Plane Structures

referred to as geometrically unstable externally. The two types of re-

action arrangements that cause geometric instability in plane structures
are shown in Fig. 3.12. The truss in Fig. 3.12(a) is supported by three
parallel reactions. It can be seen from this gure that although there is
a sucient number of reactions r 3, all of them are in the vertical
direction, so they cannot prevent translation of the structure in the
horizontal direction. The truss is, therefore, geometrically unstable. The
other type of reaction arrangement that causes geometric instability is
shown in Fig. 3.12(b). In this case, the beam is supported by three
nonparallel reactions. However, since the lines of action of all three re-
action forces are concurrent at the same point, A, they cannot prevent
rotation of the beam
P about point A. In other words, the moment equili-
brium equation MA 0 cannot be satised for a general system of
coplanar loads applied to the beam. The beam is, therefore, geometri-
cally unstable.
Based on the preceding discussion, we can conclude that in order
for a plane internally stable structure to be geometrically stable ex-
ternally so that it can remain in equilibrium under the action of any arbi-
trary coplanar loads, it must be supported by at least three reactions, all
of which must be neither parallel nor concurrent.

Static Determinacy of Internally Unstable

StructuresEquations of Condition
Consider an internally unstable structure composed of two rigid mem-
bers AB and BC connected by an internal hinge at B, as shown in Fig.
3.13(a). The structure is supported by a roller support at A and a hinged
support at C, which provide three nonparallel nonconcurrent external
reactions. As this gure indicates, these reactions, which would have
 SECTION 3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability 55

FIG. 3.13

been sucient to fully constrain an internally stable or rigid structure,

are not sucient for this structure. The structure can, however, be made
externally stable by replacing the roller support at A by a hinged sup-
port to prevent the horizontal movement of end A of the structure.
Thus, as shown in Fig. 3.13(b), the minimum number of external reac-
tions required to fully constrain this structure is four.
Obviously, the three equilibrium equations are not sucient to de-
termine the four unknown reactions at the supports for this structure.
However, the presence of the internal hinge at B yields an additional
equation that can be used with the three equilibrium equations to
56 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

determine the four unknowns. The additional equation is based on the

condition that an internal hinge cannot transmit moment; that is, the
moments at the ends of the parts of the structure connected to a hinged
joint are zero. Therefore, when an internal hinge is used to connect two
portions of a structure, the algebraic sum of the moments about the
hinge of the loads and reactions acting on each portion of the structure
on either side of the hinge must be zero. Thus, for the structure of Fig.
3.13(b), the presence of the internal hinge at B requires that the alge-
braic sum of moments about B of the loads and reactions P acting on the
AB
individual
P BC members AB and BC must be zero; that is, M B 0 and
MB 0. Such equations are commonly referred to as the equations
of condition or construction. It is important to realize that these two
equations P are not independent. When one of the two equationsfor
example, P MBAB 0is satised along with the moment equilibrium
equation
P BC M 0 for the entire structure, the remaining equation
MB 0 is automatically satised. Thus, an internal hinge connect-
ing two members or portions of a structure provides one independent
equation of condition. (The structures that contain hinged joints con-
necting more than two members are considered in subsequent chapters.)
Because all four unknown reactions for the structure of Fig. 3.13(b)
can be determined by solving P the three equations
P of equilibrium plus
one equation of condition ( MBAB 0 or MBBC 0), the structure is
considered to be statically determinate externally.
Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not
only relative rotations of the member ends but also relative translations
in certain directions of the ends of the connected members. Such con-
nections are modeled as internal roller joints for the purposes of analy-
sis. Figure 3.13(c) shows a structure consisting of two rigid members AB
and BC that are connected by such an internal roller at B. The structure
is internally unstable and requires a minimum of ve external support
reactions to be fully constrained against all possible movements under
a general system of coplanar loads. Since an internal roller can transmit
neither moment nor force in the direction parallel to the supporting sur-
face, it provides two equations of condition;
P AB P BC
Fx 0 or Fx 0
and
P P
MBAB 0 or MBBC 0
These two equations of condition can be used in conjunction with the
three equilibrium equations to determine the ve unknown external
reactions. Thus, the structure of Fig. 3.13(c) is statically determinate
externally.
From the foregoing discussion, we can conclude that if there are ec
equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and two
equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure,
which is supported by r external reactions, then if
 SECTION 3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability 57

r < 3 ec the structure is statically

unstable externally
r 3 ec the structure is statically
(3.9)
determinate externally
r > 3 ec the structure is statically
indeterminate externally

For an externally indeterminate structure, the degree of external in-

determinacy is expressed as

ie r  3 ec (3.10)

Alternative Approach An alternative approach that can be used for de-

termining the static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of inter-
nally unstable structures is as follows:
1. Count the total number of support reactions, r.
2. Count the total number of internal forces, fi , that can be transmitted
through the internal hinges and the internal rollers of the structure.
Recall that an internal hinge can transmit two force components,
and an internal roller can transmit one force component.
3. Determine the total number of unknowns, r fi .
4. Count the number of rigid members or portions, nr , contained in
the structure.
5. Because each of the individual rigid portions or members of the
structure must be in equilibrium under the action of applied loads,
reactions, and/or internal forces,
P each member
P must P satisfy the
three equations of equilibrium ( Fx 0, Fy 0, and M 0).
Thus, the total number of equations available for the entire struc-
ture is 3nr .
6. Determine whether the structure is statically unstable, determinate,
or indeterminate by comparing the total number of unknowns,
r fi , to the total number of equations. If

r fi < 3nr the structure is statically

unstable externally
r fi 3nr the structure is statically
(3.11)
determinate externally
r fi > 3nr the structure is statically
indeterminate externally

For indeterminate structures, the degree of external indeterminacy

is given by
ie r fi  3nr (3.12)
58 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

FIG. 3.14

Applying this alternative procedure to the structure of Fig. 3.13(b),

we can see that for this structure, r 4, fi 2, and nr 2. As the total
number of unknowns r fi 6 is equal to the total number of equa-
tions 3nr 6, the structure is statically determinate externally. Sim-
ilarly, for the structure of Fig. 3.13(c), r 5, fi 1, and nr 2. Since
r fi 3nr , this structure is also statically determinate externally.
The criteria for the static determinacy and indeterminacy as de-
scribed in Eqs. (3.9) and (3.11), although necessary, are not sucient
because they cannot account for the possibility of geometric instability.
To avoid geometric instability, the internally unstable structures, like
the internally stable structures considered previously, must be supported
by reactions, all of which are neither parallel nor concurrent. An addi-
tional type of geometric instability that may arise in internally unstable
structures is depicted in Fig. 3.14. For the beam shown, which contains
three internal hinges at B; C, and D, r 6 and ec 3 (i.e., r 3 ec );
therefore, according to Eq. (3.9), the beam is supported by a sucient
number of reactions, and it should be statically determinate. However, it
can be seen from the gure that portion BCD of the beam is unstable
because it cannot support the vertical load P applied to it in its un-
deformed position. Members BC and CD must undergo nite rotations
to develop any resistance to the applied load. Such a type of geometric
instability can be avoided by externally supporting any portion of the
structure that contains three or more internal hinges that are collinear.

Example 3.1

Classify each of the structures shown in Fig. 3.15 as externally unstable, statically determinate, or statically in-
determinate. If the structure is statically indeterminate externally, then determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

Solution
(a) This beam is internally stable with r 5 > 3. Therefore, it is statically indeterminate externally with the degree
of external indeterminacy of
ie r  3 5  3 2 Ans.
(b) This beam is internally unstable. It is composed of two rigid members AB and BC connected by an internal
hinge at B. For this beam, r 6 and ec 1. Since r > 3 ec , the structure is statically indeterminate externally with the
degree of external indeterminacy of
ie r  3 ec 6  3 1 2 Ans.
continued
 SECTION 3.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability 59

FIG. 3.15

Alternative Method fi 2, nr 2, r fi 6 2 8, and 3nr 32 6. As r fi > 3nr , the beam is statically

indeterminate externally, with
ie r fi  3nr 8  6 2 Checks
(c) This structure is internally unstable with r 4 and ec 2. Since r < 3 ec , the structure is statically unstable
externally. This can be veried from the gure, which shows that the member BC is not restrained against movement in
the horizontal direction. Ans.
Alternative Method fi 1, nr 2, r fi 4 1 5, and 3nr 6. Since r fi < 3nr , the structure is statically
unstable externally. Checks
(d) This beam is internally unstable with r 5 and ec 2. Because r 3 ec , the beam is statically determinate
externally. Ans.
Alternative Method fi 4, nr 3, r fi 5 4 9, and 3nr 33 9. Because r fi 3nr , the beam is stat-
icaly determinate externally. Checks

continued
60 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

(e) This is an internally unstable structure with r 6 and ec 3. Since r 3 ec , the structure is statically deter-
minate externally. Ans.
Alternative Method fi 6, nr 4, r fi 6 6 12, and 3nr 34 12. Because r fi 3nr , the structure is
statically determinate externally. Checks
(f ) This frame is internally unstable with r 4 and ec 1. Since r 3 ec , the frame is statically determinate ex-
ternally. Ans.
Alternative Method fi 2, nr 2, r fi 4 2 6, and 3nr 32 6. Since r fi 3nr , the frame is stat-
ically determinate externally. Checks
(g) This frame is internally unstable with r 6 and ec 3. Since r 3 ec , the frame is statically determinate
externally. Ans.
Alternative Method fi 6, nr 4, r fi 6 6 12, and 3nr 34 12. Because r fi 3nr , the frame is
statically determinate externally. Checks

3.5 COMPUTATION OF REACTIONS

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the re-
actions of plane statically determinate structures subjected to coplanar
loads.
1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the structure.
a. Show the structure under consideration detached from its sup-
ports and disconnected from all other bodies to which it may be
connected.
b. Show each known force or couple on the FBD by an arrow in-
dicating its direction and sense. Write the magnitude of each
known force or couple by its arrow.
c. Show the orientation of the mutually perpendicular xy coor-
dinate system to be used in the analysis. It is usually convenient
to orient the x and y axes in the horizontal (positive to the right)
and vertical (positive upward) directions, respectively. However,
if the dimensions of the structure and/or the lines of action of
most of the applied loads are in an inclined direction, selection
of the x (or y) axis in that direction may considerably expedite
the analysis.
d. At each point where the structure has been detached from a
support, show the unknown external reactions being exerted on
the structure. The type of reactions that can be exerted by the
various supports are given in Fig. 3.3. The reaction forces are
represented on the FBD by arrows in the known directions of
their lines of action. The reaction couples are represented by
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 61

curved arrows. The senses of the reactions are not known and
can be arbitrarily assumed. However, it is usually convenient
to assume the senses of the reaction forces in the positive x
and y directions and of reaction couples as counterclockwise.
The actual senses of the reactions will be known after their
magnitudes have been determined by solving the equations of
equilibrium and condition (if any). A positive magnitude for
a reaction will imply that the sense initially assumed was cor-
rect, whereas a negative value of the magnitude will indicate
that the actual sense is opposite to the one assumed on the
FBD. Since the magnitudes of the reactions are not yet known,
they are denoted by appropriate letter symbols on the FBD.
e. To complete the FBD, draw the dimensions of the structure,
showing the locations of all the known and unknown external
forces.
2. Check for static determinacy. Using the procedure described in
Section 3.4, determine whether or not the given structure is stat-
ically determinate externally. If the structure is either statically or
geometrically unstable or indeterminate externally, end the analysis
at this stage.
3. Determine the unknown reactions by applying the equations of
equilibrium and condition (if any) to the entire structure. To avoid
solving simultaneous equations, write the equilibrium and condition
equations so that each equation involves only one unknown. For
some internally unstable structures, it may not be possible to write
equations containing one unknown each. For such structures, the
reactions are determined by solving the equations simultaneously.
The analysis of such internally unstable structures can sometimes
be expedited and the solution of simultaneous equations avoided by
disconnecting the structure into rigid portions and by applying the
equations of equilibrium to the individual portions to determine the
reactions. In such a case, you must construct the free-body diagrams
of the portions of the structure; these diagrams must show, in addi-
tion to any applied loads and support reactions, all the internal
forces being exerted upon that portion at connections. Remember
that the internal forces acting on the adjacent portions of a structure
must have the same magnitudes but opposite senses in accordance
with Newtons third law.
4. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation that has not been used
before to the entire structure to check the computations. This al-
ternative equation should preferably involve all the reactions that
were determined in the analysis. You may use a moment equili-
brium equation involving a summation of moments about a point
that does not lie on lines of action of reaction forces for this pur-
pose. If the analysis has been carried out correctly, then this alter-
native equilibrium equation must be satised.
62 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

Example 3.2

Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in Fig. 3.16(a).

FIG. 3.16

Solution
Free-Body Diagram The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 3.16(b). Note that the roller at A exerts
reaction RA in the direction perpendicular to the inclined supporting surface.
Static Determinacy The beam is internally stable and is supported by three reactions, RA ; Bx , and By , all of which
are neither parallel nor concurrent. Therefore, the beam is statically determinate.
Support Reactions Since two of the three reactions,
P namely, Bx and By , are concurrent at B, their moments about B
are zero. Therefore, the equilibrium equation MB 0, which involves the summation of moments of all the forces
about B, contains only one unknown, RA . Thus,
P
MB 0
4
 RA 20 12 sin 60 10  65 0
5
RA 4:62 k
The positive answer for RA indicates that our initial assumption about the sense of this reaction was correct.
Therefore,
RA 4:62 k % Ans.

continued
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 63

Next, in order to determine Bx , we apply the equilibrium equation,

P
! Fx 0
3
4:62  12 cos 60 Bx 0
5
Bx 3:23 k
Bx 3:23 k ! Ans.
The only remaining unknown, By , can now be determined by applying the remaining equation of equilibrium:
P
" Fy 0
4
4:62  12 sin 60 By  6 0
5
By 12:7 k
By 12:7 k " Ans.
In order to avoid having to solve simultaneous equations in the preceding computations, we applied the equili-
brium equations in such a manner that each equation contained only one unknown.

Checking Computations Finally, to check our computations, we apply an alternative equation of equilibrium
(see Fig. 3.16(b)):
P 4
MC  4:6225 12 sin 60 15  12:75
5
0:01 k-ft Checks

Example 3.3

Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in Fig. 3.17(a).

Solution
Free-Body Diagram See Fig. 3.17(b).

Static Determinacy The beam is internally stable with r 3. Thus, it is statically determinate.
Support Reactions By applying the three equations of equilibrium, we obtain
P
! Fx 0
Bx 0 Ans.

continued
64 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

400 kN . m 160 kN
15 kN/m

6m 4m 4m

(a)

400 kN . m 160 kN
15 kN/m MB

Bx
y A B
6m 4m 4m By

(b)
FIG. 3.17 x

P
" Fy 0
156  160 By 0
By 250 kN
By 250 kN " Ans.
P
MB 0
400 1563 8 1604 MB 0
MB 1230 kN  m
MB 1230 kN  m @ Ans.
Checking Computations
P
MA 400  1563  16010 25014  1230 0 Checks

Example 3.4

Determine the reactions at the support for the frame shown in Fig. 3.18(a).

Solution
Free-Body Diagram The free-body diagram of the frame is shown in Fig. 3.18(b). Note that the trapezoidal loading
distribution has been divided into two simpler, uniform, and triangular, distributions whose areas and centroids are
easier to compute.
continued
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 65

FIG. 3.18
Static Determinacy The frame is internally stable with r 3. Therefore, it is statically determinate.
Support Reactions By applying the three equations of equilibrium, we obtain
P
! Fx 0
Ax 215 0
Ax 30 kN
Ax 30 kN Ans.
P
" Fy 0
1
Ay  29  39 0
2
Ay 31:5 kN
Ay 31:5 kN " Ans.
P

MA 0
     
15 9 1 2
MA  215  29  39 9 0
2 2 2 3
MA 387 kN-m
MA 387 kN-m Ans.
Checking Computations
 
P 15
MB 3015  31:59 387 215
2
    
9 1 9
29 39
2 2 3
0 Checks
66 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

Example 3.5

Determine the reactions at the supports for the frame shown in Fig. 3.19(a).

FIG. 3.19

Solution
Free-Body Diagram See Fig. 3.19(b).

Static Determinacy The frame is internally stable with r 3. Thus, it is statically determinate.
Support Reactions
P
! Fx 0
1
Ax 2:518  15 0
2
Ax 7:5 k
Ax 7:5 k Ans.
P
MA 0
  
1 18
 2:518  1:5189 1512 By 12 0
2 3
By 16:5 k
By 16:5 k " Ans.
P
" Fy 0
Ay  1:518 16:5 0
Ay 10:5 k
Ay 10:5 k " Ans.

continued
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 67

Checking Computations
 
P 1 2
MC 7:518  10:518 2:518 18
2 3
 
18
1:518  156  16:56
2
0 Checks

Example 3.6
Determine the reactions at the supports for the frame shown in Fig. 3.20(a).

50 k
2 k/ft

10 ft

3 k/ft

24 ft 12 ft 12 ft
(a)

5
50 k
12 2 k/ft
13
C
Cx
B Cy
10 ft y
13 5
12 6 ft
3 k/ft 2
A
Ay
FIG. 3.20 x
24 ft 12 ft 12 ft continued
(b)
68 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

Solution
Free-Body Diagram See Fig. 3.20(b).

Static Determinacy The frame is internally stable with r 3. Therefore, it is statically determinate.
Support Reactions
P
! Fx 0
   
23 5
26 Cx 0
2 13
Cx 25 k
Cx 25 k Ans.
P
MA 0
 
1 26
22613  126  5024 12 2510 Cy 48 0
2 3
Cy 48:72 k
Cy 48:72 k " Ans.
P
" Fy 0
   
23 12
Ay  26  50 48:72 0
2 13
Ay 61:28 k
Ay 61:28 k " Ans.
Checking Computations
 
P 1 2
MB 61:2824 22613 126 26  5012 48:7224
2 3
0:107 k-ft & 0 Checks

Example 3.7

Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in Fig. 3.21(a).

Solution
Free-Body Diagram See Fig. 3.21(b).

Static Determinacy The beam is internally unstable. It is composed of three rigid members, AB; BE, and EF, con-
nected by two internal hinges at B and E. The structure has r 5 and ec 2; because r 3 ec , the structure is stat-
ically determinate.
continued
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 69

5 kN/m 5 kN/m
3 kN/m 3 kN/m
A B B E E F
Ax Bx Bx C D Ex Ex
Ay By By Cy Dy Ey Ey Fy
20 m 20 m 50 m 20 m 20 m

FIG. 3.21 (c)

Support Reactions
P
! Fx 0
Ax 0 Ans.
P
Next, we apply the equation of condition, MBAB 0, which involves the summation of moments about B of all
the forces acting on the portion AB.
P
MBAB 0
Ay 20 52010 0
Ay 50 kN
Ay 50 kN " Ans.
P
Similarly, by applying the equation of condition MEEF 0, we determine the reaction Fy as follows:
P
MEEF 0
32010 Fy 20 0
Fy 30 kN
Fy 30 kN " Ans.
continued
70 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

The remaining two equilibrium equations can now be applied to determine the remaining two unknowns,
Cy and Dy :
P
MD 0
5090 54070  Cy 50 3905 3040 0
Cy 241 kN
Cy 241 kN " Ans.
It is important to realize that the moment equilibrium equations involve the moments of all the forces acting on the
entire structure, whereas, the moment equations of condition involve only the moments of those forces that act on the
portion of the structure on one side of the internal hinge.
Finally, we compute Dy by using the equilibrium equation,
P
" Fy 0
50  540 241  390 Dy 30 0
Dy 149 kN
Dy 149 kN " Ans.
Alternative Method The reactions of the beam can be determined alternatively by applying the three equations of
equilibrium to each of the three rigid portions AB, BE, and EF of the beam. The free-body diagrams of these rigid
portions are shown in Fig. 3.21 (c). These diagrams show the internal forces being exerted through the internal hinges at
B and E in addition to the applied loads and support reactions. Note that the internal forces acting at each end B of
portions AB and BE and at each end E of portions BE and EF have the same magnitudes but opposite senses, according
to Newtons law of action and reaction.
The total number of unknowns (including the internal forces) is nine. Since there are three equilibrium equations
for each of the three rigid portions, the total number of equations available is also nine (r + fi = 3nr = 9). Therefore, all
nine unknowns (reactions plus internal forces) can be determined from the equilibrium equations, and the beam is stat-
ically determinate.
Applying the three equations of equilibrium to portion AB, we obtain the following:

MAAB 0  52010 By 20 0 By 50 kN
" FyAB 0 Ay  520 50 0 Ay 50 kN Checks
! FxAB 0 Ax  Bx 0 (1)
Next, we consider the equilibrium of portion EF:

! FxEF 0 Ex 0
MFEF 0 Ey 20 32010 0 Ey 30 kN
" FyEF 0 30  320 Fy 0 Fy 30 kN Checks

Considering the equilibrium of portion BE, we write

! FxBE 0 Bx 0

From Eq. (1), we obtain

Ax 0 Checks
continued
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 71

MCBE 0 5020 52010  37035 Dy 50  3070 0

Dy 149kN Checks
" FyBE 0  50  520 Cy  370 149  30 0
Cy 241 kN Checks

Example 3.8
Determine the reactions at the supports for the three-hinged arch shown in Fig. 3.22(a).

FIG. 3.22

Solution
Free-Body Diagram See Fig. 3.22(b).

Static Determinacy The arch is internally unstable; it is composed of two rigid portions, AB and BC, connected by
an internal hinge at B. The arch has r 4 and ec 1; since r 3 ec , it is statically determinate.
Support Reactions
P
MC 0
Ay 60  13015 2:56030 0
Ay 67:5 k
Ay 67:5 k " Ans.
P
MBAB 0

Ax 30  67:530 13015 2:53015 0

Ax 15 k
Ax 15 k ! Ans.
continued
72 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions
P
! Fx 0
15 130 Cx 0
Cx 45 k
Cx 45 k Ans.
P
" Fy 0
67:5  2:560 Cy 0
Cy 82:5 k
Cy 82:5 " Ans.
P
Checking Computations To check our computations, we apply the equilibrium equation MB 0 for the entire
structure:
P
MB 1530  67:530 13015 2:5600
 4530 82:530
0 Checks

Example 3.9

Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in Fig. 3.23(a).

Solution
Free-Body Diagram The free-body diagram of the entire structure is shown in Fig. 3.23(b).

Static Determinacy The beam is internally unstable, with r 5 and ec 2. Since r 3 ec , the structure is stat-
ically determinate.
Support Reactions Using the free-body diagram of the entire beam shown in Fig. 3.23(b), we determine the
reactions as follows:
P
! Fx 0
Ax 0 Ans.
P
MCAC 0
Ay 200 80125  By 75 0
8Ay 3By 400 (1)
In order to obtain another equation containing the same two unknowns, Ay and By , we write the second equation of
condition as
P
MDAD 0
Ay 350 80275  By 225 315075 0
14Ay 9By 2230 (2)

continued
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 73

FIG. 3.23
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously, we obtain
Ay 103 k and By 408 k
Ay 103 k # Ans.
By 408 k " Ans.
The remaining two unknowns, Ey and Fy , are determined from the remaining two equilibrium equations as follows:
P
MF 0
103550 80475  408425 3350175  Ey 125 0
Ey 840 k
Ey 840 k " Ans.
P
" Fy 0
103  80 408  3350 840 Fy 0
Fy 15 k
Fy 15 k # Ans.
continued
74 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

Alternative Method The reactions of the beam also can be evaluated by applying the three equations of equilibrium
to each of the three rigid portions, AC; CD, and DF , of the beam. The free-body diagrams of these rigid portions are
shown in Fig. 3.23(c). These diagrams show, in addition to the applied loads and support reactions, the internal forces
being exerted through the internal hinges at C and D.
Applying the three equations of equilibrium to the portion CD, we obtain the following:
P
MCCD 0
315075 Dy 150 0
Dy 225 k
P
" FyCD 0
Cy  3150 225 0
Cy 225 k
P
! FxCD 0
Cx Dx 0 (3)
Next, we consider the equilibrium of portion DF :
P
! FxDF 0
Dx 0 or Dx 0
From Eq. (3), we obtain Cx 0
P
MFDF 0
225200 3200100  Ey 125 0
Ey 840 k Checks
P
" FyDF 0
225  3200 840 Fy 0
Fy 15 k Checks
Considering the equilibrium of portion AC, we write
P
! FxAC 0
Ax  0 0
Ax 0 Checks
P
MAAC 0
8075 By 125  225200 0
By 408 k Checks
P
" FyAC 0
Ay  80 408  225 0
Ay 103 k Checks
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 75

Example 3.10
A gable frame is subjected to a wind loading, as shown in Fig. 3.24(a). Determine the reactions at its supports due to the
loading.

Solution
Free-Body Diagram See Fig. 3.24(b).
Static Determinacy The frame is internally unstable, with r 4 and ec 1. Since r 3 ec , it is statically
determinate.

FIG. 3.24

continued
76 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

Support Reactions P
MC 0
 
3
Ay 16  250126  5010 12 3
5
   
4 3
5010 8 4  22010 12 3
5 5
 
4
 22010 4  160126 0
5
Ay 3503:75 lb
Ay 3503:75 lb # Ans.
P
MBAB 0
Ax 18 3503:758 250126 6 50105 0
Ax 3696:11 lb
Ax 3696:11 lb Ans.
P
! Fx 0
3 3
3696:11 25012 5010 22010 16012 Cx 0
5 5
Cx 2843:89 lb
Cx 2843:89 lb Ans.
P
" Fy 0
4 4
3503:75  5010 22010 Cy 0
5 5
Cy 2143:75 lb
Cy 2143:75 lb " Ans.
Checking Computations
P
MB 3696:11  2843:8918
3503:75 2143:758 250 1601212
50 220105
0 Checks

Example 3.11

Determine the reactions at the supports for the frame shown in Fig. 3.25(a).

Solution
Free-Body Diagram See Fig. 3.25(b).

Static Determinacy The frame has r 4 and ec 1; since r 3 ec , it is statically determinate. continued
 SECTION 3.5 Computation of Reactions 77

3 k/ft
25 k

Hinge
20 ft

30 ft

20 ft 20 ft

(a)

3 k/ft
25 k
B

20 ft

30 ft
C
Cx
Cy y
A Ax

Ay
x
20 ft 20 ft
FIG. 3.25 (b)

Support Reactions
P
MC 0
Ax 10  Ay 40  2520 34020 0
Ax  4Ay 190 (1)
P
MBAB 0
Ax 30  Ay 20 32010 0
3Ax  2Ay 60 (2)

continued
78 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously, we obtain Ax 14 k and Ay 51 k

Ax 14 k ! Ans.
Ay 51 k " Ans.
P
! Fx 0
14 25 Cx 0
Cx 39 k
Cx 39 k Ans.
P
" Fy 0
51  340 Cy 0
Cy 69 k
Cy 69 k " Ans.
Checking Computations
P
MB 1430  5120  3920 6920 0 Checks

3.6 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

The principle of superposition simply states that on a linear elastic struc-
ture, the combined eect of several loads acting simultaneously is equal
to the algebraic sum of the eects of each load acting individually. For
example, this principle implies, for the beam of Example 3.2, that the
total reactions due to the two loads acting simultaneously could have
been obtained by algebraically summing, or superimposing, the reactions
due to each of the two loads acting individually.
The principle of superposition considerably simplies the analysis
of structures subjected to dierent types of loads acting simultaneously
and is used extensively in structural analysis. The principle is valid for
structures that satisfy the following two conditions: (1) the deformations
of the structure must be so small that the equations of equilibrium can be
based on the undeformed geometry of the structure; and (2) the struc-
ture must be composed of linearly elastic material; that is, the stress-
strain relationship for the structural material must follow Hookes law.
The structures that satisfy these two conditions respond linearly to
applied loads and are referred to as linear elastic structures. Engineering
structures are generally designed so that under service loads they un-
dergo small deformations with stresses within the initial linear portions
of the stress-strain curves of their materials. Thus, most common types
of structures under service loads can be classied as linear elastic; there-
fore, the principle of superposition can be used in their analysis. The
principle of superposition is considered valid throughout this text.
 SECTION 3.7 Reactions of Simply Supported Structures Using Proportions 79

3.7 REACTIONS OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED STRUCTURES USING PROPORTIONS

Consider a simply supported beam subjected to a vertical concentrated
load P, as P shown in Fig. P3.26. By applying the moment equilibrium
equations, MB 0 and MA 0, we obtain the expressions for the
vertical reactions at supports A and B, respectively, as

FIG. 3.26

   
b a
Ay P and By P (3.13)
S S
where, as shown in Fig. 3.26, a distance of the load P from support A
(measured positive to the right); b distance of P from support B (meas-
ured positive to the left); and S distance between supports A and B.
The rst of the two expressions in Eq. (3.13) indicates that the mag-
nitude of the vertical reaction at A is equal to the magnitude of the load P
times the ratio of the distance of P from support B to the distance be-
tween the supports A and B. Similarly, the second expression in Eq. (3.13)
states that the magnitude of the vertical reaction at B is equal to the
magnitude of P times the ratio of the distance of P from A to the distance
between A and B. These expressions involving proportions, when used in
conjunction with the principle of superposition, make it very convenient
to determine reactions of simply supported structures subjected to series
of concentrated loads, as illustrated by the following example.

Example 3.12

Determine the reactions at the supports for the truss shown in Fig. 3.27(a).

Solution
Free-Body Diagram See Fig. 3.27(b).
Static Determinacy The truss is internally stable with r 3. Therefore, it is statically determinate.

Support Reactions
P
! Fx 0
Ax 0 Ans.
continued
80 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

FIG. 3.27
         
6 5 3 2 1 1 2
Ay 15 30 25 20  10
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
90 k
Ay 90 k " Ans.
         
2 1 1 2 3 5 6
By 15 30 25 20 10
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
60 k
By 60 k " Ans.
Checking Computations
P
" Fy 15  230  25  220  10 90 60 0 Checks

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have learned that a structure is considered to be
in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to
a system of forces and couples. The equations of equilibrium of space
structures can be expressed as
P P P
Fx 0 Fy 0 Fz 0
P P P (3.1)
Mx 0 My 0 Mz 0
 Summary 81

For plane structures, the equations of equilibrium are expressed as

P P P
Fx 0 Fy 0 Mz 0 (3.2)
Two alternative forms of the equilibrium equations for plane structures
are given in Eqs. (3.3) and (3.4).
The common types of supports used for plane structures are sum-
marized in Fig. 3.3. A structure is considered to be internally stable, or
rigid, if it maintains its shape and remains a rigid body when detached
from the supports.
A structure is called statically determinate externally if all of its
support reactions can be determined by solving the equations of equili-
brium and condition. For a plane internally stable structure supported
by r number of reactions, if
r<3 the structure is statically unstable externally
r3 the structure is statically determinate externally (3.8)
r > 3 the structure is statically indeterminate externally
The degree of external indeterminacy is given by
ie r  3 (3.7)
For a plane internally unstable structure, which has r number of
external reactions and ec number of equations of condition, if
r < 3 ec the structure is statically unstable externally
r 3 ec the structure is statically determinate externally (3.9)
r > 3 ec the structure is statically indeterminate externally
The degree of external indeterminacy for such a structure is given by
ie r  3 ec (3.10)
In order for a plane structure to be geometrically stable, it must be
supported by reactions, all of which are neither parallel nor concurrent.
A procedure for the determination of reactions at supports for plane
structures is presented in Section 3.5.
The principle of superposition states that on a linear elastic struc-
ture, the combined eect of several loads acting simultaneously is equal
to the algebraic sum of the eects of each load acting individually. The
determination of reactions of simply supported structures using propor-
tions is discussed in Section 3.7.
82 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

PROBLEMS
Section 3.4
3.1 through 3.4 Classify each of the structures shown as terminate. If the structure is statically indeterminate ex-
externally unstable, statically determinate, or statically inde- ternally, then determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

FIG. P3.1

FIG. P3.2

FIG. P3.3
 Problems 83

Sections 3.5 and 3.7

3.5 through 3.13 Determine the reactions at the supports
for the beam shown.

2 k/ft

A B

10 ft 20 ft 15 ft

FIG. P3.5

100 kN 20 kN/m

A B

3m 3m 6m

FIG. P3.6

25 kN/m
B

12 m

FIG. P3.7

1.5 k/ft
FIG. P3.4 A B

10 ft 30 ft 10 ft

FIG. P3.8
84 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

70 kN 30 kN/m
30 kN/m B
A 3
150 kN . m 4

A 10 m

4m 2m FIG. P3.13
FIG. P3.9 3.14 The weight of a car, moving at a constant speed on a
beam bridge, is modeled as a single concentrated load, as
shown in Fig. P3.14. Determine the expressions for the ver-
tical reactions at the supports in terms of the position of
the car as measured by the distance x, and plot the graphs
4 showing the variations of these reactions as functions of x.
3 50 k
1.5 k/ft 100 k-ft W = 20 kN
30 A x
B
A B
6 ft 6 ft 12 ft 10 ft
FIG. P3.10 5m 8m 3m

FIG. P3.14
30 k
2 k/ft
3 k/ft 60 kft

A B

10 ft 20 ft 10 ft

FIG. P3.11 3.15 The weight of a 5-m-long trolley, moving at a constant

speed on a beam bridge, is modeled as a moving uniformly dis-
tributed load, as shown in Fig. P3.15. Determine the expressions
for the vertical reactions at the supports in terms of the position
3 k/ft of the trolley as measured by the distance x, and plot the graphs
2 k/ft showing the variations of these reactions as functions of x.

A B
x 5m
w = 10 kN/m
9 ft 15 ft 6 ft
A B
FIG. P3.12
25 m

FIG. P3.15
 Problems 85

3.16 through 3.41 Determine the reactions at the supports 35 kN/m

for the structures shown.
200 kN

70 kN

15 m

5m

A B
A B
50 kN 50 kN
4 at 6 m = 24 m 10 m
FIG. P3.16 FIG. P3.19
1.25 k/ft

30 k

20 ft
2.5 k/ft
15 k
15 k

15 ft 20 ft
B
A
A B
12 k 24 k 24 k 24 k 24 k
6 at 20 ft = 120 ft
40 ft
FIG. P3.17
FIG. P3.20
20 kN/m
40 kN/m

5m

100 kN

5m

A B

4m 12 m 4m
FIG. P3.18 FIG. P3.21
86 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

2.5 k/ft
2 k/ft
4 ft
A 25 k Hinge
4 ft A
2.5 k/ft
B
15 ft

15 ft 15 ft
B
FIG. P3.26

20 ft 10 ft

FIG. P3.22
150 kN
40 kN/m
B

8m
20 kN/m

FIG. P3.27
6m 6m 6m

FIG. P3.23

FIG. P3.24
30 k
1.5 k/ft
A
Hinge B
30 ft 20 ft 20 ft
FIG. P3.25
 Problems 87

30 kN/m
A C
B Hinge
20 m 10 m 10 m
FIG. P3.28

3 k/ft

A D
Hinge B C Hinge

15 ft 15 ft 20 ft 15 ft 15 ft
20 kN/m
FIG. P3.29 40 kN/m

Hinge
12
5m
130 kN 5
12 kN/m
A 100 kN
B
5m
3m 3m 3m 10 m
A B
FIG. P3.30

4m 6m 6m 4m

FIG. P3.33

2 k/ft

10 ft Hinge
FIG. P3.31

25 k

10 ft

A B
3 k/ft

15 ft
FIG. P3.32 FIG. P3.34
88 CHAPTER 3 Equilibrium and Support Reactions

2.5 k/ft

60 k
Hinge

25 ft

40 ft
A

25 ft 25 ft

FIG. P3.39

20 ft 20 ft
FIG. P3.35 30 k
Hinge
8 k/ft 20 ft
A C
Hinge B Hinge
Hinge Hinge
15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 15 ft
20 ft
FIG. P3.36
A B

FIG. P3.40
20 kN/m
A
Hinge B Hinge C D

8m 8m 8m 8m 8m 5m
FIG. P3.37

FIG. P3.38
FIG. P3.41
 4
Plane and Space Trusses
4.1 Assumptions for Analysis of Trusses
4.2 Arrangement of Members of Plane TrussesInternal Stability
4.3 Equations of Condition for Plane Trusses
4.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane Trusses
4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints
4.6 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Sections
4.7 Analysis of Compound Trusses
4.8 Complex Trusses
4.9 Space Trusses
Summary
Problems

Truss Bridges
Terry Poche/Shutterstock

A truss is an assemblage of straight members connected at their ends by

exible connections to form a rigid conguration. Because of their light
weight and high strength, trusses are widely used, and their applications
range from supporting bridges and roofs of buildings (Fig. 4.1) to being
support structures in space stations (Fig. 4.2). Modern trusses are con-
structed by connecting members, which usually consist of structural steel
or aluminum shapes or wood struts, to gusset plates by bolted or welded
connections.
As discussed in Section 1.4, if all the members of a truss and the
applied loads lie in a single plane, the truss is called a plane truss.
Plane trusses are commonly used for supporting decks of bridges
and roofs of buildings. A typical framing system for truss bridges was
described in Section 1.4 (see Fig. 1.13(a)). Figure 4.3 shows a typical
framing system for a roof supported by plane trusses. In this case, two
or more trusses are connected at their joints by beams, termed purlins, to
form a three-dimensional framework. The roof is attached to the pur-
lins, which transmit the roof load (weight of the roof plus any other load
due to snow, wind, etc.) as well as their own weight to the supporting
trusses at the joints. Because this applied loading acts on each truss in
its own plane, the trusses can be treated as plane trusses. Some of the

89
90 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.1 Roof Trusses. Plum High

School. Large Bow Truss and
Supporting Truss for Gymnasium,
Camber Corporation. Web address: http://
www.cambergroup.com/g87.htm

FIG. 4.2 A Segment of the Integrated

Truss Structure which forms the
Backbone of the International Space
Station
Courtesy of National Aeronautics and Space Administration
98_05164

common congurations of bridge and roof trusses, many of which have

been named after their original designers, are shown in Figs. 4.4 and 4.5
(see pp. 92 and 93), respectively.
Although a great majority of trusses can be analyzed as plane
trusses, there are some truss systems, such as transmission towers and
latticed domes (Fig. 4.6), that cannot be treated as plane trusses because
 SECTION 4.1 Assumptions for Analysis of Trusses 91

FIG. 4.3 Framing of a Roof Supported by Trusses

of their shape, arrangement of members, or applied loading. Such

trusses, which are called space trusses, are analyzed as three-dimensional
bodies subjected to three-dimensional force systems.
The objective of this chapter is to develop the analysis of member
forces of statically determinate plane and space trusses. We begin by
discussing the basic assumptions underlying the analysis presented in
this chapter, and then we consider the number and arrangement of
members needed to form internally stable or rigid plane trusses. As part
of this discussion, we dene simple and compound trusses. We also pres-
ent the equations of condition commonly encountered in plane trusses.
We next establish the classication of plane trusses as statically deter-
minate, indeterminate, and unstable and present the procedures for the
analysis of simple plane trusses by the methods of joints and sections.
We conclude with an analysis of compound plane trusses, a brief dis-
cussion of complex trusses, and analysis of space trusses.

4.1 ASSUMPTIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES

The analysis of trusses is usually based on the following simplifying
assumptions:
1. All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges
in plane trusses and by frictionless ball-and-socket joints in space
trusses.
2. All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints.
3. The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line con-
necting the centers of the adjacent joints.
92 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.4 Common Bridge Trusses

 SECTION 4.1 Assumptions for Analysis of Trusses 93

FIG. 4.5 Common Roof Trusses

FIG. 4.6 Geodesic Dome Climatron

Showing Glass-and-Aluminum Geodesie
Design Missouri Botanical Garden,
St. Louis, Missouri
Courtesy Missouri Botanical Garden.

The reason for making these assumptions is to obtain an ideal truss,

whose members are subjected only to axial forces. Since each member
of an ideal truss is connected at its ends by frictionless hinges (assump-
tion 1) with no loads applied between its ends (assumption 2), the
94 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.7

member would be subjected to only two forces at its ends, as shown in

Fig. 4.7(a). Since the member is in equilibrium, the resultant force and
the resultant couple of the two forces FA and FB must be zero; that is, the
forces must satisfy the three equations of equilibrium. From Fig. 4.7(a),
we can Psee that in order
P for the resultant force of the two forces to be
zero ( Fx 0 and Fy 0), the two forces must be equal in magni-
tude but Pwith opposite senses. For their resultant couple to be also equal
to zero ( M 0), the two forces must be collinearthat is, they must
have the same line of action. Moreover, since the centroidal axis of each
truss member is a straight line coinciding with the line connecting the
centers of the adjacent joints (assumption 3), the member is not sub-
jected to any bending moment or shear force and is either in axial ten-
sion (being elongated, as shown in Fig. 4.7(b)) or in axial compression
(being shortened, as shown in Fig. 4.7(c)). Such member axial forces de-
termined from the analysis of an ideal truss are called the primary forces.
In real trusses, these idealizations are almost never completely real-
ized. As stated previously, real trusses are constructed by connecting
members to gusset plates by welded or bolted connections (Fig. 4.8).
Some members of the truss may even be continuous at the joints. Fur-
thermore, although the external loads are indeed transmitted to the
trusses at joints by means of oor beams, purlins, and so on, the dead
weights of the members are distributed along their lengths. The bending
moments and shear and axial forces caused by these and other devia-
tions from the aforementioned idealized conditions are commonly re-
ferred to as secondary forces. Although secondary forces cannot be
eliminated, they can be substantially reduced in most trusses by using
relatively slender members and by designing connections so that the
centroidal axes of the members meeting at a joint are concurrent at a
point (as shown in Fig. 1.13). The secondary forces in such trusses are
 SECTION 4.2 Arrangement of Members of Plane TrussesInternal Stability 95

FIG. 4.8 Truss Bridge with Bolted

Connections Rio Vista Bridge
Courtesy of the State of California, Caltrans, Dist 4,
Photographer John Huseby.

small compared to the primary forces and are usually not considered in
their designs. In this chapter, we focus only on primary forces. If large
secondary forces are anticipated, the truss should be analyzed as a rigid
frame using the methods presented in subsequent chapters.

4.2 ARRANGEMENT OF MEMBERS OF PLANE TRUSSESINTERNAL STABILITY

Based on our discussion in Section 3.4, we can dene a plane truss as
internally stable if the number and geometric arrangement of its mem-
bers is such that the truss does not change its shape and remains a rigid
body when detached from the supports. The term internal is used here to
refer to the number and arrangement of members contained within the
truss. The instability due to insucient external supports or due to im-
proper arrangement of external supports is referred to as external.

Basic Truss Element

The simplest internally stable (or rigid) plane truss can be formed by
connecting three members at their ends by hinges to form a triangle, as
shown in Fig. 4.9(a). This triangular truss is called the basic truss ele-
ment. Note that this triangular truss is internally stable in the sense that
it is a rigid body that will not change its shape under loads. In contrast,
a rectangular truss formed by connecting four members at their ends by
hinges, as shown in Fig. 4.9(b), is internally unstable because it will
96 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.9

change its shape and collapse when subjected to a general system of co-
planar forces.

Simple Trusses
The basic truss element ABC of Fig. 4.10(a) can be enlarged by attach-
ing two new members, BD and CD, to two of the existing joints B and C
and by connecting them to form a new joint D, as shown in Fig. 4.10(b).
As long as the new joint D does not lie on the straight line passing
through the existing joints B and C, the new enlarged truss will be in-
ternally stable. The truss can be further enlarged by repeating the same
procedure (as shown in Fig. 4.10(c)) as many times as desired. Trusses
constructed by this procedure are called simple trusses. The reader
should examine the trusses depicted in Figs. 4.4 and 4.5 to verify that
each of them, with the exception of the Baltimore truss (Fig. 4.4) and
the Fink truss (Fig. 4.5), is a simple truss. The basic truss element of the
simple trusses is identied as ABC in these gures.
A simple truss is formed by enlarging the basic truss element, which
contains three members and three joints, by adding two additional
members for each additional joint, so the total number of members m in
a simple truss is given by
m 3 2 j  3 2j  3 (4.1)
in which j total number of joints (including those attached to the
supports).

FIG. 4.10 Simple Truss

 SECTION 4.2 Arrangement of Members of Plane TrussesInternal Stability 97

FIG. 4.11 Compound Trusses

Compound Trusses
Compound trusses are constructed by connecting two or more simple
trusses to form a single rigid body. To prevent any relative movement
between the simple trusses, each truss must be connected to the other(s)
by means of connections capable of transmitting at least three force
components, all of which are neither parallel nor concurrent. Two ex-
amples of connection arrangements used to form compound trusses are
shown in Fig. 4.11. In Fig. 4.11(a), two simple trusses ABC and DEF are
connected by three members, BD; CD, and BF , which are nonparallel
and nonconcurrent. Another type of connection arrangement is shown
in Fig. 4.11(b). This involves connecting the two simple trusses ABC
and DEF by a common joint C and a member BD. In order for the
compound truss to be internally stable, the common joint C and joints B
and D must not lie on a straight line. The relationship between the total
number of members m and the total number of joints j for an internally
stable compound truss remains the same as for the simple trusses. This
relationship, which is given by Eq. (4.1), can be easily veried for the
compound trusses shown in Fig. 4.11.

Internal Stability
Equation (4.1) expresses the requirement of the minimum number of
members that a plane truss of j joints must contain if it is to be in-
ternally stable. If a plane truss contains m members and j joints, then if
m < 2j  3 the truss is internally unstable
(4.2)
m b 2j  3 the truss is internally stable
98 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

It is very important to realize that although the foregoing criterion

for internal stability is necessary, it is not sucient to ensure internal
stability. A truss must not only contain enough members to satisfy the
m b 2j  3 condition, but the members must also be properly arranged
to ensure rigidity of the entire truss. Recall from our discussion of sim-
ple and compound trusses that in a stable truss, each joint is connected
to the rest of the structure by at least two nonparallel members, and
each portion of the truss must be connected to the remainder of the truss
by connections capable of transmitting at least three nonparallel and
nonconcurrent force components.

Example 4.1

Classify each of the plane trusses shown in Fig. 4.12 as internally stable or unstable.

Solution
(a) The truss shown in Fig. 4.12(a) contains 20 members and 12 joints. Therefore, m 20 and
2j  3 212  3 21. Since m is less than 2j  3, this truss does not have a sucient number of members to form a
rigid body; therefore, it is internally unstable. A careful look at the truss shows that it contains two rigid bodies, ABCD
and EFGH, connected by two parallel members, BE and DG. These two horizontal members cannot prevent the rela-
tive displacement in the vertical direction of one rigid part of the truss with respect to the other. Ans.
(b) The truss shown in Fig. 4.12(b) is the same as that of Fig. 4.12(a), except that a diagonal member DE has now
been added to prevent the relative displacement between the two portions ABCD and EFGH. The entire truss now acts
as a single rigid body. Addition of member DE increases the number of members to 21 (while the number of joints re-
mains the same at 12), thereby satisfying the equation m 2j  3. The truss is now internally stable. Ans.
(c) Four more diagonals are added to the truss of Fig. 4.12(b) to obtain the truss shown in Fig. 4.12(c), thereby
increasing m to 25, while j remains constant at 12. Because m > 2j  3, the truss is internally stable. Also, since the
dierence m  2j  3 4, the truss contains four more members than required for internal stability. Ans.
(d) The truss shown in Fig. 4.12(d) is obtained from that of Fig. 4.12(c) by removing two diagonals, BG and DE,
from panel BE, thereby decreasing m to 23; j remains constant at 12. Although m  2j  3 2that is, the truss
contains two more members than the minimum required for internal stabilityits two rigid portions, ABCD and
EFGH, are not connected properly to form a single rigid body. Therefore, the truss is internally unstable. Ans.
(e) The roof truss shown in Fig. 4.12(e) is internally unstable because m 26 and j 15, thereby yielding
m < 2j  3. This is also clear from the diagram of the truss which shows that the portions ABE and CDE of the truss
can rotate with respect to each other. The dierence m  2j  3 1 indicates that this truss has one less member
than required for internal stability. Ans.
(f ) In Fig. 4.12(f ), a member BC has been added to the truss of Fig. 4.12(e), which prevents the relative movement
of the two portions ABE and CDE, thereby making the truss internally stable. As m has now been increased to 27, it
satises the equation m 2j  3 for j 15. Ans.
(g) The tower truss shown in Fig. 4.12(g) has 16 members and 10 joints. Because m < 2j  3, the truss is internally
unstable. This is also obvious from Fig. 4.12(g), which shows that member BC can rotate with respect to the rest of the
continued
 SECTION 4.2 Arrangement of Members of Plane TrussesInternal Stability 99

FIG. 4.12

structure. This rotation can occur because joint C is connected by only one member instead of the two required to com-
pletely constrain a joint of a plane truss. Ans.
(h) In Fig. 4.12(h), a member AC has been added to the truss of Fig. 4.12(g), which makes it internally stable. Here
m 17 and j 10, so the equation m 2j  3 is satised. Ans.
100 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

4.3 EQUATIONS OF CONDITION FOR PLANE TRUSSES

In Section 3.4, we indicated that the types of connections used to con-
nect rigid portions of internally unstable structures provide equations of
condition that, along with the three equilibrium equations, can be used
to determine the reactions needed to constrain such structures fully.
Three types of connection arrangements commonly used to connect
two rigid trusses to form a single (internally unstable) truss are shown in
Fig. 4.13. In Fig. 4.13(a), two rigid trusses, AB and BC, are connected
together by an internal hinge at B. Because an internal hinge cannot
transmit moment, it provides an equation of condition:
P AB P BC
MB 0 or MB 0
Another type of connection arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.13(b).
This involves connecting two rigid trusses, AB and CD, by two parallel
members. Since these parallel (horizontal) bars cannot transmit force in
the direction perpendicular to them, this type of connection provides an
equation of condition:
P AB P CD
Fy 0 or Fy 0
A third type of connection arrangement involves connecting two rigid
trusses, AB and CD, by a single link, BC, as shown in Fig. 4.13(c). Since
a link can neither transmit moment nor force in the direction perpen-
dicular to it, it provides two equations of condition:
P AB P CD
Fx 0 or Fx 0
and
P P
MBAB 0 or MCCD 0
As we indicated in the previous chapter, these equations of con-
dition can be used with the three equilibrium equations to determine the
unknown reactions of externally statically determinate plane trusses. The
reader should verify that all three trusses shown in Fig. 4.13 are stat-
ically determinate externally.

4.4 STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND INSTABILITY OF PLANE TRUSSES

We consider a truss to be statically determinate if the forces in all its

members, as well as all the external reactions, can be determined by using
the equations of equilibrium.
Since the two methods of analysis presented in the following
sections can be used to analyze only statically determinate trusses, it is
 SECTION 4.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane Trusses 101

4.13 Equations of Condition for

FIG.
Plane Trusses

important for the student to be able to recognize statically determinate

trusses before proceeding with the analysis.
Consider a plane truss subjected to external loads P1 ; P2 , and P3 , as
shown in Fig. 4.14(a). The free-body diagrams of the ve members and
the four joints are shown in Fig. 4.14(b). Each member is subjected to
two axial forces at its ends, which are collinear (with the member cen-
troidal axis) and equal in magnitude but opposite in sense. Note that in
Fig. 4.14(b), all members are assumed to be in tension; that is, the forces
are pulling on the members. The free-body diagrams of the joints show
the same member forces but in opposite directions, in accordance with
Newtons third law. The analysis of the truss involves the calculation of
102 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.14

the magnitudes of the ve member forces, FAB ; FAC ; FBC ; FBD , and FCD
(the lines of action of these forces are known), and the three reactions,
Ax ; Ay , and By . Therefore, the total number of unknown quantities to be
determined is eight.
Because the entire truss is in equilibrium, each of its joints must also
be in equilibrium. As shown in Fig. 4.14(b), at each joint the internal
and external forces form a coplanar and concurrentP force system, P which
must satisfy the two equations of equilibrium, Fx 0 and Fy 0.
Since the truss contains four joints, the total number of equations avail-
able is 24 8. These eight joint equilibrium equations can be solved
to calculate the eight unknowns. The plane truss of Fig. 4.14(a) is,
therefore, statically determinate.
SECTION 4.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane Trusses 103

Three equations of equilibrium of the entire truss as a rigid body

could be written and solved for the three unknown reactions (Ax ; Ay ,
and By ). However, these equilibrium equations (as well as the equations
of condition in the case of internally unstable trusses) are not in-
dependent from the joint equilibrium equations and do not contain any
additional information.
Based on the preceding discussion, we can develop the criteria for
the static determinacy, indeterminacy, and instability of general plane
trusses containing m members and j joints and supported by r (number
of ) external reactions. For the analysis, we need to determine m member
forces and r external reactions; that is, we need to calculate a total
of m r unknown quantities. SinceP there are P j joints and we can write
two equations of equilibrium ( Fx 0 and Fy 0) for each joint,
the total number of equilibrium equations available is 2j. If the number
of unknowns m r for a truss is equal to the number of equilibrium
equations 2jthat is, m r 2jall the unknowns can be de-
termined by solving the equations of equilibrium, and the truss is stat-
ically determinate.
If a truss has more unknowns m r than the available equili-
brium equations 2jthat is, m r > 2jall the unknowns cannot
be determined by solving the available equations of equilibrium. Such
a truss is called statically indeterminate. Statically indeterminate
trusses have more members and/or external reactions than the mini-
mum required for stability. The excess members and reactions are
called redundants, and the number of excess members and reactions is
referred to as the degree of static indeterminacy, i, which can be ex-
pressed as

i m r  2j (4.3)

If the number of unknowns m r for a truss is less than the

number of equations of joint equilibrium 2jthat is, m r < 2j
the truss is called statically unstable. The static instability may be due to
the truss having fewer members than the minimum required for internal
stability or due to an insucient number of external reactions or both.
The conditions of static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy
of plane trusses can be summarized as follows:

m r < 2j statically unstable truss

m r 2j statically determinate truss (4.4)
m r > 2j statically indeterminate truss

The rst condition, for the static instability of trusses, is both necessary
and sucient in the sense that if m < 2j  r, the truss is denitely stat-
ically unstable. However, the remaining two conditions, for static
104 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

determinacy m 2j  r and indeterminacy m > 2j  r, are necessary

but not sucient conditions. In other words, these two equations simply
tell us that the number of members and reactions is sucient for stabil-
ity. They do not provide any information regarding their arrangement.
A truss may have a sucient number of members and external reactions
but may still be unstable due to improper arrangement of members and/
or external supports.
We emphasize that in order for the criteria for static determinacy
and indeterminacy, as given by Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4), to be valid, the truss
must be stable and act as a single rigid body under a general system of
coplanar loads when attached to the supports. Internally stable trusses
must be supported by at least three reactions, all of which must be nei-
ther parallel nor concurrent. If a truss is internally unstable, then it must
be supported by reactions equal in number to at least three plus the
number of equations of condition 3 ec , and all the reactions must be
neither parallel nor concurrent. In addition, each joint, member, and
portion of the truss must be constrained against all possible rigid body
movements in the plane of the truss, either by the rest of the truss or by
external supports. If a truss contains a sucient number of members,
but they are not properly arranged, the truss is said to have critical form.
For some trusses, it may not be obvious from the drawings whether or
not their members are arranged properly. However, if the member ar-
rangement is improper, it will become evident during the analysis of the
truss. The analysis of such unstable trusses will always lead to incon-
sistent, indeterminate, or innite results.

Example 4.2

Classify each of the plane trusses shown in Fig. 4.15 as unstable, statically determinate, or statically indeterminate. If
the truss is statically indeterminate, then determine the degree of static indeterminacy.

Solution
(a) The truss shown in Fig. 4.15(a) contains 17 members and 10 joints and is supported by 3 reactions. Thus,
m r 2j. Since the three reactions are neither parallel nor concurrent and the members of the truss are properly ar-
ranged, it is statically determinate. Ans.
(b) For this truss, m 17, j 10, and r 2. Because m r < 2j, the truss is unstable. Ans.
(c) For this truss, m 21, j 10, and r 3. Because m r > 2j, the truss is statically indeterminate, with the de-
gree of static indeterminacy i m r  2j 4. It should be obvious from Fig. 4.15(c) that the truss contains four
more members than required for stability. Ans.
(d) This truss has m 16, j 10, and r 3. The truss is unstable, since m r < 2j. Ans.

continued
 SECTION 4.4 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane Trusses 105

FIG. 4.15 continued

106 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

(e) This truss is composed of two rigid portions, AB and BC, connected by an internal hinge at B. The truss has
m 26, j 15, and r 4. Thus, m r 2j. The four reactions are neither parallel nor concurrent and the entire truss
is properly constrained, so the truss is statically determinate. Ans.
(f ) For this truss, m 10, j 7, and r 3. Because m r < 2j, the truss is unstable. Ans.
(g) In Fig. 4.15(g), a member BC has been added to the truss of Fig. 4.15(f ), which prevents the relative
rotation of the two portions ABE and CDE. Since m has now been increased to 11, with j and r kept con-
stant at 7 and 3, respectively, the equation m r 2j is satised. Thus, the truss of Fig. 4.15(g) is statically
determinate. Ans.
(h) The truss of Fig. 4.15(f ) is stabilized by replacing the roller support at D by a hinged support, as shown in Fig.
4.15(h). Thus, the number of reactions has been increased to 4, but m and j remain constant at 10 and 7, respectively.
With m r 2j, the truss is now statically determinate. Ans.
(i) For the tower truss shown in Fig. 4.15(i), m 16, j 10, and r 4. Because m r 2j, the truss is statically
determinate. Ans.
( j) This truss has m 13, j 8, and r 3. Although m r 2j, the truss is unstable, because it contains two
rigid portions ABCD and EFGH connected by three parallel members, BF ; CE, and DH, which cannot prevent the
relative displacement, in the vertical direction, of one rigid part of the truss with respect to the other. Ans.
(k) For the truss shown in Fig. 4.15(k), m 19, j 12, and r 5. Because m r 2j, the truss is statically de-
terminate. Ans.

4.5 ANALYSIS OF PLANE TRUSSES BY THE METHOD OF JOINTS

In the method of joints, the axial forces in the members of a statically

determinate truss are determined by considering the equilibrium of its
joints. Since the entire truss is in equilibrium, each of its joints must
also be in equilibrium. At each joint of the truss, the member forces
and any applied loads and reactions form a coplanar concurrent
force systemP (see Fig. 4.14),
P which must satisfy two equilibrium
equations, Fx 0 and Fy 0, in order for the joint to be in
equilibrium. These two equilibrium equations must be satised at
each joint of the truss. There are only two equations of equilibrium
at a joint, so they cannot be used to determine more than two un-
known forces.
The method of joints consists of selecting a joint with no more than
two unknown forces (which must not be collinear) acting on it and ap-
plying the two equilibrium equations to determine the unknown forces.
The procedure may be repeated until all the desired forces have been
obtained. As we discussed in the preceding section, all the unknown
member forces and the reactions can be determined from the joint equi-
librium equations, but in many trusses it may not be possible to nd
 SECTION 4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints 107

a joint with two or fewer unknowns to start the analysis unless the re-
actions are known beforehand. In such cases, the reactions are com-
puted by using the equations of equilibrium and condition (if any) for
the entire truss before proceeding with the method of joints to determine
member forces.
To illustrate the analysis by this method, consider the truss shown in
Fig. 4.16(a). The truss contains ve members, four joints, and three
reactions. Since m r 2j, the truss is statically determinate. The
free-body diagrams of all the members and the joints are given in
Fig. 4.16(b). Because the member forces are not yet known, the sense of
axial forces (tension or compression) in the members has been arbitra-
rily assumed. As shown in Fig. 4.16(b), members AB; BC, and AD are
assumed to be in tension, with axial forces tending to elongate the
members, whereas members BD and CD are assumed to be in com-
pression, with axial forces tending to shorten them. The free-body dia-
grams of the joints show the member forces in directions opposite to
their directions on the member ends in accordance with Newtons law of
action and reaction. Focusing our attention on the free-body diagram of
joint C, we observe that the tensile force FBC is pulling away on the joint,
whereas the compressive force FCD is pushing toward the joint. This eect
of members in tension pulling on the joints and members in compression
pushing into the joints can be seen on the free-body diagrams of all the
joints shown in Fig. 4.16(b). The free-body diagrams of members are
usually omitted in the analysis and only those of joints are drawn, so it
is important to understand that a tensile member axial force is always
indicated on the joint by an arrow pulling away on the joint, and a com-
pressive member axial force is always indicated by an arrow pushing to-
ward the joint.
The analysis of the truss by the method of joints is started by se-
lecting a joint that has two or fewer unknown forces (which must not be
collinear) acting on it. An examination of the free-body diagrams of
the joints in Fig. 4.16(b) indicates that none of the joints satises this
requirement. We therefore compute reactions by applying the three
equilibrium equations to the free body of the entire truss shown in
Fig. 4.16(c), as follows:
P
! Fx 0 Ax  28 0 Ax 28 k !
P
MC 0 Ay 35 2820 4215 0 Ay 34 k "
P
" Fy 0 34  42 Cy 0 Cy 8 k "

Having determined the reactions, we can now begin computing

member forces either at joint A, which now has two unknown forces,
FAB and FAD , or at joint C, which also has two unknowns, FBC and FCD .
Let us start with joint A. The free-body diagram of this joint is shown
in Fig. 4.16(d). Although we could use the sines and cosines of the
108 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.16
 SECTION 4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints 109

angles of inclination of inclined members in writing the joint equilibrium

equations, it is usually more convenient to use the slopes of the in-
clined members instead. The slope of an inclined member is simply
the ratio of the vertical projection of the length of the member
to the horizontal projection of its length. For example, from
Fig. 4.16(a), we can see that member CD of the truss under con-
sideration rises 20 ft in the vertical direction over a horizontal dis-
tance of 15 ft. Therefore, the slope of this member is 20:15, or 4:3.
Similarly, we can see that the slope of member AD is 1:1. The
slopes of inclined members thus determined from the dimensions of
the truss are usually depicted on the diagram of the truss by means
of small right-angled triangles drawn on the inclined members, as
shown in Fig. 4.16(a).
Refocusing our attention on the free-body diagram of joint A in
Fig. 4.16(d), we determine the unknowns FAB and FAD by applying the
two equilibrium equations:
P 1
" Fy 0 34 p FAD 0 FAD 48:08 k
2
48:08 k C
P 1
! Fx 0 28  p 48:08 FAB 0 FAB 6 k
2
6 k T
Note that the equilibrium equations were applied in such an order so
that each equation contains only one unknown. The negative answer
for FAD indicates that the member AD is in compression instead of in
tension, as initially assumed, whereas the positive answer for FAB in-
dicates that the assumed sense of axial force (tension) in member AB
was correct.
Next, we draw the free-body diagram of joint B, as shown in
Fig. 4.16(e), and determine FBC and FBD as follows:
P
! Fx 0 6 FBC 0 FBC 6 k; or FBC 6 k T
P
" Fy 0 FBD 0 FBD 0
P
Applying the equilibrium equation Fx 0 to the free-body
diagram of joint C (Fig. 4.16(f )), we obtain
P 3
! Fx 0 6 FCD 0 FCD 10 k; or
5
FCD 10 k C
We have determined all thePmember forces, so the Pthree re-
maining equilibrium equations, Fy 0 at joint C and Fx 0
110 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses
P
and Fy 0 at joint D, can be used to check our calculations.
Thus, at joint C,

P 4
" Fy 8  10 0 Checks
5

and at joint D (Fig. 4.16(g)),

P 1 3
! Fx 28 p 48:08  10 0 Checks
2 5

P 1 4
" Fy p 48:08  42 10 0 Checks
2 5

In the preceding paragraphs, the analysis of a truss has been carried

out by drawing a free-body diagram and writing the two equilibrium
equations for each of its joints. However, the analysis of trusses can be
considerably expedited if we can determine some (preferably all) of the
member forces by inspectionthat is, without drawing the joint free-
body diagrams and writing the equations of equilibrium. This approach
can be conveniently used for the joints at which at least one of the
two unknown forces is acting in the horizontal or vertical direction.
When both of the unknown forces at a joint have inclined directions, it
usually becomes necessary to draw the free-body diagram of the joint
and determine the unknowns by solving the equilibrium equations si-
multaneously. To illustrate this procedure, consider again the truss
of Fig. 4.16(a). The free-body diagram of the entire truss is shown in
Fig. 4.16(c), which also shows the support reactions computed pre-
viously. Focusing our attention on joint A in this P gure, we observe that
in order to satisfy the equilibrium equation Fy 0 at joint A, the
vertical component of FAD must push downward into the joint with a
magnitude of 34 k to balance the vertically upward reaction of 34 k. The
fact that member AD is in compression is indicated on the diagram of
the truss by drawing arrows near joints A and D pushing into the joints,
as shown in Fig. 4.16(c). Because the magnitude of the vertical compo-
nent of FAD has been found to be 34 k and since the slope of member
AD is 1:1, the magnitude of the horizontal component of FAD must also
be
p 34 k; therefore, the magnitude of the resultant force FAD is FAD
34 2 34 2 48:08 k. The components of FAD , as well as FAD itself
are shown on the corresponding sides of a right-angled triangle drawn
on member AD, as shown in Fig. 4.16(c). With the horizontal compo-
nent of FAD now known, we observe P (from Fig. 4.16(c)) that in order to
satisfy the equilibrium equation Fx 0 at joint A, the force in mem-
ber AB FAB must pull to the right on the joint with a magnitude of 6 k
to balance the horizontal component of FAD of 34 k acting to the left
and the horizontal reaction of 28 k acting to the right. The magnitude of
FAB is now written on member AB, and the arrows, pulling away on the
 SECTION 4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints 111

joints, are drawn near joints A and B to indicate that member AB is in

tension.
Next, we focus our attention on joint B of theP truss. It should be
obvious from Fig. 4.16(c) that in order to satisfy P Fy 0 at B, the
force in member BD must be zero. To satisfy Fx 0, the force in
member BC must have a magnitude of 6 k, and it must pull to the right
on joint B, indicating tension in member BC. This latest information
is recorded in the diagram of the truss in Fig. 4.16(c). Considering now
the equilibrium
P of joint C, we can see from the gure that in order to
satisfy Fy 0, the vertical component of FCD must push downward
into the joint with a magnitude of 8 k to balance the vertically upward
reaction of 8 k. Thus, member CD is in compression. Since the magni-
tude of the vertical component of FCD is 8 k and since the slope of
member CD is 4:3, the magnitude of the horizontal component of FCD
is equal to 3=48 6 k; therefore, the magnitude of FCD itself is
p
FCD 6 2 8 2 10 k. Having determined all the member forces,
we
P check our computations P by applying P the equilibrium equations
Fx 0 at joint C and Fx 0 and Fy 0 at joint D. The hori-
zontal and vertical components of the member forces are already avail-
able in Fig. 4.16(c), so we can easily check by inspection to nd that
these equations of equilibrium are indeed satised. We must recognize
that all the arrows shown on the diagram of the truss in Fig. 4.16(c) in-
dicate forces acting at the joints (not at the ends of the members).

Identification of Zero-Force Members

Because trusses are usually designed to support several dierent load-
ing conditions, it is not uncommon to nd members with zero forces
in them when a truss is being analyzed for a particular loading con-
dition. Zero-force members are also added to trusses to brace compres-
sion members against buckling and slender tension members against
vibrating. The analysis of trusses can be expedited if we can identify the
zero-force members by inspection. Two common types of member ar-
rangements that result in zero-force members are the following:
1. If only two noncollinear members are connected to a joint that has
no external loads or reactions applied to it, then the force in both
members is zero.
2. If three members, two of which are collinear, are connected to a
joint that has no external loads or reactions applied to it, then the
force in the member that is not collinear is zero.
The rst type of arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.17(a). It consists
of two noncollinear members AB and AC connected to a joint A.
Note that no external loads or reactions are applied to the joint. From
this
P gure we can see that in order to satisfy the equilibrium equation
Fy 0, the y component of FAB must be zero; therefore, FAB 0.
112 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.17

Because
P the x component of FAB is zero, the second equilibrium equa-
tion, Fx 0, can be satised only if FAC is also zero.
The second type of arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.17(b), and it
consists of three members, AB; AC, and AD, connected together at a
joint A. Note that two of the three members, AB and AD, are collinear.
We can see from the gure that since there is no external load or re-
the joint to balance the y component of FAC , the equi-
action applied to P
librium equation Fy 0 can be satised only if FAC is zero.

Example 4.3

Identify all zero-force members in the Fink roof truss subjected to an unbalanced snow load, as shown in Fig. 4.18.

Solution
It can be seen from the gure that at joint B, three members, AB; BC, and BJ, are connected, of which AB and BC are
collinear and BJ is not. Since no external loads are applied at joint B, member BJ is a zero-force member. A similar
reasoning can be used for joint D to identify member DN as a zero-force member. Next, we focus our attention on

continued
 SECTION 4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints 113

FIG. 4.18

joint J, where four members, AJ; BJ; CJ, and JK, are connected and no external loads are applied. We have already
identied BJ as a zero-force member. Of the three remaining members, AJ and JK are collinear; therefore, CJ must be
a zero-force member. Similarly, at joint N, member CN is identied as a zero-force member; the same type of argu-
ments can be used for joint C to identify member CK as a zero-force member and for joint K to identify member KN as
a zero-force member. Finally, we consider joint N, where four members, CN; DN; EN, and KN, are connected, of
which three members, CN; DN, and KN, have already been identied as zero-force members. No external loads are
applied at joint N, so the force in the remaining member, EN, must also be zero.

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for the analysis of
statically determinate simple plane trusses by the method of joints.
1. Check the truss for static determinacy, as discussed in the preced-
ing section. If the truss is found to be statically determinate and
stable, proceed to step 2. Otherwise, end the analysis at this stage.
(The analysis of statically indeterminate trusses is considered in Part
Three of this text.)
2. Identify by inspection any zero-force members of the truss.
3. Determine the slopes of the inclined members (except the zero-force
members) of the truss.
4. Draw a free-body diagram of the whole truss, showing all external
loads and reactions. Write zeros by the members that have been
identied as zero-force members.
5. Examine the free-body diagram of the truss to select a joint that has
no more than two unknown forces (which must not be collinear)
acting on it. If such a joint is found, then go directly to the next
step. Otherwise, determine reactions by applying the three equations
of equilibrium and the equations of condition (if any) to the free
body of the whole truss; then select a joint with two or fewer un-
knowns, and go to the next step.
114 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

6. a. Draw a free-body diagram of the selected joint, showing tensile

forces by arrows pulling away from the joint and compressive
forces by arrows pushing into the joint. It is usually convenient
to assume the unknown member forces to be tensile.
b. Determine the unknown
P forces
P by applying the two equilib-
rium equations Fx 0 and Fy 0. A positive answer for
a member force means that the member is in tension, as initially
assumed, whereas a negative answer indicates that the member
is in compression.
If at least one of the unknown forces acting at the selected
joint is in the horizontal or vertical direction, the unknowns can
be conveniently determined by satisfying the two equilibrium
equations by inspection of the joint on the free-body diagram of
the truss.
7. If all the desired member forces and reactions have been de-
termined, then go to the next step. Otherwise, select another joint
with no more than two unknowns, and return to step 6.
8. If the reactions were determined in step 5 by using the equations of
equilibrium and condition of the whole truss, then apply the re-
maining joint equilibrium equations that have not been utilized so
far to check the calculations. If the reactions were computed by
applying the joint equilibrium equations, then use the equilibrium
equations of the entire truss to check the calculations. If the analysis
has been performed correctly, then these extra equilibrium equations
must be satised.

Example 4.4

Determine the force in each member of the Warren truss shown in Fig. 4.19(a) by the method of joints.

Solution
Static Determinacy The truss has 13 members and 8 joints and is supported by 3 reactions. Because m r 2j and
the reactions and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate.
Zero-Force Members It can be seen from Fig. 4.19(a) that at joint G, three members, CG; FG, and GH, are con-
nected, of which FG and GH are collinear and CG is not. Since no external load is applied at joint G, member CG is a
zero-force member.
FCG 0 Ans.
From the dimensions of the truss, we nd that all inclined members have slopes of 3:4, as shown in
Fig. 4.19(a). The free-body diagram of the entire truss is shown in Fig. 4.19(b). As a joint with two or fewer
unknownswhich should not be collinearcannot be found, we calculate the support reactions. (Although joint
G has only two unknown forces, FFG and FGH P, acting on it, these forces are collinear, so they cannot be de-
termined from the joint equilibrium equation, Fx 0.)
continued
 SECTION 4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints 115

FIG. 4.19

Reactions By using proportions,

     
3 1 1
Ay 24 30 12 36
4 2 4
P
Fy 0 Ey 24 30 12  36 30 k
P
Fx 0 Ax 0
P
Joint A Focusing our attention on joint A in Fig. 4.19(b), we observe that in order to satisfy Fy 0, the vertical
component of FAF must push downward into the joint with a magnitude of 36 k to balance the upward reaction of 36 k.
The slope of member AF is 3:4, so the magnitude of the horizontal component of FAF is 4=336, or 48 k. Thus, the
p
force in member AF is compressive, with a magnitude of FAF 48 2 36 2 60 k.
FAF 60 k C Ans.
P
With the horizontal component of FAF now known, we can see from the gure that in order for Fx 0 to be
satised, FAB must pull to the right with a magnitude of 48 k to balance the horizontal component of FAF of 48 k acting
to the left. Therefore, member AB is in tension with a force of 48 k.
FAB 48 k T Ans.
P
Joint B Next, we consider the equilibrium of joint B. Applying Fx 0, we obtain FBC .
FBC 48 k T Ans.
P
From Fy 0, we obtain FBF .
FBF 24 k T Ans.
continued
116 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

Joint F This joint now has two unknowns, FCF and FFG , so they can be P determined by applying the equations of
equilibrium as follows. We can see from Fig. 4.19(b) that in order to satisfy Fy 0, the vertical component of FCF
must pull downward on joint F with a magnitude of 36  24 12 k. Using the 3:4 slope of member CF , we obtain the
magnitude of the horizontal component as 4=312 16 k and the magnitude of FCF itself as 20 k.
FCF 20 k T Ans.
P
Considering the equilibrium of joint F in the horizontal direction Fx 0, it should be obvious from Fig.
4.19(b) that FFG must push to the left on the joint with a magnitude of 48 16 64 k.
FFG 64 k C Ans.
P
Joint G Similarly, by applying Fx 0, we obtain FGH .
FGH 64 k C Ans.
P
Note that the second equilibrium equation, Fy 0, at this joint has already been utilized in the identication of
member CG as a zero-force member.
P
Joint C By considering equilibrium in the vertical direction, Fy 0, we observe (from Fig. 4.19(b)) that member
CH should be in tension and that the magnitude of the vertical component of its force must be equal to 30  12 18 k.
Therefore, the magnitudes of the horizontal component of FCH and of FCH itself are 24 k and 30 k, respectively, as
shown in Fig. 4.19(b).
FCH 30 k T Ans.
P
By considering equilibrium in the horizontal direction, Fx 0, we observe that member CD must be in tension
and that the magnitude of its force should be equal to 48 16  24 40 k.
FCD 40 k T Ans.
P
Joint D By applying Fx 0, we obtain FDE .
FDE 40 k T Ans.
P
From Fy 0, we determine FDH .
FDH 12 k T Ans.

P Joint E Considering the vertical components of all the forces acting at joint E, we nd that in order to satisfy
Fy 0, the vertical component of FEH must push downward into joint E with a magnitude of 30 k to balance the
upward reaction Ey 30 k. The magnitude of the horizontal component of FEH is equal to 4=330, or 40 k. Thus,
FEH is a compressive force with a magnitude of 50 k.
FEH 50 k C Ans.
Checking Computations To check our computations, we apply the following remaining joint equilibrium equations
(see Fig. 4.19(b)). At joint E,
P
! Fx 40 40 0 Checks
At joint H,
P
! Fx 64  24  40 0 Checks
P
" Fy 18  12 30 0 Checks
 SECTION 4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints 117

Example 4.5

Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 4.20(a) by the method of joints.

Solution
Static Determinacy The truss is composed of 7 members and 5 joints and is supported by 3 reactions. Thus,
m r 2j. Since the reactions and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate.
From the dimensions of the truss given in Fig. 4.20(a), we nd that all inclined members have slopes of 12:5. Since
joint E has two unknown non-collinear forces, FCE and FDE , acting on it, we can begin the method of joints without
rst calculating the support reactions.
P
Joint E Focusing our attention on joint E in Fig. 4.20(b), we observe that in order to satisfy Fx 0, the hori-
zontal component of FDE must push to the left into the joint with a magnitude of 25 kN to balance the 25 kN external
load acting to the right. The slope of member DE is 12:5, so the magnitude of the vertical component of FDE is
12=525, or 60 kN. Thus, the force in member DE is compressive, with a magnitude of
q
FDE 25 2 60 2 65 kN
FDE 65 kN C Ans.
P
With the vertical component of FDE now known, we can see from the gure that in order for Fy 0 to be sat-
ised, FCE must pull downward on joint E with a magnitude of 60  30 30 kN.
FCE 30 kN T Ans.
P
Joint C Next, we consider the equilibrium of joint C. Applying Fx 0, we obtain FCD .
FCD 50 kN C Ans.
P
From Fy 0, we obtain FAC .
FAC 30 kN T Ans.
Joint D Both of the unknown forces, FAD and FBD , acting at this joint have inclined directions, so we draw the free-
body diagram of this joint as shown in Fig. 4.20(c) and determine the unknowns by solving the equilibrium equations
simultaneously:
P 5 5 5
! Fx 0 50 65  FAD FBD 0
13 13 13
P 12 12 12
" Fy 0  65  FAD  FBD 0
13 13 13
Solving these equations simultaneously, we obtain
FAD 65 kN and FBD 130 kN
FAD 65 kN T Ans.
FBD 130 kN C Ans.
P
Joint B (See Fig. 4.20(b).) By considering the equilibrium of joint B in the horizontal direction Fx 0, we
obtain FAB .
FAB 50 kN T Ans.
continued
118 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

30 kN 30

25 kN E E
25

5 25
6m
13 12 30 65 60

50 kN D 50
C 50 D
C 50

6m
30 65 60 130 120 y

25
A B 50
Ax = 75 B x
A
5m
Ay = 90 By = 120
(a) (b)

65

50 D
5 5
12 13 12
13

FAD FBD
(c)

FIG. 4.20

P
Having determined all the member forces, we apply the remaining equilibrium equation Fy 0 at joint B to cal-
culate the support reaction By .
By 120 kN " Ans.
P
Joint A By applying Fx 0, we obtain Ax .
Ax 75 kN Ans.
continued
 SECTION 4.5 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Joints 119

P
From Fy 0, we obtain Ay .
Ay 90 kN # Ans.
Checking Computations To check our computations, we consider the equilibrium of the entire truss. Applying the
three equilibrium equations to the free body of the entire truss shown in Fig. 4.20(b), we obtain
P
! Fx 25 50  75 0 Checks
P
" Fy 30  90 120 0 Checks
P
MB 305  2512  506 905 0 Checks

Example 4.6

Determine the force in each member of the three-hinged trussed arch shown in Fig. 4.21(a) by the method of joints.

Solution
Static Determinacy The truss contains 10 members and 7 joints and is supported by 4 reactions. Since m r 2j
and the reactions and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate. Note that since
m < 2j  3, the truss is not internally stable, and it will not remain a rigid body when it is detached from its supports.
However, when attached to the supports, the truss will maintain its shape and can be treated as a rigid body.
Zero-Force Members It can be seen from Fig. 4.21(a) that at joint C, three members, AC; CE, and CF , are con-
nected, of which members AC and CF are collinear. Since joint C does not have any external load applied to it, the
non-collinear member CE is a zero-force member.
FCE 0 Ans.
Similar reasoning can be used for joint D to identify member DG as a zero-force member.
FDG 0 Ans.

The slopes of the non-zero-force inclined members are shown in Fig. 4.21(a). The free-body diagram of the entire
truss is shown in Fig. 4.21(b). The method of joints can be started either at joint E, or at joint G, since both of these
joints have only two unknowns each.
P
Joint E Beginning with joint E, we observe from Fig. 4.21(b) that in order for Fx 0 to be satised, the force in
member EF must be compressive with a magnitude of 15 kN.
FEF 15 kN C Ans.
P
Similarly, from Fy 0, we obtain FAE .
FAE 10 kN C Ans.
P
Joint G By considering the equilibrium of joint G in the horizontal direction Fx 0, we observe that the force
in member FG is zero.
FFG 0 Ans.
P
Similarly, by applying Fy 0, we obtain FBG .
FBG 10 kN C Ans.
continued
120 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.21

Joint F Next, we consider joint F . Both of the unknown forces, FCF and FDF , acting at this joint have inclined di-
rections, so we draw the free-body diagram of this joint as shown in Fig. 4.21(c) and determine the unknowns by solving
the equilibrium equations simultaneously:
P 1 4
! Fx 0 15  p FCF FDF 0
2 5

P 1 3
" Fy 0 20  p FCF  FDF 0
2 5
continued
 SECTION 4.6 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Sections 121

Solving these equations, we obtain

FDF 25 kN and FCF 7:07 kN

FDF 25 kN C Ans.
FCF 7:07 kN C Ans.

Joint C (See Fig. 4.21(b).) In order for joint C to be in equilibrium, the two nonzero collinear forces acting at it
must be equal and opposite.

FAC 7:07 kN C Ans.

Joint D Using a similar reasoning at joint D, we obtain FBD .

FBD 25 kN C Ans.
Joint A Having determined all the member Pforces, we apply the two equilibrium equations at joint A to calculate
the support reactions, Ax and Ay . By applying Fx 0, we obtain Ax .

Ax 5 kN ! Ans.
P
By applying Fy 0, we nd that Ay is equal to 10 5 15 kN.
Ay 15 kN " Ans.
P
Joint B By applying Fx 0, we obtain Bx .
Bx 20 kN Ans.
P
From Fy 0, we nd that By 15 10 25 kN.
By 25 kN " Ans.
Equilibrium Check of Entire Truss Finally, to check our computations, we consider the equilibrium of the entire
truss. Applying the three equations of equilibrium to the free body of the entire truss shown in Fig. 4.21(b), we have
P
! Fx 5 15  20 0 Checks
P
" Fy 15  10  20  10 25 0 Checks
P
MB 52  1516  156 1016 208 0 Checks

4.6 ANALYSIS OF PLANE TRUSSES BY THE METHOD OF SECTIONS

The method of joints, presented in the preceding section, proves to

be very ecient when forces in all the members of a truss are to be de-
termined. However, if the forces in only certain members of a truss are
desired, the method of joints may not prove to be ecient, because it
may involve calculation of forces in several other members of the truss
122 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

before a joint is reached that can be analyzed for a desired member

force. The method of sections enables us to determine forces in the spe-
cic members of trusses directly, without rst calculating many un-
necessary member forces, as may be required by the method of joints.
The method of sections involves cutting the truss into two portions by
passing an imaginary section through the members whose forces are de-
sired. The desired member forces are then determined by considering the
equilibrium of one of the two portions of the truss. Each portion of the
truss is treated as a rigid body in equilibrium, under the action of any
applied loads and reactions and the forces in the members that have
been cut by the section. The unknown member forces are determined by
applying the three equations of equilibrium to one of the two portions of
the truss. There are only three equilibrium equations available, so they
cannot be used to determine more than three unknown forces. Thus,
in general, sections should be chosen that do not pass through more than
three members with unknown forces. In some trusses, the arrangement of
members may be such that by using sections that pass through more
than three members with unknown forces, we can determine one or, at
most, two unknown forces. Such sections are, however, employed in the
analysis of only certain types of trusses (see Example 4.9).

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for determining the mem-
ber forces of statically determinate plane trusses by the method of sections.
1. Select a section that passes through as many members as possible
whose forces are desired, but not more than three members with
unknown forces. The section should cut the truss into two parts.
2. Although either of the two portions of the truss can be used for
computing the member forces, we should select the portion that will
require the least amount of computational eort in determining the
unknown forces. To avoid the necessity for the calculation of reactions,
if one of the two portions of the truss does not have any reactions act-
ing on it, then select this portion for the analysis of member forces and
go to the next step. If both portions of the truss are attached to external
supports, then calculate reactions by applying the equations of equili-
brium and condition (if any) to the free body of the entire truss. Next,
select the portion of the truss for analysis of member forces that has the
least number of external loads and reactions applied to it.
3. Draw the free-body diagram of the portion of the truss selected,
showing all external loads and reactions applied to it and the forces in
the members that have been cut by the section. The unknown member
forces are usually assumed to be tensile and are, therefore, shown on
the free-body diagram by arrows pulling away from the joints.
 SECTION 4.6 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Sections 123

4. Determine the unknown forces by applying the three equations of

equilibrium. To avoid solving simultaneous equations, try to apply
the equilibrium equations in such a manner that each equation in-
volves only one unknown. This can sometimes be achievedPby using
the
P alternative P systems P of equilibrium
P equationsP ( Fq 0,
MA 0, MB 0 or MA 0, MB 0, MC 0) de-
scribed in Section 3.1 instead P of the usual
P two-force
P summations
and a moment summation ( Fx 0, Fy 0, M 0) system
of equations.
5. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation, which was not used to
compute member forces, to check the calculations. This alternative
equation should preferably involve all three member forces de-
termined by the analysis. If the analysis has been performed cor-
rectly, then this alternative equilibrium equation must be satised.

Example 4.7

Determine the forces in members CD; DG, and GH of the truss shown in Fig. 4.22(a) by the method of sections.

30 k 30 k a 30 k 15 k
E F G H I

12 ft

A B C D
a
4 at 16 ft = 64 ft
(a)

30 k 15 k

FGH H I
y
FDG
4 12 ft
3
5
FCD
D x

16 ft

FIG. 4.22 (b) continued

124 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

Solution
Section aa As shown in Fig. 4.22(a), a section aa is passed through the three members of interest, CD; DG, and
GH, cutting the truss into two portions, ACGE and DHI . To avoid the calculation of support reactions, we will use the
right-hand portion, DHI , to calculate the member forces.
Member Forces The free-body diagram of the portion DHI of the truss is shown in Fig. 4.22(b). All three unknown
forces FCD ; FDG , and FGH , are assumed to be tensile and are indicated by arrows pulling away from the corresponding
joints on the diagram. The slope of the inclined force, FDG , is also shown on the free-body diagram. The desired member
forces are calculated by applying the equilibrium equations as follows (see Fig. 4.22(b)).
P
MD 0 1516 FGH 12 0
FGH 20 k T Ans.
P 3
" Fy 0 30  15 FDG 0
5
FDG 75 k T Ans.
P 4
! Fx 0 20  75  FCD 0
5
FCD 80 k
The negative answer for FCD indicates that our initial assumption about this force being tensile was incorrect, and FCD is
actually a compressive force.
FCD 80 k C Ans.
Checking Computations (See Fig. 4.22(b).)
P 4 3
MI 3016  8012  7512  7516 0 Checks
5 5

Example 4.8

Determine the forces in members CJ and IJ of the truss shown in Fig. 4.23(a) by the method of sections.

Solution
Section aa As shown in Fig. 4.23(a), a section aa is passed through members IJ; CJ, and CD, cutting the truss into
two portions, ACI and DGJ. The left-hand portion, ACI , will be used to analyze the member forces.

Reactions Before proceeding with the calculation of member forces, we need to determine reactions at support A.
By considering the equilibrium of the entire truss (Fig. 4.23(b)), we determine the reactions to be Ax 0, Ay 50 k ",
and Gy 50 k ".

continued
 SECTION 4.6 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Sections 125

FIG. 4.23

Member Forces The free-body diagram of the portion ACI of the truss is shown in Fig. 4.23(c). The slopes of the
inclined forces, FIJ and FCJ , are obtained from the dimensions of the truss given in Fig. 4.23(a) and are shown on the
free-body diagram. The unknown member forces are determined by applying the equations of equilibrium, as follows.
Because FCJ and FCD pass through point C, by summing moments about C, we obtain an equation containing
only FIJ :
P 4
MC 0 5040 2020  p FIJ 25 0
17
FIJ 65:97 k
continued
126 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

The negative answer for FIJ indicates that our initial assumption about this force being tensile was incorrect. Force FIJ
is actually a compressive force.
FIJ 65:97 k C Ans.
Next, we calculate FCJ by summing moments about point O, which is the point of intersection of the lines of action
of FIJ and FCD . Because the slope of member IJ is 1:4, the distance OC 4IC 425 100 ft (see Fig. 4.23(c)).
Equilibrium of moments about O yields
P 3
MO 0 5060  2080  20100 p FCJ 100 0
13
FCJ 7:21 k T Ans.
Checking Computations To check our computations, we apply an alternative equation of equilibrium, which in-
volves the two member forces just determined.
P 1 3
" Fy 50  20  20  p 65:97 p 7:21 0 Checks
17 13

Example 4.9

Determine the forces in members FJ; HJ, and HK of the K truss shown in Fig. 4.24(a) by the method of sections.

FIG. 4.24
continued
 SECTION 4.6 Analysis of Plane Trusses by the Method of Sections 127

FIG. 4.24 (contd.)

Solution
From Fig. 4.24(a), we can observe that the horizontal section aa passing through the three members of interest, FJ; HJ,
and HK, also cuts an additional member FI , thereby releasing four unknowns, which cannot be determined by three
equations of equilibrium. Trusses such as the one being considered here with the members arranged in the form of the
letter K can be analyzed by a section curved around the middle joint, like section bb shown in Fig. 4.24(a). To avoid the
calculation of support reactions, we will use the upper portion IKNL of the truss above section bb for analysis. The free-
body diagram of this portion is shown in Fig. 4.24(b). It can be seen that although section bb has cut four members,
FI ; IJ; JK, and HK, forces in members FI and HK can be determined by summing moments about points K and I, re-
spectively, because the lines of action of three of the four unknowns pass through these points. We will, therefore, rst
compute FHK by considering section bb and then use section aa to determine FFJ and FHJ .

Section bb Using Fig. 4.24(b), we write

P
MI 0 258  FHK 12 0

FHK 16:67 kN

FHK 16:67 kN C Ans.

Section aa The free-body diagram of the portion IKNL of the truss above section aa is shown in Fig. 4.24(c). To
determine FHJ , we sum moments about F , which is the point of intersection of the lines of action of FFI and FFJ . Thus,

P 3 4
MF 0 2516  508 16:6712  FHJ 8  FHJ 6 0
5 5

FHJ 62:5 kN

FHJ 62:5 kN C Ans.

By summing forces in the horizontal direction, we obtain

P 3 3
! Fx 0 25 50  FFJ  62:5 0
5 5

FFJ 62:5 kN T Ans.

continued
128 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

Checking Computations Finally, to check our calculations, we apply an alternative equilibrium equation, which
involves the three member forces determined by the analysis. Using Fig. 4.24(c), we write

P 4 4
MI 258  62:56 62:56 16:6712 0 Checks
5 5

4.7 ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND TRUSSES

Although the method of joints and the method of sections described in

the preceding sections can be used individually for the analysis of com-
pound trusses, the analysis of such trusses can sometimes be expedited
by using a combination of the two methods. For some types of com-
pound trusses, the sequential analysis of joints breaks down when a joint
with two or fewer unknown forces cannot be found. In such a case, the
method of sections is then employed to calculate some of the member
forces, thereby yielding a joint with two or fewer unknowns, from which
the method of joints may be continued. This approach is illustrated by
the following examples.

Example 4.10

Determine the force in each member of the compound truss shown in Fig. 4.25(a).

Solution
Static Determinacy The truss has 11 members and 7 joints and is supported by 3 reactions. Since m r 2j and
the reactions and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate.
The slopes of the inclined members, as determined from the dimensions of the truss, are shown in Fig. 4.25(a).
Reactions The reactions at supports A and B, as computed by applying the three equilibrium equations to the free-
body diagram of the entire truss (Fig. 4.25(b)), are
Ax 25 k Ay 5 k " By 35 k "
Section aa Since a joint with two or fewer unknown forces cannot be found to start the method of joints, we rst
calculate FAB by using section aa, as shown in Fig. 4.25(a).
The free-body diagram of the portion of the truss on the left side of section aa is shown in Fig. 4.25(c). We de-
termine FAB by summing moments about point G, the point of intersection of the lines of action of FCG and FDG .
P
MG 0 2532  516 1016 FAB 32 0
FAB 22:5 k T Ans.
continued
 SECTION 4.7 Analysis of Compound Trusses 129

40 k 40 k
a
G
5k
G 5k

16 ft
12.5 7.5

20.62

20.62
4

20
20
17 25 15
C 1 F
10 k 10 k

16.
95
1

27.
E 5 5

77
D
5 2 C F
10 10
10 k 10 k
5 16 ft D E

25

25
12.5 7.5
4

95

16.
27.

77
3 25 15
A B
20 20
15 15
a
8 ft 8 ft
4 ft 4 ft 4 ft 4 ft Ax = 25 22.5
(a) B
A

G Ay = 5 By = 35
(b)
FCG
FDG

10
C D
FAC 40
FAD

G 5

25 FAB 25 22.5
A A
27.95 FFG

5 5 20.62 FEG
(c) Section aa (d) (e)

FIG. 4.25
continued
130 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

With FAB now known, the method of joints can be started either at joint A, or at joint B, since both of these joints have
only two unknowns each. We begin with joint A.
Joint A The free-body diagram of joint A is shown in Fig. 4.25(d).

P 1 3
! Fx 0 25 22:5 p FAC FAD 0
5 5
P 2 4
" Fy 0 5 p FAC FAD 0
5 5

Solving these equations simultaneously, we obtain

FAC 27:95 k and FAD 25 k

FAC 27:95 k C Ans.
FAD 25 k T Ans.

Joints C and D Focusing our attention on joints C and D in Fig. 4.25(b), and by satisfying the two equilibrium
equations by inspection at each of these joints, we determine
FCG 27:95 k C Ans.
FCD 10 k C Ans.
FDG 20:62 k T Ans.

Joint G Next, we consider the equilibrium of joint G (see Fig. 4.25(e)).

P 1 1 1 1
! Fx 0 5 p 27:95  p 20:62 p FEG p FFG 0
5 17 17 5
P 2 4 4 2
" Fy 0 40 p 27:95  p 20:62  p FEG  p FFG 0
5 17 17 5

Solving these equations, we obtain

FEG 20:62 k and FFG 16:77 k

FEG 20:62 k C Ans.
FFG 16:77 k C Ans.

Joints E and F Finally, by considering the equilibrium, by inspection, of joints E and F (see Fig. 4.25(b)), we
obtain

FBE 25 k C Ans.
FEF 10 k T Ans.
FBF 16:77 k C Ans.
continued
 SECTION 4.7 Analysis of Compound Trusses 131

Example 4.11

Determine the force in each member of the Fink truss shown in Fig. 4.26(a).

FIG. 4.26

continued
132 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

Solution
The Fink truss shown in Fig. 4.26(a) is a compound truss formed by connecting two simple trusses, ACL and DFL, by a
common joint L and a member CD.
Static Determinacy The truss contains 27 members and 15 joints and is supported by 3 reactions. Because
m r 2j and the reactions and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate.

Reactions The reactions at supports A and F of the truss, as computed by applying the three equations of equili-
brium to the free-body diagram of the entire truss (Fig. 4.26(b)), are
Ax 0 Ay 42 k " Fy 42 k "
Joint A The method of joints can now be started at joint A, which has only two unknown forces, FAB and FAI ,
acting on it. By inspection of the forces acting at this joint (see Fig. 4.26(b)), we obtain the following:
FAI 93:91 k C Ans.
FAB 84 k T Ans.
Joint I The free-body diagram of joint I is shown in Fig. 4.26(c). Member BI is perpendicular to members AI and
IJ, which are collinear, so the computation of member forces can be simplied by using an x axis in the direction of the
collinear members, as shown in Fig. 4.26(c).
P 2
- Fy 0  p 12  FBI 0
5
FBI 10:73 k
FBI 10:73 k C Ans.
P 1
% Fx 0 93:91  p 12 FIJ 0
5
FIJ 88:54 k
FIJ 88:54 k C Ans.
Joint B Considering the equilibrium of joint B, we obtain (see Fig. 4.26(b)) the following:
P 2 4
" Fy 0  p 10:73 FBJ 0
5 5
FBJ 12 k T Ans.
P 1 3
! Fx 0 84 p 10:73 12 FBC 0
5 5
FBC 72 k T Ans.
Section aa Since at each of the next two joints, C and J, there are three unknowns (FCD ; FCG , and FCJ at joint C
and FCJ ; FGJ , and FJK at joint J), we calculate FCD by using section aa, as shown in Fig. 4.26(a). (If we moved to
joint F and started computing member forces from that end of the truss, we would encounter similar diculties at
joints D and N.)
The free-body diagram of the portion of the truss on the left side of section aa is shown in Fig. 4.26(d). We de-
termine FCD by summing moments about point L, the point of intersection of the lines of action of FGL and FKL .

continued
 SECTION 4.8 Complex Trusses 133

P
ML 0 4232 1224 1216 128 FCD 16 0
FCD 48 k T Ans.
Joint C With FCD now known, there are only two unknowns, FCG and FCJ , at joint C. These forces can be de-
termined by applying the two equations of equilibrium to the free body of joint C, as shown in Fig. 4.26(e).
P 2 4
" Fy 0 p FCJ FCG 0
5 5
P 1 3
! Fx 0 72 48  p FCJ FCG 0
5 5
Solving these equations simultaneously, we obtain
FCJ 21:47 k and FCG 24 k
FCJ 21:47 k C Ans.
FCG 24 k T Ans.
Joints J; K, and G Similarly, by successively considering the equilibrium of joints J; K, and G, in that order, we
determine the following:
FJK 83:18 k C Ans.
FGJ 12 k T Ans.
FKL 77:81 k C Ans.
FGK 10:73 k C Ans.
FGL 36 k T Ans.
Symmetry Since the geometry of the truss and the applied loading are symmetrical about the center line of the truss
(shown in Fig. 4.26(b)), its member forces will also be symmetrical with respect to the line of symmetry. It is, therefore,
sucient to determine member forces in only one-half of the truss. The member forces determined here for the left half
of the truss are shown in Fig. 4.26(b). The forces in the right half can be obtained from the consideration of symmetry;
for example, the force in member MN is equal to that in member JK, and so forth. The reader is urged to verify this by
computing a few member forces in the right half of the truss. Ans.

4.8 COMPLEX TRUSSES

Trusses that can be classied neither as simple trusses nor as compound
trusses are referred to as complex trusses. Two examples of complex
trusses are shown in Fig. 4.27. From an analytical viewpoint, the main
dierence between simple or compound trusses and complex trusses
stems from the fact that the methods of joints and sections, as described
previously, cannot be used for the analysis of complex trusses. We can
see from Fig. 4.27 that although the two complex trusses shown are
statically determinate, after the computation of reactions the method of
134 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.27 Complex Trusses

joints cannot be applied because we cannot nd a joint at which there are

two or fewer unknown member forces. Likewise, the method of sections
cannot be employed, because every section would pass through more than
three members with unknown forces. The member forces in such trusses can
be determined by writing two equilibrium equations in terms of unknown
member forces for each joint of the truss and then solving the system of
2j equations simultaneously. Today, complex trusses are usually analyzed
on computers using the matrix formulation presented in Chapter 18.

4.9 SPACE TRUSSES

Space trusses, because of their shape, arrangement of members, or ap-
plied loading, cannot be subdivided into plane trusses for the purposes
of analysis and must, therefore, be analyzed as three-dimensional struc-
tures subjected to three-dimensional force systems. As stated in Section
4.1, to simplify the analysis of space trusses, it is assumed that the truss
members are connected at their ends by frictionless ball-and-socket
joints, all external loads and reactions are applied only at the joints, and
the centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting the
centers of the adjacent joints. Because of these simplifying assumptions,
the members of space trusses can be treated as axial force members.
The simplest internally stable (or rigid) space truss can be formed by
connecting six members at their ends by four ball-and-socket joints to
form a tetrahedron, as shown in Fig. 4.28(a). This tetrahedron truss may
be considered as the basic space truss element. It should be realized that
this basic space truss is internally stable in the sense that it is a three-
dimensional rigid body that will not change its shape under a general
three-dimensional loading applied at its joints. The basic truss ABCD of
Fig. 4.28(a) can be enlarged by attaching three new members, BE; CE,
and DE, to three of the existing joints B; C, and D, and by connecting
them to form a new joint E, as depicted in Fig. 4.28(b). As long as the
new joint E does not lie in the plane containing the existing joints B; C,
 SECTION 4.9 Space Trusses 135

FIG. 4.28 Simple Space Truss

and D, the new enlarged truss will be internally stable. The truss can be
further enlarged by repeating the same procedure (as shown in Fig.
4.28(c)) as many times as desired. Trusses constructed by this procedure
are termed simple space trusses.
A simple space truss is formed by enlarging the basic tetrahedron
element containing six members and four joints by adding three addi-
tional members for each additional joint, so the total number of mem-
bers m in a simple space truss is given by
m 6 3 j  4 3j  6 (4.5)
in which j total number of joints (including those attached to the
supports).

Reactions
The types of supports commonly used for space trusses are depicted in
Fig. 4.29. The number and directions of the reaction forces that a sup-
port may exert on the truss depend on the number and directions of the
translations it prevents.
As suggested in Section 3.1, in order for an internally stable
space structure to be in equilibrium under a general system of three-
dimensional forces, it must be supported by at least six reactions that
satisfy the six equations of equilibrium (Eq. (3.1)):
P P P
Fx 0 Fy 0 Fz 0
P P P
Mx 0 My 0 Mz 0
Because there are only six equilibrium equations, they cannot be used to
determine more than six reactions. Thus, an internally stable space
structure that is statically determinate externally must be supported by
exactly six reactions. If a space structure is supported by more than
136 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

Category Type of support Symbolic representation Reactions Number of unknowns

1
The reaction force Ry acts
perpendicular to the supporting
Ball surface and may be directed either
into or away from the structure.
The magnitude of Ry is the
unknown.
I
1
The reaction force R acts in the
direction of the link and may be
Link directed either into or away from
the structure. The magnitude of R is
the unknown.

2
Two reaction force components Rx
and Ry act in a plane perpendicular
II Roller to the direction in which the roller
is free to roll. The magnitudes of Rx
and Ry are the two unknowns.

3
The reaction force R may act in any
direction. It is usually represented
III Ball and socket by its rectangular components, Rx ,
Ry , and Rz . The magnitudes of Rx ,
Ry , and Rz are the three unknowns.

FIG. 4.29 Types of Supports for Space Trusses

six reactions, then all the reactions cannot be determined from the six
equilibrium equations, and such a structure is termed statically inde-
terminate externally. Conversely, if a space structure is supported by
fewer than six reactions, the reactions are not sucient to prevent all
possible movements of the structure in three-dimensional space, and such
a structure is referred to as statically unstable externally. Thus, if
r<6 the space structure is statically unstable externally
r6 the space structure is statically determinate externally (4.6)
r>6 the space structure is statically indeterminate externally
where r number of reactions.
As in the case of plane structures discussed in the previous chapter,
the conditions for static determinacy and indeterminacy, as given in
Eq. (4.6), are necessary but not sucient. In order for a space structure
to be geometrically stable externally, the reactions must be properly
 SECTION 4.9 Space Trusses 137

arranged so that they can prevent translations in the directions of, as

well as rotations about, each of the three coordinate axes. For example,
if the lines of action of all the reactions of a space structure are either
parallel or intersect a common axis, the structure would be geometri-
cally unstable.

Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability

If a space truss contains m members and is supported by r external re-
actions, then for its analysis we need to determine a total of m r un-
known forces. Since the truss is in equilibrium, each of its joints must
also be in equilibrium. At each joint, the internal and external forces
form a three-dimensional concurrent P force system
P that must satisfyP the
three equations of equilibrium, Fx 0, Fy 0, and Fz 0.
Therefore, if the truss contains j joints, the total number of equilibrium
equations available is 3j. If m r 3j, all the unknowns can be de-
termined by solving the 3j equations of equilibrium, and the truss is
statically determinate.
Space trusses containing more unknowns than the available equili-
brium equations m r > 3j are statically indeterminate, and those
with fewer unknowns than the equilibrium equations m r < 3j are
statically unstable. Thus, the conditions of static instability, determinacy,
and indeterminacy of space trusses can be summarized as follows:
m r < 3j statically unstable space truss
m r 3j statically determinate space truss (4.7)
m r > 3j statically indeterminate space truss
In order for the criteria for static determinacy and indeterminacy, as
given by Eq. (4.7), to be valid, the truss must be stable and act as a sin-
gle rigid body, under a general three-dimensional system of loads, when
attached to the supports.

Analysis of Member Forces

The two methods for analysis of plane trusses discussed in Sections 4.5
and 4.6 can be extended to the analysis of space trusses. The method of
joints essentially
P remains the same,
P P except that three equilibrium equa-
tions ( Fx 0, Fy 0, and Fz 0) must now be satised at each
joint of the space truss. Since the three equilibrium equations cannot
be used to determine more than three unknown forces, the analysis is
started at a joint that has a maximum of three unknown forces (which
must not be coplanar) acting on it. The three unknowns are determined
by applying the three equations of equilibrium. We then proceed from
joint to joint, computing three or fewer unknown forces at each sub-
sequent joint, until all the desired forces have been determined.
138 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. 4.30

Since it is dicult to visualize the orientations of inclined members

in three-dimensional space, it is usually convenient to express the rec-
tangular components of forces in such members in terms of the pro-
jections of member lengths in the x; y, and z directions. Consider a
member AB of a space truss, as shown in Fig. 4.30. The projections of
its length LAB in the x; y, and z directions are xAB ; yAB , and zAB , re-
spectively, as shown, with
q
LAB xAB 2 yAB 2 zAB 2
Because the force FAB acts in the direction of the member, its compo-
nents FxAB ; FyAB , and FzAB in the x; y, and z directions, respectively, can
be expressed as
 
xAB
FxAB FAB
LAB
 
yAB
FyAB FAB
LAB
 
zAB
FzAB FAB
LAB
and the resultant force FAB is given by
q
FAB FxAB 2 FyAB 2 FzAB 2
The analysis of space trusses can be expedited by identifying the
zero-force members by inspection. Two common types of member ar-
rangements that result in zero-force members are the following:
 SECTION 4.9 Space Trusses 139

FIG. 4.31

1. If all but one of the members connected to a joint lie in a single

plane and no external loads or reactions are applied to the joint,
then the force in the member that is not coplanar is zero.
2. If all but two of the members connected to a joint have zero force
and no external loads or reactions are applied to the joint, then un-
less the two remaining members are collinear, the force in each of
them is also zero.
The rst type of arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.31(a). It consists of
four members AB; AC; AD, and AE connected to a joint A. Of these,
AB; AC, and AD lie in the xz plane, whereas member AE does not.
Note that no external loads or reactions are applied to joint A.P It should
be obvious that in order to satisfy the equilibrium equation Fy 0,
the y component of FAE must be zero, and therefore FAE 0.
The second type of arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.31(b). It consists
of four members AB; AC; AD, and AE connected to a joint A, of which
AD and AE are zero-force members, as shown. Note that no external
loads or reactions are applied to the joint. By choosing the orientation of
the x axis in the direction
P of member
P AB, we can see that the equili-
brium equations Fy 0 and Fz 0 can be satised only if
F
PAC 0. Because the x component of FAC is zero, the equation
Fx 0 is satised only if FAB is also zero.
As in the case of plane trusses, the method of sections can be em-
ployed for determining forces in specic members of space trusses. An
imaginary section is passed through the truss, cutting the members
whose forces are desired. The desired member forces are then calculated
by applying the six equations of equilibrium (Eq. (3.1)) to one of the
two portions of the truss. No more than six unknown forces can be
140 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

determined from the six equilibrium equations, so a section is generally

chosen that does not pass through more than six members with un-
known forces.
Because of the considerable amount of computational eort in-
volved, the analysis of space trusses is performed today on computers.
However, it is important to analyze at least a few relatively small space
trusses manually to gain an understanding of the basic concepts in-
volved in the analysis of such structures.

Example 4.12

Determine the reactions at the supports and the force in each member of the space truss shown in Fig. 4.32(a).

Solution
Static Determinacy The truss contains 9 members and 5 joints and is supported by 6 reactions. Because m r 3j
and the reactions and the members of the truss are properly arranged, it is statically determinate.

Member Projections The projections of the truss members in the x; y, and z directions, as obtained from
Fig. 4.32(a), as well as their lengths computed from these projections, are tabulated in Table 4.1.
Zero-Force Members It can be seen from Fig. 4.32(a) that at joint D, three members, AD; CD, and DE, are con-
nected. Of these members, AD and CD lie in the same xz plane, whereas DE does not. Since no external loads or re-
actions are applied at the joint, member DE is a zero-force member.
FDE 0 Ans.
Having identied DE as a zero-force member, we can see that since the two remaining members AD and CD are
not collinear, they must also be zero-force members.
FAD 0 Ans.
FCD 0 Ans.
Reactions See Fig. 4.32(a).
P
. Fz 0
Bz 15 0
Bz 15 k
Bz 15 k % Ans.
P
My 0
Bx 6 1512  156 0
Bx 15 k
Bx 15 k Ans.

continued
 SECTION 4.9 Space Trusses 141

FIG. 4.32
continued
142 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

TABLE 4.1

Projection
Member x (ft) y (ft) z (ft) Length (ft)
AB 12 0 0 12.0
BC 0 0 6 6.0
CD 12 0 0 12.0
AD 0 0 6 6.0
AC 12 0 6 13.42
AE 6 12 3 13.75
BE 6 12 3 13.75
CE 6 12 3 13.75
DE 6 12 3 13.75

P
! Fx 0
15 Cx 0
Cx 15 k ! Ans.
P
Mx 0
Ay 6  By 6 253 1512 0
Ay By 42:5
(1)
P
" Fy 0
Ay By Cy  25 0 (2)
By substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2), we obtain
Cy 17:5 k
Cy 17:5 k #
Ans.
P
Mz 0
By 12  17:512  256 0
By 30 k " Ans.
By substituting By 30 into Eq. (1), we obtain Ay .
Ay 12:5 k " Ans.
Joint A See Fig. 4.32(b).
 
P yAE
" Fy 0 12:5 FAE 0
LAE
continued
 SECTION 4.9 Space Trusses 143

in which the second term on the left-hand side represents the y component of FAE . Substituting the values of y and L for
member AE from Table 4.1, we write
 
12
12:5 FAE 0
13:75
FAE 14:32 k
FAE 14:32 k C Ans.

Similarly, we apply the remaining equilibrium equations:

   
P 6 3
. Fz 0  FAC 14:32 0
13:42 13:75

FAC 7:0 k T Ans.

   
P 12 6
! Fx 0 FAB 7  14:32 0
13:42 13:75

FAB 0 Ans.
Joint B (See Fig. 4.32(c).)
 
P 6
! Fx 0  FBE  15 0
13:75

FBE 34:38 k

FBE 34:38 k C Ans.

 
P 3
. Fz 0 15  FBC 34:38 0
13:75

FBC 7:5 k

FBC 7:5 k C Ans.

As all the unknown forces at joint B have been determined, we will use the remaining equilibrium equation to check our
computations:
 
P 12
" Fy 30  34:38 0 Checks
13:75
Joint C See Fig. 4.32(d).
 
P 12
" Fy 0 17:5 FCE 0
13:75

FCE 20:05 k T Ans.

continued
144 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

Checking Computations At joint C (Fig. 4.32(d)),

   
P 6 12
! Fx 15  20:05  7 0 Checks
13:75 13:42
   
P 6 3
. Fz 7:5 7 20:05 0 Checks
13:42 13:75
At joint E (Fig. 4.32(e)),
P 6
! Fx 14:32  34:38 20:05 0 Checks
13:75
 
P 12
" Fy 25 14:32 34:38  20:05 0 Checks
13:75
 
P 3
. Fz 15  14:32 34:38 20:05 0 Checks
13:75

SUMMARY
A truss is dened as a structure that is composed of straight mem-
bers connected at their ends by exible connections to form a rigid
conguration. The analysis of trusses is based on three simplifying
assumptions:
1. All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges
in plane trusses and by frictionless ball-and-socket joints in space
trusses.
2. All loads and reactions are applied only at the joints.
3. The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connect-
ing the centers of the adjacent joints. The eect of these assump-
tions is that all the members of the truss can be treated as axial
force members.
A truss is considered to be internally stable if the number and
arrangement of its members is such that it does not change its shape and
remains a rigid body when detached from its supports. The common types
of equations of condition for plane trusses are described in Section 4.3.
A truss is considered to be statically determinate if all of its member
forces and reactions can be determined by using the equations of equili-
brium. If a plane truss contains m members, j joints, and is supported
by r reactions, then if
m r < 2j the truss is statically unstable
m r 2j the truss is statically determinate (4.4)
m r > 2j the truss is statically indeterminate
 Problems 145

The degree of static indeterminacy is given by

i m r  2j (4.3)
The foregoing conditions for static determinacy and indeterminacy are
necessary but not sucient conditions. In order for these criteria to be
valid, the truss must be stable and act as a single rigid body under a
general system of coplanar loads when it is attached to the supports.
To analyze statically determinate plane trusses, we can use the
method of joints, which essentially consists of selecting a joint with no
more than two unknown forces acting on it and applying the two equi-
librium equations to determine the unknown forces. We repeat the pro-
cedure until we obtain all desired forces. This method is most ecient
when forces in all or most of the members of a truss are desired.
The method of sections usually proves to be more convenient when
forces in only a few specic members of the truss are desired. This
method essentially involves cutting the truss into two portions by pass-
ing an imaginary section through the members whose forces are desired
and determining the desired forces by applying the three equations of
equilibrium to the free body of one of the two portions of the truss.
The analysis of compound trusses can usually be expedited by using
a combination of the method of joints and the method of sections.
A procedure for the determination of reactions and member forces in
space trusses is also presented.

PROBLEMS
Section 4.4
4.1 through 4.5 Classify each of the plane trusses shown as If the truss is statically indeterminate, then determine the
unstable, statically determinate, or statically indeterminate. degree of static indeterminacy.

FIG. P4.1 FIG. P4.2

146 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. P4.3

FIG. P4.4

FIG. P4.5
 Problems 147

Section 4.5 100 kN 100 kN

4.6 through 4.27 Determine the force in each member of
the truss shown by the method of joints. D E
35 kN
D
3m

E
10 ft C

C 7m
A B
5k 10 k 10 k

12 ft 12 ft A B
FIG. P4.6
4m 3m 3m 4m
4m 4m
A C FIG. P4.9
B 1m

2m F G H

D 60 kN
3m
120 kN
A E
FIG. P4.7 B C D
40 kN 50 kN 40 kN
20 k 4 at 3 m = 12 m
D E
15 k FIG. P4.10

8 ft

A C
B
F G H
20 k
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft 6 ft 3m
FIG. P4.8 A E
B C D
40 kN 40 kN
4 at 3 m = 12 m

FIG. P4.11
148 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

G H
15 k

16 ft

E F
30 k

16 ft

C D
30 k

16 ft

A B

12 ft
FIG. P4.12

2m 2m 2m 2m 2m
E F G H
30 kN

3m

A B C D

30 kN 30 kN 60 kN

FIG. P4.13
H I J K L
60 kN

3m

A G
B C D E F
30 kN 60 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN

6 at 4 m = 24 m
FIG. P4.14
 Problems 149

30 k 30 k 50 k 50 k 50 k
A B C D E F G

20 ft

H I J K L

6 at 20 ft = 120 ft
FIG. P4.15

10 k
E
F 5k

20 k 12 ft

16 ft
C D

D 10 k 12 ft
E 5k
B
A
16 ft

5 ft 5 ft 14 ft
A C
FIG. P4.18
B

12 ft 12 ft
FIG. P4.16

40 kN 40 kN 40 kN
A B C
D

5m G
F
E FIG. P4.19

3 at 5 m = 15 m
FIG. P4.17
150 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

40 k 75 k 75 k

F
5k D E 10 k

20 k 5 ft
D E
12 ft

5 ft
A C C
B
12 ft
5 ft 5 ft 5 ft 5 ft

FIG. P4.20
A B
60 kN 120 kN 60 kN

C D E 5 ft 5 ft
50 kN
FIG. P4.23

12 m

30 k 30 k
A B I J
15 k
3.5 m 5m 5m 3.5 m 5 ft
G H
FIG. P4.21 30 k

5 ft
E F
30 k

5 ft
C D
30 k

5 ft
A
B

5 ft 10 ft 5 ft

FIG. P4.22 FIG. P4.24

 Problems 151

5 at 3 m = 15 m

12 kN 12 kN 12 kN 12 kN 12 kN 12 kN
K L M N O P
20 kN

4m
I J

40 kN H
G
4m

40 kN F
E

4m

40 kN D
C

4m

A B

FIG. P4.25 4.28 Determine the force in each member of the truss
supporting a oor deck as shown in Fig. P4.28. The deck
is simply supported on oor beams which, in turn, are con-
nected to the joints of the truss. Thus, the uniformly dis-
tributed loading on the deck is transmitted by the oor
beams as concentrated loads to the top joints of the truss.

FIG. P4.26

F G
50 kN

3m
A E FIG. P4.28
B C D
4.29 and 4.30 Determine the force in each member of the
120 kN 120 kN roof truss shown. The roof is simply supported on purlins
4 at 4 m = 16 m which, in turn, are attached to the joints of the top chord
of the truss. Thus, the uniformly distributed loading on the
FIG. P4.27 roof is transmitted by the purlins as concentrated loads to
the truss joints.
152 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

Section 4.6
4.31 Determine the forces in the top chord member GH and
the bottom chord member BC of the truss, if h 3 ft. How
would the forces in these members change if the height h of
the truss was doubled to 6 ft?

FIG. P4.29

FIG. P4.31

4.32 through 4.45 Determine the forces in the members

identied by 3 of the truss shown by the method of
sections.

FIG. P4.30 H I J K L

5m

A G
B C D E F
40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN 40 kN

6 at 5 m = 30 m

FIG. P4.32
30 k
E F G
15 k

10 ft

A D
B C
30 k 15 k
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
FIG. P4.33
 Problems 153

F G H I J
30 k

15 ft

A B C D E
25 k 25 k 25 k 25 k
4 at 20 ft = 80 ft

FIG. P4.34

20 kN 20 kN
F G 70 kN
20 kN
G
3m

40 kN 50 kN 50 kN
E
3m F H
6m
D

3m A E
40 kN B C D
C
3m
A 4 at 4 m = 16 m
B
FIG. P4.37

3m 6m 3m

FIG. P4.35

F
G
H
15 ft
I

A B C D E

20 k 20 k 20 k 20 k

4 at 10 ft = 40 ft

FIG. P4.38

FIG. P4.36
154 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

50 k

I
30 k

9 ft

G H
30 k

9 ft

D F
30 k
FIG. P4.39 E

9 ft

A C
60 kN B
J
60 kN I K 1m

2m 9 ft 9 ft
H L
FIG. P4.42
3m
A
G
B C D E F 50 k

75 kN 75 kN 75 kN I
30 k
6 at 4 m = 24 m

FIG. P4.40 9 ft

F G H
30 k

6 at 30 ft = 180 ft 9 ft
25 k 25 k 25 k D
C E
30 k
A B C D E F G

20 ft 9 ft
H L
15 ft A B
I K 45 k 5 ft
J
45 k
9 ft 9 ft
FIG. P4.41 FIG. P4.43
 Problems 155

100 kN

E F
100 kN
2m

D
50 kN 3m
C

2m
B
A

6m 4m 6m

FIG. P4.44

FIG. P4.45
Section 4.7
4.46 through 4.50 Determine the force in each member of
the truss shown.
J K
10 k

20 ft
F G H I
10 k

20 ft
A E
B C D

40 k 30 k
4 at 15 ft = 60 ft
120 kN

FIG. P4.46 I

120 kN
120 kN 4m
E H
F G

60 kN 60 kN 4m
40 kN 40 kN

A B C D

8m 2m 3m 3m 3m 3m 2m 8m

FIG. P4.47
156 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

Section 4.9
4.51 through 4.55 Determine the force in each member of
the space truss shown.

FIG. P4.48

FIG. P4.51

FIG. P4.49

20 kN

K
30 kN

3m 40 kN
I J
60 kN

3m 20 kN
F
60 kN H
G
3m
D E
60 kN

3m

A B C

4m 4m
FIG. P4.50 FIG. P4.52
 Problems 157

FIG. P4.53
158 CHAPTER 4 Plane and Space Trusses

FIG. P4.54
 Problems 159

FIG. P4.55
 5
Beams and Frames:
Shear and Bending Moment
5.1 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment
5.2 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams
5.3 Qualitative Deflected Shapes
5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments
5.5 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane Frames
5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames
Summary
Problems

Steel Girders
Lester Lefkowitz/Stone/Getty Images

Unlike trusses, considered in the preceding chapter, whose members are

always subjected to only axial forces, the members of rigid frames and
beams may be subjected to shear forces and bending moments as well
as axial forces under the action of external loads. The determination of
these internal forces and moments (stress resultants) is necessary for the
design of such structures. The objective of this chapter is to present the
analysis of internal forces and moments that may develop in beams, and
the members of plane frames, under the action of coplanar systems of
external forces and couples.
We begin by dening the three types of stress resultantsaxial
forces, shear forces, and bending momentsthat may act on the cross
sections of beams and the members of plane frames. We next discuss
construction of the shear and bending moment diagrams by the method
of sections. We also consider qualitative deected shapes of beams and
the relationships between loads, shears, and bending moments. In addi-
tion, we develop the procedures for constructing the shear and bending
moment diagrams using these relationships. Finally we present the clas-
sication of plane frames as statically determinate, indeterminate, and
unstable; and the analysis of statically determinate plane frames.

160
 SECTION 5.1 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment 161

FIG. 5.1

5.1 AXIAL FORCE, SHEAR, AND BENDING MOMENT

Internal forces were dened in Section 3.2 as the forces and couples ex-
erted on a portion of the structure by the rest of the structure. Consider,
for example, the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 5.1(a). The free-
body diagram of the entire beam is depicted in Fig. 5.1(b), which shows
the external loads, as well as the reactions Ax and Ay , and By at sup-
ports A and B, respectively. As discussed in Chapter 3, the support re-
actions can be computed by applying the equations of equilibrium to the
free body of the entire beam. In order to determine the internal forces
acting on the cross section of the beam at a point C, we pass an imagi-
nary section cc through C, thereby cutting the beam into two parts, AC
and CB, as shown in Figs. 5.1(c) and 5.1(d). The free-body diagram of
the portion AC (Fig. 5.1(c)) shows, in addition to the external loads and
support reactions acting on the portion AC, the internal forces, Q; S,
and M exerted upon portion AC at C by the removed portion of the
structure. Note that without these internal forces, portion AC is not in
equilibrium. Also, under a general coplanar system of external loads
and reactions, three internal forces (two perpendicular force components
and a couple) are necessary at a section to maintain a portion of the
beam in equilibrium. The two internal force components are usually
oriented in the direction of, and perpendicular to, the centroidal axis
of the beam at the section under consideration, as shown in Fig. 5.1(c).
The internal force Q in the direction of the centroidal axis of the beam is
162 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

called the axial force, and the internal force S in the direction perpen-
dicular to the centroidal axis is referred to as the shear force (or, simply,
shear). The moment M of the internal couple is termed the bending mo-
ment. Recall from mechanics of materials that these internal forces, Q; S,
and M, represent the resultants of the stress distribution acting on the
cross section of the beam.
The free-body diagram of the portion CB of the beam is shown in
Fig. 5.1(d). Note that this diagram shows the same internal forces, Q; S,
and M, but in opposite directions, being exerted upon portion CB at C
by the removed portion AC in accordance with Newtons third law. The
magnitudes and the correct senses of the internal forces can be de-
termined
P by
P simply applying
P the three equations of equilibrium,
Fx 0, Fy 0, and M 0, to one of the two portions (AC or
CB) of the beam.
It can be seen from
P Figs. 5.1(c) and 5.1(d), that in order for the
equilibrium equation Fx 0 to be satised for a portion of the beam,
the internal axial force Q must be equal in magnitude (but opposite
in direction) to the algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the
direction parallel to the axis of the beam of all the external forces act-
ing
P on that portion. Since the entire beam is in P equilibriumthat is,
Fx 0 for the entire beamthe application of Fx 0 individually
to its two portions will yield the same magnitude of the axial force Q.
Thus, we can state the following:
The internal axial force Q at any section of a beam is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum (resultant) of the components
in the direction parallel to the axis of the beam of all the external loads and
support reactions acting on either side of the section under consideration.
Using similar reasoning, we can dene the shear and bending mo-
ment as follows:
The shear S at any section of a beam is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction to the algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the direction
perpendicular to the axis of the beam of all the external loads and support
reactions acting on either side of the section under consideration.
The bending moment M at any section of a beam is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the algebraic sum of the moments about (the
centroid of the cross section of the beam at) the section under consideration
of all the external loads and support reactions acting on either side of the
section.

Sign Convention
The sign convention commonly used for the axial forces, shears, and
bending moments is depicted in Fig. 5.2. An important feature of this
sign convention, which is often referred to as the beam convention, is
that it yields the same (positive or negative) results regardless of which
 SECTION 5.1 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment 163

FIG. 5.2 Beam Convention

side of the section is considered for computing the internal forces. The
positive directions of the internal forces acting on the portions of the
member on each side of the section are shown in Fig. 5.2(a).
From a computational viewpoint, however, it is usually more
convenient to express this sign convention in terms of the external loads
and reactions acting on the beam or frame member, as shown in
Fig. 5.2(b) to 5.2(d). As indicated in Fig. 5.2(b), the internal axial force
Q is considered to be positive when the external forces acting on the
member produce tension or have the tendency to pull the member apart at
the section.
As shown in Fig. 5.2(c), the shear S is considered to be positive when
the external forces tend to push the portion of the member on the left of
the section upward with respect to the portion on the right of the section.
It can be seen from this gure that an external force that acts upward on
the left portion or downward on the right portion causes positive shear.
Alternatively, this sign convention for shear can be remembered by re-
alizing that any force that produces clockwise moment about a section
causes positive shear at that section and vice versa.
The positive bending moment is shown in Fig. 5.2(d). The bending
moment M is considered to be positive when the external forces and cou-
ples tend to bend the beam concave upward, causing compression in the
upper bers and tension in the lower bers of the beam at the section.
When the left portion is used for computing the bending moment, the
forces acting on the portion that produce clockwise moments about the
section, as well as clockwise couples, cause positive bending moment at
the section. When the right portion is considered, however, the forces
164 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

producing counterclockwise moments about the section, and counter-

clockwise couples, cause positive bending moment and vice versa.
In our discussion thus far, the beam or frame member has been as-
sumed to be horizontal, but the foregoing sign convention can be used
for inclined and vertical members by employing an xy coordinate sys-
tem, as shown in Fig. 5.2(a). The x axis of the coordinate system is ori-
ented in the direction of the centroidal axis of the member, and the
positive direction of the y axis is chosen so that the coordinate system is
right-handed, with the z axis always pointing out of the plane of the
paper. The sign convention can now be used for an inclined or a vertical
member by considering the positive y direction as the upward direction
and the portion of the member near the origin O as the portion to the
left of the section.

Procedure for Analysis

The procedure for determining internal forces at a specied location on
a beam can be summarized as follows:
1. Compute the support reactions by applying the equations of equili-
brium and condition (if any) to the free body of the entire beam.
(In cantilever beams, this step can be avoided by selecting the free,
or externally unsupported, portion of the beam for analysis; see
Example 5.2.)
2. Pass a section perpendicular to the centroidal axis of the beam at
the point where the internal forces are desired, thereby cutting the
beam into two portions.
3. Although either of the two portions of the beam can be used for
computing internal forces, we should select the portion that will re-
quire the least amount of computational eort, such as the portion
that does not have any reactions acting on it or that has the least
number of external loads and reactions applied to it.
4. Determine the axial force at the section by algebraically summing
the components in the direction parallel to the axis of the beam of
all the external loads and support reactions acting on the selected
portion. According to the sign convention adopted in the preceding
paragraphs, if the portion of the beam to the left of the section is
being used for computing the axial force, then the external forces
acting to the left are considered positive, whereas the external forces
acting to the right are considered to be negative (see Fig. 5.2(b)). If
the right portion is being used for analysis, then the external forces
acting to the right are considered to be positive and vice versa.
5. Determine the shear at the section by algebraically summing the
components in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the beam
of all the external loads and reactions acting on the selected por-
tion. If the left portion of the beam is being used for analysis, then
 SECTION 5.1 Axial Force, Shear, and Bending Moment 165

the external forces acting upward are considered positive, whereas

the external forces acting downward are considered to be negative
(see Fig. 5.2(c)). If the right portion has been selected for analysis,
then the downward external forces are considered positive and vice
versa.
6. Determine the bending moment at the section by algebraically sum-
ming the moments about the section of all the external forces plus
the moments of any external couples acting on the selected portion.
If the left portion is being used for analysis, then the clockwise mo-
ments are considered to be positive, and the counterclockwise mo-
ments are considered negative (see Fig. 5.2(d)). If the right portion
has been selected for analysis, then the counterclockwise moments
are considered positive and vice versa.
7. To check the calculations, values of some or all of the internal
forces may be computed by using the portion of the beam not uti-
lized in steps 4 through 6. If the analysis has been performed cor-
rectly, then the results based on both left and right portions must be
identical.

Example 5.1

Determine the axial force, shear, and bending moment at point B of the beam shown in Fig. 5.3(a).

FIG. 5.3
continued
166 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Solution
Reactions Considering the equilibrium of the free body of the entire beam (Fig. 5.3(b)), we write
 
P 4
! Fx 0 Ax  25 0 Ax 20 k !
5
 
P 3
Mc 0 Ay 36 3024 2512 0 Ay 25 k "
5
 
P 3
" Fy 0 25  30  25 Cy 0 Cy 20 k "
5

Section bb A section bb is passed through point B, cutting the beam into two portions, AB and BC
(see Fig. 5.3(b)). The portion AB, which is to the left of the section, is used here to compute the internal forces.
Axial Force Considering the external forces acting to the left as positive, we write
Q 20 k Ans.

Shear Considering the external forces acting upward as positive, we write

S 25  30 5
S 5 k Ans.

Bending Moment Considering the clockwise moments of the external forces about B as positive, we write

M 2518  306 270

M 270 k-ft Ans.
Checking Computations To check our calculations, we compute the internal forces using portion BC, which is to
the right of the section under consideration.
By considering the horizontal components of the external forces acting to the right on portion BC as positive,
we obtain
 
4
Q 25 20 k Checks
5

By considering the external forces acting downward as positive, we obtain

 
3
S 20 25 5 k Checks
5

Finally, by considering the counterclockwise moments of the external forces about B as positive, we obtain
 
3
M 2018  256 270 k-ft Checks
5
 SECTION 5.2 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams 167

Example 5.2

Determine the shear and bending moment at point B of the beam shown in Fig. 5.4.

FIG. 5.4

Solution
Section bb (See Fig. 5.4.) To avoid computing reactions, we select externally unsupported portion BC, which is to
the right of the section bb, for computing the internal forces.
Shear Considering the external forces acting downward as positive, we write
S 204 80 kN
S 80 kN Ans.
Note that the 500 kN  m couple does not have any eect on shear.
Bending Moment Considering the counterclockwise moments as positive, we write
M 500  2042 340 kN  m
M 340 kN  m Ans.
The reader may check the results by summing forces and moments on portion AB of the beam after computing the
reactions at support A.

5.2 SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

Shear and bending moment diagrams depict the variations of these
quantities along the length of the member. Such diagrams can be con-
structed by using the method of sections described in the preceding sec-
tion. Proceeding from one end of the member to the other (usually
from left to right), sections are passed, after each successive change in
loading, along the length of the member to determine the equations ex-
pressing the shear and bending moment in terms of the distance of the
section from a xed origin. The values of shear and bending moments
determined from these equations are then plotted as ordinates against
the position with respect to a member end as abscissa to obtain the
shear and bending moment diagrams. This procedure is illustrated by
the following examples.
168 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Example 5.3

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 5.5(a).

FIG. 5.5

Solution
Reactions See Fig. 5.5(b).
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0
P
MD 0
Ay 30 6020 180 2200 0
Ay 46 k "
P
" Fy 0
46  60  220 Dy 0
Dy 54 k "

continued
 SECTION 5.2 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams 169

Shear Diagram To determine the equation for shear in segment AB of the beam, we pass a section aa at a distance
x from support A, as shown in Fig. 5.5(b). Considering the free body to the left of this section, we obtain
S 46 k for 0 < x < 10 ft
As this equation indicates, the shear is constant at 46 k from an innitesimal distance to the right of point A to an
innitesimal distance to the left of point B. At point A, the shear increases abruptly from 0 to 46 k, so a vertical line
is drawn from 0 to 46 on the shear diagram (Fig. 5.5(c)) at A to indicate this change. This is followed by a horizontal
line from A to B to indicate that the shear remains constant in this segment.
Next, by using section bb (Fig. 5.5(b)), we determine the equation for shear in segment BC as
S 46  60 14 k for 10 ft < x a 20 ft
The abrupt change in shear from 46 k at an innitesimal distance to the left of B to 14 k at an innitesimal distance
to the right of B is shown on the shear diagram (Fig. 5.5(c)) by a vertical line from 46 to 14. A horizontal line at
14 is then drawn from B to C to indicate that the shear remains constant at this value throughout this segment.
To determine the equations for shear in the right half of the beam, it is convenient to use another coordinate, x1 ,
directed to the left from the end E of the beam, as shown in Fig. 5.5(b). The equations for shear in segments ED and
DC are obtained by considering the free bodies to the right of sections dd and cc, respectively. Thus,
S 2x1 for 0 a x1 < 10 ft
and
S 2x1  54 for 10 ft < x1 a 20 ft
These equations indicate that the shear increases linearly from zero at E to 20 k at an innitesimal distance to the
right of D; it then drops abruptly to 34 k at an innitesimal distance to the left of D; and from there it increases
linearly to 14 k at C. This information is plotted on the shear diagram, as shown in Fig. 5.5(c). Ans.
Bending Moment Diagram Using the same sections and coordinates employed previously for computing shear, we
determine the following equations for bending moment in the four segments of the beam. For segment AB:
M 46x for 0 a x a 10 ft
For segment BC:
M 46x  60x  10 14x 600 for 10 ft a x < 20 ft
For segment ED:
 
x1
M 2x1 x12 for 0 a x1 a 10 ft
2
For segment DC:
M x12 54x1  10 x12 54x1  540 for 10 ft a x1 < 20 ft
The rst two equations, for the left half of the beam, indicate that the bending moment increases linearly from 0 at A to
460 k-ft at B; it then decreases linearly to 320 k-ft at C, as shown on the bending moment diagram in Fig. 5.5(d). The
last two equations for the right half of the beam are quadratic in x1 . The values of M computed from these equations
are plotted on the bending moment diagram shown in Fig. 5.5(d). It can be seen that M decreases from 0 at E to
100 k-ft at D, and it then increases to 140 k-ft at an innitesimal distance to the right of C. Note that at C, the
bending moment drops abruptly by an amount 320  140 180 k-ft, which is equal to the magnitude of the moment of
the counterclockwise external couple acting at this point.
continued
170 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

A point at which the bending moment is zero is termed the point of inection. To determine the location of the
point of inection F (Fig. 5.5(d)), we set M 0 in the equation for bending moment in segment DC to obtain
M x12 54x1  540 0
from which x1 13:25 ft; that is, point F is located at a distance of 13.25 ft from end E, or 40  13:25 26:75 ft from
support A of the beam, as shown in Fig. 5.5(d). Ans.

Example 5.4

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 5.6(a).

Solution
Reactions See Fig. 5.6(b).
P
! Fx 0 Bx 0
P
Mc 0
   
1 9
927  By 6 0 By 60:75 kN "
2 3
P
" Fy 0
 
1
 927 60:75 Cy 0 Cy 60:75 kN "
2
Shear Diagram To determine the equations for shear in segments AB and BC of the beam, we pass sections aa and
bb through the beam, as shown in Fig. 5.6(b). Considering the free bodies to the
 left of these sections and realizing that
the load intensity, wx, at a point at a distance x from end A is wx 27 9 x 3x kN/m, we obtain the following
equations for shear in segments AB and BC, respectively:
 
1 3x 2
S x3x  for 0 a x < 3 m
2 2
 2
3x
S 60:75 for 3 m < x < 9 m
2
The values of S computed from these equations are plotted to obtain the shear diagram shown in Fig. 5.6(c). The point
D at which the shear is zero is obtained from the equation
 2
3x
S 60:75 0
2
from which x 6:36 m. Ans.

continued
 SECTION 5.2 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams 171

FIG. 5.6

Bending Moment Diagram Using the same sections employed previously for computing shear, we determine the
following equations for bending moment in segments AB and BC, respectively:
   
1 x x3
M x3x  for 0 a x a 3 m
2 3 2
 3
x
M 60:75x  3 for 3 m a x a 9 m
2
continued
172 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

The values of M computed from these equations are plotted to obtain the bending moment diagram shown in
Fig. 5.6(d). To locate the point at which the bending moment is maximum, we dierentiate the equation for M in
segment BC with respect to x and set the derivative dM=dx equal to zero; that is,
 
dM 3x 2
 60:75 0
dx 2
from which x 6:36 m. This indicates that the maximum bending moment occurs at the same point at which the shear
is zero. Also, a comparison of the expressions for dM=dx and S in segment BC indicates that the two equations are
identical; that is, the slope of the bending moment diagram at a point is equal to the shear at that point. (This rela-
tionship, which is generally valid, is discussed in detail in a subsequent section.)
Finally, the magnitude of the maximum moment is determined by substituting x 6:36 m into the equation for M
in segment BC:
" #
6:36 3
Mmax  60:756:36  3 75:5 kN  m Ans.
2

5.3 QUALITATIVE DEFLECTED SHAPES

A qualitative deected shape (elastic curve) of a structure is simply a
rough (usually exaggerated) sketch of the neutral surface of the struc-
ture, in the deformed position, under the action of a given loading con-
dition. Such sketches, which can be constructed without any knowledge
of the numerical values of deections, provide valuable insights into the
behavior of structures and are often useful in computing the numerical
values of deections. (Procedures for the quantitative analysis of deec-
tions are presented in the following chapters.)
According to the sign convention adopted in Section 5.1, a positive
bending moment bends a beam concave upward (or toward the
positive y direction), whereas a negative bending moment bends a beam
concave downward (or toward the negative y direction). Thus, the sign
(positive or negative) of the curvature at any point along the axis of a
beam can be obtained from the bending moment diagram. Using the
signs of curvatures, a qualitative deected shape (elastic curve) of the
beam, which is consistent with its support conditions, can be easily
sketched (see Fig. 5.7).
For example, consider the beam analyzed in Example 5.3. The beam
and its bending moment diagram are redrawn in Fig. 5.7(a) and (b),
respectively. A qualitative deected shape of the beam is shown in
Fig. 5.7(c). Because the bending moment is positive in segment AF , the
beam is bent concave upward in this region. Conversely, the bending
moment is negative in segment FE; therefore, in this region, the beam is
bent concave downward. Regarding the support conditions, note that at
 SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 173

FIG. 5.7

both supports A and D the deection of the beam is zero, but its slope
(rotation) is not zero at these points.
It is important to realize that a qualitative deected shape is ap-
proximate, because it is based solely on the signs of curvatures; the nu-
merical values of deections along the axis of the beam are not known
(except at supports). For example, numerical computations could possi-
bly indicate that the end E of the beam actually deects upward, instead
of downward as assumed in Fig. 5.7(c).

5.4 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LOADS, SHEARS, AND BENDING MOMENTS

The construction of shear and bending moment diagrams can be con-

siderably expedited by using the basic dierential relationships that exist
between the loads, the shears, and the bending moments.
174 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

FIG. 5.8

To derive these relationships, consider a beam subjected to an arbi-

trary loading, as shown in Fig. 5.8(a). All the external loads shown in
this gure are assumed to be acting in their positive directions. As in-
dicated in this gure, the external distributed and concentrated loads
acting upward (in the positive y direction) are considered positive; the
external couples acting clockwise are also considered to be positive and
vice versa. Next, we consider the equilibrium of a dierential element of
length dx, isolated from the beam by passing imaginary sections at dis-
tances x and x dx from the origin O, as shown in Fig. 5.8(a). The free-
body diagram of the element is shown in Fig. 5.8(b), in which S and M
represent the shear and bending moment, respectively, acting on the left
face of the element (i.e., at distance x from the origin O), and dS and
dM denote the changes in shear and bending moment, respectively, over
the distance dx. As the distance dx is innitesimally small, the distrib-
uted load w acting on the element can be considered to be uniform of
magnitude wx. In order for the element to be in equilibrium, the forces
and
P couples actingP on it must satisfy the two equations of P equilibrium,
Fy 0 and M 0. The third equilibrium equation, Fx 0, is
automatically satised, since no horizontalP forces are acting on the ele-
ment. Applying the equilibrium equation Fy 0, we obtain
P
" Fy 0
S w dx  S dS 0
dS w dx (5.1)
SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 175

Dividing by dx, we write Eq. (5.1) as

dS
w (5.2)
dx

in which dS=dx represents the slope of the shear diagram. Thus, Eq.
(5.2) can be expressed as

slope of shear diagram intensity of distributed

(5.3)
at a point load at that point

To determine the change in shear between points A and B along the

axis of the member (see Fig. 5.8(a)), we integrate Eq. (5.1) from A to B
to obtain
B B
dS SB  SA w dx (5.4)
A A

in which SB  SA represents the change in shear between points A

and B and BA w dx represents the area under the distributed load dia-
gram between points A and B. Thus, Eq. (5.4) can be stated as

change in shear between area under the distributed load

(5.5)
points A and B diagram between points A and B

Applying the moment equilibrium equation to the free body of the

beam element shown in Fig. 5.8(b), we write
P
Ma 0 M wdxdx=2  S dS dx M dM 0
By neglecting the terms containing second-order dierentials, we obtain
dM S dx (5.6)
which can also be written as
dM
S (5.7)
dx
in which dM=dx represents the slope of the bending moment diagram.
Thus, Eq. (5.7) can be stated as

slope of bending moment

shear at that point (5.8)
diagram at a point
176 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

To obtain the change in bending moment between points A and B

(see Fig. 5.8(a)), we integrate Eq. (5.6) to obtain
B B
dM MB  MA S dx (5.9)
A A

in which MB  MA represents the change in bending moment between

B
points A and B and A S dx represents the area under the shear diagram
between points A and B. Thus, Eq. (5.9) can be stated as

change in bending moment area under the shear diagram

(5.10)
between points A and B between points A and B

Concentrated Loads
The relationships between the loads and shears derived thus far (Eqs.
(5.1) through (5.5)) are not valid at the point of application of concen-
trated loads. As we illustrated in Example 5.3, at such a point the shear
changes abruptly by an amount equal to the magnitude of the concen-
trated load. To verify this relationship, we consider the equilibrium of
a dierential element that is isolated from the beam of Fig. 5.8(a) by
passing imaginary sections at innitesimal distances to the left and to
the right of the point of application C of the concentrated load P. The
free-body diagram of P this element is shown in Fig. 5.8(c). Applying the
equilibrium equation Fy 0, we obtain
P
" Fy 0
S P  S dS 0
dS P (5.11)
which can be stated as

change in shear at the point of magnitude of

(5.12)
application of a concentrated load the load

The relationships between the shears and bending moments (Eqs.

(5.6) through (5.10)) derived previously remain valid at the points of ap-
plication of concentrated loads. Note that because of the abrupt change
in the shear diagram at such a point, there will be an abrupt change in
the slope of the bending moment diagram at that point.
SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 177

Couples or Concentrated Moments

Although the relationships between the loads and shears derived thus
far (Eqs. (5.1) through (5.5), (5.11), and (5.12)) are valid at the points of
application of couples or concentrated moments, the relationships be-
tween the shears and bending moments as given by Eqs. (5.6) through
(5.10) are not valid at such points. As illustrated in Example 5.3, at the
point of application of a couple, the bending moment changes abruptly
by an amount equal to the magnitude of the moment of the couple. To
derive this relationship, we consider the equilibrium of a dierential ele-
ment that is isolated from the beam of Fig. 5.8(a) by passing imaginary
sections at innitesimal distances to the left and to the right of the point
of application D of the couple M. The free-body diagram of this element
is shown in Fig. 5.8(d). Applying the moment equilibrium equation, we
write
P
Ma 0
M  M M dM 0
dM M (5.13)
which can be stated as

change in bending moment at the magnitude of the

(5.14)
point of application of a couple moment of the couple

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for constructing the
shear and bending moment diagrams for beams by applying the foregoing
relationships between the loads, the shears, and the bending moments.
1. Calculate the support reactions.
2. Construct the shear diagram as follows:
a. Determine the shear at the left end of the beam. If no con-
centrated load is applied at this point, the shear is zero at this
point; go to step 2(b). Otherwise, the ordinate of the shear dia-
gram at this point changes abruptly from zero to the magnitude
of the concentrated force. Recall that an upward force causes
the shear to increase, whereas a downward force causes the
shear to decrease.
b. Proceeding from the point at which the shear was computed in
the previous step toward the right along the length of the beam,
identify the next point at which the numerical value of the or-
dinate of the shear diagram is to be determined. Usually, it is
necessary to determine such values only at the ends of the beam
178 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

and at points at which the concentrated forces are applied and

where the load distributions change.
c. Determine the ordinate of the shear diagram at the point se-
lected in step 2(b) (or just to the left of it, if a concentrated load
acts at the point) by adding algebraically the area under the load
diagram between the previous point and the point currently
under consideration to the shear at the previous point (or just to
the right of it, if a concentrated force acts at the point). The
formulas for the areas of common geometric shapes are listed in
Appendix A.
d. Determine the shape of the shear diagram between the previous
point and the point currently under consideration by applying
Eq. (5.3), which states that the slope of the shear diagram at a
point is equal to the load intensity at that point.
e. If no concentrated force is acting at the point under con-
sideration, then proceed to step 2(f ). Otherwise, determine the
ordinate of the shear diagram just to the right of the point by
adding algebraically the magnitude of the concentrated load to
the shear just to the left of the point. Thus, the shear diagram at
this point changes abruptly by an amount equal to the magni-
tude of the concentrated force.
f. If the point under consideration is not located at the right end
of the beam, then return to step 2(b). Otherwise, the shear dia-
gram has been completed. If the analysis has been carried out
correctly, then the value of shear just to the right of the right
end of the beam must be zero, except for the round-o errors.
3. Construct the bending moment diagram as follows:
a. Determine the bending moment at the left end of the beam. If
no couple is applied at this point, the bending moment is zero
at this point; go to step 3(b). Otherwise, the ordinate of the
bending moment diagram at this point changes abruptly from
zero to the magnitude of the moment of the couple. Recall that
a clockwise couple causes the bending moment to increase,
whereas a counterclockwise couple causes the bending moment
to decrease at its point of application.
b. Proceeding from the point at which the bending moment was
computed in the previous step toward the right along the length
of the beam, identify the next point at which the numerical
value of the ordinate of the bending moment diagram is to be
determined. It is usually necessary to determine such values
only at the points where the numerical values of shear were
computed in step 2, where the couples are applied, and where the
maximum and minimum values of bending moment occur. In
addition to the points of application of couples, the maximum
and minimum values of bending moment occur at points where
the shear is zero. At a point of zero shear, if the shear changes
SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 179

from positive to the left to negative to the right, the slope of the
bending moment diagram will change from positive to the left
of the point to negative to the right of it; that is, the bending
moment will be maximum at this point. Conversely, at a point
of zero shear, where the shear changes from negative to the left
to positive to the right, the bending moment will be minimum.
For most common loading conditions, such as concentrated
loads and uniformly and linearly distributed loads, the points of
zero shear can be located by considering the geometry of the
shear diagram. However, for some cases of linearly distributed
loads, as well as for nonlinearly distributed loads, it becomes
necessary to locate the points of zero shear by solving the ex-
pressions for shear, as illustrated in Example 5.4.
c. Determine the ordinate of the bending moment diagram at
the point selected in step 3(b) (or just to the left of it, if a
couple acts at the point) by adding algebraically the area
under the shear diagram between the previous point and the
point currently under consideration to the bending moment
at the previous point (or just to the right of it, if a couple
acts at the point).
d. Determine the shape of the bending moment diagram be-
tween the previous point and the point currently under con-
sideration by applying Eq. (5.8), which states that the slope
of the bending moment diagram at a point is equal to the
shear at that point.
e. If no couple is acting at the point under consideration, then
proceed to step 3(f ). Otherwise, determine the ordinate of the
bending moment diagram just to the right of the point by add-
ing algebraically the magnitude of the moment of the couple
to the bending moment just to the left of the point. Thus, the
bending moment diagram at this point changes abruptly by an
amount equal to the magnitude of the moment of the couple.
f. If the point under consideration is not located at the right end
of the beam, then return to step 3(b). Otherwise, the bending
moment diagram has been completed. If the analysis has been
carried out correctly, then the value of bending moment just to
the right of the right end of the beam must be zero, except for
the round-o errors.
The foregoing procedure can be used for constructing the shear and
bending moment diagrams by proceeding from the left end of the beam
to its right end, as is currently the common practice. However, if we
wish to construct these diagrams by proceeding from the right end of the
beam toward the left, the procedure essentially remains the same except
that downward forces must now be considered to cause increase in
shear, counterclockwise couples are now considered to cause increase in
bending moment, and vice versa.
180 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Example 5.5

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the beam shown in Fig. 5.9(a).

FIG. 5.9
continued
 SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 181

Solution
Reactions (See Fig. 5.9(b).)
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0
By proportions,
   
20 10
Ay 12 30 18 k Ay 18 k "
30 30
P
" Fy 0
18  12  30 Dy 0
Dy 24 k Dy 24 k "

Shear Diagram
Point A Since a positive (upward) concentrated force of 18-k magnitude acts at point A, the shear diagram in-
creases abruptly from 0 to 18 k at this point.
Point B The shear just to the left of point B is given by
SB; L SA; R area under the load diagram between just to the right of A to
just to the left of B
in which the subscripts ; L and ; R are used to denote just to the left and just to the right, respectively. As no
load is applied to this segment of the beam,
SB; L 18 0 18 k
Because a negative (downward) concentrated load of 12-k magnitude acts at point B, the shear just to the right of B is
SB; R 18  12 6 k

Point C
SC; L SB; R area under the load diagram between just to the right of B to
just to the left of C
SC; L 6 0 6 k
SC; R 6  30 24 k
Point D SD; L 24 0 24 k
SD; R 24 24 0 Checks
The numerical values of shear computed at points A; B; C, and D are used to construct the shear diagram as shown
in Fig. 5.9(c). The shape of the diagram between these ordinates has been established by applying Eq. (5.3), which states
that the slope of the shear diagram at a point is equal to the load intensity at that point. Because no load is applied to
the beam between these points, the slope of the shear diagram is zero between these points, and the shear diagram
consists of a series of horizontal lines, as shown in the gure. Note that the shear diagram closes (i.e., returns to zero)
just to the right of the right end D of the beam, indicating that the analysis has been carried out correctly. Ans.
To facilitate the construction of the bending moment diagram, the areas of the various segments of the shear dia-
gram have been computed and are shown in parentheses on the shear diagram (Fig. 5.9(c)).
continued
182 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Bending Moment Diagram

Point A Because no couple is applied at end A, MA 0.

Point B MB MA area under the shear diagram
between A and B
MB 0 180 180 k-ft
Point C MC 180 60 240 k-ft
Point D MD 240  240 0 Checks
The numerical values of bending moment computed at points A; B; C, and D are used to construct the bending
moment diagram shown in Fig. 5.9(d). The shape of the diagram between these ordinates has been established by applying
Eq. (5.8), which states that the slope of the bending moment diagram at a point is equal to the shear at that point. As the
shear between these points is constant, the slope of the bending moment diagram must be constant between these points.
Therefore, the ordinates of the bending moment diagram are connected by straight, sloping lines. In segment AB, the shear
is 18 k. Therefore, the slope of the bending moment diagram in this segment is 18:1, and it is positivethat is, upward to
the right (=). In segment BC, the shear drops to 6 k; therefore, the slope of the bending moment diagram reduces to 6:1
but remains positive. In segment CD, the shear becomes 24; consequently, the slope of the bending moment diagram
becomes negativethat is, downward to the right (n), as shown in Fig. 5.9(d). Note that the maximum bending moment
occurs at point C, where the shear changes from positive to the left to negative to the right. Ans.
Qualitative Deected Shape A qualitative deected shape of the beam is shown in Fig. 5.9(e). As the bending mo-
ment is positive over its entire length, the beam bends concave upward, as shown. Ans.

Example 5.6

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the beam shown in Fig. 5.10(a).

Solution
Reactions (See Fig. 5.10(b).)
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0
P
" Fy 0
Ay  70 0
Ay 70 kN Ay 70 kN "
P
MA 0
MA  706  200 0

MA 620 kN  m MA 620 kN  m

continued
 SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 183

70 kN

200 kN . m

6m 4m
(a)

70 kN
MA = 620 kN . m

y A B C
200 kN . m
Ay = 70 kN

x (b)

Zero slope
70

(420)

A B C
(c) Shear diagram (kN)

A B C

200
Zero slope
Positive slope
620 (d) Bending moment
diagram (kN . m)

C
A

(e) Qualitative Deflected Shape

FIG. 5.10
continued
184 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Shear Diagram

Point A SA; R 70 kN
Point B SB; L 70 0 70 kN
SB; R 70  70 0
Point C SC; L 0 0 0
SC; R 0 0 0 Checks
The numerical values of shear evaluated at points A; B, and C are used to construct the shear diagram as shown in
Fig. 5.10(c). Because no load is applied to the beam between these points, the slope of the shear diagram is zero between
these points. To facilitate the construction of the bending moment diagram, the area of the segment AB of the shear
diagram has been computed and is shown in parentheses on the shear diagram (Fig. 5.10(c)). Ans.
Bending Moment Diagram
Point A Since a negative (counterclockwise) couple of 620 kN  m moment acts at point A, the bending moment
diagram decreases abruptly from 0 to 620 kN  m at this point; that is,
MA; R 620 kN  m
Point B MB 620 420 200 kN  m
Point C MC; L 200 0 200 kN  m
MC; R 200 200 0 Checks
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 5.10(d). The shape of this diagram between the ordinates just com-
puted is based on the condition that the slope of the bending moment diagram at a point is equal to shear at that point. As
the shear in the segments AB and BC is constant, the slope of the bending moment diagram must be constant in these
segments. Therefore, the ordinates of the bending moment diagram are connected by straight lines. In segment AB, the
shear is positive, and so is the slope of the bending moment diagram in this segment. In segment BC, the shear becomes
zero; consequently, the slope of the bending moment diagram becomes zero, as shown in Fig. 5.10(d). Ans.
Qualitative Deected Shape A qualitative deected shape of the beam is shown in Fig. 5.10(e). As the bending
moment is negative over its entire length, the beam bends concave downward, as shown. Ans.

Example 5.7

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the beam shown in Fig. 5.11(a).

Solution
Reactions (See Fig. 5.11(b).)

continued
 SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 185

FIG. 5.11
continued
186 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

P
! Fx 0
Ax  30 0
Ax 30 kN Ax 30 kN !
P
MD 0
Ay 27 101519:5  162 406 0
Ay 111:22 kN Ay 111:22 kN "
P
" Fy 0
111:22  1015  40 Dy 0
Dy 78:78 kN Dy 78:78 kN "

Shear Diagram
Point A SA; R 111:22 kN
Point B SB 111:22  1015 38:78 kN
Point C SC; L 38:78 0 38:78 kN
SC; R 38:78  40 78:78 kN
Point D SD; L 78:78 0 78:78 kN
SD; R 78:78 78:78 0 Checks
The shear diagram is shown in Fig. 5.11(c). In segment AB, the beam is subjected to a downward (negative)
uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m. Because the load intensity is constant and negative in segment AB, the shear
diagram in this segment is a straight line with negative slope. No distributed load is applied to the beam in segments BC
and CD, so the shear diagram in these segments consists of horizontal lines, indicating zero slopes. Ans.
The point of zero shear, E, can be located by using the similar triangles forming the shear diagram between A and
B. Thus,
x 15

111:22 111:22 38:78
x 11:12 m
To facilitate the construction of the bending moment diagram, the areas of the various segments of the shear dia-
gram have been computed; they are shown in parentheses on the shear diagram (Fig. 5.11(c)).
Bending Moment Diagram
Point A MA 0
Point E ME 0 618:38 618:38 kN  m
Point B MB; L 618:38  75:23 543:15 kN  m
MB; R 543:15 162 705:15 kN  m
Point C MC 705:15  232:68 472:47 kN  m
Point D MD 472:47  472:68 0:21 & 0 Checks
continued
 SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 187

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 5.11(d). The shape of this diagram between the ordinates just
computed has been based on the condition that the slope of the bending moment diagram at any point is equal to the
shear at that point. Just to the right of A, the shear is positive, and so is the slope of the bending moment diagram at
this point. As we move to the right from A, the shear decreases linearly (but remains positive), until it becomes zero at
E. Therefore, the slope of the bending moment diagram gradually decreases, or becomes less steep (but remains pos-
itive), as we move to the right from A, until it becomes zero at E. Note that the shear diagram in segment AE is linear,
but the bending moment diagram in this segment is parabolic, or a second-degree curve, because the bending moment
diagram is obtained by integrating the shear diagram (Eq. 5.11). Therefore, the bending moment curve will always be
one degree higher than the corresponding shear curve.
We can see from Fig. 5.11(d) that the bending moment becomes locally maximum at point E, where the shear
changes from positive to the left to negative to the right. As we move to the right from E, the shear becomes negative,
and it decreases linearly between E and B. Accordingly, the slope of the bending moment diagram becomes negative to
the right of E, and it decreases continuously (becomes more steep downward to the right) between E and just to the left
of B. A positive (clockwise) couple acts at B, so the bending moment increases abruptly at this point by an amount
equal to the magnitude of the moment of the couple. The largest value (global maximum) of the bending moment
over the entire length of the beam occurs at just to the right of B. (Note that no abrupt change, or discontinuity, occurs
in the shear diagram at this point.) Finally, as the shear in segments BC and CD is constant and negative, the bending
moment diagram in these segments consists of straight lines with negative slopes. Ans.
Qualitative Deected Shape See Fig. 5.11(e). Ans.

Example 5.8

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the beam shown in Fig. 5.12(a).

Solution
Reactions (See Fig. 5.12(b).)
P
! Fx 0 Bx 0
P
MC 0
1 1
31224  By 20 32010  362 0
2 2
By 50:7 k By 50:7 k "
P
" Fy 0
1 1
 312 50:7  320  36 Cy 0
2 2
Cy 36:3 k Cy 36:3 k "

continued
188 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

FIG. 5.12

continued
 SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 189

Shear Diagram

Point A SA 0
1
Point B SB; L 0  312 18 k
2
SB; R 18 50:7 32:7 k
Point C SC; L 32:7  320 27:3 k
SC; R 27:3 36:3 9 k
1
Point D SD 9  36 0 Checks
2

The shear diagram is shown in Fig. 5.12(c). The shape of the diagram between the ordinates just computed is ob-
tained by applying the condition that the slope of the shear diagram at any point is equal to the load intensity at that
point. For example, as the load intensity at A is zero, so is the slope of the shear diagram at A. Between A and B, the
load intensity is negative and it decreases linearly from zero at A to 3 k/ft at B. Thus, the slope of the shear diagram is
negative in this segment, and it decreases (becomes more steep) continuously from A to just to the left of B. The rest of
the shear diagram is constructed by using similar reasoning. Ans.
The point of zero shear, E, is located by using the similar triangles forming the shear diagram between B and C.
To facilitate the construction of the bending moment diagram, the areas of the various segments of the shear diagram
have been computed and are shown in parentheses on the shear diagram (Fig. 5.12(c)). It should be noted that the areas of
the parabolic spandrels, AB and CD, can be obtained by using the formula for the area of this shape given in Appendix A.
Bending Moment Diagram
Point A MA 0
Point B MB 0  72 72 k-ft
Point E ME 72 178:22 106:22 k-ft
Point C MC 106:22  124:22 18 k-ft
Point D MD 18 18 0 Checks
The shape of the bending moment diagram between these ordinates is obtained by using the condition that the
slope of the bending moment diagram at any point is equal to the shear at that point. The bending moment diagram
thus constructed is shown in Fig. 5.12(d).
It can be seen from this gure that the maximum negative bending moment occurs at point B, whereas the
maximum positive bending moment, which has the largest absolute value over the entire length of the beam, occurs
at point E. Ans.
To locate the points of inection, F and G, we set equal to zero the equation for bending moment in segment BC,
in terms of the distance x from the left support point B (Fig. 5.12(b)):
   
1 x
M 3124 x 50:7x  3x 0
2 2
or
1:5x 2 32:7x  72 0
from which x 2:49 ft and x 19:31 ft from B.
continued
190 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Qualitative Deected Shape A qualitative deected shape of the beam is shown in Fig. 5.12(e). The bending
moment is positive in segment FG, so the beam is bent concave upward in this region. Conversely, since the bending
moment is negative in segments AF and GD, the beam is bent concave downward in these segments. Ans.

Example 5.9

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the beam shown in Fig. 5.13(a).

Solution
Reactions (See Fig. 5.13(b).)
P
MBBD 0
20105 Cy 10  10015 0
Cy 250 kN Cy 250 kN "
P
" Fy 0
Ay  2010 250  100 0
Ay 50 kN Ay 50 kN "
P
MA 0
MA  201015 25020  10025 0

MA 500 kN  m MA 500 kN  m
Shear Diagram

Point A SA; R 50 kN
Point B SB 50 0 50 kN
Point C SC; L 50  2010 150 kN
SC; R 150 250 100 kN
Point D SD; L 100 0 100 kN
SD; R 100  100 0 Checks
The shear diagram is shown in Fig. 5.13(c). Ans.
Bending Moment Diagram

Point A MA; R 500 kN  m

Point B MB 500 500 0
Point E ME 0 62:5 62:5 kN  m
Point C MC 62:5  562:5 500 kN  m
Point D MD 500 500 0 Checks
continued
 SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 191

FIG. 5.13

The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 5.13(d). The point of inection F can be located by setting equal
to zero the equation for bending moment in segment BC, in terms of the distance x1 from the right support point C
(Fig. 5.13(b)):
 
x1
M 1005 x1 250x1  20x1 0
2
or
10x12 150x1  500 0
from which x1 5 m and x1 10 m from C. Note that the solution x1 10 m represents the location of the internal
hinge at B, at which the bending moment is zero. Thus, the point of inection F is located at a distance of 5 m to the left
of C, as shown in Fig. 5.13(d). Ans.
Qualitative Deected Shape A qualitative deected shape of the beam is shown in Fig. 5.13(e). Note that at the
xed support A, both the deection and the slope of the beam are zero, whereas at the roller support C, only the de-
ection is zero, but the slope is not. The internal hinge B does not provide any rotational restraint, so the slope at B can
be discontinuous. Ans.
192 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Example 5.10

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the beam shown in Fig. 5.14(a).

Solution
Reactions (See Fig. 5.14(b).)
P
MCCD 0
Dy 24  22412 0
Dy 24 k Dy 24 k "
P
MA 0
2460 By 30  26030 0
By 72 k By 72 k "
P
" Fy 0
Ay  260 72 24 0
Ay 24 k Ay 24 k "

Shear Diagram
Point A SA; R 24 k
Point B SB; L 24  230 36 k
SB; R 36 72 36 k
Point D SD; L 36  230 24 k
SD; R 24 24 0 Checks

The shear diagram is shown in Fig. 5.14(c). Ans.

Bending Moment Diagram
Point A MA 0
Point E ME 0 144 144 k-ft
Point B MB 144  324 180 k-ft
Point F MF 180 324 144 k-ft
Point D MD 144  144 0 Checks
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 5.14(d). Ans.
Qualitative Deected Shape See Fig. 5.14(e). Ans.

continued
 SECTION 5.4 Relationships between Loads, Shears, and Bending Moments 193

2 k/ft

Hinge
30 ft 24 ft
6 ft
(a)

2 k/ft

A B C D

Ay = 24 k By = 72 k Dy = 24 k
(b)

36
24
12 ft
(144) B (324) D
A E (324) F (144)

12 ft
24
36
(c) Shear Diagram (k)

144 144
6 ft 6 ft

B
A E G C F D

180

(d) Bending Moment Diagram (k-ft)

A G B C D

FIG. 5.14 (e) Qualitative Deflected Shape

194 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Example 5.11

Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the statically indeterminate beam
shown in Fig. 5.15. The support reactions, determined by using the procedures for the analysis of statically in-
determinate beams (presented in Part Three of this text), are given in Fig. 5.15(a).

FIG. 5.15

Solution
Regardless of whether a beam is statically determinate or indeterminate, once the support reactions have been de-
termined, the procedure for constructing the shear and bending moment diagrams remains the same. The shear and
bending moment diagrams for the given statically indeterminate beam are shown in Fig. 5.15(b) and (c), respectively,
and a qualitative deected shape of the beam is shown in Fig. 5.15(d).
 SECTION 5.5 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane Frames 195

5.5 STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND INSTABILITY OF PLANE FRAMES

As dened in Section 1.3, rigid frames, usually referred to simply as

frames, are composed of straight members connected either by rigid
(moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections to form stable
congurations. The members of frames are usually connected by rigid
joints, although hinged connections are sometimes used. A rigid joint
prevents relative translations and rotations of the member ends con-
nected to it, so the joint is capable of transmitting two rectangular force
components and a couple between the connected members. Under the
action of external loads, the members of a frame may be, in general,
subjected to bending moment, shear, and axial tension or compression.
A frame is considered to be statically determinate if the bending
moments, shears, and axial forces in all its members, as well as all the
external reactions, can be determined by using the equations of equili-
brium and condition.
Since the method of analysis presented in the following section can
be used only to analyze statically determinate frames, it is important for
the student to be able to recognize statically determinate frames before
proceeding with the analysis.
Consider a plane frame subjected to an arbitrary loading, as shown
in Fig. 5.16(a). The free-body diagrams of the three members and the
four joints of the frame are shown in Fig. 5.16(b). Each member is sub-
jected to, in addition to the external forces, two internal force compo-
nents and an internal couple at each of its ends. Of course, the correct
senses of the internal forces and couples, which are commonly referred
to as the member end forces, are not known before the analysis and are
chosen arbitrarily. The free-body diagrams of the joints show the same
member end forces but in opposite directions, in accordance with New-
tons third law. The analysis of the frame involves the determination of
the magnitudes of the 18 member end forces (six per member), and the
three support reactions, AX ; AY , and DY . Therefore, the total number of
unknown quantities to be determined is 21.
Because the entire frame is in equilibrium, each of its members
and joints must also be in equilibrium. As shown in Fig. 5.16(b), each
member and each joint are subjected to a general coplanar system of
forces and
P couples,Pwhich must satisfyP the three equations of equili-
brium, FX 0, FY 0, and M 0. Since the frame contains
three members and four joints (including the two joints connected to
supports), the total number of equations available is 33 34 21.
These 21 equilibrium equations can be solved to calculate the 21 un-
knowns. The member end forces thus obtained can then be used to de-
termine axial forces, shears, and bending moments at various points
along the lengths of members. The frame of Fig. 5.16(a) is, therefore,
statically determinate.
196 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

FIG. 5.16

Three equations of equilibrium of the entire frame as a rigid body

could be written and solved for the three unknown reactions (AX ; AY ,
and DY ). However, these equilibrium equations are not independent
from the member and joint equilibrium equations and do not contain
any additional information.
Based on the foregoing discussion, we can develop the criteria for
the static determinacy, indeterminacy, and instability of general plane
frames containing m members and j joints and supported by r (num-
ber of ) external reactions. For the analysis, we need to determine 6m
member forces and r external reactions; that is, we need to calculate a
SECTION 5.5 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane Frames 197

total of 6m r unknown quantities. Since there are m members and j

joints and we can write three equations of equilibrium for each mem-
ber and each joint, the number of equilibrium equations available is
3m j. Furthermore, if a frame contains internal hinges and/or in-
ternal rollers, these internal conditions provide additional equations,
which can be used in conjunction with the equilibrium equations to de-
termine the unknowns. Thus, if there are ec equations of condition for a
frame, the total number of equations (equilibrium equations plus equa-
tions of condition) available is 3m j ec . For a frame, if the number
of unknowns is equal to the number of equations, that is,
6m r 3m j ec
or
3m r 3j ec
then all the unknowns can be determined by solving the equations of
equilibrium and condition, and the frame is statically determinate. If
a frame has more unknowns than the available equationsthat is,
3m r > 3j ec all the unknowns cannot be determined by solving
the available equations, and the frame is called statically indetermi-
nate. Statically indeterminate frames have more members and/or ex-
ternal reactions than the minimum required for stability. The excess
members and reactions are called redundants, and the number of excess
member forces and reactions is referred to as the degree of static in-
determinacy, i, which can be expressed as
i 3m r  3j ec (5.15)
For a frame, if the number of unknowns is less than the number of
available equationsthat is, 3m r < 3j ec the frame is called stat-
ically unstable. The conditions for static instability, determinacy, and
indeterminacy of plane frames can be summarized as follows:

3m r < 3j ec statically unstable frame

3m r 3j ec statically determinate frame (5.16)
3m r > 3j ec statically indeterminate frame

In applying Eq. (5.16), the ends of the frame attached to supports as

well as any free ends are treated as joints. The conditions for static de-
terminacy and indeterminacy, as given by Eq. (5.16), are necessary but
not sucient conditions. In order for these criteria for static determi-
nacy and indeterminacy to be valid, the arrangement of the members,
support reactions, and internal hinges and rollers (if any) must be such
that the frame will remain geometrically stable under a general system
of coplanar loads.
198 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

FIG. 5.17

The procedure for determining the number of equations of con-

dition remains the same as discussed in Chapter 3. Recall that an in-
ternal hinge provides one equation of condition, and an internal roller
provides two such equations. When several members of a frame are
connected at a hinged joint, the number of equations of condition at
the joint is equal to the number of members meeting at the joint minus
one. For example, consider the hinged joint H of the frame shown in
Fig. 5.17. As a hinge cannot transmit moment, the moments at the ends
H of the three members EH; GH, and HI meeting at the joint must be
zero; that is, MHEH 0, MHGH 0, and MHHI 0. However, these three
equations are not independent in the sense that if any two of these three
equations are satised along with the moment equilibrium equation
for the joint H, the remaining equation will automatically be satised.
Thus, the hinged joint H provides two independent equations of con-
dition. Using a similar reasoning, it can be shown that an internal roller
joint provides the equations of condition whose number is equal to 2 
(number of members meeting at the joint 1).

Alternative Approach
An alternative approach that can be used for determining the degree
of static indeterminacy of a frame is to cut enough members of the
frame by passing imaginary sections and/or to remove enough supports
to render the structure statically determinate. The total number of in-
ternal and external restraints thus removed equals the degree of static
indeterminacy. As an example, consider the frame shown in Fig. 5.18(a).
The frame can be made statically determinate by passing an imaginary
section through the girder BC, thereby removing three internal restraints
(the axial force Q, the shear S, and the bending moment M ), as shown
 SECTION 5.5 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Plane Frames 199

FIG. 5.18

in Fig. 5.18(b). Note that the two cantilever structures thus produced are
both statically determinate and geometrically stable. Because three re-
straints (Q; S, and M) had to be removed from the original statically in-
determinate frame of Fig. 5.18(a) to obtain the statically determinate
frames of Fig. 5.18(b), the degree of static indeterminacy of the original
frame is three. There are many possible choices regarding the restraints
that can be removed from a statically indeterminate structure to render it
statically determinate. For example, the frame of Fig. 5.18(a) could al-
ternatively be rendered statically determinate by disconnecting it from the
xed support at D, as shown in Fig. 5.18(c). Since three external restraints
or reactions, DX ; DY , and MD , must be removed in this process, the de-
gree of static indeterminacy of the frame is three, as concluded previously.
This alternative approach of establishing the degree of indeter-
minacy (instead of applying Eq. (5.15)) provides the most convenient
means of determining the degrees of static indeterminacy of multistory
building frames. An example of such a frame is shown in Fig. 5.19(a).
The structure can be made statically determinate by passing an imagi-
nary section through each of the girders, as shown in Fig. 5.19(b). Be-
cause each cut removes three restraints, the total number of restraints
that must be removed to render the structure statically determinate is
equal to three times the number of girders in the frame. Thus, the degree
of static indeterminacy of a multistory frame with xed supports is equal
to three times the number of girders, provided that the frame does not
contain any internal hinges or rollers.
200 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

FIG. 5.19

Example 5.12

Verify that each of the plane frames shown in Fig. 5.20 is statically indeterminate and determine its degree of static indeterminacy.

FIG. 5.20
Solution
See Fig. 5.20(a) through (f ).
 SECTION 5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames 201

5.6 ANALYSIS OF PLANE FRAMES

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for determining the
member end forces as well as the shears, bending moments, and axial
forces in members of plane statically determinate frames.
1. Check for static determinacy. Using the procedure described in the
preceding section, determine whether or not the given frame is stat-
ically determinate. If the frame is found to be statically determinate
and stable, proceed to step 2. Otherwise, end the analysis at this
stage. (The analysis of statically indeterminate frames is considered
in Part Three of this text.)
2. Determine the support reactions. Draw a free-body diagram of the
entire frame, and determine reactions by applying the equations of
equilibrium and any equations of condition that can be written in
terms of external reactions only (without involving any internal
member forces). For some internally unstable frames, it may not be
possible to express all the necessary equations of condition exclusively
in terms of external reactions; therefore, it may not be possible to de-
termine all the reactions. However, some of the reactions for such
structures can usually be calculated from the available equations.
3. Determine member end forces. It is usually convenient to specify the
directions of the unknown forces at the ends of the members of the
frame by using a common structural (or global) XY coordinate sys-
tem, with the X and Y axes oriented in the horizontal (positive to the
right) and vertical (positive upward) directions, respectively. Draw
free-body diagrams of all the members and joints of the structure.
These free-body diagrams must show, in addition to any external loads
and support reactions, all the internal forces being exerted upon the
member or the joint. Remember that a rigid joint is capable of trans-
mitting two force components and a couple, a hinged joint can trans-
mit two force components, and a roller joint can transmit only one
force component. If there is a hinge at an end of a member, the internal
moment at that end should be set equal to zero. Any load acting at a
joint should be shown on the free-body diagrams of the joint, not at the
ends of the members connected to the joint. The senses of the member
end forces are not known and can be arbitrarily assumed. However, it
is usually convenient to assume the senses of the unknown forces at
member ends in the positive X and Y directions and of the unknown
couples as counterclockwise. The senses of the internal forces and
couples on the free-body diagrams of joints must be in directions op-
posite to those assumed on the member ends in accordance with New-
tons third law. Compute the member end forces as follows:
a. Select a member or a joint with three or fewer unknowns.
b. Determine the unknown forces
P and momentsP by applyingPthe three
equations of equilibrium ( FX 0, FY 0, and M 0)
to the free body of the member or joint selected in step 3(a).
202 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

c. If all the unknown forces, moments, and reactions have been de-
termined, then proceed to step 3(d). Otherwise, return to step 3(a).
d. Since the support reactions were calculated in step 2 by using the
equations of equilibrium and condition of the entire structure,
there should be some equations remaining that have not been uti-
lized so far. The number of leftover equations should be equal to
the number of reactions computed in step 2. Use these remaining
equations to check the calculations. If the analysis has been carried
out correctly, then the remaining equations must be satised.
For some types of frames, a member or a joint that has a num-
ber of unknowns less than or equal to the number of equilibrium
equations may not be found to start or continue the analysis. In such
a case, it may be necessary to write equilibrium equations in terms
of unknowns for two or more free bodies and solve the equations
simultaneously to determine the unknown forces and moments.
4. For each member of the frame, construct the shear, bending mo-
ment, and axial force diagrams as follows:
a. Select a member (local) xy coordinate system with origin at
either end of the member and x axis directed along the cen-
troidal axis of the member. The positive direction of the y axis
is chosen so that the coordinate system is right-handed, with
the z axis pointing out of the plane of the paper.
b. Resolve all the external loads, reactions, and end forces acting
on the member into components in the x and y directions (i.e.,
in the directions parallel and perpendicular to the centroidal axis
of the member). Determine the total (resultant) axial force and
shear at each end of the member by algebraically adding the x
components and y components, respectively, of the forces act-
ing at each end of the member.
c. Construct the shear and bending moment diagrams for the mem-
ber by using the procedure described in Section 5.4. The proce-
dure can be applied to nonhorizontal members by considering the
member end at which the origin of the xy coordinate system is
located as the left end of the member (with x axis pointing toward
the right) and the positive y direction as the upward direction.
d. Construct the axial force diagram showing the variation of
axial force along the length of the member. Such a diagram can
be constructed by using the method of sections. Proceeding in
the positive x direction from the member end at which the ori-
gin of the xy coordinate system is located, sections are passed
after each successive change in loading along the length of the
member to determine the equations for the axial force in terms
of x. According to the sign convention adopted in Section 5.1,
the external forces acting in the negative x direction (causing
tension at the section) are considered to be positive. The values
of axial forces determined from these equations are plotted as
ordinates against x to obtain the axial force diagram.
 SECTION 5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames 203

5. Draw a qualitative deected shape of the frame. Using the bending

moment diagrams constructed in step 4, draw a qualitative deected
shape for each member of the frame. The deected shape of the en-
tire frame is then obtained by connecting the deected shapes of the
individual members at joints so that the original angles between the
members at the rigid joints are maintained and the support con-
ditions are satised. The axial and shear deformations, which are
usually negligibly small as compared to the bending deformations,
are neglected in sketching the deected shapes of frames.
It should be noted that the bending moment diagrams constructed
by using the procedure described in step 4(c) will always show moments
on the compression sides of the members. For example, at a point along
a vertical member, if the left side of the member is in compression, then
the value of the moment at that point will appear on the left side. Since
the side of the member on which a moment appears indicates the di-
rection of the moment, it is not necessary to use plus and minus signs
on the moment diagrams. When designing reinforced concrete frames,
the moment diagrams are sometimes drawn on the tension sides of the
members to facilitate the placement of steel bars used to reinforce
concrete that is weak in tension. A tension-side moment diagram can
be obtained by simply inverting (i.e., rotating through 180 about the
members axis) the corresponding compression-side moment diagram.
Only compression-side moment diagrams are considered in this text.

Example 5.13

Draw the shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the frame shown in
Fig. 5.21(a).

Solution
Static Determinacy m 3, j 4, r 3, and ec 0. Because 3m r 3j ec and the frame is geometrically sta-
ble, it is statically determinate.

P Reactions Considering the equilibrium of the entire frame (Fig. 5.21(b)), we observe that in order to satisfy
FX 0, the reaction component AX must act to the left with a magnitude of 18 k to balance the horizontal load of 18
k to the right. Thus,
AX 18 k AX 18 k
We compute the remaining two reactions by applying the two equilibrium equations as follows:
P
MA 0 1820  23015 DY 30 0 DY 42 k "
P
" FY 0 AY  230 42 0 AY 18 k "

continued
204 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

FIG. 5.21 continued

 SECTION 5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames 205

FIG. 5.21 (contd.) continued

206 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Member End Forces The free-body diagrams of all the members and joints of the frame are shown in Fig. 5.21(c).
We can begin the computation of internal forces either at joint A or at joint D, both of which have only three
unknowns.
P
Joint A Beginning with joint A, we can see from its free-body diagram that in order to satisfy FX 0, AXAB must
act to the right with a magnitude of 18 k to balance the horizontal reaction of 18 k to the left. Thus,

AXAB 18 k
P
Similarly, by applying FY 0, we obtain
AYAB 18 k

Member AB With the magnitudes of AXAB AB

P and AY P now known, member
P AB has three unknowns, BXAB ; BYAB , and
MBAB ,
which can be determined by applying FX 0, FY 0, and MA 0. Thus,
BXAB 18 k BYAB 18 k MBAB 360 k-ft

Joint B Proceeding next to joint B and considering its equilibrium, we obtain

BXBC 0 BYBC 18 k MBBC 360 k-ft

Member BC Next, considering the equilibrium of member BC, we write

P
! FX 0 CXBC 0
P
" FY 0 18  230 CYBC 0 CYBC 42 k
P
MB 0 360  23015 4230 MCBC 0 MCBC 0

Joint C Applying the three equilibrium equations, we obtain

CXCD 0 CYCD 42 k MCCD 0
P P
Member CD Applying FX 0 and FY 0 in order, we obtain
DXCD 0 DYCD 42 k
Since all unknown forces and moments have been determined, we check our computations by using the third equili-
brium equations for member CD.
P
MD 0 Checks
Joint D (Checking computations)
P
! FX 0 Checks
P
" FY 0 42  42 0 Checks
Shear Diagrams The xy coordinate systems selected for the three members of the frame are shown in Fig. 5.21(d),
and the shear diagrams for the members constructed by using the procedure described in Section 5.4 are depicted in
Fig. 5.21(e). Ans.
Bending Moment Diagrams The bending moment diagrams for the three members of the frame are shown in
Fig. 5.21(f ).

continued
 SECTION 5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames 207

Axial Force Diagrams From the free-body diagram of member AB in Fig. 5.21(d), we observe that the axial
force throughout the length of this member is compressive, with a constant magnitude of 18 k. Therefore, the
axial force diagram for this member is a straight line parallel to the x axis at a value of 18 k, as shown in
Fig. 5.21(g). Similarly, it can be seen from Fig. 5.21(d) that the axial forces in members BC and CD are also
constant, with magnitudes of 0 and 42 k, respectively. The axial force diagrams thus constructed for these
members are shown in Fig. 5.21(g). Ans.
Qualitative Deected Shape From the bending moment diagrams of the members of the frame (Fig. 5.21(f )), we
observe that the members AB and BC bend concave to the left and concave upward, respectively. As no bending mo-
ment develops in member CD, it does not bend but remains straight. A qualitative deected shape of the frame obtained
by connecting the deected shapes of the three members at the joints is shown in Fig. 5.21(h). As this gure indicates,
the deection of the frame at support A is zero. Due to the horizontal load at B, joint B deects to the right to B 0 . Since
the axial deformations of members are neglected and bending deformations are assumed to be small, joint B deects
only in the horizontal direction, and joint C deects by the same amount as joint B; that is, BB 0 CC 0 . Note that the
curvatures of the members are consistent with their bending moment diagrams and that the original 90 angles between
members at the rigid joints B and C have been maintained. Ans.

Example 5.14

Draw the shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the frame shown in
Fig. 5.22(a).

Solution
Static Determinacy m 2, j 3, r 3, and ec 0. Because 3m r 3j ec and the frame is geometrically sta-
ble, it is statically determinate.
Reactions (See Fig. 5.22(b).)
P
! Fx 0
Ax 25 0 Ax 25 k
P
" Fy 0
Ay  1:615 0 Ay 24 k "
P
MA 0

MA  2510  1:6157:5 0 MA 430 k-ft
Member End Forces (See Fig. 5.22(c).)
P P P
Joint A By applying the equilibrium equations FX 0, FY 0, and MA 0, we obtain
AXAB 25 k AYAB 24 k MAAB 430 k-ft

continued
208 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

1.6 k/ft

10 ft

25 k

10 ft

BYBC
MBBC 1.6 k/ft
B BXBC
BXAB B C
15 ft BXBC
MBBC
(a) MBAB
BYBC
BYAB

BYAB
1.6 k/ft

B C
MBAB B BXAB

25 k

25 k
A AXAB
MAAB

Y AYAB

AYAB

A MAAB
AX X
MA AXAB
25 A
430
AY
24
(b) (c)

FIG. 5.22 continued

 SECTION 5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames 209

x
1.6 k/ft
x 24
180 B C
24
24
B C
180
B

B
25 k D

D
A
y 25
25
430
24 A
(d) (e) Shear Diagrams (k)

B C B B' C
B C
180 C'

B B

180

D D 24

A
A 430 A
(f) Bending Moment Diagrams (k-ft) (g) Axial Force Diagrams (k) (h) Qualitative Deflected Shape

FIG. 5.22 (contd.)

Member AB Next, considering the equilibrium of member AB, we write

P
! FX 0 25 25 BXAB 0 BXAB 0
P
" FY 0 24 BYAB 0 BYAB 24 k
P
MB 0 430  2510 MBAB 0 MBAB 180 k-ft

continued
210 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Joint B Applying the three equations of equilibrium, we obtain

BXBC 0 BYBC 24 k MBBC 180 k-ft
Member BC (Checking computations.)
P
! FX 0 Checks
P
" FY 0 24  1:615 0 Checks
P
MB 0 180  1:6157:5 0 Checks
The member end forces are shown in Fig. 5.22(d).

Shear Diagrams See Fig. 5.22(e). Ans.

Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 5.22(f ). Ans.
Axial Force Diagrams See Fig. 5.22(g). Ans.
Qualitative Deected Shape See Fig. 5.22(h). Ans.

Example 5.15

A gable frame is subjected to a snow loading, as shown in Fig. 5.23(a). Draw the shear, bending moment, and axial
force diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the frame.

Solution
Static Determinacy m 4, j 5, r 4, and ec 1. Because 3m r 3j ec and the frame is geometrically sta-
ble, it is statically determinate.

FIG. 5.23
continued
 SECTION 5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames 211

FIG. 5.23 (contd.) continued

212 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

FIG. 5.23 (contd.)

continued
 SECTION 5.6 Analysis of Plane Frames 213

FIG. 5.23 (contd.) continued

214 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

Reactions (See Fig. 5.23(b).)

P
ME 0
AY 8 1284 0 AY 48 kN "
P
" FY 0
48  128 EY 0 EY 48 kN "
P
MCAC 0
AX 8  484 1242 0 AX 12 kN !
P
! FX 0
12 EX 0
EX 12 kN EX 12 kN

Member End Forces (See Fig. 5.23(c).)

P P
Joint A By applying the equations of equilibrium FX 0 and FY 0, we obtain

AXAB 12 kN AYAB 48 kN

Member AB Considering the equilibrium of member AB, we obtain

BXAB 12 kN BYAB 48 kN MBAB 60 kN  m

Joint B Applying the three equilibrium equations, we obtain

BXBC 12 kN BYBC 48 kN MBBC 60 kN  m

Member BC
P
! FX 0 CXBC 12 kN
P
" FY 0
48  124 CYBC 0 CYBC 0
P
MB 0
60  1242 123 0 Checks
Joint C Considering the equilibrium of joint C, we determine

CXCD 12 kN CYCD 0

Member CD
P
! FX 0 DXCD 12 kN
P
" FY 0
124 DYCD 0 DYCD 48 kN
P
MD 0
123 1242 MDCD 0 MDCD 60 kN  m
continued
 Summary 215

Joint D Applying the three equilibrium equations, we obtain

DXDE 12 kN DYDE 48 kN MDDE 60 kN  m
Member DE
P
! FX 0 EXDE 12 kN
P
" FY 0 EYDE 48 kN
P
ME 0
60  125 0 Checks
Joint E
P
! FX 0 12 12 0 Checks
P
" FY 0 48  48 0 Checks
Distributed Loads on Inclined Members BC and CD As the 12-kN/m snow loading is specied per horizontal
meter, it is necessary to resolve it into components parallel and perpendicular to the directions of members BC and CD.
Consider, for example, member BC, as shown in Fig. 5.23(d). The total vertical load acting on this member is (12 kN/
m)(4 m) 48 kN. Dividing this total vertical load by the length of the member, we obtain the intensity of the vertical
distributed load per meter along the inclined length of the member as 48/5 9.6 kN/m. The components of this vertical
distributed load in the directions parallel and perpendicular to the axis of the member are (3/5)(9.6) 5.76 kN/m and
(4/5)(9.6) 7.68 kN/m, respectively, as shown in Fig. 5.23(d). The distributed loading for member CD is computed
similarly and is shown in Fig. 5.23(e).
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 5.23(f ) and (g). Ans.
Axial Force Diagrams The equations for axial force in the members of the frame are:

Member AB Q 48
Member BC Q 38:4 5:76x
Member CD Q 9:6  5:76x
Member DE Q 48
The axial force diagrams are shown in Fig. 5.23(h). Ans.
Qualitative Deected Shape See Fig. 5.23(i). Ans.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have learned that the internal axial force at any sec-
tion of a member is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to
the algebraic sum of the components in the direction parallel to the axis
of the member of all the external loads and reactions acting on either
side of the section. We consider it to be positive when the external forces
216 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

tend to produce tension. The shear at any section of a member is equal

in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the algebraic sum of the
components in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the member of
all the external loads and reactions acting on either side of the section.
We consider it to be positive when the external forces tend to push the
portion of the member on the left of the section upward with respect to
the portion on the right of the section. The bending moment at any sec-
tion of a member is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the
algebraic sum of the moments about the section of all the external loads
and reactions acting on either side of the section. We consider it to be
positive when the external forces and couples tend to bend the member
concave upward, causing compression in the upper bers and tension in
the lower bers at the section.
Shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams depict the varia-
tions of these quantities along the length of the member. Such diagrams
can be constructed by determining and plotting the equations expressing
these stress resultants in terms of the distance of the section from an end
of the member. The construction of shear and bending moment diagrams
can be considerably expedited by applying the following relationships
that exist between the loads, shears, and bending moments:

slope of shear diagram intensity of distributed load

(5.3)
at a point at that point
area under the distributed
change in shear between
load diagram between (5.5)
points A and B
points A and B
change in shear at the
point of application magnitude of the load (5.12)
of a concentrated load
slope of bending moment
shear at that point (5.8)
diagram at a point
change in bending moment area under the shear diagram
(5.10)
between points A and B between points A and B
change in bending moment
magnitude of the moment
at the point of application (5.14)
of the couple
of a couple

A frame is considered to be statically determinate if the shears,

bending moments, and axial forces in all its members as well as all the
external reactions can be determined by using the equations of equili-
brium and condition. If a plane frame contains m members and j
joints, is supported by r reactions, and has ec equations of condition,
then if
 Problems 217

3m r < 3j ec the frame is statically unstable

3m r 3j ec the frame is statically determinate (5.16)
3m r > 3j ec the frame is statically indeterminate
The degree of static indeterminacy is given by
i 3m r  3j ec (5.15)
A procedure for the determination of member end forces, shears,
bending moments, and axial forces in the members of plane statically
determinate frames is presented in Section 5.6.

PROBLEMS
Section 5.1 90 kN
80 kN . m 100
.
kN m
5.1 through 5.11 Determine the axial forces, shears, and 4 3
bending moments at points A and B of the structure shown. 3 A B 4
75 kN
60 kN 80 kN 50 kN 4m 3m 3m 6m 2m 2m 75 kN

A 60 B FIG. P5.5

5m 3m 5m 3m 10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
2m 2m
A B
FIG. P5.1
6 k/ft

5k 10 k
FIG. P5.6
A B
100 kN . m 150 kN
25 kN/m
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft 6 ft
A B
FIG. P5.2
4m 4m 4m
A B 2m 2m
30
100 kN FIG. P5.7
4m 4m 4m 4m
40 k 40 k
FIG. P5.3 12 k Hinge
70 k-ft
A B A B
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
5 ft 5 ft 5 ft 5 ft 5 ft 5 ft

FIG. P5.8
FIG. P5.4
218 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

20 kN/m

A Hinge B

10 m 5m 5m 5m 5m

FIG. P5.9
6m FIG. P5.12
50 kN
3m
3m P
100 kN
3m
B 3m A C
B
100 kN A 6m
L 2L
100 30 3 3
kN
FIG. P5.13
FIG. P5.10

3
4

FIG. P5.14
ft
10

3 k/ft
B
ft
10

FIG. P5.15
A
ft
10

FIG. P5.11 FIG. P5.16

M
A C
Section 5.2 B
5.12 through 5.28 Determine the equations for shear
and bending moment for the beam shown. Use the resulting 2L L
equations to draw the shear and bending moment diagrams. 3 3

FIG. P5.17
 Problems 219

w 30 kN/m
A
B A B C
L 10 m 5m
FIG. P5.18 FIG. P5.24

2.5 k/ft
1 k/ft
A B C

FIG. P5.19 20 ft 10 ft

FIG. P5.25
6k 12 k

A B C
5 ft 10 ft

FIG. P5.20

20 kN 20 kN FIG. P5.26

A D 20 kN/m
B C
3m 3m 3m
A C
B
FIG. P5.21
5m 10 m
15 k
100 k-ft FIG. P5.27
D
A B C 3 k/ft
2 k/ft
6 ft 6 ft 6 ft A C
B
FIG. P5.22
20 ft 30 ft

60 kN FIG. P5.28
10 kN/m

A B C Section 5.4
7m 7m 5.29 through 5.51 Draw the shear and bending moment
diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for the beam
FIG. P5.23 shown.
220 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

100 kN 60 kN 30 k
2 k/ft
A D
A D
B C B C
5m 10 m 5m
6 ft 4 ft 10 ft
FIG. P5.29
FIG. P5.35
20 k 30 k
150 k-ft 60 k
A A D
B C
B C
10 ft 10 ft
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
FIG. P5.30
FIG. P5.36
10 k 20 k 20 k
75 kN
B E 25 kN/m
A C D A
B C D
8 ft 8 ft 8 ft 8 ft
6m 6m 6m
FIG. P5.31
FIG. P5.37
50 kN 100 kN 50 kN 3 k/ft
A D
A
B C E B C

3m 3m 3m 3m 24 ft 9 ft

FIG. P5.32 FIG. P5.38

12 k 24 k 24 k 12 k 3 k/ft

B E
A B C D
A C D F
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 9 ft 24 ft 9 ft

FIG. P5.33 FIG. P5.39

50 kN
75 kN 15 kN/m 150 kN . m
200 kN . m
A D
D B C
A B C

4m 4m 4m 6m 3m 3m

FIG. P5.34 FIG. P5.40

 Problems 221

10 k 10 k 5k
2.3 k/ft
3 k/ft
30 k-ft
A B C D
Hinge
A B C D
16 ft 16 ft 16 ft
5 ft 20 ft 5 ft FIG. P5.46
FIG. P5.41
12 k
1 k/ft

60 kN A E
12 kN/m B C D
200 kN . m Hinge
C
B 30 ft 10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
A
FIG. P5.47
5m 10 m

FIG. P5.42

8k
1.5 k/ft 40 k-ft

A B C D
FIG. P5.48
10 ft 30 ft 10 ft
18 kN/m
FIG. P5.43
A F
B C D E
2.4 k/ft Hinge Hinge
10 m 5m 10 m 5m 15 m
A
Hinge B C
FIG. P5.49
30 ft 10 ft

FIG. P5.44

115 kN
10 kN/m
A
B Hinge C E
D FIG. P5.50
12 m 12 m 9m 12 m
25 kN/m
FIG. P5.45
A B C D E F
Hinge Hinge
10 m 5m 15 m 5m 10 m

FIG. P5.51
222 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

5.52 Draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the
reinforced concrete footing subjected to the downward col-
umn loading of 1.5 k/ft and the upward soil reaction of
0.5 k/ft, as shown in the gure.

FIG. P5.52

5.53 and 5.54 For the beam shown: (a) determine the
distance a for which the maximum positive and negative
bending moments in the beam are equal; and (b) draw the
corresponding shear and bending moment diagrams for the
beam.
FIG. P5.55

FIG. P5.53

FIG. P5.54

Section 5.5
5.55 and 5.56 Classify each of the plane frames shown
as unstable, statically determinate, or statically in-
determinate. If statically indeterminate, then determine the
degree of static indeterminacy. FIG. P5.56
 Problems 223

Section 5.6
5.57 through 5.71 Draw the shear, bending moment, and
axial force diagrams and the qualitative deected shape for
the frame shown.

15 ft 15 ft
25 k
A
B
10 ft FIG. P5.59

12 k
30 k
10 ft
A
C
B
20 k
FIG. P5.57
16 ft

12 ft 12 ft 6 ft 6 ft

FIG. P5.60

90 kN
20 kN/m

C C
B B

30 kN/m
25 kN/m 12 m 10 m

A A

5m 5m 5m 10 m

FIG. P5.58 FIG. P5.61

224 CHAPTER 5 Beams and Frames: Shear and Bending Moment

10 ft 2.5 k/ft
A B
4 B C
3
20 k 12 ft

30 k

25 ft 12 ft

0.5 k/ft
A D

20 ft

FIG. P5.64
C

FIG. P5.62
15 kN/m

C D E

6m
9m
12 kN/m B

10 m 5m

FIG. P5.65

FIG. P5.63 FIG. P5.66

 Problems 225

2 k/ft
30 k E
C D
Hinge

20 ft

A B
FIG. P5.67
15 ft 15 ft

10 m FIG. P5.70
15 kN/m
75 kN D
C

6m

B Hinge

6m

A FIG. P5.71
FIG. P5.68

FIG. P5.69
 6
Deflections of Beams:
Geometric Methods
6.1 Differential Equation for Beam Deflection
6.2 Direct Integration Method
6.3 Superposition Method
6.4 Moment-Area Method
6.5 Bending Moment Diagrams by Parts
6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method
Summary
Problems

The John Hancock Building,

Chicago
Joe Mercier/Shutterstock

Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape
when subjected to forces. Other common causes of deformations of
structures include temperature changes and support settlements. If the
deformations disappear and the structure regains its original shape when
the actions causing the deformations are removed, the deformations are
termed elastic deformations. The permanent deformations of structures
are referred to as inelastic, or plastic, deformations. In this text, we will
focus our attention on linear elastic deformations. Such deformations
vary linearly with applied loads (for instance, if the magnitudes of the
loads acting on the structure are doubled, its deformations are also
doubled, and so forth). Recall from Section 3.6 that in order for a struc-
ture to respond linearly to applied loads, it must be composed of linear
elastic material, and it must undergo small deformations. The principle
of superposition is valid for such structures.
For most structures, excessive deformations are undesirable, as
they may impair the structures ability to serve its intended purpose.
For example, a high-rise building may be perfectly safe in the sense that
the allowable stresses are not exceeded, yet useless (unoccupied) if it de-
ects excessively due to wind, causing cracks in the walls and windows.
Structures are usually designed so that their deections under normal
service conditions will not exceed the allowable values specied in build-
ing codes.

226
 SECTION 6.1 Differential Equation for Beam Deflection 227

From the foregoing discussion, we can see that the computation of

deections forms an essential part of structural analysis. Deection cal-
culations are also required in the determination of the reactions and
stress resultants for statically indeterminate structures, to be considered
in Part Three of this text.
The methods that have been developed for computing deections
can be broadly classied into two categories, (1) geometric methods and
(2) work-energy methods. As these names imply, geometric methods
are based on a consideration of the geometry of the deected shapes
of structures, whereas the work-energy methods are based on the basic
principles of work and energy.
In this chapter, we study geometric methods commonly used for
determining the slopes and deections of statically determinate beams.
We discuss work-energy methods in the following chapter. First, we
derive the dierential equation for the deection of beams; we follow
this derivation with brief reviews of the direct (double) integration and
superposition methods of computing deections. (We assume here that
the reader is familiar with these methods from a previous course in
mechanics of materials.) Next, we present the moment-area method for
calculating slopes and deections of beams, the construction of bending
moment diagrams by parts, and nally the conjugate-beam method for
computing slopes and deections of beams.

6.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR BEAM DEFLECTION

Consider an initially straight elastic beam subjected to an arbitrary
loading acting perpendicular to its centroidal axis and in the plane of
symmetry of its cross section, as shown in Fig. 6.1(a). The neutral sur-
face of the beam in the deformed state is referred to as the elastic curve.
To derive the dierential equation dening the elastic curve, we focus
our attention on a dierential element dx of the beam. The element in
the deformed position is shown in Fig. 6.1(b). As this gure indicates,
we assume that the plane sections perpendicular to the neutral surface of
the beam before bending remain plane and perpendicular to the neu-
tral surface after bending. The sign convention for bending moment
M remains the same as established in Chapter 5; that is, a positive
bending moment causes compression in the bers above the neutral
surface (in the positive y direction). Tensile strains and stresses are
considered to be positive. The slope of the elastic curve, y dy=dx, is
assumed to be so small that y 2 is negligible compared to unity; sin y A y
and cos y A 1. Note that dy represents the change in slope over the dif-
ferential length dx. It can be seen from Fig. 6.1(b) that the deformation
of an arbitrary ber ab located at a distance y from the neutral surface
can be expressed as
228 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.1

 
dy
dD a 0 b 0  ab 2y y dy
2
Thus, the strain in ber ab is equal to
dD dD y dy y
e   (6.1)
dx ds R dy R
in which R is the radius of curvature. By substituting the linear stress-
strain relationship e s=E into Eq. (6.1), we obtain
Ey
s (6.2)
R
in which s is the stress in ber ab and E represents Youngs modulus of
elasticity. Equation (6.2) indicates that the stress varies linearly with the
distance y from the neutral surface, as shown in Fig. 6.1(c). If sc de-
notes the stress at the uppermost ber located at a distance c from the
neutral surface (Fig. 6.1(c)), then the stress s at a distance y from the
neutral surface can be written as
y
s sc (6.3)
c
Since the bending moment M is equal to the sum of the moments about
the neutral axis of the forces acting at all the bers of the beam cross
section, we write
 SECTION 6.1 Differential Equation for Beam Deflection 229

M sy dA (6.4)
A

Substituting Eq. (6.3) into Eq. (6.4), we obtain

sc sc
M y 2 dA  I
c A c
or
Mc
sc 
I
Using Eq. (6.3), we obtain
My
s (6.5)
I
where I is the moment of inertia of the beam cross section.
Next, by combining Eqs. (6.2) and (6.5), we obtain the moment-
curvature relationship
1 M
(6.6)
R EI
in which the product EI is commonly referred to as the exural rigidity
of the beam. To express Eq. (6.6) in Cartesian coordinates, we recall
(from calculus) the relationship
1 d 2 y=dx 2
(6.7)
R 1 dy=dx 2  3=2
in which y represents the vertical deection. As stated previously, for
small slopes the square of the slope, dy=dx 2 , is negligible in compar-
ison with unity. Thus, Eq. (6.7) reduces to
1 d 2y
& 2 (6.8)
R dx
By substituting Eq. (6.8) into Eq. (6.6), we obtain the following dier-
ential equation for the deection of beams:

d 2y M
(6.9)
dx 2 EI

This equation is also referred to as the Bernoulli-Euler beam equation.

Because y dy=dx, Eq. (6.9) can also be expressed as

dy M
(6.10)
dx EI
230 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

6.2 DIRECT INTEGRATION METHOD

The direct integration method essentially involves writing the expression
for M=EI (bending moment divided by exural rigidity of the beam) in
terms of the distance x along the axis of the beam and integrating this
expression successively to obtain equations for the slope and deection
of the elastic curve. The constants of integration are determined from
the boundary conditions. The direct integration method proves to be
most convenient for computing slopes and deections of beams for
which M=EI can be expressed as a single continuous function of x over
the entire length of the beam. However, the application of the method to
structures for which the M=EI function is not continuous can become
quite complicated. This problem occurs because each discontinuity, due
to a change in loading and/or the exural rigidity (EI ), introduces two
additional constants of integration in the analysis, which must be eval-
uated by applying the conditions of continuity of the elastic curve, a
process that can be quite tedious. The diculty can, however, be cir-
cumvented, and the analysis can be somewhat simplied by employing
the singularity functions dened in most textbooks on mechanics of
materials.

Example 6.1

Determine the equations for the slope and deection of the beam shown in Fig. 6.2(a) by the direct integration method.
Also, compute the slope at each end and the deection at the midspan of the beam. EI is constant.

FIG. 6.2
continued
 SECTION 6.2 Direct Integration Method 231

Solution
Reactions See Fig. 6.2(b).
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0
P
MB 0
 
L wL
Ay L wL 0 Ay "
2 2
P
" Fy 0
 
wL wL
 wL By 0 By "
2 2
Equation for Bending Moment To determine the equation for bending moment for the beam, we pass a
section at a distance x from support A, as shown in Fig. 6.2(b). Considering the free body to the left of this sec-
tion, we obtain
 
wL x w
M x  wx Lx  x 2
2 2 2
Equation for M/EI The exural rigidity, EI , of the beam is constant, so the equation for M=EI can be written as
d 2y M w
Lx  x 2
dx 2 EI 2EI
Equations for Slope and Deection The equation for the slope of the elastic curve of the beam can be obtained by
integrating the equation for M=EI as
 
dy w Lx 2 x 3
y  C1
dx 2EI 2 3
Integrating once more, we obtain the equation for deection as
 
w Lx 3 x 4
y  C1 x C2
2EI 6 12
The constants of integration, C1 and C2 , are evaluated by applying the following boundary conditions:
At end A; x 0; y0
At end B; x L; y0
By applying the rst boundary conditionthat is, by setting x 0 and y 0 in the equation for ywe obtain
C2 0. Next, by using the second boundary conditionthat is, by setting x L and y 0 in the equation for
ywe obtain
 
w L4 L4
0  C1 L
2EI 6 12
from which
wL 3
C1 
24EI

continued
232 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

Thus, the equations for slope and deection of the beam are
 
w Lx 2 x 3 L 3
y   (1) Ans.
2EI 2 3 12
 
wx x3 L3
y Lx 2   (2) Ans.
12EI 2 2
Slopes at Ends A and B By substituting x 0 and L, respectively, into Eq. (1), we obtain
wL 3 wL 3
yA  or yA @ Ans.
24EI 24EI
wL 3 wL 3
yB or yB Ans.
24EI 24EI
Deection at Midspan By substituting x L=2 into Eq. (2), we obtain
5wL 4 5wL 4
yC  or yC # Ans.
384EI 384EI

Example 6.2

Determine the slope and deection at point B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 6.3(a) by the direct integration method.

Solution
Equation for Bending Moment We pass a section at a distance x from support A, as shown in Fig. 6.3(b). Consid-
ering the free body to the right of this section, we write the equation for bending moment as
M 1520  x

Equation for M/EI

d 2y M 15
 20  x
dx 2 EI EI
Equations for Slope and Deection By integrating the equation for M=EI , we determine the equation for slope as
 
dy 15 x2
y  20x  C1
dx EI 2
Integrating once more, we obtain the equation for deection as
 
15 2 x3
y 10x  C1 x C2
EI 6
The constants of integration, C1 and C2 , are evaluated by using the boundary conditions that y 0 at x 0, and y 0
at x 0. By applying the rst boundary conditionthat is, by setting y 0 and x 0 in the equation for ywe obtain

continued
 SECTION 6.3 Superposition Method 233

15 k

A B

20 ft
EI = constant
E = 29,000 ksi
I = 758 in.4
(a)

MA = 300 k-ft 15 k

B
A

Ay = 15 k

x
(20 x)

FIG. 6.3 (b)

C1 0. Similarly, by applying the second boundary conditionthat is, by setting y 0 and x 0 in the equation for
ywe obtain C2 0. Thus, the equations for slope and deection of the beam are
 
15 x2
y 20x 
EI 2
 
15 x3
y 10x 2 
EI 6
Slope and Deection at End B By substituting x 20 ft, E 29;00012 2 ksf, and I 758=12 4 ft 4 into the fore-
going equations for slope and deection, we obtain
yB 0:0197 rad or yB 0:0197 rad @ Ans.
yB 0:262 ft 3:14 in: or yB 3:14 in: # Ans.

6.3 SUPERPOSITION METHOD

When a beam is subjected to several loads, it is usually convenient to
determine slope or deection caused by the combined eect of loads
by superimposing (algebraically adding) the slopes or deections due
234 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

to each of the loads acting individually on the beam. The slope and
deection due to each individual load can be computed by using either
the direct integration method described previously or one of the other
methods discussed in subsequent sections. Also, many structural engi-
neering handbooks (e.g., Manual of Steel Construction published by the
American Institute of Steel Construction) contain deection formulas for
beams for various types of loads and support conditions, which can be
used for this purpose. Such formulas for slopes and deections of beams
for some common types of loads and support conditions are given inside
the front cover of this book for convenient reference.

6.4 MOMENT-AREA METHOD

The moment-area method for computing slopes and deections of beams
was developed by Charles E. Greene in 1873. The method is based on
two theorems, called the moment-area theorems, relating the geometry
of the elastic curve of a beam to its M=EI diagram, which is constructed
by dividing the ordinates of the bending moment diagram by the exu-
ral rigidity EI . The method utilizes graphical interpretations of integrals
involved in the solution of the deection dierential equation (Eq. (6.9))
in terms of the areas and the moments of areas of the M=EI diagram.
Therefore, it is more convenient to use for beams with loading discon-
tinuities and the variable EI , as compared to the direct integration
method described previously.
To derive the moment-area theorems, consider a beam subjected
to an arbitrary loading as shown in Fig. 6.4. The elastic curve and the
M=EI diagram for the beam are also shown in the gure. Focusing our
attention on a dierential element dx of the beam, we recall from the
previous section (Eq. (6.10)) that dy, which represents the change in
slope of the elastic curve over the dierential length dx, is given by
M
dy dx (6.11)
EI
Note that the term M=EI dx represents an innitesimal area under
the M=EI diagram, as shown in Fig. 6.4. To determine the change in
slope between two arbitrary points A and B on the beam, we integrate
Eq. (6.11) from A to B to obtain
B B
M
dy dx
A A EI
or

B
M
yBA yB  yA dx (6.12)
A EI
 SECTION 6.4 Moment-Area Method 235

FIG. 6.4

in which yA and yB are the slopes of the elastic curve at points A and B,
respectively, with respect to the axis of the beam in the undeformed
(horizontal) state, yBA denotes
B the angle between the tangents to the
elastic curve at A and B, and A M=EI dx represents the area under the
M=EI diagram between points A and B.
Equation (6.12) represents the mathematical expression of the rst
moment-area theorem, which can be stated as follows:
The change in slope between the tangents to the elastic curve at any two
points is equal to the area under the M/EI diagram between the two points,
provided that the elastic curve is continuous between the two points.

As noted, this theorem applies only to those portions of the elastic

curve in which there are no discontinuities due to the presence of in-
ternal hinges. In applying the rst moment-area theorem, if the area of
the M=EI diagram between any two points is positive, then the angle
from the tangent at the point to the left to the tangent at the point to the
right will be counterclockwise, and this change in slope is considered to
be positive; and vice versa.
Considering again the beam shown in Fig. 6.4, we observe that the
deviation dD between the tangents drawn at the ends of the dierential
236 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

element dx on a line perpendicular to the undeformed axis of the beam

from a point B is given by
dD xdy (6.13)
where x is the distance from B to the element dx. Substitution of
Eq. (6.11) into Eq. (6.13) yields
 
M
dD x dx (6.14)
EI

Note that the term on the right-hand side of Eq. (6.14) represents the
moment of the innitesimal area corresponding to dx about B. Inte-
grating Eq. (6.14) between any two arbitrary points A and B on the
beam, we obtain
B B
M
dD x dx
A A EI
or

B
M
D BA x dx (6.15)
A EI

in which D BA represents the tangential deviation of B from the tangent

at A, which is the deection of point B in the direction perpendicular
to
B the undeformed axis of the beam from the tangent at point A, and
A M=EI x dx represents the moment of the area under the M=EI dia-
gram between points A and B about point B.
Equation (6.15) represents the mathematical expression of the sec-
ond moment-area theorem, which can be stated as follows:
The tangential deviation in the direction perpendicular to the undeformed
axis of the beam of a point on the elastic curve from the tangent to the
elastic curve at another point is equal to the moment of the area under the
M/EI diagram between the two points about the point at which the devia-
tion is desired, provided that the elastic curve is continuous between the two
points.

It is important to note the order of the subscripts used for D in

Eq. (6.15). The rst subscript denotes the point where the deviation is
determined and about which the moments are evaluated, whereas the
second subscript denotes the point where the tangent to the elastic curve
is drawn. Also, since the distance x in Eq. (6.15) is always taken as
positive, the sign of D BA is the same as that of the area of the M=EI
diagram between A and B. If the area of the M=EI diagram between A
and B is positive, then D BA is also positive, and point B lies above (in
the positive y direction) the tangent to the elastic curve at point A and
vice versa.
 SECTION 6.4 Moment-Area Method 237

Procedure for Analysis

In order to apply the moment-area theorems to compute the slopes and
deections of a beam, it is necessary to draw a qualitative deected
shape of the beam using its bending moment diagram. In this regard,
recall from Section 5.3 that a positive bending moment bends the beam
concave upward, whereas a negative bending moment bends it concave
downward. Also, at a xed support, both the slope and the deection of
the beam must be zero; therefore, the tangent to the elastic curve at this
point is in the direction of the undeformed axis, whereas at a hinged or a
roller support, the deection is zero, but the slope may not be zero. To
facilitate the computation of areas and moments of areas of the M=EI
diagrams, the formulas for the areas and centroids of common geo-
metric shapes are listed in Appendix A.
Instead of adopting a formal sign convention, it is common practice
to use an intuitive approach in solving problems using the moment-
area method. In this approach, the slopes and deections at the various
points are assumed to be positive in the directions shown on the sketch
of the deected shape or elastic curve of the structure. Any area of the
M=EI diagram that tends to increase the quantity under consideration
is considered to be positive and vice versa. A positive answer for a slope
or deection indicates that the sense of that quantity as assumed on the
elastic curve is correct. Conversely, a negative answer indicates that the
correct sense is opposite to that initially assumed on the elastic curve.
In applying the moment-area theorems, it is important to realize
that these theorems in general do not directly provide the slope and de-
ection at a point with respect to the undeformed axis of the beam
(which are usually of practical interest); instead, they provide the slope
and deection of a point relative to the tangent to the elastic curve at
another point. Therefore, before the slope or deection at an arbitrary
point on the beam can be computed, a point must be identied where
the slope of the tangent to the elastic curve is either initially known or
can be determined by using the support conditions. Once this reference
tangent has been established, the slope and deection at any point on
the beam can be computed by applying the moment-area theorems. In
cantilever beams, since the slope of the tangent to the elastic curve at the
xed support is zero, this tangent can be used as the reference tangent.
In the case of beams for which a tangent with zero slope cannot be
located by inspection, it is usually convenient to use the tangent at one
of the supports as the reference tangent. The slope of this reference tan-
gent can be determined by using the conditions of zero deections at the
reference support and an adjacent support.
The magnitudes of the slopes and deections of structures are usu-
ally very small, so from a computational viewpoint it is usually con-
venient to determine the solution in terms of EI and then substitute the
numerical values of E and I at the nal stage of the analysis to obtain
the numerical magnitudes of the slopes and deections. When the
238 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

moment of inertia varies along the length of a beam, it is convenient to

express the moments of inertia of the various segments of the beam in
terms of a single reference moment of inertia, which is then carried sym-
bolically through the analysis.

Example 6.3

Determine the slopes and deections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 6.5(a) by the moment-area
method.

FIG. 6.5

Solution
Bending Moment Diagram The bending moment diagram for the beam is shown in Fig. 6.5(b).
M/EI Diagram As indicated in Fig. 6.5(a), the values of the moment of inertia of the segments AB and BC of the
beam are 6,000 in. 4 and 3,000 in. 4 , respectively. Using I IBC 3;000 in. 4 as the reference moment of inertia, we ex-
press IAB in terms of I as
IAB 6;000 23;000 2I
which indicates that in order to obtain the M=EI diagram in terms of EI , we must divide the bending moment diagram
for segment AB by 2, as shown in Fig. 6.5(c).
continued
 SECTION 6.4 Moment-Area Method 239

Elastic Curve The elastic curve for the beam is shown in Fig. 6.5(d). Note that because the M=EI diagram is neg-
ative, the beam bends concave downward. Since the support at A is xed, the slope at A is zero yA 0; that is, the
tangent to the elastic curve at A is horizontal, as shown in the gure.
Slope at B With the slope at A known, we can determine the slope at B by evaluating the change in slope yBA be-
tween A and B (which is the angle between the tangents to the elastic curve at points A and B, as shown in Fig. 6.5(d)).
According to the rst moment-area theorem, yBA area of the M=EI diagram between A and B. This area can be con-
veniently evaluated by dividing the M=EI diagram into triangular and rectangular parts, as shown in Fig. 6.5(c). Thus,
 
1 1 2;625 k-ft 2
yBA 10015 15015
EI 2 EI
From Fig. 6.5(d), we can see that because the tangent at A is horizontal (in the direction of the undeformed axis of
the beam), the slope at ByB is equal to the angle yBA between the tangents at A and B; that is,
2;625 k-ft 2 2;62512 2 k-in: 2
yB yBA
EI EI
Substituting the numerical values of E 29;000 ksi and I 3;000 in. 4 , we obtain
2;62512 2
yB rad 0:0043 rad
29;0003;000
yB 0:0043 rad @ Ans.
Deection at B From Fig. 6.5(d), it can be seen that the deection of B with respect to the undeformed axis of the
beam is equal to the tangential deviation of B from the tangent at A; that is,
D B D BA
According to the second moment-area theorem,
D BA moment of the area of the M=EI diagram between A and B about B
 
1 1 22;500 k-ft 3
100157:5 1501510
EI 2 EI
Therefore,
22;500 k-ft 3
D B D BA
EI
22;50012 3
0:45 in:
29;0003;000
D B 0:45 in: # Ans.
Slope at C From Fig. 6.5(d), we can see that
yC yCA
where
yCA area of the M=EI diagram between A and C
 
1 1 1 3;625 k-ft 2
10015 15015 20010
EI 2 2 EI

continued
240 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

Therefore,
3;625 k-ft 2
yC yCA
EI
3;62512 2
0:006 rad
29;0003;000
yC 0:006 rad @ Ans.
Deection at C It can be seen from Fig. 6.5(d) that
D C D CA
where
D CA moment of the area of the M=EI diagram between A and C about C
 
1 1 1
100157:5 10 1501510 10 200106:67
EI 2 2
55;420 k-ft 3

EI
Therefore,
55;420 k-ft 3
D C D CA
EI
55;42012 3
1:1 in:
29;0003;000
D C 1:1 in: # Ans.

Example 6.4

Use the moment-area method to determine the slopes at ends A and D and the deections at points B and C of the
beam shown in Fig. 6.6(a).

Solution
M/EI Diagram Because EI is constant along the length of the beam, the shape of the M=EI diagram is the same as
that of the bending moment diagram. The M=EI diagram is shown in Fig. 6.6(b).
Elastic Curve The elastic curve for the beam is shown in Fig. 6.6(c).

Slope at A The slope of the elastic curve is not known at any point on the beam, so we will use the tangent at
support A as the reference tangent and determine its slope, yA , from the conditions that the deections at the support
points A and D are zero. From Fig. 6.6(c), we can see that

continued
 SECTION 6.4 Moment-Area Method 241

60 k 40 k
A D
B C

20 ft 10 ft 10 ft
EI = constant
E = 1,800 ksi
I = 46,000 in.4
(a)

800
EI
600
EI

A B C D

(b) M Diagram k-ft

EI EI ( )
L = 40 ft
20 ft 10 ft 10 ft
A B C D
A C D
B

CD
Tangent at A BA
DA
DA
Tangent at D

FIG. 6.6 (c) Elastic Curve

continued
242 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

D DA
yA
L
in which yA is assumed to be so small that tan yA A yA . To evaluate the tangential deviation D DA , we apply the second
moment-area theorem:
D DA moment of the area of the M=EI diagram between A and D about D
    
1 1 20 1 20
D DA 80020 20 20010 10
EI 2 3 2 3
 
1 20
6001015 60010
2 3
340;000 k-ft 3

EI
Therefore, the slope at A is
D DA 340;000=EI 8;500 k-ft 2
yA
L 40 EI
Substituting the numerical values of E and I, we obtain
8;50012 2
yA 0:015 rad
1;80046;000
yA 0:015 rad @ Ans.
Slope at D From Fig. 6.6(c), we can see that
yD yDA  yA
in which, according to the rst moment-area theorem,
yDA area of the M=EI diagram between A and D
 
1 1 1 1
80020 20010 60010 60010
EI 2 2 2
18;000 k-ft 2

EI
Therefore,
18;000 8;500 9;500 k-ft 2
yD 
EI EI EI
9;50012 2
yD 0:017 rad
1;80046;000
yD 0:017 rad Ans.
Deection at B Considering the portion AB of the elastic curve in Fig. 6.6(c), and realizing that yA is so small that
tan yA & yA , we write
D B D BA
yA
20
from which
D B 20yA  D BA continued
 SECTION 6.4 Moment-Area Method 243

where
D BA moment of the area of the M=EI diagram between A and B about B
  
1 1 20
80020
EI 2 3
53;333:33 k-ft 3

EI
Therefore,
 
8;500 53;333:33 116;666:67 k-ft 3
D B 20 
EI EI EI
116;666:6712 3
DB 2:43 in:
1;80046;000
D B 2:43 in: # Ans.
Deection at C Finally, considering the portion CD of the elastic curve in Fig. 6.6(c) and assuming yD to be small
(so that tan yD & yD ), we write
D C D CD
yD
10
or
D C 10yD  D CD
where
  
1 1 10 10;000 k-ft 3
D CD 60010
EI 2 3 EI
Therefore,
 
9;500 10;000 85;000 k-ft 3
D C 10 
EI EI EI
85;00012 3
DC 1:77 in:
1;80046;000
D C 1:77 in: # Ans.

Example 6.5

Determine the maximum deection for the beam shown in Fig. 6.7(a) by the moment-area method.

Solution
M=EI Diagram The M=EI diagram is shown in Fig. 6.7(b).
Elastic Curve The elastic curve for the beam is shown in Fig. 6.7(c).

continued
244 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.7

Slope at A The slope of the elastic curve is not known at any point on the beam, so we will use the tangent at
support A as the reference tangent and determine its slope, yA , from the conditions that the deections at the support
points A and C are zero. From Fig. 6.7(c), we can see that

D CA
yA
15

To evaluate the tangential deviation D CA , we apply the second moment-area theorem:

continued
 SECTION 6.4 Moment-Area Method 245

D CA moment of the area of the M=EI diagram between A and C about C

    
1 1 10 1 10
D CA 40010 5 4005
EI 2 3 2 3
20;000 kN  m 3

EI
Therefore, the slope at A is
20;000=EI 1;333:33 kN  m 2
yA
15 EI
Location of the Maximum Deection If the maximum deection occurs at point D, located at a distance x m from
the left support A (see Fig. 6.7(c)), then the slope at D must be zero; therefore,
1;333:33 kN  m 2
yDA yA
EI
which indicates that in order for the slope at D to be zero (i.e., the maximum deection occurs at D), the area of the M=EI
diagram between A and D must be equal to 1;333:33=EI. We use this condition to determine the location of point D:
M 1;333:33
yDA area of the diagram between A and D
EI EI
or  
1 40x m 1;333:33
xm
2 EI EI
from which
x m 8:16 m
Maximum Deection From Fig. 6.7(c), we can see that
D max DAD
where
DAD moment of the area of the M=EI diagram between A and D about A
 
1 408:16 2
8:16 8:16
2 EI 3
7;244:51 kN  m 3

EI
Therefore,
7;244:51 kN  m 3
D max
EI
Substituting E 200 GPa 20010 6 kN/m 2 and I 70010 6 mm 4 700106 m 4 , we obtain
7;244:51
D max 0:0517 m
20010 6 700106
D max 51:7 mm # Ans.
246 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

Example 6.6

Use the moment-area method to determine the slope at point A and the deection at point C of the beam shown in
Fig. 6.8(a).

FIG. 6.8

Solution
M=EI Diagram The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 6.8(b), and the M=EI diagram for a reference
moment of inertia I 2;500 in. 4 is shown in Fig. 6.8(c).

Elastic Curve The elastic curve for the beam is shown in Fig. 6.8(d). Note that the elastic curve is discontinuous at
the internal hinge C. Therefore, the moment-area theorems must be applied separately over the portions AC and
CF of the curve on each side of the hinge.

continued
 SECTION 6.4 Moment-Area Method 247

Slope at D The tangent at support D is selected as the reference tangent. From Fig. 6.8(d), we can see that the
slope of this tangent is given by the relationship
D ED
yD
15
where, from the second moment-area theorem,
 
1 1 20;625 k-ft 3
D ED 150157:5 501510
EI 2 EI
Therefore,
20;625 1;375 k-ft 2
yD
15EI EI
Deection at C From Fig. 6.8(d), we can see that

D C 10yD D CD
in which
   
1 200 20 6;666:67 k-ft 3
D CD 10
2 EI 3 EI
Therefore,
 
1;375 6;666:67 20;416:67 k-ft 3
D C 10
EI EI EI
Substituting the numerical values of E and I , we obtain
20;416:6712 3
DC 0:487 in:
29;0002;500
D C 0:487 in: # Ans.

Slope at A Considering the portion AC of the elastic curve, we can see from Fig. 6.8(d) that
D C D CA
yA
20
where
 
1 100 10;000 k-ft 3
D CA 2010
2 EI EI

Therefore,
 
1 20;416:67 10;000 1;520:83 k-ft 2
yA
20 EI EI EI
1;520:8312 2
yA 0:003 rad
29;0002;500
yA 0:003 rad @ Ans.
248 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

6.5 BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS BY PARTS

As illustrated in the preceding section, application of the moment-area

method involves computation of the areas and moments of areas of
various portions of the M=EI diagram. It will be shown in the following
section that the conjugate-beam method for determining deections of
beams also requires computation of these quantities. When a beam is
subjected to dierent types of loads, such as a combination of distrib-
uted and concentrated loads, determination of the properties of the re-
sultant M=EI diagram, due to the combined eect of all the loads, can
become a formidable task. This diculty can be avoided by constructing

FIG. 6.9
 SECTION 6.5 Bending Moment Diagrams by Parts 249

the bending moment diagram in partsthat is, constructing a separate

bending moment diagram for each of the loads. The ordinates of the
bending moment diagrams thus obtained are then divided by EI to
obtain the M=EI diagrams. These diagrams usually consist of simple
geometric shapes, so their areas and moments of areas can be easily
computed. The required areas and moments of areas of the resultant
M=EI diagram are then obtained by algebraically adding (superimpos-
ing) the corresponding areas and moments of areas, respectively, of the
bending moment diagrams for the individual loads.
Two procedures are commonly used for constructing bending mo-
ment diagrams by parts. The rst procedure simply involves applying
each of the loads separately on the beam and constructing the corre-
sponding bending moment diagrams. Consider, for example, a beam
subjected to a combination of a uniformly distributed load and a con-
centrated load, as shown in Fig. 6.9(a). To construct the bending mo-
ment diagram by parts, we apply the two types of loads separately on
the beam, as shown in Fig. 6.9(b) and (c), and draw the corresponding
bending moment diagrams. It is usually convenient to draw the parts
of the bending moment diagram together, as shown in Fig. 6.9(d). Al-
though it is not necessary for the application of the moment-area and
conjugate-beam methods, if so desired, the resultant bending moment
diagram, as shown in Fig. 6.9(a), can be obtained by superimposing the
two parts shown in Fig. 6.9(b) and (c).
An alternative procedure for constructing bending moment dia-
grams by parts consists of selecting a point on the beam (usually a sup-
port point or an end of the beam) at which the beam is assumed to

FIG. 6.10
250 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.10 (contd.)

be xed, applying each of the loads and support reactions separately on

this imaginary cantilever beam, and constructing the corresponding
bending moment diagrams. This procedure is commonly referred to as
constructing the bending moment diagram by cantilever parts. To illus-
trate this procedure, consider again the beam examined in Fig. 6.9. The
beam is redrawn in Fig. 6.10(a), which also shows the external loads
 SECTION 6.5 Bending Moment Diagrams by Parts 251

as well as the support reactions determined from the equations of equi-

librium. To construct the bending moment diagram by cantilever parts
with respect to the support point B, we imagine the beam to be a canti-
lever beam with xed support at point B. Then we apply the two loads
and the reaction at support A separately on this imaginary cantilever
beam, as shown in Fig. 6.10(b)(d), and draw the corresponding bend-
ing moment diagrams, as shown in these gures. The parts of the bend-
ing moment diagram are often drawn together, as shown in Fig. 6.10(e).
The resultant bending moment diagram, as depicted in Fig. 6.10(a),
can be obtained, if desired, by superimposing the three parts shown
in Fig. 6.10(b)(d).

Example 6.7

Determine the deection at point C of the beam shown in Fig. 6.11(a) by the moment-area method.

Solution
M=EI Diagram The bending moment diagram for this beam by cantilever parts with respect to the support point
B was determined in Fig. 6.10. The ordinates of the bending moment diagram are divided by EI to obtain the M=EI
diagram shown in Fig. 6.11(b).
Elastic Curve See Fig. 6.11(c).

Slope at B Selecting the tangent at B as the reference tangent, it can be seen from Fig. 6.11(c) that
DAB
yB
30
By using the M=EI diagram (Fig. 6.11(b)) and the properties of geometric shapes given in Appendix A, we compute
   
1 1 1 3
DAB 7803020  90030 30
EI 2 3 4
31;500 k-ft 3

EI
Therefore,
31;500 1;050 k-ft 2
yB
30EI EI
Deection at C From Fig. 6.11(c), we can see that
D C 10yB  D CB

continued
252 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.11
where
   
1 120 20 4;000 k-ft 3
D CB 10
2 EI 3 EI
Therefore,
 
1;050 4;000 6;500 k-ft 3
D C 10 
EI EI EI
Substituting the numerical values of E and I, we obtain
6;50012 3
DC 0:194 in:
29;0002;000
D C 0:194 in: " Ans.
 SECTION 6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 253

6.6 CONJUGATE-BEAM METHOD

The conjugate-beam method, developed by Otto Mohr in 1868, gen-
erally provides a more convenient means of computing slopes and de-
ections of beams than the moment-area method. Although the amount
of computational eort required by the two methods is essentially the
same, the conjugate-beam method is preferred by many engineers be-
cause of its systematic sign convention and straightforward application,
which does not require sketching the elastic curve of the structure.
The conjugate-beam method is based on the analogy between the
relationships among load, shear, and bending moment and the relation-
ships among M=EI , slope, and deection. These two types of relation-
ships were derived in Sections 5.4 and 6.1, respectively, and are repeated
in Table 6.1 for comparison purposes. As this table indicates, the rela-
tionships between M=EI , slope, and deection have the same form as
that of the relationships between load, shear, and bending moment.
Therefore, the slope and deection can be determined from M=EI by
the same operations as those performed to compute shear and bending
moment, respectively, from the load. Furthermore, if the M=EI dia-
gram for a beam is applied as the load on a ctitious analogous beam,
then the shear and bending moment at any point on the ctitious beam
will be equal to the slope and deection, respectively, at the correspond-
ing point on the original real beam. The ctitious beam is referred to as
the conjugate beam, and it is dened as follows:
A conjugate beam corresponding to a real beam is a ctitious beam of the
same length as the real beam, but it is externally supported and internally
connected such that if the conjugate beam is loaded with the M=EI dia-
gram of the real beam, the shear and bending moment at any point on the
conjugate beam are equal, respectively, to the slope and deection at the
corresponding point on the real beam.

As the foregoing discussion indicates, the conjugate-beam method

essentially involves computing the slopes and deections of beams by
computing the shears and bending moments in the corresponding con-
jugate beams.

TABLE 6.1

LoadShearBending Moment M=EI SlopeDeection

Relationships Relationships
dS dy M
w
dx dx EI
dM d 2M dy d 2y M
S or w y or
dx dx 2 dx dx 2 EI
254 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

Supports for Conjugate Beams

External supports and internal connections for conjugate beams are
determined from the analogous relationships between conjugate beams
and the corresponding real beams; that is, the shear and bending mo-
ment at any point on the conjugate beam must be consistent with the
slope and deection at that point on the real beam. The conjugate
counterparts of the various types of real supports thus determined are
shown in Fig. 6.12. As this gure indicates, a hinged or a roller support
at an end of the real beam remains the same in the conjugate beam. This
is because at such a support there may be slope, but no deection, of the
real beam. Therefore, at the corresponding end of the conjugate beam
there must be shear but no bending moment; and a hinged or a roller
support at that end would satisfy these conditions. Since at a xed sup-
port of the real beam there is neither slope nor deection, both shear
and bending moment at that end of the conjugate beam must be zero;
therefore, the conjugate of a xed real support is a free end, as shown in
Fig. 6.12. Conversely, a free end of a real beam becomes a xed support

Real Beam Conjugate Beam

Slope and Shear and
Type of Support Type of Support
Deection Bending Moment
Simple end support Simple end support
or y=0 S=0
D0 M0 or

Fixed support Free end

y0 S0
D0 M0

Free end Fixed support

y =0 0 S=0
D=0 M =0

Simple interior support Internal hinge

y = 0 and S = 0 and
continuous continuous
or
D0 M0

Internal hinge Simple interior support

y =0 0 and S = 0 and
discontinuous discontinuous
D=0 M =0

FIG. 6.12 Supports for Conjugate Beams

 SECTION 6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 255

in the conjugate beam because there may be slope as well as deection

at that end of the real beam; therefore, the conjugate beam must de-
velop both shear and bending moment at that point. At an interior
support of a real beam there is no deection, but the slope is continuous
(i.e., there is no abrupt change of slope from one side of the support to
the other), so the corresponding point on the conjugate beam becomes
an internal hinge at which the bending moment is zero and the shear is
continuous. Finally, at an internal hinge in the real beam there may be
deection as well as discontinuous slope of the real beam. Therefore, the
conjugate beam must have bending moment and abrupt change of shear
at that point. Because an interior support satises both of these require-
ments, an internal hinge in the real beam becomes an interior support in
the conjugate beam, as shown in Fig. 6.12.
The conjugates of some common types of (real) beams are depicted
in Fig. 6.13. As Fig. 6.13(a)(e) indicates, the conjugate beams corre-
sponding to statically determinate real beams are always statically deter-
minate, whereas statically indeterminate beams have unstable conjugate
beams, as shown in Fig. 6.13(f )(h). However, since these unstable
conjugate beams will be loaded with the M=EI diagrams of statically
indeterminate real beams, which are self-balancing, the unstable con-
jugate beams will be in equilibrium. As the last two examples in Fig. 6.13
illustrate, statically unstable real beams have statically indeterminate
conjugate beams.

Sign Convention
If the positive ordinates of the M=EI diagram are applied to the con-
jugate beam as upward loads (in the positive y direction) and vice versa,
then a positive shear in the conjugate beam denotes a positive (counter-
clockwise) slope of the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of
the real beam; also, a positive bending moment in the conjugate beam
denotes a positive (upward or in the positive y direction) deection of
the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real beam and
vice versa.

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for determining the
slopes and deections of beams by the conjugate-beam method.
1. Construct the M=EI diagram for the given (real) beam subjected
to the specied (real) loading. If the beam is subjected to a com-
bination of dierent types of loads (e.g., concentrated loads and
distributed loads), the analysis can be considerably expedited by
constructing the M=EI diagram by parts, as discussed in the pre-
ceding section.
256 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.13
 SECTION 6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 257

2. Determine the conjugate beam corresponding to the given real

beam. The external supports and internal connections for the con-
jugate beam must be selected so that the shear and bending mo-
ment at any point on the conjugate beam are consistent with the
slope and deection, respectively, at that point on the real beam.
The conjugates of various types of real supports are given in
Fig. 6.12.
3. Apply the M=EI diagram (from step 1) as the load on the conjugate
beam. The positive ordinates of the M=EI diagram are applied as
upward loads on the conjugate beam and vice versa.
4. Calculate the reactions at the supports of the conjugate beam by
applying the equations of equilibrium and condition (if any).
5. Determine the shears at those points on the conjugate beam where
slopes are desired on the real beam. Determine the bending mo-
ments at those points on the conjugate beam where deections are
desired on the real beam. The shears and bending moments in con-
jugate beams are considered to be positive or negative in accord-
ance with the beam sign convention (Fig. 5.2).
6. The slope at a point on the real beam with respect to the un-
deformed axis of the real beam is equal to the shear at that point on
the conjugate beam. A positive shear in the conjugate beam denotes
a positive or counterclockwise slope of the real beam and vice versa.
7. The deection at a point on the real beam with respect to the un-
deformed axis of the real beam is equal to the bending moment at
that point on the conjugate beam. A positive bending moment in
the conjugate beam denotes a positive or upward deection of the
real beam and vice versa.

Example 6.8

Determine the slopes and deections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 6.14(a) by the conjugate-
beam method.

Solution
M=EI Diagram This beam was analyzed in Example 6.3 by the moment-area method. The M=EI diagram for a
reference moment of inertia I 3;000 in. 4 is shown in Fig. 6.14(b).
Conjugate Beam Fig. 6.14(c) shows the conjugate beam, loaded with the M=EI diagram of the real beam. Note
that point A, which is xed on the real beam, becomes free on the conjugate beam, whereas point C, which is free on the
real beam, becomes xed on the conjugate beam. Because the M=EI diagram is negative, it is applied as a downward
load on the conjugate beam.

continued
258 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.14

Slope at B The slope at B on the real beam is equal to the shear at B in the conjugate beam. Using the free body of
the conjugate beam to the left of B and considering the external forces acting upward on the free body as positive, in
accordance with the beam sign convention (see Fig. 5.2), we compute the shear at B in the conjugate beam as
 
1 1 2;625 k-ft 2
" SB 10015  15015 
EI 2 EI
Therefore, the slope at B on the real beam is
2;625 k-ft 2
yB 
EI
Substituting the numerical values of E and I , we obtain
2;62512 2
yB  0:0043 rad
29;0003;000
yB 0:0043 rad @ Ans.
Deection at B The deection at B on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at B in the conjugate beam.
Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B and considering the clockwise moments of the external forces
continued
 SECTION 6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 259

about B as positive, in accordance with the beam sign convention (Fig. 5.2), we compute the bending moment at B on
the conjugate beam as
 
@ 1 1 22;500 k-ft 3
MB 100157:5  1501510 
EI 2 EI
Therefore, the deection at B on the real beam is
22;500 k-ft 3 22;50012 3
DB   0:45 in:
EI 29;0003;000
D B 0:45 in: # Ans.
Slope at C Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of C, we determine the shear at C as
 
1 1 1 3;625 k-ft 2
" SC 10015  15015  20010 
EI 2 2 EI
Therefore, the slope at C on the real beam is
3;625 k-ft 2 3;62512 2
yC   0:006 rad
EI 29;0003;000
yC 0:006 rad @ Ans.
Deection at C Considering the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of C, we obtain
 
@ 1 1 1
MC 1001517:5  1501520  200106:67
EI 2 2
55;420 k-ft 3

EI
Therefore, the deection at C on the real beam is
55;420 k-ft 3 55;42012 3
DC   1:1 in:
EI 29;0003;000
D C 1:1 in: # Ans.

Example 6.9

Determine the slope and deection at point B of the beam shown in Fig. 6.15(a) by the conjugate-beam method.

Solution
M/EI Diagram See Fig. 6.15(b).
Conjugate Beam The conjugate beam, loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam, is shown in Fig. 6.15(c).

continued
260 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

L
EI = constant
(a)

M
EI

A B
(b) M Diagram
EI

M
EI

B
A
L
FIG. 6.15
(c) Conjugate Beam

Slope at B Considering the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B, we determine the shear at B as
M ML
" SB L
EI EI
Therefore, the slope at B on the real beam is
ML
yB
EI
ML
yB Ans.
EI
Deection at B Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B, we determine the bending moment
at B as
 
@ M L ML 2
MB L
EI 2 2EI
continued
 SECTION 6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 261

Therefore, the deection at B on the real beam is

ML 2
DB
2EI
ML 2
DB " Ans.
2EI

Example 6.10

Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the slopes at ends A and D and the deections at points B and C of the
beam shown in Fig. 6.16(a).

Solution
M/EI Diagram This beam was analyzed in Example 6.4 by the moment-area method. The M/EI diagram for this
beam is shown in Fig. 6.16(b).
Conjugate Beam Fig. 6.16(c) shows the conjugate beam loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam. Points A
and D, which are simple end supports on the real beam, remain the same on the conjugate beam. Because the M/EI
diagram is positive, it is applied as an upward load on the conjugate beam.

Reactions for Conjugate Beam By applying the equations of equilibrium to the free body of the entire conjugate
beam, we obtain the following:
P
MD 0
  
1 1 20
Ay 40  80020 20 6001015
EI 2 3
   
1 20 1 20
20010 10 60010 0
2 3 2 3
8;500 k-ft 2
Ay
EI
P
"Fy 0

1 1 1
8;500 80020 60010 20010
EI 2 2

1
60010  Dy 0
2
9;500 k-ft 2
Dy
EI
Slope at A The slope at A on the real beam is equal to the shear just to the right of A in the conjugate beam, which is
8;500 k-ft 2
" SA; R Ay 
EI
continued
262 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.16

Therefore, the slope at A on the real beam is

8;500 k-ft 2 8;50012 2
yA   0:015 rad
EI 1;80046;000
yA 0:015 rad @ Ans.
Slope at D The slope at D on the real beam is equal to the shear just to the left of D in the conjugate beam, which is
9;500 k-ft 2
# SD; L Dy
EI
continued
 SECTION 6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 263

Therefore, the slope at D on the real beam is

9;500 k-ft 2 9;50012 2
yD 0:017 rad
EI 1;80046;000
yD 0:017 rad Ans.
Deection at B The deection at B on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at B in the conjugate beam.
Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B, we compute
  
@ 1 1 20 116;666:67 k-ft 3
MB 8;50020 80020 
EI 2 3 EI
Therefore, the deection at B on the real beam is
116;666:67 k-ft 3 116;666:6712 3
DB   2:43 in:
EI 1;80046;000
D B 2:43 in: # Ans.
Deection at C The deection at C on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at C in the conjugate beam.
Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the right of C, we determine
  
1 1 10 85;000 k-ft 3
MC 9;50010 60010 
EI 2 3 EI

Therefore, the deection at C on the real beam is

85;000 k-ft 3 85;00012 3

DC   1:77 in:
EI 1;80046;000
D C 1:77 in: # Ans.

Example 6.11

Determine the maximum deection for the beam shown in Fig. 6.17(a) by the conjugate-beam method.

Solution
M/EI Diagram This beam was previously analyzed in Example 6.5 by the moment-area method. The M/EI dia-
gram for the beam is shown in Fig. 6.17(b).
Conjugate Beam The simply supported conjugate beam, loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam, is shown
in Fig. 6.17(c).
P
Reaction at Support A of the Conjugate Beam By applying the moment equilibrium equation MC 0 to the free
body of the entire conjugate beam, we determine
continued
264 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.17

MC 0
    
1 1 10 1 10
Ay 15  40010 5 4005 0
EI 2 3 2 3
1;333:33 kN  m 2
Ay
EI
Location of the Maximum Bending Moment in Conjugate Beam If the maximum bending moment in the conjugate
beam (or the maximum deection on the real beam) occurs at point D, located at a distance x m from the left support A

continued
 SECTION 6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 265

(see Fig. 6.17(c)), then the shear in the conjugate beam at D must be zero. Considering the free body of the conjugate
beam to the left of D, we write
 
1 1
" SD 1;333:33 40x m x m 0
EI 2

from which

x m 8:16 m

Maximum Deection of the Real Beam The maximum deection of the real beam is equal to the maximum bend-
ing moment in the conjugate beam, which can be determined by considering the free body of the conjugate beam to the
left of D, with x m 8:16 m. Thus,
  
@ 1 1 2 8:16
Mmax MD 1;333:338:16 408:16
EI 2 3
7;244:51 kN  m 3

EI

Therefore, the maximum deection of the real beam is

7;244:51 kN  m 3 7;244:51
D max   0:0517 m 51:7 mm
EI 200700
D max 51:7 mm # Ans.

Example 6.12

Determine the slope at point A and the deection at point C of the beam shown in Fig. 6.18(a) by the conjugate-beam
method.

Solution
M/EI Diagram This beam was analyzed in Example 6.6 by the moment-area method. The M/EI diagram for a
reference moment of inertia I 2;500 in. 4 is shown in Fig. 6.18(b).
Conjugate Beam Figure 6.18(c) shows the conjugate beam loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam. Note
that points D and E, which are simple interior supports on the real beam, become internal hinges on the conjugate
beam; point C, which is an internal hinge on the real beam, becomes a simple interior support on the conjugate beam.
Also note that the positive part of the M/EI diagram is applied as upward loading on the conjugate beam, whereas the
negative part of the M/EI diagram is applied as downward loading.
Reaction at Support A of the Conjugate Beam We determine the reaction Ay of the conjugate beam by applying the
equations of condition as follows:

continued
266 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.18
P
MDAD 0
     
1 100 1 200 10
Ay 30  2020 Cy 10 10 0
2 EI 2 EI 3
or
1;666:67
Cy 3Ay (1)
EI
P
MEAE 0
     
1 100 1 200 10
Ay 45  2035 Cy 25 10 15
2 EI 2 EI 3
 
150 1 50
157:5 1510 0
EI 2 EI
continued
 SECTION 6.6 Conjugate-Beam Method 267

or
3;958:33
45Ay 25Cy  (2)
EI
Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2) and solving for Ay , we obtain
1;520:83 k-ft 2
Ay
EI
Slope at A The slope at A on the real beam is equal to the shear just to the right of A in the conjugate beam,
which is
1;520:83 k-ft 2
" SA; R Ay 
EI
Therefore, the slope at A on the real beam is
1;520:83 1;520:8312 2
yA   0:003 rad
EI 29;0002;500
yA 0:003 rad @ Ans.
Deection at C The deection at C on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at C in the conjugate beam.
Considering the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of C, we obtain
 
@ 1 1 20;416:67 k-ft 3
MC 1;520:8320 1002010 
EI 2 EI
Therefore, the deection at C on the real beam is
20;416:67 k-ft 3 20;416:6712 3
DC   0:487 in:
EI 29;0002;500
D C 0:487 in: # Ans.

Example 6.13

Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the deection at point C of the beam shown in Fig. 6.19(a).

Solution
M/EI Diagram This beam was previously analyzed in Example 6.7 by the moment-area method. The M/EI dia-
gram by cantilever parts with respect to point B is shown in Fig. 6.19(b).

Conjugate Beam See Fig. 6.19(c).

continued
268 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

FIG. 6.19

Reaction at Support A of the Conjugate Beam

P
MBAB 0
    
1 1 30 1 30
Ay 30 90030  78030 0
EI 3 4 2 3
1;650 k-ft 2
Ay
EI
Deection at C The deection at C on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at C in the conjugate beam.
Considering the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of C, we obtain
  
@ 1 1 30 1
MC 1;65040  90030 10 7803020
EI 3 4 2
  3
1 20 6;500 k-ft
 12010
2 3 EI
Therefore, the deection at C on the real beam is
6;500 k-ft 3 6;50012 3
DC 0:194 in:
EI 29;0002;000
D C 0:194 in: " Ans.
 Problems 269

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have discussed the geometric methods for determin-
ing the slopes and deections of statically determinate beams. The dif-
ferential equation for the deection of beams can be expressed as
d 2y M
(6.9)
dx 2 EI
The direct integration method essentially involves writing expression(s)
for M/EI for the beam in terms of x and integrating the expression(s)
successively to obtain equations for the slope and deection of the elas-
tic curve. The constants of integration are determined from the boun-
dary conditions and the conditions of continuity of the elastic curve. If a
beam is subjected to several loads, the slope or deection due to the
combined eects of the loads can be determined by algebraically adding
the slopes or deections due to each of the loads acting individually on
the beam.
The moment-area method is based on two theorems, which can be
mathematically expressed as follows:
B
M
First moment-area theorem: yBA dx (6.12)
A EI
B
M
Second moment-area theorem: D BA x dx (6.15)
A EI

Two procedures for constructing bending moment diagrams by parts are

presented in Section 6.5.
A conjugate beam is a ctitious beam of the same length as the
corresponding real beam; but it is externally supported and internally
connected such that, if the conjugate beam is loaded with the M/EI di-
agram of the real beam, the shear and bending moment at any point on
the conjugate beam are equal, respectively, to the slope and deection at
the corresponding point on the real beam. The conjugate-beam method
essentially involves determining the slopes and deections of beams by
computing the shears and bending moments in the corresponding con-
jugate beams.

PROBLEMS
Section 6.2 M
B
6.1 through 6.6 Determine the equations for slope and
deection of the beam shown by the direct integration
method. EI constant. A
L

FIG. P6.1
 270 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

6 ft 60 k-ft

A B
C
12 ft
FIG. P6.2 EI = constant
E = 10,000 ksi
I = 800 in.4

FIG. P6.8

Sections 6.4 and 6.5

6.9 through 6.12 Determine the slope and deection at
FIG. P6.3 point B of the beam shown by the moment-area method.

90 kN

A B

FIG. P6.4 5m
EI = constant
E = 200 GPa
I = 800 (106) mm4

FIG. P6.9, P6.35

2 k/ft
FIG. P6.5
A B

30 ft
EI = constant
E = 29,000 ksi
I = 3,000 in.4
FIG. P6.6 FIG. P6.10, P6.36

6.7 and 6.8 Determine the slope and deection at point B of P

the beam shown by the direct integration method.
A B
50 kN . m
A
B a
4m
EI = constant
L
E = 70 GPa
I = 164 (106) mm4 EI = constant

FIG. P6.7 FIG. P6.11, P6.37

 Problems 271

w 60 k
3 k/ft
A B
A
B C
a
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
EI = constant
L E = 29,000 ksi
EI = constant I = 4,000 in.4

FIG. P6.12, P6.38 FIG. P6.16, P6.42

250 kN
6.13 and 6.14 Determine the slope and deection at point A
A B D
of the beam shown by the moment-area method.
C

6m 3m 3m
EI = constant
E = 200 GPa
I = 462 (106) mm4

FIG. P6.17, P6.43

FIG. P6.13, P6.39 6.18 through 6.22 Determine the smallest moment of in-
ertia I required for the beam shown, so that its maximum
P deection does not exceed the limit of 1/360 of the span
B length (i.e., D max a L=360). Use the moment-area method.
C
A 2L L 60 kN
3 3 300 kN . m
I 2I A
E = constant B C

FIG. P6.14, P6.40 5m 5m

6.15 through 6.17 Use the moment-area method to de- L = 10 m

termine the slopes and deections at points B and C of the EI = constant
E = 200 GPa
beam shown.
FIG. P6.18, P6.44
100 kN 300 kN . m
3 k/ft

A A B
B C
6m 3m L = 20 ft
2I I EI = constant
E = constant = 70 GPa E = 29,000 ksi
I = 500 (106) mm4
FIG. P6.19, P6.45
FIG. P6.15, P6.41
272 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

12 kN/m 60 kN . m
B
C
A B
4m 4m
A
15 m
L=8m
EI = constant EI = constant
E = 70 GPa E = 70 GPa
I = 712 (106) mm4
FIG. P6.20, P6.46
FIG. P6.24, P6.50

80 kN

A C
B
12 m 12 m
I 2I
E = constant = 200 GPa
FIG. P6.21, P6.47 I = 600 (106) mm4

FIG. P6.25, P6.51

FIG. P6.22, P6.48

FIG. P6.26, P6.52

6.23 through 6.30 Determine the maximum deection for
the beam shown by the moment-area method.

40 k 60 k
30 k
A D
A C
B C
B
10 ft 10 ft 10 ft
7 ft 14 ft I 2I I
EI = constant E = constant = 29,000 ksi
E = 10,000 ksi I = 1,000 in.4
I = 500 in.4
FIG. P6.27, P6.53
FIG. P6.23, P6.49
 Problems 273

180 kN
15 kN/m
A
B C D

5m 5m 4m
EI = constant
E = 70 GPa
I = 2,340 (106) mm4
FIG. P6.28, P6.54
FIG. P6.32, P6.58
6.33 and 6.34 Use the moment-area method to determine
the slopes and deections at points B and D of the beam
shown.

FIG. P6.29, P6.55

FIG. P6.33, P6.59

FIG. P6.30, P6.56

FIG. P6.34, P6.60

6.31 and 6.32 Use the moment-area method to determine
the slope and deection at point D of the beam shown. Section 6.6
6.35 through 6.38 Use the conjugate-beam method to de-
termine the slope and deection at point B of the beams
35 k shown in Figs. P6.9 through P6.12.
A C 6.39 and 6.40 Determine the slope and deection at point A
B D of the beam shown in Figs. P6.13 and P6.14 by the conjugate-
beam method.
15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 6.41 through 6.43 Use the conjugate-beam method to de-
EI = constant termine the slopes and deections at points B and C of the
E = 10,000 ksi beams shown in Figs. P6.15 through P6.17.
I = 2,500 in.4
6.44 through 6.48 Using the conjugate-beam method, de-
FIG. P6.31, P6.57 termine the smallest moments of inertia I required for the
274 CHAPTER 6 Deflections of Beams: Geometric Methods

beams shown in Figs. P6.18 through P6.22, so that the 6.57 and 6.58 Use the conjugate-beam method to determine
maximum beam deection does not exceed the limit of the slope and deection at point D of the beam shown in
1/360 of the span length (i.e., D max a L=360). Figs. P6.31 and P6.32.
6.49 through 6.56 Determine the maximum deection for 6.59 and 6.60 Use the conjugate-beam method to determine
the beams shown in Figs. P6.23 through P6.30 by the con- the slopes and deections at points B and D of the beams
jugate-beam method. shown in Figs. P6.33 and P6.34.
 7
Deflections of Trusses,
Beams, and Frames:
WorkEnergy Methods
7.1 Work
7.2 Principle of Virtual Work
7.3 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method
7.4 Deflections of Beams by the Virtual Work Method
7.5 Deflections of Frames by the Virtual Work Method
7.6 Conservation of Energy and Strain Energy
7.7 Castiglianos Second Theorem
7.8 Bettis Law and Maxwells Law of Reciprocal Deflections
Summary
Problems
Interstate 35W Bridge Collapse in
Minnesota (2007)
AP Photo/Pioneer Press, Brandi Jade Thomas

In this chapter, we develop methods for the analysis of deections of

statically determinate structures by using some basic principles of work
and energy. Workenergy methods are more general than the geometric
methods considered in the previous chapter in the sense that they can
be applied to various types of structures, such as trusses, beams, and
frames. A disadvantage of these methods is that with each application,
only one deection component, or slope, at one point of the structure
can be computed.
We begin by reviewing the basic concept of work performed by
forces and couples during a deformation of the structure and then dis-
cuss the principle of virtual work. This principle is used to formulate the
method of virtual work for the deections of trusses, beams, and frames.
We derive the expressions for strain energy of trusses, beams, and
frames and then consider Castiglianos second theorem for computing
deections. Finally, we present Bettis law and Maxwells law of recip-
rocal deections.

275
276 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

7.1 WORK
The work done by a force acting on a structure is simply dened as the
force times the displacement of its point of application in the direction
of the force. Work is considered to be positive when the force and the
displacement in the direction of the force have the same sense and neg-
ative when the force and the displacement have opposite sense.
Let us consider the work done by a force P during the deformation
of a structure under the action of a system of forces (which includes P),
as shown in Fig. 7.1(a). The magnitude of P may vary as its point of
application displaces from A in the undeformed position of the structure
to A 0 in the nal deformed position. The work dW that P performs as
its point of application undergoes an innitesimal displacement, dD
(Fig. 7.1(a)), can be written as
dW PdD
The total work W that the force P performs over the entire dis-
placement D is obtained by integrating the expression of dW as
D
W P dD (7.1)
0

FIG. 7.1
 SECTION 7.1 Work 277

As Eq. (7.1) indicates, the work is equal to the area under the
force-displacement diagram as shown in Fig. 7.1(b). In this text, we are
focusing our attention on the analysis of linear elastic structures, so an
expression for work of special interest is for the case when the force
varies linearly with displacement from zero to its nal value, as shown
in Fig. 7.1(c). The work for such a case is given by the triangular area
under the force-displacement diagram and is expressed as

1
W PD (7.2)
2

Another special case of interest is depicted in Fig. 7.1(d). In this

case, the force remains constant at P while its point of application
undergoes a displacement D caused by some other action independent
of P. The work done by the force P in this case is equal to the rec-
tangular area under the force-displacement diagram and is expressed as

W PD (7.3)

It is important to distinguish between the two expressions for work

as given by Eqs. (7.2) and (7.3). Note that the expression for work for
the case when the force varies linearly with displacement (Eq. 7.2) con-
tains a factor of 12 , whereas the expression for work for the case of a
constant force (Eq. 7.3) does not contain this factor. These two ex-
pressions for work will be used subsequently in developing dierent
methods for computing deections of structures.
The expressions for the work of couples are similar in form to those
for the work of forces. The work done by a couple acting on a structure
is dened as the moment of the couple times the angle through which
the couple rotates. The work dW that a couple of moment M performs
through an innitesimal rotation dy (see Fig. 7.1(a)) is given by

dW Mdy

Therefore, the total work W of a couple with variable moment M over

the entire rotation y can be expressed as
y
W M dy (7.4)
0

When the moment of the couple varies linearly with rotation from zero
to its nal value, the work can be expressed as

1
W My (7.5)
2

and, if M remains constant during a rotation y, then the work is given

by
W My (7.6)
278 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

7.2 PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

The principle of virtual work, which was introduced by John Bernoulli in
1717, provides a powerful analytical tool for many problems of struc-
tural mechanics. In this section, we study two formulations of this prin-
ciple, namely, the principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies and
the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies. The latter for-
mulation is used in the following sections to develop the method of vir-
tual work, which is considered to be one of the most general methods for
determining deections of structures.

Principle of Virtual Displacements for Rigid Bodies

The principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies can be stated as
follows:
If a rigid body is in equilibrium under a system of forces and if it is sub-
jected to any small virtual rigid-body displacement, the virtual work done
by the external forces is zero.

The term virtual simply means imaginary, not real. Consider the
beam shown in Fig. 7.2(a). The free-body diagram of the beam is shown
in Fig. 7.2(b), in which Px and Py represent the components of the ex-
ternal load P in the x and y directions, respectively.
Now, suppose that the beam is given an arbitrary small virtual
rigid-body displacement from its initial equilibrium position ABC to
another position A 0 B 0 C 0 , as shown in Fig. 7.2(c). As shown in this gure,
the total virtual rigid-body displacement of the beam can be decom-
posed into translations D vx and D vy in the x and y directions, re-
spectively, and a rotation yv about point A. Note that the subscript v is
used here to identify the displacements as virtual quantities. As the
beam undergoes the virtual displacement from position ABC to position
A 0 B 0 C 0 , the forces acting on it perform work, which is called virtual
work. The total virtual work, Wve , performed by the external forces act-
ing on the beam can be expressed as the sum of the virtual work Wvx
and Wvy done during translations in the x and y directions, respectively,
and the virtual work Wvr , done during the rotation; that is,

Wve Wvx Wvy Wvr (7.7)

During the virtual translations D vx and D vy of the beam, the virtual

work done by the forces is given by
P
Wvx Ax D vx  Px D vx Ax  Px D vx Fx D vx (7.8)

and
P
Wvy Ay D vy  Py D vy Cy D vy Ay  Py Cy D vy Fy D vy (7.9)
 SECTION 7.2 Principle of Virtual Work 279

FIG. 7.2

(see Fig. 7.2(c)). The virtual work done by the forces during the small
virtual rotation yv can be expressed as
P
Wvr Py ayv Cy Lyv aPy LCy yv MA yv (7.10)
By substituting Eqs. (7.8) through (7.10) into Eq. (7.7), we write the
total virtual work done as
P P P
Wve Fx D vx Fy D vy MA yv (7.11)
P P
Because
P the beam is in equilibrium, Fx 0, Fy 0, and
MA 0; therefore, Eq. (7.11) becomes

Wve 0 (7.12)

which is the mathematical statement of the principle of virtual displace-

ments for rigid bodies.
280 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Principle of Virtual Forces for Deformable Bodies

The principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies can be stated as
follows:
If a deformable structure is in equilibrium under a virtual system of forces
(and couples) and if it is subjected to any small real deformation consistent
with the support and continuity conditions of the structure, then the virtual
external work done by the virtual external forces (and couples) acting
through the real external displacements (and rotations) is equal to the vir-
tual internal work done by the virtual internal forces (and couples) acting
through the real internal displacements (and rotations).
In this statement, the term virtual is associated with the forces to
indicate that the force system is arbitrary and does not depend on the
action causing the real deformation.
To demonstrate the validity of this principle, consider the two-
member truss shown in Fig. 7.3(a). The truss is in equilibrium under the
action of a virtual external force Pv as shown. The free-body diagram of
joint C of the truss is shown in Fig. 7.3(b). Since joint C is in equili-
brium, the virtual external and internal forces acting on it must satisfy
the following two equilibrium equations:
P
Fx 0 Pv  FvAC cos y1  FvBC cos y2 0
P (7.13)
Fy 0 FvAC sin y1 FvBC sin y2 0
in which FvAC and FvBC represent the virtual internal forces in members
AC and BC, respectively, and y1 and y2 denote, respectively, the angles
of inclination of these members with respect to the horizontal (Fig.
7.3(a)).
Now, let us assume that joint C of the truss is given a small real
displacement, D, to the right from its equilibrium position, as shown in
Fig. 7.3(a). Note that the deformation is consistent with the support

FIG. 7.3
 SECTION 7.2 Principle of Virtual Work 281

conditions of the truss; that is, joints A and B, which are attached to
supports, are not displaced. Because the virtual forces acting at joints A
and B do not perform any work, the total virtual work for the truss
Wv is equal to the algebraic sum of the work of the virtual forces act-
ing at joint C; that is,
Wv Pv D  FvAC D cos y1  FvBC D cos y2
or
Wv Pv  FvAC cos y1  FvBC cos y2 D (7.14)
As indicated by Eq. (7.13), the term in the parentheses on the right-hand
side of Eq. (7.14) is zero; therefore, the total virtual work is Wv 0.
Thus, Eq. (7.14) can be expressed as

Pv D FvAC D cos y1 FvBC D cos y2 (7.15)

in which the quantity on the left-hand side represents the virtual external
work Wve done by the virtual external force, Pv , acting through the
real external displacement, D. Also, realizing that the terms D cos y1 and
D cos y2 are equal to the real internal displacements (elongations) of
members AC and BC, respectively, we can conclude that the right-hand
side of Eq. (7.15) represents the virtual internal work Wvi done by the
virtual internal forces acting through the real internal displacements;
that is

Wve Wvi (7.16)

which is the mathematical statement of the principle of virtual forces for

deformable bodies.
It should be realized that the principle of virtual forces as described
here is applicable regardless of the cause of real deformations; that is,
deformations due to loads, temperature changes, or any other eect can
be determined by the application of the principle. However, the defor-
mations must be small enough so that the virtual forces remain constant
in magnitude and direction while performing the virtual work. Also, al-
though the application of this principle in this text is limited to elastic
structures, the principle is valid regardless of whether the structure is
elastic or not.
The method of virtual work is based on the principle of virtual
forces for deformable bodies as expressed by Eq. (7.16), which can be
rewritten as

virtual external work virtual internal work (7.17)

or, more specically, as

282 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Virtual system
   
P virtual external force  P virtual internal force 

real external displacement real internal displacement

Real system (7.18)

in which the terms forces and displacements are used in a general sense
and include moments and rotations, respectively. Note that because the
virtual forces are independent of the actions causing the real deforma-
tion and remain constant during the real deformation, the expressions of
the external and internal virtual work in Eq. (7.18) do not contain the
factor 1/2.
As Eq. (7.18) indicates, the method of virtual work employs
two separate systems: a virtual force system and the real system of loads
(or other eects) that cause the deformation to be determined. To de-
termine the deection (or slope) at any point of a structure, a virtual
force system is selected so that the desired deection (or rotation) will be
the only unknown in Eq. (7.18). The explicit expressions of the virtual
work method to be used for computing deections of trusses, beams,
and frames are developed in the following three sections.

7.3 DEFLECTIONS OF TRUSSES BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

To develop the expression of the virtual work method that can be used
to determine the deections of trusses, consider an arbitrary statically
determinate truss, as shown in Fig. 7.4(a). Let us assume that we want
to determine the vertical deection, D, at joint B of the truss due to the
given external loads P1 and P2 . The truss is statically determinate, so the
axial forces in its members can be determined from the method of joints
described previously in Chapter 4. If F represents the axial force in an
arbitrary member j (e.g., member CD in Fig. 7.4(a)) of the truss, then
(from mechanics of materials) the axial deformation, d, of this member is
given by

FL
d (7.19)
AE

in which L; A, and E denote, respectively, the length, cross-sectional

area, and modulus of elasticity of member j.
To determine the vertical deection, D, at joint B of the truss, we
select a virtual system consisting of a unit load acting at the joint and
in the direction of the desired deection, as shown in Fig. 7.4(b). Note
 SECTION 7.3 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method 283

that the (downward) sense of the unit load in Fig. 7.4(b) is the same as
the assumed sense of the desired deection D in Fig. 7.4(a). The forces
in the truss members due to the virtual unit load can be determined from
the method of joints. Let Fv denote the virtual force in member j. Next,
we subject the truss with the virtual unit load acting on it (Fig. 7.4(b))
to the deformations of the real loads (Fig. 7.4(a)). The virtual external
work performed by the virtual unit load as it goes through the real de-
ection D is equal to
Wve 1D (7.20)
To determine the virtual internal work, let us focus our attention on
member j (member CD in Fig. 7.4). The virtual internal work done on
member j by the virtual axial force Fv , acting through the real axial de-
formation d, is equal to Fv d. Therefore, the total virtual internal work
done on all the members of the truss can be written as
P
Wvi Fv d (7.21)

By equating the virtual external work (Eq. (7.20)) to the virtual

internal work (Eq. (7.21)) in accordance with the principle of virtual
forces for deformable bodies, we obtain the following expression for the
method of virtual work for truss deections:
FIG. 7.4
P
1D Fv d (7.22)

When the deformations are caused by external loads, Eq. (7.19) can
be substituted into Eq. (7.22) to obtain
 
P FL
1D Fv (7.23)
AE

Because the desired deection, D, is the only unknown in Eq. (7.23), its
value can be determined by solving this equation.

Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors

The expression of the virtual work method as given by Eq. (7.22) is
quite general in the sense that it can be used to determine truss de-
ections due to temperature changes, fabrication errors, and any other
eect for which the member axial deformations, d, are either known or
can be evaluated beforehand.
The axial deformation of a truss member j of length L due to a
change in temperature DT is given by

d aDTL (7.24)
284 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

in which a denotes the coecient of thermal expansion of

member j. Substituting Eq. (7.24) into Eq. (7.22), we obtain the follow-
ing expression:

P
1D Fv aDTL (7.25)

which can be used to compute truss deections due to the changes in

temperature.
Truss deections due to fabrication errors can be determined by
simply substituting changes in member lengths due to fabrication errors
for d in Eq. (7.22).

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the de-

ections of trusses by the virtual work method.
1. Real System If the deection of the truss to be determined is
caused by external loads, then apply the method of joints and/or the
method of sections to compute the (real) axial forces F in all the
members of the truss. In the examples given at the end of this section,
tensile member forces are considered to be positive and vice versa. Sim-
ilarly, increases in temperature and increases in member lengths due to
fabrication errors are considered to be positive and vice versa.
2. Virtual System Remove all the given (real) loads from the truss;
then apply a unit load at the joint where the deection is desired and in
the direction of the desired deection to form the virtual force system.
By using the method of joints and/or the method of sections, compute
the virtual axial forces Fv in all the members of the truss. The sign
convention used for the virtual forces must be the same as that adopted
for the real forces in step 1; that is, if real tensile forces, temperature
increases, or member elongations due to fabrication errors were consid-
ered as positive in step 1, then the virtual tensile forces must also be
considered to be positive and vice versa.
3. The desired deection of the truss can now be determined by
applying Eq. (7.23) if the deection is due to external loads, Eq. (7.25) if
the deection is caused by temperature changes, or Eq. (7.22) in the case
of the deection due to fabrication errors. The application of these vir-
tual work expressions can be facilitated by arranging the real and virtual
quantities, computed in steps 1 and 2, in a tabular form, as illustrated in
the following examples. A positive answer for the desired deection
means that the deection occurs in the same direction as the unit load,
whereas a negative answer indicates that the deection occurs in the di-
rection opposite to that of the unit load.
 SECTION 7.3 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method 285

Example 7.1

Determine the horizontal deection at joint C of the truss shown in Fig. 7.5(a) by the virtual work method.

Solution
Real System The real system consists of the loading given in the problem, as shown in Fig. 7.5(b).
The member axial forces due to the real loads F obtained by using the method of joints are also depicted in Fig. 7.5(b).

Virtual System The virtual system consists of a unit (1-k) load applied in the horizontal direction at joint C, as
shown in Fig. 7.5(c). The member axial forces due to the 1-k virtual load Fv are determined by applying the method of
joints. These member forces are also shown in Fig. 7.5(c).

Horizontal Deection at C, D C To facilitate the computation of the desired deection, the real and virtual
member forces are tabulated along with the member lengths L, as shown in Table 7.1. As the values of the
cross-sectional area, A, and modulus of elasticity, E, are the same for all the members, these are not included in
the table. Note that the same sign convention is used for both real and virtual systems; that is, in both the third
and the fourth columns of the table, tensile forces are entered as positive numbers and compressive forces as
negative numbers. Then, for each member, the quantity Fv FL is computed, and its value is entered in the fth
column of the table. P
The algebraic sum of all of the entries in the fth column, Fv FL, is then determined, and its value is recorded at the
bottom of the fth column, as shown. The total virtual internal work done on all of the members of the truss is given by
1 P
Wvi Fv FL
EA

C
40 k
40 k

12 ft
.5
62

5
97.

A B

A 37.5 B
4 ft 5 ft
EA = constant
E = 10,000 ksi
A = 6 in.2 50 90
FIG. 7.5 (a) (b) Real System F Forces
continued
286 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

C 1k

5
3.7

5
3.2
A 1.25 B
1

3 3
(c) Virtual System Fv Forces
FIG. 7.5 (contd.)

The virtual external work done by the 1-k load acting through the desired horizontal deection at C, D C , is
Wve 1 kD C
Finally, we determine the desired deection D C by equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal work
and solving the resulting equation for D C as shown in Table 7.1. Note that the positive answer for D C indicates that
joint C deects to the right, in the direction of the unit load.

TABLE 7.1

Member L (in.) F (k) Fv (k) Fv FL (k 2  in.)

AB 48 37.5 1.25 2,250

AC 180 62.5 3.75 42,187.5
BC 156 97.5 3.25 49,432.5
P
Fv FL 93;870

1 P
1D C Fv FL
EA
93;870 k 2  in:
1 kD C
10;000 k=in: 2 6 in: 2
D C 1:56 in:
D C 1:56 in: ! Ans.
 SECTION 7.3 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method 287

Example 7.2

Determine the horizontal deection at joint G of the truss shown in Fig. 7.6(a) by the virtual work method.

FIG. 7.6

Solution
Real System The real system consists of the loading given in the problem, as shown in Fig. 7.6(b). The member
axial forces due to the real loads F obtained by using the method of joints are also shown in Fig. 7.6(b).
Virtual System The virtual system consists of a unit (1-k) load applied in the horizontal direction at joint G, as
shown in Fig. 7.6(c). The member axial forces due to the 1-k virtual load Fv are also depicted in Fig. 7.6(c).
Horizontal Deection at G, DG To facilitate the computation of the desired deection, the real and virtual member
forces are tabulated along with the lengths L and the cross-sectional areas A of the members, as shown in Table 7.2.
The modulus of elasticity, E, is the same for all the members, so its value is not included in the table. Note that the same
sign convention is used for both real and virtual systems; that is, in both the fourth and the fth columns of the table,
tensile forces are entered as positive numbers, and compressive forces as negative numbers. Then, for each member the
quantity Fv FL=A is computed,
P and its value is entered in the sixth column of the table. The algebraic sum of all the
entries in the sixth column, Fv FL=A, is then determined, and its value is recorded at the bottom of the sixth column,
as shown. Finally, the desired deection DG is determined by applying the virtual work expression (Eq. (7.23)) as shown
in Table 7.2. Note that the positive answer for DG indicates that joint G deects to the right, in the direction of the unit
load.

continued
288 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

TABLE 7.2

Fv FL=A
Member L (in.) A (in. 2 ) F (k) Fv (k) (k 2 /in.)
AB 192 4 60 1 2,880
CD 192 3 0 0 0
EG 192 3 20 0 0
AC 144 4 60 1.5 3,240
CE 144 4 0 0 0
BD 144 4 15 0.75 405
DG 144 4 15 0.75 405
BC 240 3 75 1.25 7,500
CG 240 3 25 1.25 2,500
 
P FL
Fv 16;930
A
 
1P FL
1D G Fv
E A
16;930 k 2 =in:
1 kD G
29;000 k=in: 2
D G 0:584 in:
D G 0:584 in: ! Ans.

Example 7.3

Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the deection at joint B of the truss shown in Fig. 7.7(a) by the
virtual work method.

FIG. 7.7
continued
 SECTION 7.3 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method 289

FIG. 7.7 (contd.)

Solution
Real System The real system and the corresponding member axial forces F are shown in Fig. 7.7(b).

Horizontal Deection at B, DBH The virtual system used for determining the horizontal deection at B consists of a
1-kN load applied in the horizontal direction at joint B, as shown in Fig. 7.7(c). The member axial forces Fv1 due to this
virtual load are also shown in this gure. The member axial forces due to the real system F and this virtual system Fv1
are then tabulated, and the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7.23) is applied to determine DBH , as shown in Table 7.3.

TABLE 7.3

L F Fv1 Fv1 FL Fv2 Fv2 FL

Member (m) (kN) (kN) (kN 2  m) (kN) (kN 2  m)

AB 4 21 1 84 0.43 36.12
BC 3 21 0 0 0.43 27.09
AD 5.66 79.2 0 0 0.61 273.45
BD 4 84 0 0 1 336.00
CD 5 35 0 0 0.71 124.25
P
Fv FL 84 796.91

1 P 1 P
1DBH Fv1 FL 1DBV Fv2 FL
EA EA
84 796:91
1 kNDBH kN  m 1 kNDBV kN  m
20010 6 0:0012 20010 6 0:0012
DBH 0:00035 m DBV 0:00332 m
DBH 0:35 mm ! Ans. DBV 3:32 mm # Ans.
continued
290 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Vertical Deection at B, DBV The virtual system used for determining the vertical deection at B consists of a 1-kN
load applied in the vertical direction at joint B, as shown in Fig. 7.7(d). The member axial forces Fv2 due to this virtual
load are also shown in this gure. These member forces are tabulated in the sixth column of Table 7.3, and DBV is
computed by applying the virtual work expression (Eq. (7.23)), as shown in the table.

Example 7.4

Determine the vertical deection at joint C of the truss shown in Fig. 7.8(a) due to a temperature drop of 15 F in members
AB and BC and a temperature increase of 60 F in members AF ; FG; GH, and EH. Use the virtual work method.

Solution
Real System The real system consists of the temperature changes DT given in the problem, as shown in Fig. 7.8(b).

Virtual System The virtual system consists of a 1-k load applied in the vertical direction at joint C, as shown in
Fig. 7.8(c). Note that the virtual axial forces Fv are computed for only those members that are subjected to temper-
ature changes. Because the temperature changes in the remaining members of the truss are zero, their axial deformations
are zero; therefore, no internal virtual work is done on those members.

FIG. 7.8
continued
 SECTION 7.3 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method 291

Vertical Deection at C, D C The temperature changes DT and the virtual member forces Fv are tabulated along
with the lengths L of the members, in Table 7.4. The coecient of thermal expansion, a, is the same for all the mem-
bers, so its value is not included in the table. The desired deection D C is determined by applying the virtual work ex-
pression given by Eq. (7.25), as shown in the table. Note that the negative answer for D C indicates that joint C deects
upward, in the direction opposite to that of the unit load.

TABLE 7.4

Member L (ft) DT ( F) Fv (k) Fv DTL (k- F-ft)

AB 10 15 0.667 100
BC 10 15 0.667 100
AF 12.5 60 0.833 625
FG 12.5 60 0.833 625
GH 12.5 60 0.833 625
EH 12.5 60 0.833 625
P
Fv DTL 2;700
P
1D C a Fv DTL
1 kD C 6:5106 2;700 k-ft
D C 0:0176 ft 0:211 in:
D C 0:211 in: " Ans.

Example 7.5

Determine the vertical deection at joint D of the truss shown in Fig. 7.9(a) if member CF is 0.6 in. too long and
member EF is 0.4 in. too short. Use the method of virtual work.

Solution
Real System The real system consists of the changes in the lengths d of members CF and EF of the truss, as
shown in Fig. 7.9(b).
Virtual System The virtual system consists of a 1-k load applied in the vertical direction at joint D, as shown
in Fig. 7.9(c). The necessary virtual forces Fv in members CF and EF can be easily computed by using the method of
sections.
Vertical Deection at D, DD The desired deection is determined by applying the virtual work expression given by
Eq. (7.22), as shown in Table 7.5.

continued
292 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

FIG. 7.9

TABLE 7.5

Member d (in.) Fv (k) Fv d (k-in.)

CF 0.6 1 0.6
EF 0.4 1 0.4
P
Fv d 1:0
P
1DD Fv d
1 kDD 1:0 k-in:
DD 1:0 in:
DD 1:0 in: " Ans.
 SECTION 7.4 Deflections of Beams by the Virtual Work Method 293

7.4 DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

To develop an expression for the virtual work method for determining
the deections of beams, consider a beam subjected to an arbitrary
loading, as shown in Fig. 7.10(a). Let us assume that the vertical de-
ection, D, at a point B of the beam is desired. To determine this de-
ection, we select a virtual system consisting of a unit load acting at the
point and in the direction of the desired deection, as shown in Fig.
7.10(b). Now, if we subject the beam with the virtual unit load acting on
it (Fig. 7.10(b)), to the deformations due to the real loads (Fig. 7.10(a)),
the virtual external work performed by the virtual unit load as it goes
through the real deection D is Wve 1D.
To obtain the virtual internal work, we focus our attention on a
dierential element dx of the beam located at a distance x from the left
support A, as shown in Fig. 7.10(a) and (b). Because the beam with the
virtual load (Fig. 7.10(b)) is subjected to the deformation due to the real
loading (Fig. 7.10(a)), the virtual internal bending moment, Mv , acting

FIG. 7.10
294 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

on the element dx performs virtual internal work as it undergoes the real

rotation dy, as shown in Fig. 7.10(c). Thus, the virtual internal work
done on the element dx is given by

dWvi Mv dy (7.26)

Note that because the virtual moment Mv remains constant during the
real rotation dy, Eq. (7.26) does not contain a factor of 1/2. Recall from
Eq. (6.10) that the change of slope dy over the dierential length dx can
be expressed as
M
dy dx (7.27)
EI
in which M bending moment due to the real loading causing the ro-
tation dy. By substituting Eq. (7.27) into Eq. (7.26), we write
 
M
dWvi Mv dx (7.28)
EI
The total virtual internal work done on the entire beam can now be de-
termined by integrating Eq. (7.28) over the length L of the beam as
L
Mv M
Wvi dx (7.29)
0 EI

By equating the virtual external work, Wve 1D, to the virtual

internal work (Eq. (7.29)), we obtain the following expression for the
method of virtual work for beam deections:

L
Mv M
1D dx (7.30)
0 EI

If we want the slope y at a point C of the beam (Fig. 7.10(a)), then

we use a virtual system consisting of a unit couple acting at the point, as
shown in Fig. 7.10(d). When the beam with the virtual unit couple is
subjected to the deformations due to the real loading, the virtual ex-
ternal work performed by the virtual unit couple, as it undergoes the
real rotation y, is Wve 1y. The expression for the internal virtual
work remains the same as given in Eq. (7.29), except that Mv now de-
notes the bending moment due to the virtual unit couple. By setting
Wve Wvi , we obtain the following expression for the method of virtual
work for beam slopes:

L
Mv M
1y dx (7.31)
0 EI
 SECTION 7.4 Deflections of Beams by the Virtual Work Method 295

In the derivation of Eq. (7.29) for virtual internal work, we have

neglected the internal work performed by the virtual shear forces act-
ing through the real shear deformations. Therefore, the expressions
of the virtual work method as given by Eqs. (7.30) and (7.31) do not
account for the shear deformations of beams. However, for most
beams (except for very deep beams), shear deformations are so small
as compared to the bending deformations that their eect can be
neglected in the analysis.

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the
slopes and deections of beams by the virtual work method.
1. Real System Draw a diagram of the beam showing all the real
(given) loads acting on it.
2. Virtual System Draw a diagram of the beam without the real loads.
If deection is to be determined, then apply a unit load at the point
and in the direction of the desired deection. If the slope is to be
calculated, then apply a unit couple at the point on the beam where
the slope is desired.
3. By examining the real and virtual systems and the variation of the
exural rigidity EI specied along the length of the beam, divide the
beam into segments so that the real and virtual loadings as well as
EI are continuous in each segment.
4. For each segment of the beam, determine an equation expressing
the variation of the bending moment due to real loading M along
the length of the segment in terms of a position coordinate x. The
origin for x may be located anywhere on the beam and should be
chosen so that the number of terms in the equation for M is mini-
mum. It is usually convenient to consider the bending moments as
positive or negative in accordance with the beam sign convention
(Fig. 5.2).
5. For each segment of the beam, determine the equation for the
bending moment due to virtual load or couple Mv using the
same x coordinate that was used for this segment in step 4 to es-
tablish the expression for the real bending moment, M. The sign
convention for the virtual bending moment Mv must be the same
as that adopted for the real bending moment in step 4.
6. Determine the desired deection or slope of the beam by applying
the appropriate virtual work expression, Eq. (7.30) or Eq. (7.31). If
the beam has been divided into segments, then the integral on the
right-hand side of Eq. (7.30) or (7.31) can be evaluated by algebrai-
cally adding the integrals for all the segments of the beam.
296 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Example 7.6

Determine the slope and deection at point A of the beam shown in Fig. 7.11(a) by the virtual work method.

FIG. 7.11

Solution
Real System See Fig. 7.11(b).
Slope at A, yA The virtual system consists of a unit couple applied at A, as shown in Fig. 7.11(c). From Fig. 7.11(a)
through (c), we can see that there are no discontinuities of the real and virtual loadings or of EI along the length of the
beam. Therefore, there is no need to subdivide the beam into segments. To determine the equation for the bending
moment M due to real loading, we select an x coordinate with its origin at end A of the beam, as shown in Fig. 7.11(b).
By applying the method of sections described in Section 5.2, we determine the equation for M as
  
1 wx x wx 3
0<x<L M  x 
2 L 3 6L

Similarly, the equation for the bending moment Mv1 due to virtual unit moment in terms of the same x coordinate is

0<x<L Mv1 1

To determine the desired slope yA , we apply the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7.31):
L L  
Mv1 M wx 3
1yA dx 1  dx
0 EI 0 6LEI
 L
w x4 wL 3
yA  
6EIL 4 0 24EI
continued
 SECTION 7.4 Deflections of Beams by the Virtual Work Method 297

The negative answer for yA indicates that point A rotates counterclockwise, in the direction opposite to that of the unit
moment.

wL 3
yA
Ans.
24EI

Deection at A, DA The virtual system consists of a unit load applied at A, as shown in Fig. 7.11(d). If we use the
same x coordinate as we used for computing yA , then the equation for M remains the same as before, and the equation
for bending moment Mv2 due to virtual unit load (Fig. 7.11(d)) is given by

0<x<L Mv2 1x x

By applying the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7.30), we determine the desired deection DA as
L L  
Mv2 M wx 3
1DA dx x  dx
0 EI 0 6LEI
 L
w x5 wL 4
DA
6EIL 5 0 30EI

The positive answer for DA indicates that point A deects downward, in the direction of the unit load.
wL 4
DA # Ans.
30EI

Example 7.7

Determine the slope at point B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 7.12(a) by the virtual work method.

Solution
The real and virtual systems are shown in Figs. 7.12(b) and (c), respectively. As shown in these gures, an x coordinate
with its origin at end B of the beam is selected to obtain the bending moment equations. From Fig. 7.12(b), we can see
that the equation for M in terms of the x coordinate is
0 < x < 25 ft M 18x
Similarly, from Fig. 7.12(c), we obtain the equation for Mv to be
0 < x < 25 ft Mv 1
The slope at B can now be computed by applying the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7.31), as follows:
L
Mv M
1yB dx
0 EI

1 25
1yB 118x dx
EI 0
continued
298 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

18 k

A B

25 ft
EI = constant
E = 10,000 ksi
I = 5,440 in.4
(a)
18 k

A B

x
(b) Real System M

1 k-ft
A
B
x
FIG. 7.12 (c) Virtual System Mv

5;625 k 2 -ft 3
1 k-ftyB
EI

Therefore,
5;625 k-ft 2 5;62512 2
yB 0:0149 rad:
EI 10;0005;440
The positive answer for yB indicates that point B rotates clockwise, in the direction of the unit moment.
yB 0:0149 rad: @ Ans.

Example 7.8

Determine the deection at point D of the beam shown in Fig. 7.13(a) by the virtual work method.

Solution
The real and virtual systems are shown in Fig. 7.13(b) and (c), respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 7.13(a) that the
exural rigidity EI of the beam changes abruptly at points B and D. Also, Fig. 7.13(b) and (c) indicates that the real
and virtual loadings are discontinuous at points C and D, respectively. Consequently, the variation of the quantity
continued
 SECTION 7.4 Deflections of Beams by the Virtual Work Method 299

FIG. 7.13

Mv M=EI will be discontinuous at points B; C, and D. Thus, the beam must be divided into four segments,
AB; BC; CD, and DE; in each segment the quantity Mv M=EI will be continuous and, therefore, can be integrated.
The x coordinates selected for determining the bending moment equations are shown in Fig. 7.13(b) and (c). Note
that in any particular segment of the beam, the same x coordinate must be used to write both equationsthat is, the
equation for the real bending moment M and the equation for the virtual bending moment Mv . The equations for M
and Mv for the four segments of the beam, determined by using the method of sections, are tabulated in Table 7.6. The
deection at D can now be computed by applying the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7.30).
L
Mv M
1DD dx
0 EI
 3   
1 x 1 6 x
1DD 75x dx 75x dx
EI 0 4 2 3 4
  3  
1 9 x 3
75x 900 dx x 75x dx
2 6 4 0 4

2;193:75 kN 2  m 3
1 kNDD
EI
Therefore,
2;193:75 kN  m 3 2;193:75
DD 0:0366 m 36:6 mm
EI 200300
DD 36:6 mm # Ans.
continued
300 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

TABLE 7.6

x Coordinate EI
I 300  M Mv
Segment Origin Limits (m) 10 6 mm 4 (kN  m) (kN  m)
x
AB A 03 EI 75x
4
x
BC A 36 2EI 75x
4
x
CD A 69 2EI 75x  150x  6
4
3
ED E 03 EI 75x x
4

Example 7.9

Determine the deection at point C of the beam shown in Fig. 7.14(a) by the virtual work method.

FIG. 7.14

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed by the moment-area and the conjugate-beam methods in Examples 6.7 and 6.13,
respectively.

continued
 SECTION 7.5 Deflections of Frames by the Virtual Work Method 301

The real and virtual systems for this problem are shown in Fig. 7.14(b) and (c), respectively. The real and virtual
loadings are discontinuous at point B, so the beam is divided into two segments, AB and BC. The x coordinates used for
determining the bending moment equations are shown in Fig. 7.14(b) and (c), and the equations for M and Mv obtained
for each of the two segments of the beam are tabulated in Table 7.7. The deection at C can now be determined by
applying the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7.30), as follows:

TABLE 7.7

x Coordinate
Segment Origin Limits (ft) M (k-ft) Mv (k-ft)
x
AB A 030 26x  x 2 
3
CB C 010 12x x

L
Mv M
1D C dx
0 EI
 30   10 
1 x
1D C  26x  x 2 dx x12x dx
EI 0 3 0

6;500 k 2 -ft 3
1 kD C 
EI
Therefore,
6;500 k-ft 3 6;50012 3
DC   0:194 in:
EI 29;0002;000
D C 0:194 in: " Ans.

7.5 DEFLECTIONS OF FRAMES BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

Application of the virtual work method to determine the slopes and
deections of frames is similar to that for beams. To determine the
deection, D, or rotation, y, at a point of a frame, a virtual unit load or
unit couple is applied at that point. When the virtual system is sub-
jected to the deformations of the frame due to real loads, the virtual
external work performed by the unit load or the unit couple is
Wve 1D, or Wve 1y. As portions of the frame may undergo axial
deformations in addition to the bending deformations, the total virtual
302 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

internal work done on the frame is equal to the sum of the internal
virtual work due to bending and that due to axial deformations. As
discussed in the preceding section, when the real and virtual loadings
and the exural rigidity EI are continuous over a segment of the
frame, the virtual internal work due to bending for that segment can be
obtained by integrating the quantity Mv M=EI over the length of the
segment. The virtual internal work due to bending for the entire frame
can then be obtained by summing the work for the individual seg-
ments; that is,

P Mv M
Wvib dx (7.32)
EI

Similarly, if the axial forces F and Fv due to the real and virtual loads,
respectively, and the axial rigidity AE are constant over the length L
of a segment of the frame, then, as discussed in Section 7.3, the virtual
internal work for that segment due to axial deformation is equal to
Fv FL=AE. Thus, the virtual internal work due to axial deformations
for the entire frame can be expressed as

 
P FL
Wvia Fv (7.33)
AE

By adding Eqs. (7.32) and (7.33), we obtain the total internal

virtual work for the frame due to both bending and axial deforma-
tions as

 
P FL P Mv M
Wvi Fv dx (7.34)
AE EI

By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal work,

we obtain the expressions for the method of virtual work for deections
and rotations of frames, respectively, as

 
P FL P Mv M
1D Fv dx (7.35)
AE EI

and
 
P FL P Mv M
1y Fv dx (7.36)
AE EI
 SECTION 7.5 Deflections of Frames by the Virtual Work Method 303

The axial deformations in the members of frames composed of

common engineering materials are generally much smaller than the
bending deformations and are, therefore, usually neglected in the anal-
ysis. In this text, unless stated otherwise, we will neglect the eect of
axial deformations in the analysis of frames. The virtual work expres-
sions considering only the bending deformations of frames can be ob-
tained by simply omitting the rst term on the right-hand sides of Eqs.
(7.35) and (7.36), which are thus reduced to

P Mv M
1D dx (7.37)
EI

and

P Mv M
1y dx (7.38)
EI

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the
slopes and deections of frames by the virtual work method.
1. Real System Determine the internal forces at the ends of the mem-
bers of the frame due to the real loading by using the procedure
described in Section 5.6.
2. Virtual System If the deection of the frame is to be determined,
then apply a unit load at the point and in the direction of the
desired deection. If the rotation is to be calculated, then apply a
unit couple at the point on the frame where the rotation is desired.
Determine the member end forces due to the virtual loading.
3. If necessary, divide the members of the frame into segments so that
the real and virtual loads and EI are continuous in each segment.
4. For each segment of the frame, determine an equation express-
ing the variation of the bending moment due to real loading
(M ) along the length of the segment in terms of a position
coordinate x.
5. For each segment of the frame, determine the equation for the
bending moment due to virtual load or couple (Mv ) using the same
x coordinate that was used for this segment in step 4 to establish the
expression for the real bending moment, M. Any convenient sign
convention can be used for M and Mv . However, it is important
304 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

that the sign convention be the same for both M and Mv in a par-
ticular segment.
6. If the eect of axial deformations is to be included in the analysis,
then go to step 7. Otherwise, determine the desired deection or
rotation of the frame by applying the appropriate virtual work ex-
pression, Eq. (7.37) or Eq. (7.38). End the analysis at this stage.
7. If necessary, divide the members of the frame into segments so that
the real and virtual axial forces and AE are constant in each seg-
ment. It is not necessary that these segments be the same as those
used in step 3 for evaluating the virtual internal work due to bend-
ing. It is important, however, that the same sign convention be used
for both the real axial force, F , and the virtual axial force, Fv , in a
particular segment.
8. Determine the desired deection or rotation of the frame by ap-
plying the appropriate virtual work expression, Eq. (7.35) or
Eq. (7.36).

Example 7.10

Determine the rotation of joint C of the frame shown in Fig. 7.15(a) by the virtual work method.

Solution
The real and virtual systems are shown in Fig. 7.15(b) and (c), respectively. The x coordinates used for determining the
bending moment equations for the three segments of the frame, AB; BC, and CD, are also shown in these gures. The
equations for M and Mv obtained for the three segments are tabulated in Table 7.8. The rotation of joint C of the frame
can now be determined by applying the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7.38).

P Mv M
1yC dx
EI
  
1 30 x x2
38:5x  1:5 dx
EI 0 30 2
6;487:5 k 2 -ft 3
1 k-ftyC
EI
Therefore,
6;487:5 k-ft 2 6;487:512 2
yC 0:0129 rad:
EI 29;0002;500
yC 0:0129 rad: @ Ans.

continued
 SECTION 7.5 Deflections of Frames by the Virtual Work Method 305

FIG. 7.15 continued

306 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

FIG. 7.15 (contd.)

TABLE 7.8

x Coordinate
Segment Origin Limits (ft) M (k-ft) Mv (k-ft)
AB A 012 40x 0
CB C 012 480 0
x2 x
DC D 030 38:5x  1:5
2 30
 SECTION 7.5 Deflections of Frames by the Virtual Work Method 307

Example 7.11

Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical deection at joint C of the frame shown in Fig. 7.16(a).

Solution
The real and virtual systems are shown in Figs. 7.16(b) and (c), respectively. The x coordinates used for determining the
bending moment equations for the two members of the frame, AB and BC, are also shown in the gures. The equations
for M and Mv obtained for the two members are tabulated in Table 7.9. The vertical deection at joint C of the frame
can now be calculated by applying the virtual work expression given by Eq. (7.37):

P Mv M
1D C dx
EI
 5  
1 1 5 4
1D C 476x  530 dx  x 6x 2 dx
EI 2 0 0 5
4;150 kN 2  m 3
1 kND C
EI
Therefore,
4;150 kN  m 3 4;150
DC 0:107 m 107 mm
EI 70554
D C 107 mm # Ans.

5m
I
m C
kN/
12 3m

40 kN B

5 m 2I

E = constant = 70 GPa
I = 554 (106) mm4
A

4m
FIG. 7.16 (a)

continued
308 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

m C
kN/
12
1 kN
40 kN B
C

A
76
530
C
48
/m
kN
12 A
x
4 kN
4 5 3 kN
5
B
48 1 C
150 0
15
36 60
40 kN B x
76
150
B
48 3
1
48 5 4
4
76 5
B 150 B 4

x x
A
76 530
A
4
48 1
(b) Real System M (c) Virtual System Mv
FIG. 7.16 (contd.) continued
 SECTION 7.5 Deflections of Frames by the Virtual Work Method 309

TABLE 7.9

x Coordinate EI
I 554  M Mv
Segment Origin Limits (m) 10 6 mm 4 (kN  m) (kN  m)
AB A 05 2EI 76x  530 4
x2 4
CB C 05 EI 12  x
2 5

Example 7.12

Determine the horizontal deection at joint C of the frame shown in Fig. 7.17(a) including the eect of
axial deformations, by the virtual work method.

Solution
The real and virtual systems are shown in Fig. 7.17(b) and (c), respectively. The x coordinates used for determining the
bending moment equations for the three members of the frame, AB; BC, and CD, are also shown in the gures. The
equations for M and Mv obtained for the three members are tabulated in Table 7.10 along with the axial forces F and Fv
of the members. The horizontal deection at joint C of the frame can be determined by applying the virtual work ex-
pression given by Eq. (7.35):
 
P FL P Mv M
1D C Fv dx
AE EI
 
1 3 1 3
1DC 12:515 11:6720  27:515
AE 4 2 4
 15
1 x
1:67x dx
EI 0 2
20   15 
3 x
7:5  x 25 12:5x  x 2 dx 11:67x dx
0 4 0 2

52:08 k 2 -ft 9;375 k 2 -ft 3

1 kD C
AE EI

continued
310 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

FIG. 7.17 continued

 SECTION 7.5 Deflections of Frames by the Virtual Work Method 311

FIG. 7.17 (contd.)

TABLE 7.10

x Coordinate
Segment Origin Limits (ft) M (k-ft) F (k) Mv (k-ft) Fv (k)
x 3
AB A 015 1:67x 12:50
2 4
3 1
BC B 020 25 12:5x  x 2 11:67 7:5  x
4 2
x 3
DC D 015 11.67x 27:50 
2 4

continued
312 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Therefore,
52:08 k-ft 9;375 k-ft 3
DC
AE EI
52:08 9;37512 2

3529;000 29;0001;000
0:00005 0:04655
0:0466 ft 0:559 in:
D C 0:559 in: ! Ans.
Note that the magnitude of the axial deformation term is negligibly small as compared to that of the bending
deformation term.

7.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND STRAIN ENERGY

Before we can develop the next method for computing deections of
structures, it is necessary to understand the concepts of conservation of
energy and strain energy.
The energy of a structure can be simply dened as its capacity for
doing work. The term strain energy is attributed to the energy that a
structure has because of its deformation. The relationship between the
work and strain energy of a structure is based on the principle of con-
servation of energy, which can be stated as follows:
The work performed on an elastic structure in equilibrium by statically
(gradually) applied external forces is equal to the work done by internal
forces, or the strain energy stored in the structure.
This principle can be mathematically expressed as

W e Wi (7.39)

or

We U (7.40)

In these equations, We and Wi represent the work done by the external

and internal forces, respectively, and U denotes the strain energy of the
structure. The explicit expression for the strain energy of a structure de-
pends on the types of internal forces that can develop in the members of
the structure. Such expressions for the strain energy of trusses, beams,
and frames are derived in the following.
 SECTION 7.6 Conservation of Energy and Strain Energy 313

Strain Energy of Trusses

Consider the arbitrary truss shown in Fig. 7.18. The truss is subjected to
a load P, which increases gradually from zero to its nal value, causing
the structure to deform as shown in the gure. Because we are consid-
ering linearly elastic structures, the deection of the truss D at the point
of application of P increases linearly with the load; therefore, as dis-
cussed in Section 7.1 (see Fig. 7.1(c)), the external work performed by P
during the deformation D can be expressed as
FIG. 7.18 1
We PD
2

To develop the expression for internal work or strain energy of the

truss, let us focus our attention on an arbitrary member j (e.g., member
CD in Fig. 7.18) of the truss. If F represents the axial force in this
member due to the external load P, then as discussed in Section 7.3, the
axial deformation of this member is given by d FL=AE. Therefore,
internal work or strain energy stored in member j, Uj , is given by

1 F 2L
Uj F d
2 2AE
The strain energy of the entire truss is simply equal to the sum of the
strain energies of all of its members and can be expressed as

P F 2L
U (7.41)
2AE

Note that a factor of 12 appears in the expression for strain energy because
the axial force F and the axial deformation d caused by F in each member
of the truss are related by the linear relationship d FL=AE.

Strain Energy of Beams

To develop the expression for the strain energy of beams, consider
an arbitrary beam, as shown in Fig. 7.19(a). As the external load P act-
ing on the beam increases gradually from zero to its nal value, the in-
ternal bending moment M acting on a dierential element dx of the
beam (Fig. 7.19(a) and (b)) also increases gradually from zero to its nal
value, while the cross sections of element dx rotate by an angle dy with
respect to each other. The internal work or the strain energy stored in
the element dx is, therefore, given by
1
dU Mdy (7.42)
2
314 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

FIG. 7.19

Recalling from Section 7.4 (Eq. (7.27)) that the change in slope, dy, can
be expressed in terms of the bending moment, M, by the relationship
dy M=EI dx, we write Eq. (7.42) as

M2
dU dx (7.43)
2EI

The expression for the strain energy of the entire beam can now be ob-
tained by integrating Eq. (7.43) over the length L of the beam:

L
M2
U dx (7.44)
0 2EI

When the quantity M=EI is not a continuous function of x over the

entire length of the beam, then the beam must be divided into segments
so that M=EI is continuous in each segment. The integral on the right-
hand side of Eq. (7.44) is then evaluated by summing the integrals for all
the segments of the beam. We must realize that Eq. (7.44) is based on
the consideration of bending deformations of beams and does not in-
clude the eect of shear deformations, which, as stated previously, are
negligibly small as compared to the bending deformations for most
beams.

Strain Energy of Frames

The portions of frames may be subjected to axial forces as well as
bending moments, so the total strain energy (U) of frames is expressed
 SECTION 7.6 Conservation of Energy and Strain Energy 315

as the sum of the strain energy due to axial forces (Ua ) and the strain
energy due to bending (Ub ); that is,

U Ua Ub (7.45)

If a frame is divided into segments so that the quantity F =AE is

constant over the length L of each segment, thenas shown pre-
viously in the case of trussesthe strain energy stored in each seg-
ment due to the axial force F is equal to F 2 L=2AE. Therefore,
the strain energy due to axial forces for the entire frame can be ex-
pressed as

P F 2L
Ua (7.46)
2AE

Similarly, if the frame is divided into segments so that the quantity

M=EI is continuous over each segment, then the strain energy stored
in each segment due to bending can be obtained by integrating the
quantity M=EI over the length of the segment (Eq. (7.44)). The strain
energy due to bending for the entire frame is equal to the sum of strain
energies of bending of all the segments of the frame and can be ex-
pressed as

P M2
Ub dx (7.47)
2EI

By substituting Eqs. (7.46) and (7.47) into Eq. (7.45), we obtain the fol-
lowing expression for the strain energy of frames due to both the axial
forces and bending:

P F 2L P M 2
U dx (7.48)
2AE 2EI

As stated previously, the axial deformations of frames are generally

much smaller than the bending deformations and are usually neglected
in the analysis. The strain energy of frames due only to bending is ex-
pressed as

P M2
U dx (7.49)
2EI
316 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

7.7 CASTIGLIANOS SECOND THEOREM

In this section, we consider another energy method for determining de-
ections of structures. This method, which can be applied only to lin-
early elastic structures, was initially presented by Alberto Castigliano in
1873 and is commonly known as Castiglianos second theorem. (Casti-
glianos rst theorem, which can be used to establish equations of equi-
librium of structures, is not considered in this text.) Castiglianos second
theorem can be stated as follows:
For linearly elastic structures, the partial derivative of the strain energy
with respect to an applied force (or couple) is equal to the displacement (or
rotation) of the force (or couple) along its line of action.
In mathematical form, this theorem can be stated as:

qU qU
Di or yi (7.50)
qPi qM i

in which U strain energy; Di deection of the point of application

of the force Pi in the direction of Pi ; and yi rotation of the point of
application of the couple M i in the direction of M i .
To prove this theorem, consider the beam shown in Fig. 7.20. The
beam is subjected to external loads P1 ; P2 , and P3 , which increase grad-
ually from zero to their nal values, causing the beam to deect, as
shown in the gure. The strain energy (U) stored in the beam due to the
external work (We ) performed by these forces is given by
1 1 1
U We P1 D1 P2 D2 P3 D3 (7.51)
2 2 2
in which D1 ; D2 , and D3 are the deections of the beam at the points of
application of P1 ; P2 , and P3 , respectively, as shown in the gure. As Eq.
(7.51) indicates, the strain energy U is a function of the external loads
and can be expressed as
U f P1 ; P2 ; P3 (7.52)
Now, assume that the deection D2 of the beam at the point of ap-
plication of P2 is to be determined. If P2 is increased by an innitesimal

FIG. 7.20
 SECTION 7.7 Castiglianos Second Theorem 317

amount dP2 , then the increase in strain energy of the beam due to the
application of dP2 can be written as
qU
dU dP2 (7.53)
qP2
and the total strain energy, UT , now stored in the beam is given by
qU
UT U dU U dP2 (7.54)
qP2
The beam is assumed to be composed of linearly elastic material, so
regardless of the sequence in which the loads P1 ; P2 dP2 , and P3 are
applied, the total strain energy stored in the beam should be the same.
Consider, for example, the sequence in which dP2 is applied to the
beam before the application of P1 ; P2 , and P3 . If dD2 is the deection of
the beam at the point of application of dP2 due to dP2 , then the strain
energy stored in the beam is given by 1=2dP2 dD2 . The loads P1 ; P2 ,
and P3 are then applied to the beam, causing the additional deections
D1 ; D2 , and D3 , respectively, at their points of application. Note that
since the beam is linearly elastic, the loads P1 ; P2 , and P3 cause the same
deections, D1 ; D2 , and D3 , respectively, and perform the same amount
of external work on the beam regardless of whether any other load is
acting on the beam or not. The total strain energy stored in the beam
during the application of dP2 followed by P1 ; P2 , and P3 is given by
1 1 1 1
UT dP2 dD2 dP2 D2 P1 D1 P2 D2 P3 D3 (7.55)
2 2 2 2
Since dP2 remains constant during the additional deection, D2 , of its
point of application, the term dP2 D2 on the right-hand side of Eq.
(7.55) does not contain the factor 1=2. The term 1=2dP2 dD2 repre-
sents a small quantity of second order, so it can be neglected, and Eq.
(7.55) can be written as
1 1 1
UT dP2 D2 P1 D1 P2 D2 P3 D3 (7.56)
2 2 2
By substituting Eq. (7.51) into Eq. (7.56) we obtain
UT dP2 D2 U (7.57)
and by equating Eqs. (7.54) and (7.57), we write
qU
U dP2 dP2 D2 U
qP2
or
qU
D2
qP2
which is the mathematical statement of Castiglianos second theorem.
318 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Application to Trusses
To develop the expression of Castiglianos second theorem, which can
be used to determine the deections of trusses, we substitute Eq. (7.41)
for the strain energy (U) of trusses into the general expression of Casti-
glianos second theorem for deections as given by Eq. (7.50) to obtain

q P F 2L
D (7.58)
qP 2AE

As the partial derivative qF 2 =qP 2F qF =qP, the expression of Cas-

tiglianos second theorem for trusses can be written as

 
P qF FL
D (7.59)
qP AE

The foregoing expression is similar in form to the expression of the

method of virtual work for trusses (Eq. (7.23)). As illustrated by the
solved examples at the end of this section, the procedure for computing
deections by Castiglianos second theorem is also similar to that of the
virtual work method.

Application to Beams
By substituting Eq. (7.44) for the strain energy (U) of beams into the
general expressions of Castiglianos second theorem (Eq. (7.50)), we
obtain the following expressions for the deections and rotations, re-
spectively, of beams:
L L
q M2 q M2
D dx and y dx
qP 0 2EI qM 0 2EI
or

L 
qM M
D dx (7.60)
0 qP EI

and

L 
qM M
y dx (7.61)
0 qM EI
 SECTION 7.7 Castiglianos Second Theorem 319

Application to Frames
Similarly, by substituting Eq. (7.48) for the strain energy (U) of frames
due to the axial forces and bending into the general expressions of Cas-
tiglianos second theorem (Eq. (7.50)), we obtain the following expres-
sions for the deections and rotations, respectively, of frames:
   
P qF FL P qM M
D dx (7.62)
qP AE qP EI

and
   
P qF FL P qM M
y dx (7.63)
qM AE qM EI

When the eect of axial deformations of the members of frames is ne-

glected in the analysis, Eqs. (7.62) and (7.63) reduce to

 
P qM M
D dx (7.64)
qP EI

and
 
P qM M
y dx (7.65)
qM EI

Procedure for Analysis

As stated previously, the procedure for computing deections of struc-
tures by Castiglianos second theorem is similar to that of the virtual
work method. The procedure essentially involves the following steps.
1. If an external load (or couple) is acting on the given structure at the
point and in the direction of the desired deection (or rotation),
then designate that load (or couple) as the variable P (or M ) and go
to step 2. Otherwise, apply a ctitious load P (or couple M ) at the
point and in the direction of the desired deection (or rotation).
2. Determine the axial force F and/or the equation(s) for bending
moment Mx in each member of the structure in terms of P (or M ).
3. Dierentiate the member axial forces F and/or the bending mo-
ments Mx obtained in step 2 with respect to the variable P (or M )
to compute qF =qP and/or qM=qP (or qF =qM and/or qM=qM ).
320 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

4. Substitute the numerical value of P (or M ) into the expressions of F

and/or Mx and their partial derivatives. If P (or M ) represents a
ctitious load (or couple), its numerical value is zero.
5. Apply the appropriate expression of Castiglianos second theorem
(Eqs. (7.59) through (7.65)) to determine the desired deection or
rotation of the structure. A positive answer for the desired de-
ection (or rotation) indicates that the deection (or rotation) oc-
curs in the same direction as P (or M ) and vice versa.

Example 7.13

Determine the deection at point C of the beam shown in Fig. 7.21(a) by Castiglianos second theorem.

FIG. 7.21

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed by the moment-area, the conjugate-beam, and the virtual work methods in Exam-
ples 6.7, 6.13, and 7.9, respectively.
The 12-k external load is already acting at point C, where the deection is to be determined, so we designate this
load as the variable P, as shown in Fig. 7.21(b). Next, we compute the reactions of the beam in terms of P. These are
also shown in Fig. 7.21(b). Since the loading is discontinuous at point B, the beam is divided into two segments, AB and
BC. The x coordinates used for determining the equations for the bending moment in the two segments of the beam are
shown in Fig. 7.21(b). The equations for M (in terms of P) obtained for the segments of the beam are tabulated in Table 7.11,
along with the partial derivatives of M with respect to P.
continued
 SECTION 7.7 Castiglianos Second Theorem 321

TABLE 7.11

x Coordinate qM
(k-ft/k)
Segment Origin Limits (ft) M (k-ft) qP
 
P x
AB A 030 30  x  x2 
3 3
CB C 010 Px x

The deection at C can now be determined by substituting P 12 k into the equations for M and qM=qP and by
applying the expression of Castiglianos second theorem as given by Eq. (7.60):
L  
qM M
DC dx
0 qP EI
 30    10 
1 x 12x
DC  30x   x 2 dx x12x dx
EI 0 3 3 0
 30   10 
1 x
 26x  x 2 dx x12x dx
EI 0 3 0

6;500 k-ft 3 6;50012 3

  0:194 in:
EI 29;0002;000
The negative answer for D C indicates that point C deects upward in the direction opposite to that of P.
D C 0:194 in: " Ans.

Example 7.14

Use Castiglianos second theorem to determine the deection at point B of the beam shown in Fig. 7.22(a).

P P

A B A B

L x
EI = constant
(a) (b)
FIG. 7.22

continued
322 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Solution
Using the x coordinate shown in Fig. 7.22(b), we write the equation for the bending moment in the beam as
M Px
The partial derivative of M with respect to P is given by
qM
x
qP
The deection at B can now be obtained by applying the expression of Castiglianos second theorem, as given by
Eq. (7.60), as follows:
L  
qM M
DB dx
0 qP EI
L  
Px
DB x  dx
0 EI

P L 2 PL 3
x dx
EI 0 3EI
PL 3
DB # Ans.
3EI

Example 7.15

Determine the rotation of joint C of the frame shown in Fig. 7.23(a) by Castiglianos second theorem.

Solution
This frame was previously analyzed by the virtual work method in Example 7.10.
No external couple is acting at joint C, where the rotation is desired, so we apply a ctitious couple M 0 at C,
as shown in Fig. 7.23(b). The x coordinates used for determining the bending moment equations for the three segments
of the frame are also shown in Fig. 7.23(b), and the equations for M in terms of M and qM=qM obtained for the three
segments are tabulated in Table 7.12. The rotation of joint C of the frame can now be determined by setting M 0 in
the equations for M and qM=qM and by applying the expression of Castiglianos second theorem as given by Eq.
(7.65):
 
P qM M
yC dx
qM EI
30   
x x2
38:5x  1:5 dx
0 30 2
6;487:5 k-ft 2 6;487:5122
0:0129 rad
EI 29;0002;500
yC 0:0129 rad @ Ans.

continued
 SECTION 7.7 Castiglianos Second Theorem 323

FIG. 7.23

TABLE 7.12

x Coordinate qM
(k-ft/k-ft)
Segment Origin Limits (ft) M (k-ft) qM
AB A 012 40x 0
CB C 012 480 0
 
M x2 x
DC D 030 38:5 x  1:5
30 2 30
324 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Example 7.16

Use Castiglianos second theorem to determine the horizontal and vertical components of the deection at joint B of the
truss shown in Fig. 7.24(a).

FIG. 7.24

Solution
This truss was previously analyzed by the virtual work method in Example 7.3.

TABLE 7.13

qF qF For P1 0 and P2 84 kN
L F qP1 qP2 qF =qP1 FL qF =qP2 FL
Member (m) (kN) (kN/kN) (kN/kN) (kN  m) (kN  m)
AB 4 15 P1 0:43P2 1 0.43 84.48 36.32
BC 3 15 0:43P2 0 0.43 0 27.24
AD 5.66 28:28  0:61P2 0 0.61 0 274.55
BD 4 P2 0 1 0 336.00
CD 5 25  0:71P2 0 0.71 0 122.97
 
P qF
FL 84.48 797.08
qP
   
1 P qF 1 P qF
DBH FL DBV FL
EA qP1 EA qP2
84:48 797:08
kN  m kN  m
EA EA
84:48 797:08
0:00035 m 0:00332 m
20010 6 0:0012 20010 6 0:0012
DBH 0:35 mm ! Ans. DBV 3:32 mm # Ans.

continued
 SECTION 7.8 Bettis Law and Maxwells Law of Reciprocal Deflections 325

As shown in Fig. 7.24(b), a ctitious horizontal force P1 0 is applied at joint B to determine the horizontal
component of deection, whereas the 84-kN vertical load is designated as the variable P2 to be used for computing
the vertical component of deection at joint B. The member axial forces, in terms of P1 and P2 , are then determined by
applying the method of joints. These member forces F , along with their partial derivatives with respect to P1 and P2 , are
tabulated in Table 7.13. Note that the tensile axial forces are considered as positive and the compressive forces are
negative. Numerical values of P1 0 and P2 84 kN are then substituted in the equations for F , and the expression of
Castiglianos second theorem, as given by Eq. (7.59) is applied, as shown in the table, to determine the horizontal and
vertical components of the deection at joint B of the truss.

7.8 BETTIS LAW AND MAXWELLS LAW OF RECIPROCAL DEFLECTIONS

Maxwells law of reciprocal deections, initially developed by James C.
Maxwell in 1864, plays an important role in the analysis of statically
indeterminate structures to be considered in Part Three of this text.
Maxwells law will be derived here as a special case of the more general
Bettis law, which was presented by E. Betti in 1872. Bettis law can be
stated as follows:
For a linearly elastic structure, the virtual work done by a P system of
forces and couples acting through the deformation caused by a Q system of
forces and couples is equal to the virtual work of the Q system acting
through the deformation due to the P system.

To show the validity of this law, consider the beam shown in Fig. 7.25.
The beam is subjected to two dierent systems of forces, P and Q systems,
as shown in Fig. 7.25(a) and (b), respectively. Now, let us assume that we
subject the beam that has the P forces already acting on it (Fig. 7.25(a)) to
the deections caused by the Q system of forces (Fig. 7.25(b)). The virtual
external work (Wve ) done can be written as
Wve P1 D Q1 P2 D Q2    Pn D Qn
or
P
n
Wve Pi D Qi
i1

By applying the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies,

Wve Wvi , and using the expression for the virtual internal work done
in beams (Eq. (7.29)), we obtain
L
Pn MP MQ
Pi D Qi dx (7.66)
i1 0 EI

FIG. 7.25
326 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Next, we assume that the beam with the Q forces acting on it (Fig.
7.25(b)) is subjected to the deections caused by the P forces (Fig.
7.25(a)). By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal
work, we obtain
L
Pm M Q MP
Qj Dpj dx (7.67)
j 1 0 EI
Noting that the right-hand sides of Eqs. (7.66) and (7.67) are identical,
we equate the left-hand sides to obtain
P
n P
m
Pi D Qi Qj DPj (7.68)
i1 j 1

Equation (7.68) represents the mathematical statement of Bettis law.

Maxwells law of reciprocal deections states that for a linearly
elastic structure, the deection at a point i due to a unit load applied at a
point j is equal to the deection at j due to a unit load at i.
In this statement, the terms deection and load are used in the gen-
eral sense to include rotation and couple, respectively. As mentioned
previously, Maxwells law can be considered as a special case of Bettis
law. To prove Maxwells law, consider the beam shown in Fig. 7.26.
The beam is separately subjected to the P and Q systems, consisting of
the unit loads at points i and j, respectively, as shown in Fig. 7.26(a)
and (b). As the gure indicates, fij represents the deection at i due to
the unit load at j, whereas fji denotes the deection at j due to the unit
load at i. These deections per unit load are referred to as exibility co-
ecients. By applying Bettis law (Eq. (7.68)), we obtain
1 fij 1 fji
or

fij fji (7.69)

FIG. 7.26
which is the mathematical statement of Maxwells law.
The reciprocal relationship remains valid between the rotations
caused by two unit couples as well as between the deection and the
rotation caused by a unit couple and a unit force, respectively.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have learned that the work done by a force P (or
couple M ) during a displacement D (or rotation y) of its point of appli-
cation in the direction of its line of action is given by
D
W P dD (7.1)
0
 Summary 327

or
y
W M dy (7.4)
0

The principle of virtual work for rigid bodies states that if a rigid
body is in equilibrium under a system of forces and if it is subjected to
any small virtual rigid-body displacement, the virtual work done by the
external forces is zero.
The principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies can be mathe-
matically stated as
Wve Wvi (7.16)
in which Wve virtual external work done by virtual external forces
(and couples) acting through the real external displacements (and rota-
tions) of the structure; and Wvi virtual internal work done by the
virtual internal forces (and couples) acting through the real internal dis-
placements (and rotations) of the structure.
The method of virtual work for determining the deformations of
structures is based on the principle of virtual forces for deformable
bodies. The method employs two separate systems: (1) a real system of
loads (or other eects) causing the deformation to be determined and (2)
a virtual system consisting of a unit load (or unit couple) applied at the
point and in the direction of the desired deection (or rotation). The
explicit expressions of the virtual work method to be used to determine
the deections of trusses, beams, and frames are as follows:
 
P FL
Trusses 1D Fv (7.23)
AE
L
Mv M
Beams 1D dx (7.30)
0 EI
 
P FL P Mv M
Frames 1D Fv dx (7.35)
AE EI

The principle of conservation of energy states that the work per-

formed by statically applied external forces on an elastic structure in
equilibrium is equal to the work done by internal forces or the strain
energy stored in the structure. The expressions for the strain energy of
trusses, beams and frames are
P F 2L
Trusses U (7.41)
2AE
L 2
M
Beams U dx (7.44)
0 2EI

P F 2L P M 2
Frames U dx (7.48)
2AE 2EI
328 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

Castiglianos second theorem for linearly elastic structures can be

mathematically expressed as
qU qU
Di or yi (7.50)
qPi qM i
The expressions of Castiglianos second theorem, which can be used to
determine deections, are as follows:
 
P qF FL
Trusses D (7.59)
qP AE
L 
qM M
Beams D dx (7.60)
0 qP EI
   
P qF FL P qM M
Frames D dx (7.62)
qP AE qP EI
Maxwells law of reciprocal deections states that, for a linearly
elastic structure, the deection at a point i due to a unit load applied at
a point j is equal to the deection at j due to a unit load at i.

PROBLEMS
Section 7.3
7.1 through 7.5 Use the virtual work method to determine 100 kN
the horizontal and vertical components of the deection at
joint B of the truss shown in Figs. P7.1P7.5. 50 kN
B
C

3m
5 ft

B
A A C

25 k
15 ft 2m 4m

EA = constant EA = constant
E = 10,000 ksi E = 70 GPa
A = 6 in.2 A = 1,000 mm2
FIG. P7.1, P7.45 FIG. P7.2, P7.46
 Problems 329

120 kN B C
(6 i
n. 2) 30 k

(4 in.2)
10 ft D
(6 i
4m n .2 ) n. 2)
(4 i

B
A (6 in.2)
45 k
A C
10 ft 10 ft
E = 10,000 ksi
3m
FIG. P7.5, P7.49
EA = constant
E = 200 GPa
A = 1,500 mm2
FIG. P7.3, P7.47

7.6 and 7.7 Use the virtual work method to determine the
vertical deection at joint C of the truss shown in Figs. P7.6
and P7.7.

50 k

30 k B D (4 in.2) E

6 ft 2) (4
(3 in.2)

(3 in.2)

in. in. 2
15 ft (3 )
A C
(4 in.2) (4 in.2)
C
A B
8 ft 8 ft 25 k 25 k

EA = constant 20 ft 20 ft
E = 29,000 ksi
A = 3 in.2 E = 29,000 ksi
FIG. P7.4, P7.48 FIG. P7.6
330 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

FIG. P7.7

FIG. P7.9
7.8 Use the virtual work method to determine the horizon-
tal deection at joint E of the truss shown in Fig. P7.8.

7.10 through 7.12 Determine the smallest cross-sectional

area A required for the members of the truss shown, so that
the horizontal deection at joint D does not exceed 10 mm.
Use the virtual work method.

FIG. P7.8, P7.50

7.9 Use the virtual work method to determine the horizon-

tal deection at joint H of the truss shown in Fig. P7.9. FIG. P7.10
 Problems 331

FIG. P7.13

FIG. P7.11

FIG. P7.14

FIG. P7.12

FIG. P7.15

7.13 through 7.15 Determine the smallest cross-sectional 7.16 Determine the horizontal deection at joint E of the
area A for the members of the truss shown, so that the ver- truss shown in Fig. P7.16 due to a temperature increase of
tical deection at joint B does not exceed 0.4 inches. Use 50 C in members AC and CE. Use the method of virtual
the method of virtual work. work.
332 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

E Section 7.4
7.20 and 7.21 Use the virtual work method to determine
the slope and deection at point B of the beam shown.
4m

2 k/ft
C D A B

30 ft
4m
EI = constant
E = 29,000 ksi
A B I = 3,000 in.4
FIG. P7.20, P7.51
3m

= 1.2 (105)/C 50 kN . m
FIG. P7.16, P7.18 A
B
4m
7.17 Determine the vertical deection at joint B of the EI = constant
truss shown in Fig. P7.17 due to a temperature increase E = 70 GPa
of 70 F in members AB and BC, and a temperature drop of I = 164 (106) mm4
35 F in members AD, DE, EF , and CF . Use the method of vir-
tual work. FIG. P7.21, P7.52

E 7.22 through 7.25 Use the virtual work method to de-

7 ft D F termine the deection at point C of the beam shown.
A C
P
B

A
12 ft 12 ft 12 ft 12 ft L B 2L C
3 3
= 6.5 (106)/F 2I I
E = constant
FIG. P7.17, P7.19
FIG. P7.22, P7.53
7.18 Determine the horizontal deection at joint E of the
truss shown in Fig. P7.16 if member BC is 18 mm too long 100 kN 300 kN . m
and member CE is 15mm too short. Use the method of
virtual work.
A
B C
7.19 Determine the vertical deection at joint B of the truss
shown in Fig. P7.17 if members AB and BE are 0.5 in. too 6m 3m
short. Use the method of virtual work. 2I I
E = constant = 70 GPa
I = 500 (106) mm4
FIG. P7.23, P7.54
 Problems 333

12 kN/m

C
A B
4m 4m

L=8m
EI = constant
E = 70 GPa
FIG. P7.28
FIG. P7.24, P7.55

7.29 and 7.30 Use the virtual work method to determine

the slope and deection at point D of the beam shown.

35 k

FIG. P7.25, P7.56 A C

B D

7.26 through 7.28 Determine the smallest moment of in-

15 ft 15 ft 15 ft
ertia I required for the beam shown, so that its maximum
deection does not exceed the limit of 1=360 of the span EI = constant
E = 10,000 ksi
length (i.e., D max a L=360). Use the method of virtual
I = 2,500 in.4
work.
FIG. P7.29, P7.57
60 kN
300 kN . m
A
B C
5m 5m
L = 10 m
EI = constant
E = 200 GPa
FIG. P7.26

3 k/ft FIG. P7.30, P7.58

A B

L = 20 ft
EI = constant Section 7.5
E = 29,000 ksi 7.31 and 7.32 Use the virtual work method to determine
FIG. P7.27 the vertical deection at joint C of the frame shown.
334 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

2 k/ft C
B
B C

25 kN/m
5m

20 ft

A
5m

15 ft EI = constant
E = 70 GPa
EI = constant I = 1,030 (106) mm4
E = 29,000 ksi
I = 2,000 in.4 FIG. P7.33, P7.60
FIG. P7.31, P7.59

7.34 Use the virtual work method to determine the rotation

of joint D of the frame shown.
C
/f t 7.35 Use the virtual work method to determine the hori-
0.4k
zontal deection at joint E of the frame shown in Fig.
15 ft
P7.34.

EI = constant
E = 10,000 ksi
I = 8,160 in.4
0.3 k/ft

30 ft

20 ft

FIG. P7.32

7.33 Use the virtual work method to determine the hori-

zontal deection at joint C of the frame shown. FIG. P7.34, P7.35
 Problems 335

7.36 Use the virtual work method to determine the rotation 7.39 and 7.40 Use the virtual work method to determine
of joint B of the frame shown. the horizontal deection at joint C of the frame shown.
7.37 Use the virtual work method to determine the vertical
deection at joint B of the frame shown in Fig. P7.36.

FIG. P7.39, P7.62

2 k/ft

FIG. P7.36, P7.37

B C
10 ft
7.38 Use the virtual work method to determine the rotation 15 ft
of joint D of the frame shown. A

4m 30 ft

B I C EI = constant
E = 29,000 ksi I = 1,500 in.4
FIG. P7.40, P7.63
I 3m

5m 2I 7.41 and 7.42 Determine the smallest moment of inertia I

D 200 kN required for the members of the frame shown, so that the
horizontal deection at joint C does not exceed 1 inch. Use
the virtual work method.

E = constant = 70 GPa
A I = 1,290 (106) mm4

FIG. P7.38 and P7.61

336 CHAPTER 7 Deflections of Trusses, Beams, and Frames: WorkEnergy Methods

FIG. P7.43, P7.44

Section 7.7
7.45 through 7.49 Use Castiglianos second theorem to de-
FIG. P7.41 termine the horizontal and vertical components of the de-
ection at joint B of the trusses shown in Figs. P7.1P7.5.
7.50 Use Castiglianos second theorem to determine the
horizontal deection at joint E of the truss shown in Fig.
P7.8.
7.51 and 7.52 Use Castiglianos second theorem to de-
termine the slope and deection at point B of the beam
shown in Figs. P7.20 and P7.21.
7.53 through 7.56 Use Castiglianos second theorem to
determine the deection at point C of the beams shown in
Figs. P7.22P7.25.
7.57 and 7.58 Use Castiglianos second theorem to de-
termine the slope and deection at point D of the beam
shown in Figs. P7.29 and P7.30.
7.59 Use Castiglianos second theorem to determine the
vertical deection at joint C of the frame shown in Fig.
P7.31.
7.60 Use Castiglianos second theorem to determine the
horizontal deection at joint C of the frame shown in Fig.
FIG. P7.42
P7.33.
7.61 Use Castiglianos second theorem to determine the ro-
7.43 Use the virtual work method to determine the rotation tation of joint D of the frame shown in Fig. P7.38.
of joint D of the frame shown.
7.62 and 7.63 Use Castiglianos second theorem to de-
7.44 Using the method of virtual work, determine the ver- termine the horizontal deection at joint C of the frames
tical deection at joint E of the frame shown in Fig. P7.43. shown in Figs. P7.39 and P7.40.
 8
Influence Lines
8.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium Method
8.2 Muller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Influence Lines
8.3 Influence Lines for Girders with Floor Systems
8.4 Influence Lines for Trusses
8.5 Influence Lines for Deflections
Summary
Problems

A Bridge Subjected to Variable

Loads Due to Trac
Oliver Strewe/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Images

In the previous chapters, we considered the analysis of structures sub-

jected to loads whose positions were xed on the structures. An example
of such stationary loading is the dead load due to the weight of the
structure itself and of other material and equipment permanently at-
tached to the structure. However, structures generally are also subjected
to loads (such as live loads and environmental loads) whose positions
may vary on the structure. In this chapter, we study the analysis of
statically determinate structures subjected to variable loads.
Consider, as an example, the bridge truss shown in Fig. 8.1. As a
car moves across the bridge, the forces in the members of the truss will
vary with the position x of the car. It should be realized that the forces
in dierent truss members will become maximum at dierent positions
of the car. For example, if the force in member AB becomes maximum
when the car is at a certain position x x1 , then the force in another
memberfor example, member CH may become maximum when the
car is at a dierent position x x2 . The design of each member of the
truss must be based on the maximum force that develops in that mem-
ber as the car moves across the bridge. Therefore, the analysis of the
truss would involve, for each member, determining the position of the
car at which the force in the member becomes maximum and then
computing the value of the maximum member force.

337
338 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.1

From the foregoing discussion, we can see that the analysis of struc-
tures for variable loads consists of two steps: (1) determining the posi-
tion(s) of the load(s) at which the response function of interest (e.g., a
reaction, shear or bending moment at a section of a beam, or force in
a truss member) becomes maximum, and (2) computing the maximum
value of the response function.
An important concept used in the analysis of structures subjected
to variable loads is that of the inuence lines, initially introduced by
E. Winkler in 1867. An inuence line is a graph of a response function of
a structure as a function of the position of a downward unit load moving
across the structure.
We begin this chapter by describing the procedure for construct-
ing inuence lines for the reactions, shears, and bending moments of
beams and frames by using the equations of equilibrium. We next dis-
cuss the Muller-Breslau principle and its application for determining in-
uence lines. We also consider the inuence lines for the force response
functions of girders with oor systems and of trusses and, nally, the
inuence lines for deections. The application of inuence lines in de-
termining the maximum values of response functions of structures due
to variable loads is considered in the next chapter.

8.1 INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS AND FRAMES BY EQUILIBRIUM METHOD

Consider the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 8.2(a). The beam is
subjected to a downward concentrated load of unit magnitude, which
moves from the left end A of the beam to the right end C. The position
of the unit load is dened by the coordinate x measured from the left
end A of the beam, as shown in the gure. Suppose that we wish to draw
the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A and C and the
shear and bending moment at point B, which is located at a distance a
from the left end of the beam, as shown in the gure.
SECTION 8.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium Method 339

Influence Lines for Reactions

To develop the inuence line for the vertical reaction Ay of the beam, we
determine the expression for Ay in terms of the variable position of the
unit load, x, by applying the equilibrium equation:
P
MC 0
Ay L 1L  x 0
1L  x x
Ay 1 (8.1)
L L
Equation (8.1) indicates that Ay is a linear function of x, with Ay 1 at
x 0 and Ay 0 at x L.
Equation (8.1) represents the equation of the inuence line for Ay ,
which is constructed by plotting this equation with Ay as ordinate

FIG. 8.2
340 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.2 (contd.)

against the position of the unit load, x, as abscissa, as shown in Fig.

8.2(b). Note that this inuence line (Fig. 8.2(b)) shows graphically how
the movement of a unit load across the length of the beam inuences
the magnitude of the reaction Ay . As this inuence line indicates, Ay 1
when the unit load is located at the left support A of the beam (i.e.,
when x 0). As the unit load moves from A to C, the magnitude of Ay
decreases linearly until it becomes zero when the unit load reaches the
right support C (i.e., when x L). It is important to realize that the or-
dinate of the inuence line at any position x is equal to the magnitude of
Ay due to a unit load acting at the position x on the beam. For example,
from the inuence line for Ay (Fig. 8.2(b)), we can determine that when
a unit load is applied at a distance of 0.25L from the end A of the beam,
the magnitude of the reaction Ay will be 0.75. Similarly, when the unit
load is acting at x 0:6L, the magnitude of Ay will be 0.4, and so on.
The inuence line for the vertical reaction Cy of the beam (Fig.
8.2(a)) can be developed by using the procedure just outlined. To de-
termine the expression for Cy in terms of x, we apply the equilibrium
equation:
P
MA 0
1x Cy L 0
1x x
Cy (8.2)
L L
Equation (8.2) represents the equation of the inuence line for Cy , which
is constructed by plotting this equation, as shown in Fig. 8.2(c). It can
SECTION 8.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium Method 341

be seen from Fig. 8.2(b) and (c) that the sum of the ordinates of the in-
uence lines for the reactions Ay and Cy at any position ofPthe unit
load, x, is equal to 1, indicating that the equilibrium equation Fy 0
is satised.

Influence Line for Shear at B

The inuence lines for shears and bending moments can be developed
by employing a procedure similar to that used for constructing the in-
uence lines for reactions. To develop the inuence line for the shear
at point B of the beam (Fig. 8.2(d)), we determine the expressions for
SB . It can be seen from Fig. 8.2(d) that when the unit load is located to
the left of point Bthat is, on segment AB of the beam (0 a x < a)
the shear at B can be conveniently obtained by using the free body of
the portion BC of the beam that is to the right of B. Considering the
downward external forces and reactions acting on the portion BC as
positive in accordance with the beam sign convention (Section 5.1), we
determine the shear at B as
SB Cy 0ax < a

When the unit load is located to the right of point Bthat is, on seg-
ment BC of the beam (a < x a L)it is simpler to determine SB by
using the free body of the portion AB, which is to the left of B. Consid-
ering the upward external forces and reactions acting on the portion AB
as positive, we determine the shear at B as

SB Ay a < xaL
Thus the equations of the inuence line for SB can be written as

Cy 0ax < a
SB (8.3)
Ay a < xaL

Note that Eq. (8.3) expresses the inuence line for SB in terms of the
inuence lines for the reactions Ay and Cy . This equation indicates
that the segment of the inuence line for SB between points A and B
(0 a x < a) can be obtained by multiplying the ordinates of the segment
of the inuence line for Cy between A and B by 1. Also, according to
this equation, the segment of the inuence line for SB between points B
and C (a < x a L) is the same as the segment of the inuence line for Ay
between the same two points. The inuence line for SB thus constructed
from the inuence lines for Ay and Cy is shown in Fig. 8.2(e). It is usu-
ally more convenient to construct the inuence lines for shears and
bending moments (to be discussed subsequently) from the inuence lines
for reactions instead of from the equations expressing the shear or bend-
ing moment explicitly in terms of the position of the unit load, x. If de-
sired, such equations for the inuence line for SB in terms of x can be
342 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

obtained by simply substituting Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2) into Eq. (8.3); that
is,
8 x
>
<Cy  0ax < a
L
SB (8.4)
: Ay 1  x
>
a < xaL
L
The inuence line for SB (Fig. 8.2(e)) shows that the shear at B is
zero when the unit load is located at the left support A of the beam. As
the unit load moves from A to B, the shear at B decreases linearly until
it becomes a=L when the unit load reaches just to the left of point B.
As the unit load crosses point B, the shear at B increases abruptly to
1  a=L. It then decreases linearly as the unit load moves toward C
until it becomes zero when the unit load reaches the right support C.

Influence Line for Bending Moment at B

When the unit load is located to the left of point B (Fig. 8.2(d)), the ex-
pression for the bending moment at B can be conveniently obtained by
using the free body of the portion BC of the beam to the right of B.
Considering the counterclockwise moments of the external forces and
reactions acting on the portion BC as positive in accordance with the
beam sign convention (Section 5.1), we determine the bending moment
at B as
MB Cy L  a 0axaa
When the unit load is located to the right of point B, we use the free
body of the portion AB to the left of B to determine MB . Considering
the clockwise moments of the external forces and reactions acting on the
portion AB as positive, we determine the bending moment at B as
MB Ay a aaxaL
Thus the equations of the inuence line for MB can be written as

Cy L  a 0axaa
MB (8.5)
Ay a aaxaL
Equation (8.5) indicates that the segment of the inuence line for MB
between points A and B (0 a x a a) can be obtained by multiplying the
ordinates of the segment of the inuence line for Cy between A and B
by L  a. Also, according to this equation the segment of the inuence
line for MB between points B and C (a a x a L) can be obtained by
multiplying the ordinates of the segment of the inuence line for Ay be-
tween B and C by a. The inuence line for MB thus constructed from
the inuence lines for Ay and Cy is shown in Fig. 8.2(f ). The equations
of this inuence line in terms of the position of the unit load, x, can be
obtained by substituting Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2) into Eq. (8.5); that is,
SECTION 8.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium Method 343

8 x
>
<Cy L  a L L  a
> 0axaa
MB   (8.6)
>
> x
: Ay a 1  a aaxaL
L
Although the inuence line for MB (Fig. 8.2(f )) resembles, in shape,
the bending moment diagram of the beam for a concentrated load ap-
plied at point B, the inuence line for bending moment has an entirely
dierent meaning than the bending moment diagram, and it is essential
that we clearly understand the dierence between the two. A bending
moment diagram shows how the bending moment varies at all sections
along the length of a member for a loading condition whose position is
xed on the member, whereas an inuence line for bending moment
shows how the bending moment varies at one particular section as a unit
load moves across the length of the member.
Note from Fig. 8.2 that the inuence lines for the reactions, shear,
and bending moment of the simply supported beam consist of straight-
line segments. We show in the following section that this is true for the
inuence lines for all response functions involving forces and moments
(e.g., reactions, shears, bending moments, and forces in truss members)
for all statically determinate structures. However, inuence lines for the
deections of statically determinate structures (discussed in Section 8.5)
are composed of curved lines.

Procedure for Analysis

The procedure for constructing inuence lines for the reactions, shears,
and bending moments of beams and frames by using the equilibrium
method can be summarized as follows:
1. Select an origin from which the position of a moving downward
concentrated unit load will be measured. It is usually convenient to
assume that the unit load moves from the left end of the structure to
the right end, with its position dened by a coordinate x measured
from the left end of the structure.
2. To construct an inuence line for a support reaction:
a. Place the unit load at a distance x from the left end of the
structure, and determine the expression for the reaction in terms
of x by applying an equation of equilibrium or condition. If the
structure is composed of two or more rigid parts connected to-
gether by internal hinges and/or rollers, the expression for the
reaction may change as the unit load moves from one rigid part
to the next by crossing an internal hinge or roller. Therefore,
for such structures, when applying the equations of condition
the unit load must be placed successively on each rigid part of
the structure in the path of the unit load, and an expression for
the reaction must be determined for each position of the load.
344 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

b. Once the expression(s) for the reaction for all the positions of
the unit load has been determined, construct the inuence line
by plotting the expression(s) with the magnitude of the reaction
as ordinate against the position x of the unit load as abscissa.
A positive ordinate of the inuence line indicates that the
unit load applied at that point causes the reaction to act in the
positive direction (i.e., the direction of the reaction initially
used in deriving the equation of the inuence line) and vice
versa.
c. Repeat step 2 until all the desired inuence lines for reactions
have been determined.
3. It is generally convenient to construct the inuence lines for shears
and bending moments by using the inuence lines for support reac-
tions. Thus, before proceeding with the construction of an inuence
line for shear or bending moment at a point on the structure, make
sure that the inuence lines for all the reactions, on either the left or
right side of the point under consideration, are available. Otherwise,
draw the required inuence lines for reactions by using the proce-
dure described in the previous step. An inuence line for the shear
(or bending moment) at a point on the structure can be constructed
as follows:
a. Place the unit load on the structure at a variable position x to
the left of the point under consideration, and determine the ex-
pression for the shear (or bending moment). If the inuence
lines for all the reactions are known, then it is usually con-
venient to use the portion of the structure to the right of the
point for determining the expression for shear (or bending mo-
ment), which will contain terms involving only reactions. The
shear (or bending moment) is considered to be positive or neg-
ative in accordance with the beam sign convention established in
Section 5.1 (see Fig. 5.2).
b. Next, place the unit load to the right of the point under
consideration, and determine the expression for the shear (or
bending moment). If the inuence lines for all the reactions are
known, then it is usually convenient to use the portion of the
structure to the left of the point for determining the desired ex-
pression, which will contain terms involving only reactions.
c. If the expressions for the shear (or bending moment) contain
terms involving only reactions, then it is generally simpler to
construct the inuence line for shear (or bending moment) by
combining the segments of the reaction inuence lines in ac-
cordance with these expressions. Otherwise, substitute the
expressions for the reactions into the expressions for the shear
(or bending moment), and plot the resulting expressions, which
will now be in terms only of x, to obtain the inuence line.
d. Repeat step 3 until all the desired inuence lines for shears and
bending moments have been determined.
 SECTION 8.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium Method 345

Example 8.1

Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A and C, and the shear and bending moment at point B,
of the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 8.3(a).

Solution
The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 8.3(b). This diagram shows the beam subjected to a moving 1-k
load, whose position is dened by the coordinate x measured from the left end A of the beam. The two vertical re-
actions, Ay and Cy , are assumed to be positive in the upward direction, as indicated on the free-body diagram.

FIG. 8.3
Inuence Line for Ay To determine the expression for Ay , we apply the equilibrium equation:
P
MC 0
Ay 20 120  x 0
120  x x
Ay 1
20 20
The inuence line for Ay , which is obtained by plotting this equation, is shown in Fig. 8.3(c). Note that the ordinates of
the inuence line are expressed in the units obtained by dividing the units of the response function, Ay , by the units of
the unit loadthat is, k=k. Ans.
Inuence Line for Cy P
MA 0
1x Cy 20 0
1x x
Cy
20 20

The inuence line for Cy , which is obtained by plotting this equation, is shown in Fig. 8.3(d). Ans.
continued
346 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

Inuence Line for SB First, we place the unit load at a variable position x to the left of point Bthat is, on the segment
AB of the beamand determine the shear at B by using the free body of the portion BC of the beam, which is to the right of B:
SB Cy 0 a x < 12 ft

Next, the unit load is located to the right of Bthat is, on the segment BC of the beamand we use the free body of
the portion AB, which is to the left of B, to determine SB :
SB A y 12 ft < x a 20 ft

Thus, the equations of the inuence line for SB are

8 x
>
<Cy  0 a x < 12 ft
20
SB
>
: x
Ay 1  12 ft < x a 20 ft
20
The inuence line for SB is shown in Fig. 8.3(e). Ans.
Inuence Line for MB First, we place the unit load at a position x to the left of B and determine the bending mo-
ment at B by using the free body of the portion of the beam to the right of B:
MB 8Cy 0 a x a 12 ft
Next, the unit load is located to the right of B, and we use the free body of the portion of the beam to the left of B to
determine MB :
MB 12Ay 12 ft a x a 20 ft
Thus the equations of the inuence line for MB are
8
> 2x
>
< 8Cy 5 0 a x a 12 ft
MB
>
:12Ay 12  3x
>
12 ft a x a 20 ft
5
The inuence line for MB is shown in Fig. 8.3(f ). Ans.

Example 8.2

Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reaction and the reaction moment at support A and the shear and bending
moment at point B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 8.4(a).

Solution
Inuence Line for Ay P
" Fy 0
Ay  1 0
Ay 1
The inuence line for Ay is shown in Fig. 8.4(c). Ans.
continued
 SECTION 8.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium Method 347

FIG. 8.4

Inuence Line for MA

P
MA 0
MA  1x 0
MA 1x x
The inuence line for MA , which is obtained by plotting this equation, is shown in Fig. 8.4(d). As all the ordinates of the
inuence line are negative, it indicates that the sense of MA for all the positions of the unit load on the beam is actually
counterclockwise, instead of clockwise as initially assumed (see Fig. 8.4(b)) in deriving the equation of the inuence line.
Ans.
Inuence Line for SB

0 0ax < 3 m
SB
Ay 1 3 m < xa8 m
The inuence line for SB is shown in Fig. 8.4(e). Ans.
Inuence Line for MB

0 0axa3 m
MB
MA 3Ay x 31 x 3 3 maxa8 m
The inuence line for MB is shown in Fig. 8.4(f ). Ans.
348 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

Example 8.3

Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A; C, and E, the shear just to the right of support C, and
the bending moment at point B of the beam shown in Fig. 8.5(a).

Solution
The beam is composed of two rigid parts, AD and DE, connected by an internal hinge at D. To avoid solving simulta-
neous equations in determining the expressions for the reactions, we will apply the equations of equilibrium and con-
dition in such an order that each equation involves only one unknown.
P
Inuence Line for Ey We will apply the equation of condition, MDDE 0, to determine the expression for Ey . First,
we place the unit load at a variable position x to the left of the hinge Dthat is, on the rigid part AD of the beamto obtain
P
MDDE 0
Ey 20 0
Ey 0 0 a x a 40 ft

FIG. 8.5 continued

 SECTION 8.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium Method 349

Next, the unit load is located to the right of hinge Dthat is, on the rigid part DE of the beamto obtain
P
MDDE 0
1x  40 Ey 20 0
1x  40 x
Ey 2 40 ft a x a 60 ft
20 20

Thus, the equations of the inuence line for Ey are

8
<0 0 a x a 40 ft
Ey x
: 2 40 ft a x a 60 ft
20

The inuence line for Ey is shown in Fig. 8.5(c). Ans.

Inuence Line for Cy Applying the equilibrium equation:
P
MA 0
1x Cy 20 Ey 60 0
x
Cy  3Ey
20

By substituting the expressions for Ey , we obtain

8
> x x
>
> 0 0 a x a 40 ft
< 20 20
Cy  
>
> x x x
>
: 20  3 20  2 6  10 40 ft a x a 60 ft

The inuence line for Cy , which is obtained by plotting these equations, is shown in Fig. 8.5(d). Ans.
Inuence Line for Ay
P
" Fy 0
Ay  1 Cy Ey 0
Ay 1  Cy  Ey
By substituting the expressions for Cy and Ey , we obtain the following equations of the inuence line for Ay :
8
> x x
>
> 1 01 0 a x a 40 ft
< 20 20
Ay    
>
> x x x
>
:1  6  10  20  2 20  3 40 ft a x a 60 ft

The inuence line for Ay is shown in Fig. 8.5(e). Ans.

Inuence Line for Shear at Just to the Right of C; SC; R

Ey 0 a x < 20 ft
SC; R
1  Ey 20 ft < x a 60 ft
continued
350 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

By substituting the expressions for Ey , we obtain

8
>
> 0 0 a x < 20 ft
>
>
<
101 20 ft < x a 40 ft
SC; R  
>
> x x
>
>
:1  2 3 40 ft a x a 60 ft
20 20
The inuence line for SC; R is shown in Fig. 8.5(f ). Ans.
Inuence Line for MB

10Ay  110  x 0 a x a 10 ft
MB
10Ay 10 ft a x a 60 ft
By substituting the expressions for Ay , we obtain
8  
>
> x x
>
> 10 1   110  x 0 a x a 10 ft
>
> 20 2
>
>
>
<  
x x
MB 10 1  10  10 ft a x a 40 ft
>
> 20 2
>
>
>
>  
>
> x x
>
: 10  3  30 40 ft a x a 60 ft
20 2
The inuence line for MB is shown in Fig. 8.5(g). Ans.

Example 8.4

Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reaction and the reaction moment at support A of the frame shown in Fig. 8.6(a).
1k
x
B C D C D
B

12 ft

A
A MA

6 ft 12 ft Ay
(a) (b)
FIG. 8.6 continued
 SECTION 8.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Frames by Equilibrium Method 351

1.0 1.0 1.0

B C D
(c) Influence Line for Ay (k/k)

12.0

B
C D

6.0
FIG. 8.6 (contd.) (d) Influence Line for MA (k-ft/k)

Solution
Inuence Line for Ay
P
" Fy 0
Ay  1 0
Ay 1
The inuence line for Ay is shown in Fig. 8.6(c). Ans.
Inuence Line for MA
P
MA 0
MA  1x  6 0
MA x  6
The inuence line for MA is shown in Fig. 8.6(d). Ans.

Example 8.5

Draw the inuence lines for the horizontal and vertical reactions at supports A and B and the shear at hinge E of the
three-hinged bridge frame shown in Fig. 8.7(a).

Solution
Inuence Line for Ay P
MB 0
Ay 10 115  x 0
115  x x
Ay 1:5 
10 10
The inuence line for Ay is shown in Fig. 8.7(c). Ans.
continued
352 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.7
Inuence Line for By
P
" Fy 0
Ay  1 By 0  
x x
By 1  Ay 1  1:5   0:5
10 10
The inuence line for By is shown in Fig. 8.7(d). Ans.
P
Inuence Line for Ax We will use the equation of condition MECE 0 to determine the expressions for Ax . First,
we place the unit load to the left of hinge Ethat is, on the rigid part CE of the frameto obtain
P
MECE 0
Ax 3  Ay 5 110  x 0
 
5 1 5 x 1
Ax Ay  10  x 1:5   10  x
3 3 3 10 3
x5
0 a x a 10 m
6
continued
 SECTION 8.2 Muller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Influence Lines 353

Next, the unit load is located to the right of hinge Ethat is, on the rigid part EG of the frameto obtain
P
MECE 0
Ax 3  Ay 5 0
 
5 5 x 15  x
Ax A y 1:5  10 m a x a 20 m
3 3 10 6
Thus, the equations of the inuence line for Ax are
8
>
> x5
>
< 0 a x a 10 m
Ax 6
>
> 15 x
>
: 10 m a x a 20 m
6
The inuence line for Ax is shown in Fig. 8.7(e). Ans.
Inuence Line for Bx
P
! Fx 0
Ax  Bx 0
B x Ax
which indicates that the inuence line for Bx is the same as that for Ax (Fig. 8.7(e)). Ans.
Inuence Line for SE
8 x
>
<By  10 0:5 0 a x < 10 m
SE
: Ay 1:5  x
>
10 m < x a 20 m
10
The inuence line for SE is shown in Fig. 8.7(f ). Ans.

8.2 MULLER-BRESLAUS PRINCIPLE AND QUALITATIVE INFLUENCE LINES

The construction of inuence lines for the response functions involving
forces and moments can be considerably expedited by applying a pro-
cedure developed by Heinrich Muller-Breslau in 1886. The procedure,
which is commonly known as Muller-Breslaus principle, can be stated
as follows:
The inuence line for a force (or moment) response function is given by the
deected shape of the released structure obtained by removing the restraint
corresponding to the response function from the original structure and by
giving the released structure a unit displacement (or rotation) at the loca-
tion and in the direction of the response function, so that only the response
function and the unit load perform external work.
354 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

This principle is valid only for the inuence lines for response
functions involving forces and moments (e.g., reactions, shears, bending
moments, or forces in truss members), and it does not apply to the in-
uence lines for deections.
To prove the validity of Muller-Breslaus principle, consider the
simply supported beam subjected to a moving unit load, as shown in
Fig. 8.8(a). The inuence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A
and C and the shear and bending moment at point B of this beam were
developed in the previous section by applying the equations of equili-

FIG. 8.8
SECTION 8.2 Muller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Influence Lines 355

brium (see Fig. 8.2). Suppose that we now wish to draw the inuence
lines for the same four response functions by using Muller-Breslaus
principle.
To construct the inuence line for the vertical reaction Ay , we re-
move the restraint corresponding to Ay by replacing the hinged support
at A by a roller support, which can exert only a horizontal reaction, as
shown in Fig. 8.8(b). Note that point A of the beam is now free to dis-
place in the direction of Ay . Although the restraint corresponding to
Ay has been removed, the reaction Ay still acts on the beam, which re-
mains in equilibrium in the horizontal position (shown by solid lines in
the gure) under the action of the unit load and the reactions Ay and Cy .
Next, point A of the released beam is given a virtual unit displacement,
D 1, in the positive direction of Ay , causing it to displace, as shown by
the dashed lines in Fig. 8.8(b). Note that the pattern of virtual displace-
ment applied is consistent with the support conditions of the released
beam; that is, points A and C cannot move in the horizontal and verti-
cal directions, respectively. Also, since the original beam is statically
determinate, removal of one restraint from it reduces it to a statically
unstable beam. Thus, the released beam remains straight (i.e., it does
not bend) during the virtual displacement. Since the beam is in equili-
brium, according to the principle of virtual displacements for rigid bod-
ies (Section 7.2), the virtual work done by the real external forces acting
through the virtual external displacements must be zero; that is,
Wve Ay 1  1 y 0
from which
Ay y (8.7)
where y represents the displacement of the point of application of the
unit load, as shown in Fig. 8.8(b). Equation (8.7) indicates that the dis-
placement y of the beam at any position x is equal to the magnitude of
Ay due to a unit load acting at the position x on the beam. Thus, the
displacement y at any position x is equal to the ordinate of the inuence
line for Ay at that position, as stated by Muller-Breslaus principle.
Equation (8.7) can be expressed in terms of x by considering the geom-
etry of the deected shape of the beam. From Fig. 8.8(b), we observe
that the triangles A 0 AC and D 0 DC are similar. Therefore,
y 1 x
or y1
L  x L L
By substituting this expression into Eq. (8.7), we obtain the equation of
the inuence line for Ay in terms of x as
x
Ay 1 
L
which is the same as Eq. (8.1), which was derived by equilibrium con-
sideration.
356 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

The inuence line for the vertical reaction Cy is determined in a

similar manner, as shown in Fig. 8.8(c). Note that this inuence line is
identical to that constructed previously by equilibrium consideration
(Fig. 8.2(c)).
To construct the inuence line for the shear SB at point B of the
beam, we remove the restraint corresponding to SB by cutting the beam
at B, as shown in Fig. 8.8(d). Note that points B of the portions AB
and BC of the released beam are now free to displace vertically relative
to each other. To keep the released beam in equilibrium, we apply at B
the shear forces, SB , and the bending moments, MB , as shown in the
gure. Note that SB and MB are assumed to act in their positive direc-
tions in accordance with the beam sign convention. Next, at B the re-
leased beam is given a virtual unit relative displacement, D 1, in the
positive direction of SB (Fig. 8.8(d)) by moving the end B of portion AB
downward by D1 and the end B of portion BC upward by D2 , so that
D1 D2 D 1. The values of D1 and D2 depend on the requirement
that the rotations, y, of the two portions AB and BC be the same (i.e.,
the segments AB 0 and B 00 C in the displaced position must be parallel to
each other), so that the net work done by the two moments MB is zero,
and only the shear forces SB and the unit load perform work. Applying
the principle of virtual displacements, we write
Wve SB D1 SB D2  MB y MB y  1 y
SB D1 D2  1y
SB D  1 y
SB 1  1 y 0
from which
SB y
which indicates that the deected shape of the beam (Fig. 8.8(d)) is the
inuence line for SB , as stated by Muller-Breslaus principle. The values
of the ordinates D1 and D2 can be established from the geometry of the
deected shape of the beam. From Fig. 8.8(d), we observe that the tri-
angles ABB 0 and BCB 00 are similar. Therefore,
 
D1 D2 La
; or D2 D1 (8.8)
a La a
Also,
D1 D2 1; or D2 1  D1 (8.9)
By equating Eqs. (8.8) and (8.9) and solving for D1 , we obtain
a
D1
L
By substituting the expression for D1 into Eq. (8.9), we obtain
SECTION 8.2 Muller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Influence Lines 357

a
D2 1 
L
These ordinates are the same as determined previously by the equili-
brium method (Fig. 8.2(e)).
To construct the inuence line for the bending moment MB , we re-
move the restraint corresponding to MB by inserting a hinge at B, as
shown in Fig. 8.8(e). The portions AB and BC of the released beam are
now free to rotate relative to each other. To keep the released beam in
equilibrium, we apply the moments MB at B, as shown in the gure. The
bending moment is assumed to be positive in accordance with the beam
sign convention. Next, a virtual unit rotation, y 1, is introduced at B
(Fig. 8.8(e)) by rotating portion AB by y1 counterclockwise and portion
BC by y2 clockwise, so that y1 y2 y 1. Applying the principle of
virtual displacements, we write
Wve MB y1 MB y2  1y
MB y1 y2  1y
MB y  1y
MB 1  1y 0
from which
MB y
which indicates that the deected shape of the beam (Fig. 8.8(e)) is the
inuence line for MB , as stated by Muller-Breslaus principle. The value
of the ordinate D can be established from the geometry of the deected
shape of the beam. From Fig. 8.8(e), we can see that
D ay1 L  ay2 (8.10)
or
 
La
y1 y2 (8.11)
a
Also,
y1 y2 1; or y1 1  y2 (8.12)
By equating Eqs. (8.11) and (8.12) and solving for y2 , we obtain
a
y2
L
By substituting the expression for y2 into Eq. (8.10), we obtain
 
a a
D L  a a 1 
L L
which is the same as obtained previously by the equilibrium method
(Fig. 8.2(f )).
358 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

In the preceding section, we stated that the inuence lines for the
force and moment response functions of all statically determinate struc-
tures consist of straight-line segments. We can explain this by means of
Muller-Breslaus principle. In implementing this principle in construct-
ing an inuence line, the restraint corresponding to the force or moment
response function of interest needs to be removed from the structure.
In the case of a statically determinate structure, removal of any such
restraint from the structure reduces it to a statically unstable structure,
or a mechanism. When this statically unstable released structure is sub-
jected to the unit displacement (or rotation), no stresses are induced in
the members of the structure, which remain straight and translate and/
or rotate as rigid bodies, thereby forming a deected shape (and thus
an inuence line) that consists of straight-line segments. Because the re-
moval of a force or moment restraint from a statically indeterminate
structure for the purpose of constructing an inuence line does not ren-
der it statically unstable, the inuence lines for such structures consist of
curved lines.

Qualitative Influence Lines

In many practical applications, it is necessary to determine only the
general shape of the inuence lines but not the numerical values of the
ordinates. A diagram showing the general shape of an inuence line with-
out the numerical values of its ordinates is called a qualitative inuence
line. In contrast, an inuence line with the numerical values of its ordi-
nates known is referred to as a quantitative inuence line.
Although Muller-Breslaus principle can be used to determine the
quantitative inuence lines as discussed previously, it is more commonly
used to construct qualitative inuence lines. The numerical values of
the inuence-line ordinates, if desired, are then computed by using the
equilibrium method.

Procedure for Analysis

A procedure for determining the force and moment inuence lines for
beams and frames by using the equilibrium method was presented in
Section 8.1. The following alternative procedure, which is based on a
combination of Muller-Breslaus principle and the equilibrium method,
may considerably expedite the construction of such inuence lines.
1. Draw the general shape of the inuence line by applying Muller-
Breslaus principle:
a. From the given structure remove the restraint corresponding to
the response function whose inuence line is desired to obtain
the released structure.
b. Apply a small displacement (or rotation) to the released struc-
ture at the location and in the positive direction of the response
 SECTION 8.2 Muller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Influence Lines 359

function. Draw a deected shape of the released structure that

is consistent with the support and continuity conditions of the
released structure to obtain the general shape of the inuence
line. (Remember that the inuence lines for statically determi-
nate structures consist only of straight-line segments.) If only a
qualitative inuence line is desired, then end the analysis at this
stage. Otherwise, proceed to the next step.
2. Determine the numerical values of the inuence-line ordinates by
using the equilibrium method and the geometry of the inuence line.
a. Place a unit load on the given (i.e., not released) structure at the
location of the response function, and determine the numerical
value of the inuence-line ordinate at that location by apply-
ing the equation(s) of equilibrium and/or condition. If the re-
sponse function of interest is a shear, then the unit load must
be placed successively at two locations, just to the left and just
to the right of the point where the shear is desired, and values of
the inuence-line ordinates at these locations must be computed.
If the inuence-line ordinate at the location of the response
function is zero, then place the unit load at the location of the
maximum or minimum ordinate, and determine the numerical
value of that ordinate by equilibrium consideration.
b. By using the geometry of the inuence line, determine the nu-
merical values of all the remaining ordinates where the changes
in slope occur in the inuence line.
An advantage of the foregoing procedure is that it enables us to
construct the inuence line for any force or moment response function
of interest directly, without having to determine beforehand the inu-
ence lines for other functions, which may or may not be needed. For
example, the construction of inuence lines for shears and bending mo-
ments by this procedure does not require the use of inuence lines for
reactions. The procedure is illustrated by the following examples. The
reader is also encouraged to check the inuence lines developed in Ex-
amples 8.1 through 8.3 by applying this procedure.

Example 8.6

Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at supports B and D and the shear and bending moment at point C of
the beam shown in Fig. 8.9(a).

Solution
Inuence Line for By To determine the general shape of the inuence line for By , we remove the roller support at B
from the given beam (Fig. 8.9(a)) to obtain the released beam shown in Fig. 8.9(b). Next, point B of the released beam is

continued
360 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

given a small displacement, D, in the positive direction of By , and a deected shape of the beam is drawn, as shown by
the dashed line in the gure. Note that the deected shape is consistent with the support conditions of the released
structure; that is, the right end of the released beam, which is attached to the hinged support D, does not displace. The
shape of the inuence line is the same as the deected shape of the released structure, as shown in Fig. 8.9(b).
To obtain the numerical value of the inuence-line ordinate at B, we place a 1-kN load at point B on the original
beam (Fig. 8.9(b)) and apply an equilibrium equation to obtain By ,
P
MD 0 19  By 9 0 By 1 kN

FIG. 8.9
continued
 SECTION 8.2 Muller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Influence Lines 361

FIG. 8.9 (contd.)

Thus the value of the inuence-line ordinate at B is 1 kN/kN. The value of the ordinate at A can now be
determined from the geometry of the inuence line (Fig. 8.9(b)). Observing that the triangles AA 0 D and BB 0 D are sim-
ilar, we write
 
1 4
AA 0 12 kN=kN
9 3
The inuence line for By thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.9(b). Ans.
Inuence Line for Dy The inuence line for Dy is constructed in a similar manner and is shown in Fig. 8.9(c). Ans.
Inuence Line for SC To determine the general shape of the inuence line for the shear at point C, we cut the given
beam at C to obtain the released structure shown in Fig. 8.9(d). Next, the released structure is given a small relative
displacement in the positive direction of SC by moving end C of the portion AC downward by D1 and end C of the
portion CD upward by D2 to obtain the deected shape shown in Fig. 8.9(d). The shape of the inuence line is the same
as the deected shape of the released structure, as shown in the gure. continued
362 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

To obtain the numerical values of the inuence-line ordinates at C, we place the 1-kN load rst just to the left of C
and then just to the right of C, as shown by the solid and dashed arrows, respectively, in Fig. 8.9(d). The reactions By
and Dy are then determined by applying the equilibrium equations:
P 2
MD 0 By 9 16 0 By kN "
3
 
P 2 1
" Fy 0  1 Dy 0 Dy kN "
3 3
Note that the magnitudes of By and Dy could, alternatively, have been obtained from the inuence lines for these re-
actions constructed previously. It can be seen from Fig. 8.9(b) and (c) that the ordinates at C (or just to the left or right
of C) of the inuence lines for By and Dy are indeed 2=3 and 1=3, respectively. When the unit load is at just to the left of
C (see Fig. 8.9(d)), the shear at C is
1
SC Dy  kN
3
When the unit load is at just to the right of C, the shear at C is
2
SC By kN
3
Thus, the values of the inuence-line ordinates at C are 1=3 kN/kN ( just to the left of C), and 2=3 kN/kN ( just to the
right of C), as shown in the gure. The ordinate of the inuence line at A can now be obtained from the geometry of the
inuence line (Fig. 8.9(d)). Observing that the triangles AA 0 B and BCC 0 are similar, we obtain the ordinate at A,
AA 0 1=3 kN/kN. The inuence line for SC thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.9(d). Ans.
Inuence Line for MC To obtain the general shape of the inuence line for the bending moment at C, we insert a
hinge at C in the given beam to obtain the released structure shown in Fig. 8.9(e). Next, a small rotation y, in the pos-
itive direction of MC , is introduced at C in the released structure by rotating the portion AC counterclockwise and the
portion CD clockwise to obtain the deected shape shown in Fig. 8.9(e). The shape of the inuence line is the same as
the deected shape of the released structure, as shown in the gure.
To obtain the numerical value of the inuence-line ordinateP at C, we placeP a 1-kN load at C on the original beam
(Fig. 8.9(e)). By applying, in order, the equilibrium equations MD 0 and Fy 0, we compute the reactions By
2=3 kN and Dy 1=3 kN, after which the bending moment at C is determined as
 
2
MC 3 2 kN  m
3

Thus, the value of the inuence-line ordinate at C is 2 kN  m/kN. Finally, to complete the inuence line, we determine
the ordinate at A by considering the geometry of the inuence line. From Fig. 8.9(e), we observe that because the triangles
AA 0 B and BCC 0 are similar, the ordinate at A is AA 0 2 kN  m/kN. The inuence line for MC thus obtained is shown
in Fig. 8.9(e). Ans.

Example 8.7

Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A and E, the reaction moment at support A, the shear at
point B, and the bending moment at point D of the beam shown in Fig. 8.10(a).
continued
 SECTION 8.2 Muller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Influence Lines 363

Solution
Inuence Line for Ay To determine the general shape of the inuence line for Ay , we remove the restraint corre-
sponding to Ay by replacing the xed support at A by a roller guide that prevents the horizontal displacement and ro-
tation at A but not the vertical displacement. Next, point A of the released structure is given a small displacement D,

FIG. 8.10
continued
364 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.10 (contd.)

and a deected shape of the beam is drawn as shown in Fig. 8.10(b). Note that the deected shape is consistent with the
support and continuity conditions of the released structure. The end A of the beam, which is attached to the roller guide,
cannot rotate, so the portion AC must remain horizontal in the displaced conguration. Also, point E is attached to the
roller support; therefore, it cannot displace in the vertical direction. Thus, the portion CF rotates about E, as shown in
the gure. The two rigid portions, AC and CF , of the beam remain straight in the displaced conguration and rotate
relative to each other at the internal hinge at C, which permits such a rotation. The shape of the inuence line is the
same as the deected shape of the released structure, as shown in Fig. 8.10(b).
By recognizing that Ay 1 k when a 1-k load is placed at A, we obtain the value of 1 k/k for the inuence-line
ordinate at A. The ordinates at points C and F are then determined from the geometry of the inuence line. The inu-
ence line for Ay thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.10(b). Ans.
Inuence Line for Ey The roller support at E is removed from the given structure, and a small displacement, D, is
applied at E to obtain the deected shape shown in Fig. 8.10(c). Because of the xed support at A, the portion AC of

continued
 SECTION 8.2 Muller-Breslaus Principle and Qualitative Influence Lines 365

the released beam can neither translate nor rotate as a rigid body. The shape of the inuence line is the same as the de-
ected shape of the released structure, as shown in the gure.
By realizing that Ey 1 k when the 1-k load is placed at E, we obtain the value of 1 k/k for the inuence-line or-
dinate at E. The ordinate at F is then determined from the geometry of the inuence line. The inuence line thus ob-
tained is shown in Fig. 8.10(c). Ans.
Inuence Line for MA To remove the restraint corresponding to the reaction moment MA , we replace the xed
support at A by a hinged support, as shown in Fig. 8.10(d). Next, a small rotation y in the positive (counterclockwise)
direction of MA is introduced at A in the released structure to obtain the deected shape shown in the gure. The shape
of the inuence line is the same as the deected shape of the released structure.
Because the ordinate of the inuence line at A is zero, we determine the ordinate at C by placing the 1-k load at C
P CF original beam (Fig. 8.10(d)). After computing the reaction Ey 0 by applying the equation of condition
on the
MC 0, we determine the moment at A from the equilibrium equation:
P
MA 0 MA  110 0 MA 10 k-ft

Thus, the value of the inuence-line ordinate at C is 10 k-ft/k. The ordinate at F is then determined by considering the
geometry of the inuence line. The inuence line thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.10(d). Ans.
Inuence Line for SB To remove the restraint corresponding to the shear at B, we cut the given beam at B to obtain
the released structure shown in Fig. 8.10(e). Next, the released structure is given a small relative displacement, D, to
obtain the deected shape shown in the gure. Support A is xed, so portion AB can neither translate nor rotate as a
rigid body. Also, the rigid portions AB and BC must remain parallel to each other in the displaced conguration. The
shape of the inuence line is the same as the deected shape of the released structure, as shown in the gure.
The numerical values of the inuence-line ordinates at B are determined by placing the 1-k load successively just to
the left and just to the right of B (Fig. 8.10(e)) and by computing the shears at B for the two positions of the unit load.
The ordinates at C and F are then determined from the geometry of the inuence line. The inuence line thus obtained
is shown in Fig. 8.10(e). Ans.
Inuence Line for MD An internal hinge is inserted in the given beam at point D, and a small rotation y is applied
at D to obtain the deected shape shown in Fig. 8.10(f ). The shape of the inuence line is the same as the deected
shape of the released structure, as shown in the gure.
The value of the inuence-line ordinate at D is determined by placing the 1-k load at D and by computing the
bending moment at D for this position of the unit load (Fig. 8.10(f )). The ordinate at F is then determined from the
geometry of the inuence line. The inuence line thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.10(f ). Ans.

Example 8.8

Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A and C of the beam shown in Fig. 8.11(a).

Solution
Inuence Line for Ay To obtain the general shape of the inuence line for Ay , the roller support at A is removed
from the given beam, and a small displacement, D, is given at point A of the released beam as shown in Fig. 8.11(b).
continued
366 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

Hinge Hinge
A C D F
B E

4m 4m 10 m 4m 4m
(a)

Deflected shape

C D E F
A B

Ay Released Beam for Ay

1.0

0 0
A B C D E F

Influence Line for Ay (kN/kN)

(b)

A D E F
B C

Cy
Released Beam for Cy

1.4
1.0

0 E F
A B C D
0.4
Influence Line for Cy (kN/kN)
(c)

continued
FIG. 8.11
 SECTION 8.3 Influence Lines for Girders with Floor Systems 367

The shape of the inuence line is the same as the deected shape of the released beam, as shown in the gure. By real-
izing that Ay 1 kN when the 1-kN load is placed at A, we obtain the value of 1 kN/kN for the inuence-line ordinate
at A. The inuence line thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.11(b). Ans.
Inuence Line for Cy The roller support at C is removed from the given beam, and a small displacement, D, is
applied at C to obtain the deected shape shown in Fig. 8.11(c). Note that the deected shape is consistent with the
support conditions of the released beam. The shape of the inuence line is the same as the deected shape of the released
beam, as shown in the gure. By recognizing that Cy 1 kN when the 1-kN load is placed at C, we obtain the value of
1 kN/kN for the inuence-line ordinate at C. The ordinates at B and E are then determined from the geometry of the
inuence line. The inuence line for Cy thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.11(c). Ans.

8.3 INFLUENCE LINES FOR GIRDERS WITH FLOOR SYSTEMS

In the previous sections, we considered the inuence lines for beams that
were subjected to a moving unit load applied directly to the beams.
In most bridges and buildings, there are some structural members that
are not subjected to live loads directly but to which the live loads are
transmitted via oor framing systems. Typical framing systems used in
bridges and buildings were described in Section 1.4 (Figs. 1.13 and 1.14,
respectively). Another example of the framing system of a bridge is
shown in Fig. 8.12. The deck of the bridge rests on beams called string-
ers, which are supported by oor beams, which, in turn, are supported
by the girders. Thus, any live loads (e.g., the weight of the trac), re-
gardless of where they are located on the deck and whether they are
concentrated or distributed loads, are always transmitted to the girders
as concentrated loads applied at the points where the girders support the
oor beams.
To illustrate the procedure for constructing inuence lines for shears
and bending moments in the girders supporting bridge or building oor
systems, consider the simply supported girder shown in Fig. 8.13(a). As
shown, a unit load moves from left to right on the stringers, which are
assumed to be simply supported on the oor beams. The eect of the
unit load is transmitted to the girder at points A through F , at which the
girder supports the oor beams. The points A through F are commonly
referred to as panel points, and the portions of the girder between the
panel points (e.g., AB or BC) are called panels. Figure 8.13(a) shows
the stringers resting on top of the oor beams, which rest on top of the
girder. Although such sketches are used herein to show the manner in
which the load is transmitted from one structural member to the other,
368 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.12
 SECTION 8.3 Influence Lines for Girders with Floor Systems 369

FIG. 8.13

in actual oor systems, members are seldom supported on top of each

other, as depicted in Fig. 8.13(a). Instead, the stringers and the oor
beams are usually positioned so that their top edges are even with each
370 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

other and are either lower than or at the same level as the top edges of
the girders (see Fig. 8.12).

Influence Lines for Reactions

The equations of the inuence lines for the vertical reactions Ay and
Fy can be determined by applying the equilibrium equations (Fig.
8.13(a)):

P x
MF 0 Ay L 1L  x 0 Ay 1 
L
P x
MA 0 1x Fy L 0 Fy
L

The inuence lines obtained by plotting these equations are shown in

Fig. 8.13(b) and (c). Note that these inuence lines are identical to those
for the reactions of a simply supported beam to which the unit load is
applied directly.

Influence Line for Shear in Panel BC

Next, suppose that we wish to construct the inuence lines for shears at
points G and H, which are located in the panel BC, as shown in Fig.
8.13(a). When the unit load is located to the left of the panel point B,
the shear at any point within the panel BC (e.g., the points G and H )
can be expressed as
x L
SBC Fy  0axa
L 5

Similarly, when the unit load is located to the right of the panel point C,
the shear at any point within the panel BC is given by

x 2L
SBC Ay 1  axaL
L 5

When the unit load is located within the panel BC, as shown in Fig.
8.13(d), the force FB exerted on the girder by the oor beam at B must
be included in the expression for shear in panel BC:
   
x 5x 4x L 2L
SBC Ay  FB 1   2 1 axa
L L L 5 5
 SECTION 8.3 Influence Lines for Girders with Floor Systems 371

Thus, the equations of the inuence line for SBC can be written as
8
>
> x L
>
> Fy  0axa
>
> L 5
>
<
4x L 2L
SBC Ay  FB 1 axa (8.13)
>
> L 5 5
>
>
>
> x 2L
>
: Ay 1  axaL
L 5

These expressions for shear do not depend on the exact location of a

point within the panel; that is, these expressions remain the same for all
points located within the panel BC. The expressions do not change be-
cause the loads are transmitted to the girder at the panel points only;
therefore, the shear in any panel of the girder remains constant through-
out the length of that panel. Thus for girders with oor systems, the in-
uence lines for shears are usually constructed for panels rather than for
specic points along the girders. The inuence line for the shear in panel
BC, obtained by plotting Eq. (8.13), is shown in Fig. 8.13(e).

Influence Line for Bending Moment at G

The inuence line for the bending moment at point G, which is located
in the panel BC (Fig. 8.13(a)), can be constructed by using a similar
procedure. When the unit load is located to the left of the panel point B,
the bending moment at G can be expressed as

x L
MG Fy L  a L  a 0axa
L 5

When the unit load is located to the right of the panel point C, the
bending moment at G is given by
 
x 2L
MG Ay a 1  a axaL
L 5

When the unit load is located within the panel BC, as shown in Fig.
8.13(d), the moment of the force FB exerted on the girder by the oor
beam at B, about G, must be included in the expression for bending
moment at G:
      
L x 5x L
MG Ay a  FB a  1 a 2 a
5 L L 5
 
2L 4a L 2L
ax 1 axa
5 L 5 5
372 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

Thus, the equations of the inuence line for MG can be written as

8
>
> x L
>
> Fy L  a L  a 0axa
>
> L 5
>
>    
< L 2L 4a L 2L
MG Ay a  FB a  ax 1 axa
>
> 5 5 L 5 5
>
>  
>
> x 2L
>
>
: Ay a 1  a axaL
L 5
(8.14)
Equation (8.14) indicates that unlike shear, which remains constant
throughout a panel, the expressions for the bending moment depend on
the specic location of the point G within the panel BC. The inuence
line for MG , obtained by plotting Eq. (8.14), is shown in Fig. 8.13(f ). It
can be seen from this gure that the inuence line for MG , like the in-
uence line for shear constructed previously (Fig. 8.13(e)), consists of
three straight-line segments, with discontinuities at the ends of the panel
containing the response function under consideration.

Influence Line for Bending Moment at Panel Point C

When the unit load is located to the left of C (Fig. 8.13(a)), the bending
moment at C is given by
   
3L x 3L 3 2L
MC F y x 0axa
5 L 5 5 5
When the unit load is located to the right of C,
   
2L x 2L 2 2L
MC Ay 1 L  x axaL
5 L 5 5 5
Thus, the equations of the inuence line for MC can be written as
8  
>
> 3L 3 2L
>
>
< Fy 5 5 x 0axa
5
MC   (8.15)
>
> 2L 2 2L
>
> L  x
: Ay axaL
5 5 5
The inuence line obtained by plotting these equations is shown in Fig.
8.13(g). Note that this inuence line is identical to that for the bending
moment of a corresponding beam without the oor system.

Procedure for Analysis

As the foregoing example indicates, the inuence lines for the girders
supporting oor systems with simply supported stringers consist of
straight-line segments with discontinuities or changes in slopes occurring
 SECTION 8.3 Influence Lines for Girders with Floor Systems 373

only at the panel points. In the inuence lines for shears and for bending
moments at points located within panels, the changes in slope occur at
the panel points at the ends of the panel containing the response func-
tion (Fig. 8.13(e) and (f )), whereas in the inuence lines for bending
moments at panel points, the change in slope occurs at the panel point
where the bending moment is evaluated. The inuence lines for the
girders can, therefore, be conveniently constructed as follows.
Determine the inuence-line ordinates at the support points and
at the panel points where the changes in slope occur by placing a unit
load successively at each of these points and by applying the equilibrium
equations. In the case of an inuence line for bending moment at a
panel point of a cantilever girder, the inuence-line ordinate at the lo-
cation of the bending moment will be zero. In such a case, it becomes
necessary to determine an additional inuence-line ordinate (usually at
the free end of the cantilever girder) that is not zero to complete the in-
uence line.
If the girder contains internal hinges, its inuence lines will be dis-
continuous at the panel points, where such hinges are located. If an in-
ternal hinge is located within a panel, then the discontinuities will occur
at the panel points at the ends of that panel. Determine the inuence-
line ordinates at the panel points where discontinuities occur due to the
presence of internal hinges by placing the unit load at these points and
by applying the equations of equilibrium and/or condition.
Complete the inuence line by connecting the previously computed
ordinates by straight lines and by determining any remaining ordinates
by using the geometry of the inuence line.

Example 8.9

Draw the inuence lines for the shear in panel BC and the bending moment at B of the girder with oor system shown
in Fig. 8.14(a).

Solution
Inuence Line for SBC To determine the inuence line for the shear in panel BC, we place a 1-k load successively at
the panel points A; B; C, and D. For each position of the unit load, the appropriate support reaction is rst determined
by proportions, and the shear in panel BC is computed. Thus, when
1 k is at A; Dy 0 SBC 0
1 1
1 k is at B; Dy k SBC  k
3 3
1 1
1 k is at C; Ay k SBC k
3 3
1 k is at D; Ay 0 SBC 0

continued
374 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

A B C D

3 panels at 18 ft = 54 ft
(a)

1k
x

A B C D
Ay Dy

(b)

1
3

A B 0
0 C D

1
3
(c) Influence Line for SBC (k/k)

12

0 0
A B D
FIG. 8.14 (d) Influence Line for MB (k-ft/k)

The inuence line for SBC is constructed by plotting these ordinates and by connecting them with straight lines, as
shown in Fig. 8.14(c). Ans.
Inuence Line for MB To determine the inuence line for the bending moment at panel point B, we place the 1-k
load successively at the panel points A; B, and D. For each position of the unit load, the bending moment at B is de-
termined as follows: When
1 k is at A; Dy 0 MB 0
 
2 2
1 k is at B; Ay k MB 18 12 k-ft
3 3
1 k is at D; Ay 0 MB 0
The inuence line for MB thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.14(d). Ans.
 SECTION 8.3 Influence Lines for Girders with Floor Systems 375

Example 8.10

Draw the inuence lines for the shear in panel CD and the bending moment at D of the girder with oor system shown
in Fig. 8.15(a).

FIG. 8.15

Solution
Inuence Line for SCD To determine the inuence line for the shear in panel CD, we place a 1-kN load successively
at the panel points B; C; D, and F . For each position of the unit load, the appropriate support reaction is rst de-
termined by proportions, and the shear in panel CD is computed. Thus, when
1 kN is at B; Fy 0 SCD 0
1 1
1 kN is at C; Fy kN SCD  kN
4 4
2 1 1
1 kN is at D; By kN SCD kN
4 2 2
1 kN is at F ; By 0 SCD 0
The inuence line for SCD is constructed by plotting these ordinates and by connecting them with straight lines, as
shown in Fig. 8.15(c). The ordinates at the ends A and H of the girder are then determined from the geometry of the
inuence line. Ans.
continued
376 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

Inuence Line for MD To determine the inuence line for the bending moment at panel point D, we place the 1-kN
load successively at the panel points B; D, and F . For each position of the unit load, the bending moment at D is de-
termined as follows: When
1 kN is at B; Fy 0 MD 0
 
1 1
1 kN is at D; By kN MD 8 4 kN  m
2 2
1 kN is at F ; By 0 MD 0
The inuence line for MD thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.15(d). Ans.

Example 8.11

Draw the inuence lines for the reaction at support A, the shear in panel CD, and the bending moment at D of the
girder with oor system shown in Fig. 8.16(a).

FIG. 8.16

Solution
Inuence Line for Ay To determine the inuence line for the reaction Ay , we place a 1-k load successively at the
panel points A;
P B, and C. For each position of the unit load, the magnitude of Ay is computed by applying the equation
of condition MFAF 0. Thus, when
continued
 SECTION 8.4 Influence Lines for Trusses 377

1 k is at A; Ay 1 k
P
1 k is at B; MFAF 0
1
Ay 15 15 0 Ay k
3
P
1 k is at C; MFAF 0
Ay 15 0
Ay 0
The inuence line for Ay thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.16(c). Ans.
Inuence Line for SCD We place the 1-k load successively at each of the ve panel points and determine the inu-
ence-line ordinates as follows. When
1 k is at A; Ay 1 k SCD 0
 
1 1 2
1 k is at B; Ay k SCD 1 k
3 3 3
1 k is at C; Ay 0 SCD 1 k
1 k is at D; Ay 0 SCD 0
1 k is at E; Ay 0 SCD 0
The inuence line for SCD thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.16(d). Ans.
Inuence Line for MD We place the 1-k load successively at each of the ve panel points and determine the inu-
ence-line ordinates as follows. When
1 k is at A; Ay 1 k MD 0
 
1 1
1 k is at B; Ay k MD 30  120 10 k-ft
3 3
1 k is at C; Ay 0 MD 110 10 k-ft
1 k is at D; Ay 0 MD 0
1 k is at E; Ay 0 MD 0
The inuence line for MD is shown in Fig. 8.16(e). Ans.

8.4 INFLUENCE LINES FOR TRUSSES

The oor framing systems commonly used to transmit live loads to
trusses are similar to those used for the girders discussed in the preced-
ing section. Figure 8.17 shows a typical oor system of a truss bridge,
described previously in Section 1.4 (Fig. 1.13). The deck of the bridge
rests on stringers that are supported by oor beams, which, in turn, are
378 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.17

connected at their ends to the joints on the bottom chords of the two
longitudinal trusses. Thus, any live loads (e.g., the weight of the trac),
regardless of where they are located on the deck and whether they are
concentrated or distributed loads, are always transmitted to the trusses as
concentrated loads applied at the joints. Live loads are transmitted to the
roof trusses in a similar manner. As in the case of the girder oor systems,
the stringers of the oor systems of trusses are assumed to be simply
supported at their ends on the adjacent oor beams. Thus, the inuence
lines for trusses also contain straight-line segments between panel points.
To illustrate the construction of inuence lines for trusses, consider
the Pratt bridge truss shown in Fig. 8.18(a). A unit (1-k) load moves
from left to right on the stringers of a oor system attached to the bot-
tom chord AG of the truss. The eect of the unit load is transmitted to
the truss at joints (or panel points) A through G, where the oor beams
are connected to the truss. Suppose that we wish to draw the inuence
lines for the vertical reactions at supports A and E and for the axial
forces in members CI ; CD; DI ; IJ, and FL of the truss.

Influence Lines for Reactions

The equations of the inuence lines for the vertical reactions, Ay and Ey ,
can be determined by applying the equilibrium equations (Fig. 8.18(b)):
P x
ME 0 Ay 60 160  x 0 Ay 1 
60
P x
MA 0 1x Ey 60 0 Ey
60
 SECTION 8.4 Influence Lines for Trusses 379

FIG. 8.18
380 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.18 (contd.)

The inuence lines obtained by plotting these equations are shown in

Fig. 8.18(c) and (d). Note that these inuence lines are identical to those
for the reactions of a corresponding beam to which the unit load is ap-
plied directly.

Influence Line for Force in Vertical Member CI

The expressions for the member force FCI can be determined by passing
an imaginary section aa through the members CD; CI , and HI P, as shown
in Fig. 8.18(e), and by applying the equilibrium equation Fy 0 to
one of the two portions of the truss. It can be seen from Fig. 8.18(e) that
when the 1-k load is located to the left of joint Cthat is, on the por-
tion AC of the trussthen FCI can be conveniently determined by con-
sidering the equilibrium of the free body of the right portion DG as
P
" Fy 0 FCI Ey 0 FCI Ey 0 a x a 30 ft
which indicates that the segment of the inuence line for FCI between A
and C is identical to the corresponding segment of the inuence line for
Ey . When the 1-k load is located to the right of joint D, it is convenient
to determine FCI by using the free body of the left portion AC:
P
" Fy 0 Ay FCI 0 FCI Ay 45 ft a x a 90 ft
which indicates that the segment of the inuence line for FCI
between D and G can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding
segment of the inuence line for Ay by 1. The segments of the inu-
ence line for FCI between A and C and between D and G thus con-
structed from the inuence lines for Ey and Ay , respectively, by using the
preceding expressions are shown in Fig. 8.18(f ). When the 1-k load is
located between C and D, the part of the load transmitted to the truss
by the oor beam at C, FC 45  x=15, must be included in the
 SECTION 8.4 Influence Lines for Trusses 381
P
equilibrium equation Fy 0 for the left portion AC to obtain FCI :
 
P 45  x
" Fy 0 Ay  FCI 0
15
 
45  x
FCI Ay
15
30 ft a x a 45 ft
Thus the inuence line for FCI is composed of three straight-line seg-
ments, as shown in Fig. 8.18(f ). Since the member force FCI was as-
sumed to be tensile (Fig. 8.18(e)) in the derivation of the inuence-line
equations, a positive ordinate of the inuence line indicates that the 1-k
load applied at that point causes a tensile force in the member CI and
vice versa. Thus, the inuence line for FCI (Fig. 8.18(f )) indicates that
member CI will be in tension when the 1-k load is located between A
and M and between E and G, whereas it will be in compression when
the unit load is placed between M and E.

Influence Line for Force in Bottom Chord Member CD

The expressions for the member force FCD can be determined by con-
P aa used for FCI but by applying the moment
sidering the same section
equilibrium equation, MI 0. It can be seen from Fig. 8.18(e) that
when the 1-k load is located to the left of joint C, then FCD can be con-
veniently determined by considering the equilibrium of the free body of
the right portion DG of the truss:
P
MI 0 FCD 20 Ey 30 0
FCD 1:5Ey 0 a x a 30 ft
which indicates that the segment of the inuence line for FCD between A
and C can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding segment of the
inuence line for Ey by 1.5. When the 1-k load is located to the right
of C, it is convenient to determine FCD by using the free body of the left
portion AC:
P
MI 0 Ay 30 FCD 20 0
FCD 1:5Ay 30 ft a x a 90 ft
which indicates that the segment of the inuence line for FCD between C
and G can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding segment of the
inuence line for Ay by 1.5. The inuence line for FCD thus constructed
from the inuence lines for Ay and Ey is shown in Fig. 8.18(g).
The inuence line for FCD could alternatively have been de-
termined by considering the vertical section bb passing through
the members CD; DI , and IJ, as shown in Fig. 8.18(h), instead of the
inclined section aa.
382 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

Influence Line for Force in Diagonal Member DI

The expressions for FDI can be determined by considering P section bb
(Fig. 8.18(h)) and by applying the equilibrium equation Fy 0 to one
of the two portions of the truss. When the unit loadPis located to the left
of joint C, application of the equilibrium equation Fy 0 to the right
portion DG of the truss yields
P 4
" Fy 0 FDI Ey 0
5
FDI 1:25Ey 0 a x a 30 ft
When the 1-k load is located to the right of joint D, we write
P 4
" Fy 0 Ay  FDI 0
5
FDI 1:25Ay 45 ft a x a 90 ft
The segments of the inuence line for FDI between A and C and be-
tween D and G thus constructed from the inuence lines for Ey and Ay ,
respectively, are shown in Fig. 8.18(i). The ordinates at C and D are
then connected by a straight line to complete the inuence line for FDI ,
as shown in the gure.

Influence Line for Force in Top Chord Member IJ

By considering section bb (Fig. 8.18(h)), and by placing the unit load
rst to the left and then to the right of joint D, we obtain the following
expressions for FIJ :
P
MD 0
FIJ 20 Ey 15 0
FIJ 0:75Ey 0 a x a 45 ft
P
MD 0
Ay 45  FIJ 20 0
FIJ 2:25Ay 45 ft a x a 90 ft
The inuence line for FIJ thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.18( j).

Influence Line for Force in Vertical Member FL

The inuence line for FFL can be constructed by considering the equili-
brium of joint F . The free-body diagram of this
P joint is shown in Fig.
8.18(k). By applying the equilibrium equation Fy 0 to the free body
of joint F , we determine that FFL is zero when the 1-k load is located at
joints A through E and at joint G and that FFL 1 k when the unit load
 SECTION 8.4 Influence Lines for Trusses 383

is applied to the joint F . Thus, the inuence-line ordinate at F is equal

to 1, whereas the ordinates at A through E and G are zero. The inu-
ence line for FFL , obtained by connecting these ordinates by straight
lines, is shown in Fig. 8.18(1). As this inuence line indicates, the force
in member FL will be nonzero only when the unit load is located in the
panels EF and FG of the truss.

Procedure for Analysis

The inuence lines for the reactions of trusses can be constructed by us-
ing the same procedure used for the reactions of beams described in
Sections 8.1 and 8.2.
Perhaps the most straightforward procedure for constructing the
inuence lines for axial forces in the members of trusses is to apply a
unit load successively at each joint on the loaded chord of the truss and
for each position of the unit load, determine the magnitude of the
member force under consideration by using the method of joints and/or
the method of sections. The inuence-line ordinates thus computed are
then connected by straight lines to obtain the desired inuence line. This
procedure generally proves to be very time-consuming for constructing
inuence lines for most truss members, except for the vertical members
that are connected at an end to two horizontal members (e.g., members
BH; DJ, and FL of the truss shown in Fig. 8.18(a)), whose forces can be
determined by inspection.
The following alternative procedure may considerably expedite the
construction of inuence lines for axial forces in members of most com-
mon types of trusses:
1. Draw the inuence lines for the reactions of the given truss.
2. By using the method of sections or the method of joints, obtain the
equilibrium equation that will be used to determine the expression(s)
of the member force whose inuence line is desired. The desired
member force must be the only unknown in the equilibrium equa-
tion. If such an equilibrium equation cannot be found, then it
becomes necessary to construct the inuence lines for the other
member forces that appear in the equation before the desired inu-
ence line can be constructed (see Examples 8.12 and 8.13).
3. If using the method of sections, then apply a unit load to the left of
the left end of the panel through which the section passes, and de-
termine the expression for the member force by applying the equili-
brium equation to the free body of the truss to the right of the section.
Next, apply the unit load to the right of the right end of the sectioned
panel, and determine the member force expression by applying the
equilibrium equation to the free body to the left of the section. Con-
struct the inuence line by plotting the member force expressions and
by connecting the ordinates at the ends of the sectioned panel by a
straight line.
384 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

4. When using the method of joints, if the joint being considered is not
located on the loaded chord of the truss, then determine the ex-
pression of the desired member force directly by applying the equa-
tion of equilibrium to the free body of the joint. Otherwise, apply a
unit load at the joint under consideration, and determine the mag-
nitude of the member force by considering the equilibrium of the
joint. Next, determine the expression for the member force for a
position of the unit load outside the panels adjacent to the joint
under consideration. Finally, connect the inuence-line segments
and ordinates thus obtained by straight lines to complete the inu-
ence line.
If the member force was initially assumed to be tensile in de-
riving the equations of the inuence line, then a positive ordinate of
the inuence line indicates that the unit load applied at that point
causes a tensile force in the member and vice versa.

Example 8.12

Draw the inuence lines for the forces in members AF ; CF , and CG of the Parker truss shown in Fig. 8.19(a). Live loads
are transmitted to the bottom chord of the truss.

Solution
Inuence Lines for Reactions
P The inuence
P lines for the reactions Ay and Ey (Fig. 8.19(b)), obtained by applying
the equilibrium equations, ME 0 and MA 0, respectively, to the free body of the entire truss, are shown in
Fig. 8.19(c) and (d).
P
Inuence Line for FAF The expressions for FAF can be determined by applying the equilibrium equation Fy 0
to the free-body diagram of joint A shown in Fig. 8.19(e). When the 1-k load is located at joint A, we write
P 3
" Fy 0 Ay  1 FAF 0
5
Because Ay 1 k (see Fig. 8.19(c)), we obtain
FAF 0 for x 0
When the 1-k load is located to the right of joint B, we write
P 3
" Fy 0 Ay FAF 0
5
FAF 1:667Ay 20 ft a x a 80 ft
Thus, the segment of the inuence line for FAF between B and E is obtained by multiplying the corresponding segment
of the inuence line for Ay by 1:667, as shown in Fig. 8.19(f ). The ordinates at A and B are then connected by a
straight line to complete the inuence line as shown in the gure. Ans.

continued
 SECTION 8.4 Influence Lines for Trusses 385

FIG. 8.19 continued

386 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

Inuence Line for FCF The expressions for FCF can be determined by passing a section aa through the members
BC; CF , and FG as shown in Fig. 8.19(b). The free-body diagrams of the two portions of the truss thus obtained
P are
shown in Fig. 8.19(g). The lines of action of FFG and FBC intersect at point O, so the equilibrium equation MO 0
will contain only one unknown, namely, FCF . Because the slope of member FG is 1:4, the distance
OB 4FB 415 60 ft. Thus, the distance OA OB  AB 60  P20 40 ft as shown in Fig. 8.19(g). When the
1-k load is located to the left of B, we apply the equilibrium equation MO 0 to the free body of the right portion
CE of the truss to obtain
P
MO 0
3
FCF 80 Ey 120 0
5
FCF 2:5Ey 0 a x a 20 ft

When the 1-k load is located to the right of C, we consider the equilibrium of the left portion AB to obtain
P
MO 0
4 3
Ay 40  FCF 15  FCF 60 0
5 5
FCF 0:833Ay 40 ft a x a 80 ft

The segments of the inuence line for FCF between A and B and between C and E are constructed by using the inuence
lines for Ey and Ay , respectively, in accordance with the preceding expressions. The ordinates at B and C are then con-
nected by a straight line to complete the inuence line, as shown in Fig. 8.19(h). Ans.
Inuence Line for FCG We will determine the inuence line for FCG by considering the equilibrium of joint G. By
applying the equations of equilibrium to the free-body diagram of joint G (Fig. 8.19(i)), we write
P
" Fy 0
   
1 1
FCG  p FFG  p FGH 0
17 17
 
1
FCG  p FFG FGH (1)
17
P
! Fx 0
   
4 4
 p FFG p FGH 0
17 17
FGH FFG (2)
By substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), we obtain
 
2
FCG  p FFG 0:485FFG (3)
17
Note that Eq. (3), which is valid for any position of the unit load, indicates that the inuence line for FCG can be ob-
tained by multiplying the inuence line for FFG by 0:485. Thus we will rst construct the inuence line for FFG by us-
ing section aa (Fig. 8.19(g)) and then apply Eq. (3) to obtain the desired inuence line for FCG .
It can be seen from Fig. 8.19(g) that when the
P 1-k load is located to the left of B, the expression for FFG can be
determined by applying the equilibrium equation MC 0 to the free body of the right portion CE of the truss. Thus,
continued
 SECTION 8.4 Influence Lines for Trusses 387

P
MC 0
 
4
p FFG 20 Ey 40 0
17
FFG 2:062Ey 0 a x a 20 ft
When the 1-k load is located to the right of C, we consider the equilibrium of the left portion AB to obtain
P
MC 0
   
1 4
 p FFG 20  p FFG 15  Ay 40 0
17 17
FFG 2:062Ay 40 ft a x a 80 ft
The inuence line for FFG , constructed by using the preceding expressions, is shown in Fig. 8.19( j).
The desired inuence line for FCG can now be obtained by multiplying the inuence line for FFG by 0:485, in ac-
cordance with Eq. (3). The inuence line for FCG thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.19(k). Ans.
The inuence line for FCG can also be constructed by considering the section bb shown in Fig. 8.19(b). By summing
moments about the point of intersection of the axes of members BC and GH, we can determine the expressions for FCG
in terms of FCF and Ay or Ey , whose inuence lines are known. The inuence line for FCG can then be constructed by
plotting these expressions. The reader is encouraged to check the inuence line for FCG shown in Fig. 8.19(k) by em-
ploying this alternative approach.

Example 8.13

Draw the inuence line for the force in member HL of the K truss shown in Fig. 8.20(a). Live loads are transmitted to
the bottom chord of the truss.

Solution
Inuence Lines for Reactions See Fig. 8.20(c) and (d).
Inuence Lines for FHL From Fig. 8.20(b), we can observe that any section, such as section aa, passing through the
member HL cuts three or more additional members, thereby releasing four or more unknowns, which cannot be de-
termined by the three equations of equilibrium. We will, therefore, rst construct the inuence line for FLM by considering
the curved section bb, as shown in Fig. 8.20(b), and then use section aa to determine the desired inuence line for FHL .
The free-body diagrams of the two portions of the truss, obtained by passing section bb, are shown in Fig. 8.20(e).
It can be seen that although section bb has cut four members, CD; DH; HM, and LM, the force in member LM can be
determined by summing moments about point D, because the lines of action of three remaining unknowns pass through
this point. When the 1-kN load is located to the left of C, the expression for FLM can be obtained as
P
MD 0

FLM 12 Ey 8 0

FLM 0:667Ey 0 a x a 16 m (1)

continued
388 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.20
continued
 SECTION 8.5 Influence Lines for Deflections 389

When the unit load is located to the right of D, we obtain

P
MD 0

FLM 12  Ay 24 0

FLM 2Ay 24 m a x a 32 m (2)

The inuence line for FLM thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.20(f ).
The desired inuence line for FHL can now be constructed by considering section aa. The free-body diagrams of the
two portions of the truss, obtained by passing section aa, are shown in Fig. 8.20(g). When the
P1-kN load is located to
the left of C, the expression for FHL can be determined by applying the equilibrium equation MC 0:
P
MC 0

4 3
FLM 12 FHL 6 FHL 8 Ey 16 0
5 5

FHL 1:667Ey  1:25FLM 0 a x a 16 m (3)

When the 1-kN load is to the right of D, we obtain
P
MC 0

4
Ay 16  FLM 12  FHL 12 0
5

FHL 1:667Ay  1:25FLM 24 m a x a 32 m (4)

To obtain the expressions for FHL in terms of the reactions only, we substitute Eqs. (1) and (2) into Eqs. (3) and (4),
respectively, to obtain

FHL 0:833Ey 0 a x a 16 m (5)

FHL 0:833Ay 24 m a x a 32 m (6)
The inuence line for FHL can now be constructed by using either Eqs. (3) and (4) or Eqs. (5) and (6). The inuence line
thus obtained is shown in Fig. 8.20(h). Ans.

8.5 INFLUENCE LINES FOR DEFLECTIONS

A deection inuence line depicts the variation of a deection of a
structure as a concentrated load of unit magnitude moves across the
structure. Let us assume that it is desired to construct the inuence
line for the vertical deection at point B of the simply supported
beam shown in Fig. 8.21(a). We can construct the inuence line by
placing a unit load successively at arbitrary points to the left and to
390 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

the right of B; determining an expression for the vertical deection

at B for each position of the unit load by using one of the methods
for computing deections described in Chapters 6 and 7; and plot-
ting the expressions.
A more ecient procedure for constructing the deection inuence
lines can be devised by the application of Maxwells law of reciprocal
deections (Section 7.8). Considering again the beam of Fig. 8.21(a), if
fBX is the vertical deection at B when the unit load is placed at an
arbitrary point X , then fBX represents the ordinate at X of the inu-
ence line for the vertical deection at B. Now, suppose that we place
the unit load at B, as shown in Fig. 8.21(b), and compute the vertical
deection at point X , fXB . According to Maxwells law of reciprocal
deections,
fXB fBX
which indicates that the deection at X due to the unit load at B,
fXB , also represents the ordinate at X of the inuence line for the
vertical deection at B. Because the point X was arbitrarily chosen,
we can conclude that the deected shape (elastic curve) of a struc-
ture due to a unit load applied at a point represents the inuence line
for deection at the point where the unit load is applied. Thus, an
inuence line for deection at a point of a structure can be con-
structed by placing a unit load at the point where the deection is

FIG. 8.21
 SECTION 8.5 Influence Lines for Deflections 391

desired; determining the corresponding deected shape (elastic curve)

of the structure by using one of the methods for computing de-
ections described in Chapters 6 and 7; and plotting the deected
shape. The procedure is illustrated by the following example.

Example 8.14

Draw the inuence line for the vertical deection at end B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 8.22(a).

Solution
To determine the inuence line for the vertical deection at B, we place a 1-k load at B, as shown in Fig. 8.22(b),
and determine the expression for the deected shape of the beam by using the conjugate-beam method described
in Section 6.6. The M=EI diagram of the real beam due to the 1-k load applied at B is shown in Fig. 8.22(c),
and the conjugate beam, loaded with the M=EI diagram of the real beam, is shown in Fig. 8.22(d). The de-
ection at an arbitrary point X located at a distance x from A in the real beam is equal to the bending moment
at X in the conjugate beam. From Fig. 8.22(d), we can see that the bending moment at X in the conjugate beam
is given by
          
1 x x 1 x 2x
MX 15 1  x  15  15 1  x
EI 15 2 2 15 3
1
x 3  45x 2
6EI
Thus, the deection at X on the real beam is
1
fXB x 3  45x 2
6EI
which represents the expression for the deected shape of the beam due to the 1-k load at B (Fig. 8.22(b)). By ap-
plying Maxwells law of reciprocal deections, fBX fXB , we obtain the equation of the inuence line for the vertical
deection at B as
1
fBX x 3  45x 2
6EI
By substituting the numerical values of E and I, we get

x 3  45x 2
fBX
604;167

The inuence line for vertical deection at B, obtained by plotting the preceding equation, is shown in
Fig. 8.22(e). Ans.

continued
392 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

FIG. 8.22

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have learned that an inuence line is a graph of a re-
sponse function of a structure as a function of the position of a down-
ward unit load moving across the structure. The inuence lines for the
force and moment response functions of all statically determinate struc-
tures consist of straight-line segments.
The inuence line for a reaction can be constructed by placing a
unit load at a variable position x on the structure, applying an
equilibrium equation to determine the expression for the reaction in
terms of x, and plotting the expression. The inuence line for shear
 Problems 393

(or bending moment) at a point of a beam can be constructed by

placing a unit load successively to the left and to the right of the
point under consideration, determining the expressions for shear (or
bending moment) for the two positions of the unit load, and plotting
the expressions.
Muller-Breslaus principle states that the inuence line for a
force (or moment) response function is given by the deected shape
of the released structure obtained by removing the restraint corre-
sponding to the response function from the original structure and by
giving the released structure a unit displacement (or rotation) at the
location and in the direction of the response function, so that only
the response function and the unit load perform external work. This
principle is commonly used to construct qualitative inuence lines
(i.e., the general shape of inuence lines). The numerical values of
the inuence-line ordinates, if desired, are then computed by apply-
ing the equations of equilibrium. Procedures for constructing inu-
ence lines for girders with oor systems and trusses were presented
in Sections 8.3 and 8.4, respectively.
The deected shape (elastic curve) of a structure, due to a unit load
applied at a point, represents the inuence line for deection at the point
where the unit load is applied.

PROBLEMS
Sections 8.1 and 8.2
8.1 through 8.4 Draw the inuence lines for vertical reac-
tions at supports A and C and the shear and bending mo-
ment at point B of the beams shown in Figs. P8.1 through
P8.4.
FIG. P8.2, P8.60

A B C
A B C

5m 5m
15 ft 5 ft
FIG. P8.1, P8.59
FIG. P8.3
394 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

A B C D 8.9 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reaction and
the reaction moment at support A and the shear and bend-
ing moment at point B of the cantilever beam shown in
8 ft 8 ft 5 ft Fig. P8.9.

FIG. P8.4, P8.61 A B C

8.5 and 8.6 Draw the inuence lines for vertical reactions
at supports B and D and the shear and bending moment at 12 ft 8 ft
point C of the beams shown in Figs. P8.5 and P8.6.
FIG. P8.9, P8.58

A B C D
8.10 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
moment at point C and the shears just to the left and just to
the right of support D of the beam shown in Fig. P8.10.
2m 4m 4m
A B C D E F
FIG. P8.5

A B C D E 5m 6m 4m 3m 4m

FIG. P8.10, P8.11

5m 8m 8m 5m
8.11 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
FIG. P8.6
moment at point E of the beam shown in Fig. P8.10.
8.12 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
8.7 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions
moment at point B and the shears just to the left and just to
at supports A and C, the shear at just to the right of A, and
the right of support C of the beam shown in Fig. P8.12.
the bending moment at point B of the beam shown in
Fig. P8.7.

FIG. P8.12
FIG. P8.7
8.13 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at
8.8 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending mo- supports A and E and the reaction moment at support E of
ment at point B of the cantilever beam shown in Fig. P8.8. the beam shown in Fig. P8.13.

Hinge
A B
C A B C D
E

5m 5m 4m 4m 4m 4m
FIG. P8.8 FIG. P8.13, P8.14, P8.15
 Problems 395

8.14 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
moment at point B of the beam shown in Fig. P8.13.

8.15 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
moment at point D of the beam shown in Fig. P8.13.

8.16 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at

supports A and E and the shear and bending moment at
point D of the frame shown in Fig. P8.16.

B C D E F

FIG. P8.18

7m 8.19 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at

supports A; B, and E and the shear at internal hinge D of
the frame shown in Fig. P8.19.

3m 5m 5m 3m

FIG. P8.16

8.17 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at

supports A and B and the shear and bending moment at
point D of the frame shown in Fig. P8.17. FIG. P8.19

C D E F 8.20 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at

supports B; E, and G of the beam shown in Fig. P8.20.

12 ft
18 ft A B C D E F G
B Hinge

12 ft 12 ft 12 ft 12 ft 12 ft 12 ft
A
FIG. P8.20, P8.21, P8.22
12 ft 12 ft 12 ft

FIG. P8.17 8.21 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
moment at point C and the shear at internal hinge D of the
beam shown in Fig. P8.20.
8.18 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reaction and
reaction moment at support A and the shear and bending 8.22 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
moment at point C of the frame shown in Fig. P8.18. moment at point F of the beam shown in Fig. P8.20.
396 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

8.23 and 8.24 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical re-
actions at supports A; C; E, and G of the beams shown in
Figs. P8.23 and P8.24.

Hinge Hinge
A B C D E F G FIG. P8.29, P8.30

20 ft 20 ft 30 ft 30 ft 15 ft 15 ft 8.30 Draw the inuence lines for the shears and bending
moments at points C and F of the beam shown in
FIG. P8.23, P8.25
Fig. P8.29.
8.31 Draw the inuence lines for the reaction moments
A B C D E F G and the vertical reactions at supports A and F of the beam
Hinge Hinge shown in Fig. P8.31.

6m 6m 6m 6m 6m 6m

FIG. P8.24, P8.26

8.25 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
moment at point D of the beam shown in Fig. P8.23. FIG. P8.31, P8.32
8.26 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
moment at point B of the beam shown in Fig. P8.24.
8.27 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at 8.32 Draw the inuence lines for the shears and bending
supports B; D, and G and the reaction moment at support G moments at points B and E of the beam shown in
of the beam shown in Fig. P8.27. Fig. P8.31.
8.33 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at
supports A, and B of the beam shown in Fig. P8.33.
A B C D E F
G
Hinge Hinge
A B C D E F G H
10 ft 15 ft 15 ft 10 ft 10 ft 10 ft Hinge Hinge
FIG. P8.27, P8.28
8m 6m 4m 4m 3m 3m 8m

FIG. P8.33, P8.34

8.28 Draw the inuence lines for the shear and bending
moment at point E of the beam shown in Fig. P8.27.
8.29 Draw the inuence lines for the reaction moment at 8.34 Draw the inuence lines for the shears and bending
support A and the vertical reactions at supports A; E, and G moments at points D and F of the beam shown in
of the beam shown in Fig. P8.29. Fig. P8.33.
 Problems 397

8.35 and 8.36 Draw the inuence lines for the horizontal 8.38 Draw the inuence lines for the reaction moment at
and vertical reactions at supports A and B of the frames support A, the vertical reactions at supports A and B, and the
shown in Figs. P8.35 and P8.36. shear at the internal hinge C of the frame shown in Fig. P8.38.

Hinge
C D E

6m

A B

6m 6m

FIG. P8.35 FIG. P8.38

8.39 Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at

supports A; B; C, and the shear and bending moment at
point E of the frame shown in Fig. P8.39.

FIG. P8.36

8.37 Draw the inuence lines for the reaction moment at

support A, the vertical reactions at supports A and F , and
the shear and bending moment at point E of the frame
shown in Fig. P8.37.
FIG. P8.39

Section 8.3
8.40 Draw the inuence lines for the shear in panel CD and
the bending moment at D of the girder with the oor system
shown in Fig. P8.40.

A B C D E

4 panels at 6 m = 24 m

FIG. P8.37 FIG. P8.40

398 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

8.41 Draw the inuence lines for the shear in panel DE and Figs. P8.45P8.52. Live loads are transmitted to the bottom
the bending moment at E of the girder with the oor system chords of the trusses.
shown in Fig. P8.41.

D
A B C D E F G H

7 panels at 18 ft = 126 ft
5m

FIG. P8.41, P8.42 A

C
B
8.42 Draw the inuence lines for the shear in panel BC and
the bending moment at F of the girder with the oor system 5m 5m
shown in Fig. P8.41.
FIG. P8.45
8.43 Draw the inuence lines for the shear in panel BC and E F
the bending moment at C of the girder with the oor system

shown in Fig. P8.43.

4m
A B C D E

Fixed support A D
4 panels at 15 ft = 60 ft B C

FIG. P8.43 3 panels at 3 m = 9 m

FIG. P8.46
8.44 Draw the inuence line for the shear in panel CD and
the bending moment at D of the girder with the oor system
shown in Fig. P8.44.

FIG. P8.47

FIG. P8.44

Section 8.4
8.45 through 8.52 Draw the inuence lines for the forces in
the members identied by an D of the trusses shown in FIG. P8.48
 Problems 399

in Figs. P8.53P8.57. Live loads are transmitted to the top

chords of the trusses.

FIG. P8.49
FIG. P8.53

FIG. P8.50

FIG. P8.54

FIG. P8.51

FIG. P8.55

FIG. P8.52

8.53 through 8.57 Draw the inuence lines for the forces
in the members identied by an D of the trusses shown
FIG. P8.56
400 CHAPTER 8 Influence Lines

Section 8.5
8.58 Draw the inuence line for the vertical deection at
point B of the cantilever beam of Problem 8.9. EI
constant. See Fig. P8.9.
8.59 and 8.60 Draw the inuence line for the vertical de-
ection at point B of the simply supported beams of Prob-
lems 8.1 and 8.2. EI constant. See Figs. P8.1 and P8.2.
8.61 Draw the inuence line for the vertical deection at
FIG. P8.57 point D of the beam of Problem 8.4. EI constant. See
Fig. P8.4.
 9
Application of Influence Lines
9.1 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Single Moving Concentrated
Load
9.2 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Uniformly Distributed Live
Load
9.3 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Series of Moving
Concentrated Loads
9.4 Absolute Maximum Response
Summary
Problems

A Highway Bridge Subjected to

Moving Loads
Courtesy of the State of California, Caltrans, Dist 4,
Photographer John Huseby

In the preceding chapter, we learned how to construct inuence lines

for various response functions of structures. In this chapter, we consider
the application of inuence lines in determining the maximum values
of response functions at particular locations in structures due to vari-
able loads. We also discuss the procedures for evaluating the absolute
maximum value of a response function that may occur anywhere in a
structure.

9.1 RESPONSE AT A PARTICULAR LOCATION DUE TO A SINGLE MOVING CONCENTRATED LOAD

As discussed in the preceding chapter, each ordinate of an inuence line
gives the value of the response function due to a single concentrated
load of unit magnitude placed on the structure at the location of that
ordinate. Thus, we can state the following.
1. The value of a response function due to any single concentrated
load can be obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the load by
the ordinate of the response function inuence line at the position of
the load.

401
402 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

2. To determine the maximum positive value of a response function

due to a single moving concentrated load, the load must be placed
at the location of the maximum positive ordinate of the response
function inuence line, whereas to determine the maximum negative
value of the response function, the load must be placed at the loca-
tion of the maximum negative ordinate of the inuence line.
Consider, for example, a beam subjected to a moving concentrated
load of magnitude P, as shown in Fig. 9.1(a). Suppose that we wish to
determine the bending moment at B when the load P is located at a
distance x from the left support A. The inuence line for MB , given in
Fig. 9.1(a), has an ordinate y at the position of the load P, indicating
that a unit load placed at the position of P causes a bending moment
MB y. Because the principle of superposition is valid, the load of
magnitude P must cause a bending moment at B, which is P times as
large as that caused by the load of unit magnitude. Thus, the bending
moment at B due to the load P is MB Py.
Next, suppose that our objective is to determine the maximum pos-
itive and the maximum negative bending moments at B due to the
load P. From the inuence line for MB (Fig. 9.1(a)), we observe that the
maximum positive and the maximum negative inuence-line ordinates
occur at points B and D, respectively. Therefore, to obtain the max-
imum positive bending moment at B, we place the load P at point B, as
shown in Fig. 9.1(b), and compute the magnitude of the maximum pos-
itive bending moment as MB PyB , where yB is the inuence-line
ordinate at B (Fig. 9.1(a)). Similarly, to obtain the maximum negative
bending moment at B, we place the load P at point D, as shown in Fig.
FIG. 9.1 9.1(c), and compute the magnitude of the maximum negative bending
moment as MB PyD .

Example 9.1

For the beam shown in Fig. 9.2(a), determine the maximum upward reaction at support C due to a 50-kN concentrated
live load.

Solution
Inuence Line The inuence line for the vertical reaction at support C of this beam was previously constructed in
Example 8.8 and is shown in Fig. 9.2(b). Recall that Cy was assumed to be positive in the upward direction in the con-
struction of this inuence line.
Maximum Upward Reaction at C To obtain the maximum positive value of Cy due to the 50-kN concentrated live
load, we place the load at B (Fig. 9.2(c)), where the maximum positive ordinate (1.4 kN/kN) of the inuence line occurs. By
multiplying the magnitude of the load by the value of this ordinate, we determine the maximum upward reaction at C as
Cy 501:4 70 kN 70 kN " Ans.
continued
 SECTION 9.2 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Uniformly Distributed Live Load 403

Hinge Hinge
A C D F
B E

4m 4m 10 m 4m 4m
(a)

1.4
1.0

0 E F
A B C D
0.4

(b) Influence Line for Cy (kN/kN)

50 kN

A C D E F
B
Hinge Hinge

(c) Position of 50-kN Load for

FIG. 9.2 Maximum Upward Cy

9.2 RESPONSE AT A PARTICULAR LOCATION DUE TO A UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOAD

Inuence lines can also be employed to determine the values of response
functions of structures due to distributed loads. Consider, for example, a
beam subjected to a uniformly distributed live load of intensity wl , as
shown in Fig. 9.3(a). Suppose that we wish to determine the bending
moment at B when the load is placed on the beam, from x a to x b,
as shown in the gure. The inuence line for MB is also given in the
gure. By treating the distributed load applied over a dierential length
dx of the beam as a concentrated load of magnitude dP wl dx, as
shown in the gure, we can express the bending moment at B due to the
load dP as
dMB dP y wl dx y (9.1)
404 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

where y is the inuence line ordinate at x, which is the point of appli-

cation of dP, as shown in the gure. To determine the total bending
moment at B due to the distributed load from x a to x b, we in-
tegrate Eq. (9.1) between these limits to obtain
b b
MB wl y dx wl y dx (9.2)
a a

b
in which the integral a y dx represents the area under the segment of
the inuence line, which corresponds to the loaded portion of the beam.
This area is shown as a shaded area on the inuence line for MB in
Fig. 9.3(a).
Equation (9.2) also indicates that the bending moment at B will
be maximum positive if the uniformly distributed load is placed over all
those portions of the beam where the inuence-line ordinates are pos-
itive and vice versa. From Fig. 9.3(a), we can see that the ordinates of
the inuence line for MB are positive between the points A and C and
negative between C and D. Therefore, to obtain the maximum positive
bending moment at B, we place the uniformly distributed load wl from
A to C, as shown in Fig. 9.3(b), and compute the magnitude of the
maximum positive bending moment as

MB wl area under the inuence line between A and C

 
1
wl 0:75L yB 0:375wl yB L
2

Similarly, to obtain the maximum negative bending moment at B, we

place the load from C to D, as shown in Fig. 9.3(c), and compute the
magnitude of the maximum negative bending moment as

MB wl area under the inuence line between C and D

 
1
wl 0:25LyD 0:125wl yD L
2
FIG. 9.3
Based on the foregoing discussion, we can state the following.
1. The value of a response function due to a uniformly distributed load
applied over a portion of the structure can be obtained by multi-
plying the load intensity by the net area under the corresponding
portion of the response function inuence line.
2. To determine the maximum positive (or negative) value of a
response function due to a uniformly distributed live load, the
load must be placed over those portions of the structure where the
ordinates of the response function inuence line are positive (or
negative).
 SECTION 9.2 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Uniformly Distributed Live Load 405

Example 9.2

For the beam shown in Fig. 9.4(a), determine the maximum upward reaction at support C due to a 15-kN/m uniformly
distributed live load.

Hinge Hinge
A C D F
B E

4m 4m 10 m 4m 4m
(a)

1.4
1.0

0 E F
A B C D
0.4

(b) Influence Line for Cy (kN/kN)

15 kN/m
A E F
B C D

Hinge Hinge

(c) Arrangement of 15-kN/m

FIG. 9.4 Load for Maximum Upward Cy

Solution
Inuence Line The inuence line for the vertical reaction at support C of this beam was previously constructed in
Example 8.8 and is shown in Fig. 9.4(b). Recall that Cy was assumed to be positive in the upward direction in the con-
struction of this inuence line.
Maximum Upward Reaction at C From Fig. 9.4(b), we observe that the ordinates of the inuence line for Cy are
positive between points A and D. Therefore, to obtain the maximum positive value of Cy , we place the 15-kN/m uni-
formly distributed live load over the portion AD of the beam, as shown in Fig. 9.4(c). By multiplying the load intensity
by the area under the portion AD of the inuence line, we determine the maximum upward reaction at C as
 
1
Cy 15 1:418 189 kN 189 kN " Ans.
2
406 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

Example 9.3

For the beam shown in Fig. 9.5(a), determine the maximum positive and negative shears and the maximum positive and
negative bending moments at point C due to a concentrated live load of 90 kN, a uniformly distributed live load of
40 kN/m, and a uniformly distributed dead load of 20 kN/m.

FIG. 9.5

Solution
Inuence Lines The inuence lines for the shear and bending moment at point C of this beam were previously
constructed in Example 8.6 and are shown in Fig. 9.5(b) and (e), respectively.
continued
 SECTION 9.2 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Uniformly Distributed Live Load 407

Maximum Positive Shear at C To obtain the maximum positive shear at C due to the 90-kN concentrated live
load, we place the load just to the right of C (Fig. 9.5(c)), where the maximum positive ordinate (2/3 kN/kN) of the
inuence line for SC occurs. By multiplying the magnitude of the load by the value of this ordinate, we determine the
maximum positive value of SC due to the concentrated live load as
 
2
SC 90 60 kN
3
From Fig. 9.5(b), we observe that the ordinates of the inuence line for SC are positive between the points A and B and
between the points C and D. Therefore, to obtain the maximum positive shear at C due to the 40-kN/m uniformly dis-
tributed live load, we place the load over the portions AB and CD of the beam, as shown in Fig. 9.5(c), and compute the
maximum positive value of SC due to this load by multiplying the load intensity by the area under the portions AB and
CD of the inuence line. Thus
       
1 1 1 2
SC 40 3 6 100 kN
2 3 2 3

Unlike live loads, the dead loads always act at xed positions on structures; that is, their positions cannot be varied to
maximize response functions. Therefore, the 20-kN/m uniformly distributed dead load is placed over the entire length of
the beam, as shown in Fig. 9.5(c), and the corresponding shear at C is determined by multiplying the dead-load intensity
by the net area under the entire inuence line as
           
1 1 1 1 1 2
SC 20 3 3  6 40 kN
2 3 2 3 2 3

The total maximum positive shear at C can now be obtained by algebraically adding the values of SC determined for
the three types of loads.
Maximum positive SC 60 100 40 200 kN Ans.
Maximum Negative Shear at C The arrangement of the loads to obtain the maximum negative shear at C is shown
in Fig. 9.5(d). The maximum negative shear at C is given by
         
1 1 1 1 1
Maximum negative SC 90  40 3  20 3
3 2 3 2 3
       
1 1 1 2
3  6
2 3 2 3
10 kN Ans.
Maximum Positive Bending Moment at C The arrangement of the loads to obtain the maximum positive
bending moment at C is shown in Fig. 9.5(f ). Note that the 90-kN concentrated live load is placed at the location
of the maximum positive ordinate of the inuence line for MC (Fig. 9.5(e)); the 40-kN/m uniformly distributed live
load is placed over the portion BD of the beam, where the ordinates of the inuence line are positive; whereas the
20-kN/m uniformly distributed dead load is placed over the entire length of the beam. The maximum positive
bending moment at C is given by

continued
408 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

 
1
Maximum positive MC 902 40 92
2
    
1 1
20 32 92
2 2
660 kN  m Ans.

Maximum Negative Bending Moment at C The loading arrangement to obtain the maximum negative bending
moment at C is shown in Fig. 9.5(g). The maximum negative MC is given by
 
1
Maximum negative MC 902 40 32
2
    
1 1
20 32 92
2 2
180 kN  m Ans.

9.3 RESPONSE AT A PARTICULAR LOCATION DUE TO A SERIES OF MOVING CONCENTRATED

LOADS
As discussed in Section 2.2, live loads due to vehicular trac on high-
way and railway bridges are represented by a series of moving con-
centrated loads with specied spacing between the loads (see Figs. 2.2
and 2.3). Inuence lines provide a convenient means of analyzing struc-
tures subjected to such moving loads. In this section, we discuss how the
inuence line for a response function can be used to determine (1) the
value of the response function for a given position of a series of con-
centrated loads and (2) the maximum value of the response function due
to a series of moving concentrated loads.
Consider, for example, the bridge beam shown in Fig. 9.6. Suppose
that we wish to determine the shear at point B of the beam due to the
wheel loads of an HS20-44 truck when the front axle of the truck is lo-
cated at a distance of 16 ft from the left support A, as shown in the g-
ure. The inuence line for the shear at B is also shown in the gure. The
distances between the three loads as well as the location of the 4-k load
are known, so the locations of the other two loads can be easily estab-
lished. Although the inuence-line ordinates corresponding to the loads
can be obtained by using the properties of the similar triangles formed
by the inuence line, it is usually convenient to evaluate such an ordi-
nate by multiplying the slope of the segment of the inuence line where
the load is located by the distance of the load from the point at which
the inuence line segment intersects the horizontal axis (i.e., becomes
 SECTION 9.3 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Series of Moving Concentrated Loads 409

FIG. 9.6

zero). The sign (plus or minus) of the ordinate is obtained by inspection.

For example, the inuence-line ordinate corresponding to the 4-k load
(Fig. 9.6), can be computed by multiplying the slope (1:100) of the
inuence-line segment for the portion AB by the distance (16 ft) of the
load from point A. Thus the ordinate of the inuence line for SB corre-
sponding to the 4-k load equals 1=10016 0:16 k/k. The ordi-
nates corresponding to the three loads thus obtained are shown in
Fig. 9.6.
It may be recalled that the shear at B due to a single con-
centrated load is given by the product of the magnitude of the load and
the inuence-line ordinate at the location of the load. Because super-
position is valid, the total shear at B caused by the three concentrated
loads can be determined by algebraically summing the shears at B due
to the individual loads, that is, by summing the products of the load
magnitudes and the respective inuence-line ordinates. Thus
SB 40:16  160:3 160:4 0:96 k
The foregoing procedure can be employed to determine the value of
any force or moment response function of a structure for a given posi-
tion of a series of concentrated loads.
Inuence lines can also be used for determining the maximum
values of response functions at particular locations of structures due to
a series of concentrated loads. Consider the beam shown in Fig. 9.7(a),
and suppose that our objective is to determine the maximum positive
410 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

FIG. 9.7

shear at point B due to the series of four concentrated loads shown in

the gure. The inuence line for SB is shown in Fig. 9.7(b). Assuming
that the load series moves from right to left on the beam, we can observe
from these gures that as the series moves from the end C of the beam
toward point B, the shear at B increases continuously as the ordinates of
SECTION 9.3 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Series of Moving Concentrated Loads 411

the inuence line under the loads increase. The shear at B reaches a rel-
ative maximum when the rst load of the series, the 8-k load, reaches
just to the right of B, where the maximum positive ordinate of the in-
uence line is located. As the 8-k load crosses point B, the shear at B
decreases abruptly by an amount equal to 80:667 0:333 8 k.
With the series of loads continuing to move toward the left, SB increases
again, and it reaches another relative maximum when the second load
of the series, the 10-k load, reaches just to the right of B, and so on.
Because SB becomes a relative maximum whenever one of the loads of
the series reaches the maximum positive inuence-line ordinate, we can
conclude that during the movement of the series of loads across the en-
tire length of the beam, the (absolute) maximum shear at B occurs when
one of the loads of the series is at the location of the maximum positive
ordinate of the inuence line for SB . Since it is not possible to identify
by inspection the load that will cause the maximum positive SB when
placed at the maximum inuence-line ordinate, we use a trial-and-error
procedure to determine the value of the maximum positive shear at B.
As shown in Fig. 9.7(c), the series of loads is initially positioned on the
beam with its rst load, the 8-k load, placed just to the right of B, where
the maximum positive ordinate of the inuence line is located. Noting
that the slope of the inuence-line segment for the portion BC is 1:30
(Fig. 9.7(b)), we compute the value of SB for this loading position as
       
1 1 1 1
SB 820 1016 1513 58
30 30 30 30
18:5 k
Next, the entire series of loads is moved to the left by 4 ft to place the
second load of the series, the 10-k load, at the location of the maximum
positive ordinate of the inuence line, as shown in Fig. 9.7(d). The shear
at B for this loading position is given by
       
1 1 1 1
SB 86 1020 1517 512
30 30 30 30
15:567 k
The series of loads is then moved further to the left by 3 ft to place the
third load of the series, the 15-k load, just to the right of B (Fig. 9.7(e)).
The shear at B is now given by
       
1 1 1 1
SB 83  107 1520 515
30 30 30 30
9:367 k
Finally, the series is positioned so that its last load, the 5-k load, is just
to the right of B, as shown in Fig. 9.7(f ). Note that the 8-k load has
moved o the span of the beam; therefore, it does not contribute to the
shear at B, which is given by
412 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines
    
1 1 1
SB 102  155 520 0:167 k
30 30 30
By comparing the values of SB determined for the four loading posi-
tions, we conclude that the maximum positive shear at B occurs for the
rst loading positionthat is, when the 8-k load is placed just to the
right of B (Fig. 9.7(c)):
Maximum positive SB 18:5 k

Procedure for Analysis

The procedure for determining the maximum value of a force or mo-
ment response function at a particular location in a structure due to a
series of moving concentrated loads can be summarized as follows.
1. Construct an inuence line for the response function whose max-
imum value is desired, and locate its maximum positive or negative
ordinate, depending on whether the maximum positive or negative
value of the response function is desired. (This ordinate is referred
to simply as the maximum ordinate in the following.)
2. Select the direction (either from right to left or vice versa) in which
the load series will be moved on the structure. If the series is to
move from right to left, then the load at the left end of the series is
considered to be the rst load, whereas if the series is to move from
left to right, then the load at the right end is considered to be the
rst load. Beginning with the rst load, sequentially number (as 1,
2, 3, . . .) all the loads of the series. The position of the entire load
series is referred to by the number of the load, which is placed at the
location of the maximum inuence line ordinate; for example, when
the third load of the series is placed at the location of the maximum
inuence line ordinate, then the position of the load series is re-
ferred to as the loading position 3, and so on (for an example, see
Fig. 9.7).
3. Position the given series of concentrated loads on the structure, with
the rst load of the series at the location of the maximum ordinate
of the inuence line. Establish the locations of the rest of the loads
of the series.
4. Evaluate the inuence-line ordinates corresponding to the loads of
the series, and determine the value of the response function by alge-
braically summing the products of the load magnitudes and the re-
spective inuence-line ordinates. If the value of the response func-
tion determined herein is for the last loading position (with the last
load of the series placed at the location of the maximum inuence-
line ordinate), then go to step 6. Otherwise, continue to the next
step.
5. Move the load series in the direction selected in step 2 until the next
load of the series reaches the location of the maximum inuence-
 SECTION 9.3 Response at a Particular Location Due to a Series of Moving Concentrated Loads 413

line ordinate. Establish the positions of the rest of the loads of the
series, and return to step 4.
6. By comparing the magnitudes of the response function determined
for all the loading positions considered, obtain the maximum value
of the response function.
If the arrangement of loads is such that all or most of the heavier
loads are located near one of the ends of the series, then the analysis can
be expedited by selecting a direction of movement for the series, so that
the heavier loads will reach the maximum inuence-line ordinate before
the lighter loads of the series. For example, a load series in which the
heavier loads are to the left should be moved on the structure from right
to left and vice versa. In such a case, it may not be necessary to examine
all the loading positions obtained by successively placing each load of
the series at the location of the maximum inuence-line ordinate. In-
stead, the analysis can be ended when the value of the response function
begins to decrease; that is, if the value of the response function for a
loading position is found to be less than that for the preceding loading
position, then the value of the response function for the preceding load-
ing position is considered to be the maximum value. Although this cri-
terion may also work for series with heavier loads near the middle of the
group, it is not valid for any general series of loads. In general, depend-
ing on the load magnitudes and spacing, and the shape of the inuence
line, the value of the response function, after declining for some loading
positions, may start increasing again for subsequent loading positions
and may attain a higher maximum.

Example 9.4

Determine the maximum axial force in member BC of the Warren truss due to the series of four moving concentrated
loads shown in Fig. 9.8(a).

Solution
Inuence Line for FBC See Fig. 9.8(b).
Maximum Force in Member BC To determine the maximum value of FBC , we move the load series from right to
left, successively placing each load of the series at point B, where the maximum ordinate of the inuence line for FBC is
located (see Fig. 9.8(c) through (f )). The value of FBC is then computed for each loading position as follows.
 For loading position 1 (Fig. 9.8(c)):
 
1
FBC 1660 3250 835 3215 41:5 k T
80

continued
414 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

 For loading position 2 (Fig. 9.8(d)):

   
3 1
FBC 1610 3260 845 3225 44:5 k T
80 80
 For loading position 3 (Fig. 9.8(e)):
   
3 1
FBC 325 860 3240 28:0 k T
80 80

FIG. 9.8 continued

 SECTION 9.4 Absolute Maximum Response 415

FIG. 9.8 (contd.)

 For loading position 4 (Fig. 9.8(f )):

 
1
FBC 3260 24:0 k T
80
By comparing the values of FBC for the four loading positions, we conclude that the magnitude of the maximum axial
force that develops in member BC is FBC 44:5 k tension. This maximum force occurs when the second load of the
series is placed at joint B of the truss, as shown in Fig. 9.8(d).
Maximum FBC 44:5 k T Ans.

9.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RESPONSE

Thus far, we have considered the maximum response that may occur at
a particular location in a structure. In this section, we discuss how to
determine the absolute maximum value of a response function that may
occur at any location throughout a structure. Although only simply
supported beams are considered in this section, the concepts presented
herein can be used to develop procedures for the analysis of absolute
maximum responses of other types of structures.

Single Concentrated Load

Consider the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 9.9(a). The inuence
lines for the shear and bending moment at an arbitrary section a 0 a 0 lo-
cated at a distance a from the left support A are shown in Fig. 9.9(b)
416 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

FIG. 9.9

and (c), respectively. Recall that these inuence lines were initially de-
veloped in Section 8.1 (Fig. 8.2(e) and (f )).
Suppose that we wish to determine the absolute maximum shear in
the beam due to a single moving concentrated load of magnitude P. As
discussed in Section 9.1, the maximum positive shear at the section a 0 a 0
is given by the product of the load magnitude, P, and the maximum
positive ordinate, 1  a=L, of the inuence line for shear at section
a 0 a 0 (Fig. 9.9(b)). Thus,
 
a
maximum positive shear P 1  (9.3)
L
 SECTION 9.4 Absolute Maximum Response 417

Similarly, the maximum negative shear at section a 0 a 0 is given by

Pa
maximum negative shear  (9.4)
L
These equations indicate that the maximum positive and maximum
negative shears at a section due to a single moving concentrated load
vary linearly with the distance a of the section from the left support A of
the beam. A plot of Eqs. (9.3) and (9.4), with maximum shear as ordi-
nate, against the location a of the section as abscissa is shown in
Fig. 9.9(d). Such a graph, depicting the variation of the maximum value
of a response function as a function of the location of the section, is re-
ferred to as the envelope of the maximum values of a response function.
An envelope of maximum values of a response function provides a con-
venient means of determining the absolute maximum value of the re-
sponse function as well as its location. It can be seen from the envelope
of maximum shears (Fig. 9.9(d)) that in a simply supported beam sub-
jected to a moving concentrated load P, the absolute maximum shear
develops at sections just inside the supports and has the magnitude of P.
The envelope of maximum bending moments due to a single mov-
ing concentrated load P can be generated in a similar manner. By using
the inuence line for bending moment at the arbitrary section a 0 a 0 given
in Fig. 9.9(c), we determine the expression for the maximum bending
moment at the section a 0 a 0 as
 
a
maximum bending moment Pa 1  (9.5)
L
The envelope of maximum bending moments constructed by plotting
Eq. (9.5) is shown in Fig. 9.9(e). It can be seen that the absolute max-
imum bending moment occurs at midspan of the beam and has magni-
tude PL=4.

Uniformly Distributed Load

Next, let us determine the absolute maximum shear and bending mo-
ment in the simply supported beam of Fig. 9.9(a) due to a uniformly
distributed live load of intensity wl . As discussed in Section 9.2, the
maximum positive (or negative) shear at the section a 0 a 0 can be obtained
by placing the load over the portion of the beam where the ordinates of
the shear inuence line (Fig. 9.9(b)) are positive (or negative), and by
multiplying the load intensity by the area of the inuence line under the
loaded portion of the beam. Thus,
wl
maximum positive shear L  a 2 (9.6)
2L
wl a 2
maximum negative shear  (9.7)
2L
418 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

The envelope of maximum shears due to a uniformly distributed live

load, constructed by plotting Eqs. (9.6) and (9.7), is shown in Fig. 9.9(f ).
It can be seen that the absolute maximum shear develops at sections just
inside the supports and has magnitude wl L=2.
To determine the expression for the maximum bending moment at
section a 0 a 0 , we multiply the load intensity, wl , by the area of the bend-
ing moment inuence line (Fig. 9.9(c)), to obtain
wl a
maximum bending moment L  a (9.8)
2
The envelope of maximum bending moments due to a uniformly dis-
tributed live load, constructed by plotting Eq. (9.8), is shown in Fig.
9.9(g). It can be seen from this envelope that the absolute maximum
bending moment occurs at midspan of the beam and has magnitude
wl L 2 =8.

Series of Concentrated Loads

The absolute maximum value of a response function in any structure
subjected to a series of moving concentrated loads or any other live
loading condition can be determined from the envelope of maximum
values of the response function. Such an envelope can be constructed
by evaluating the maximum values of the response function at a number
of points along the length of the structure by using the procedures
described in Sections 9.1 through 9.3, and by plotting the maximum
values. Because of the considerable amount of computational eort in-
volved, except for some simple structures, the analysis of absolute max-
imum response is usually performed using computers. In the following
section, we discuss the direct methods that are commonly employed to
determine the absolute maximum shears and bending moments in sim-
ply supported beams subjected to a series of moving concentrated loads.
As in the case of single concentrated and uniformly distributed
loads, the absolute maximum shear in a simply supported beam due to a
series of moving concentrated loads always occurs at sections just inside
the supports. From the inuence line for shear at an arbitrary section
a 0 a 0 of a simply supported beam shown in Fig. 9.9(b), we can see that in
order to develop the maximum positive shear at the section, we must
place as many loads of the series as possible on the portion of the beam
for which the inuence line is positive and as few loads as possible on
the portion where the inuence line is negative. Moreover, as section
a 0 a 0 is shifted toward the left support of the beam, the value of the
maximum positive shear will continuously increase, because the length
and the maximum ordinate of the positive portion of the inuence line
increase, whereas those of the negative portion decrease. Thus, the
absolute maximum positive shear will occur when the section a 0 a 0 is
located just to the right of the left support A. Using a similar reasoning,
 SECTION 9.4 Absolute Maximum Response 419

it can be shown that the absolute maximum negative shear occurs at a

section located just to the left of the right support C of the simply sup-
ported beam. Since the location of the absolute maximum shear is
known, the procedure for computing maximum response at a section
due to a series of concentrated loads, developed in Section 9.3, can be
employed to determine the magnitude of the absolute maximum shear.
Because the inuence line for shear just inside the left support is identi-
cal to the inuence line for reaction at the left support, the latter can be
conveniently used for determining the magnitude of the absolute max-
FIG. 9.10 imum shear.
To determine the location of the absolute maximum bending
moment, consider the simply supported beam subjected to an arbitrary
series of moving concentrated loads P1 ; P2 , and P3 , as shown in Fig. 9.10.
The resultant of the loads P1 ; P2 , and P3 is denoted by PR , which is lo-
cated at the distance x from the load P2 , as shown in the gure. The
bending moment diagram of the beam consists of straight-line segments
between the load points regardless of the position of the loads, so
the absolute maximum bending moment occurs under one of the loads.
Assuming that the absolute maximum bending moment occurs under
the load P2 , our objective is to determine its position x from the mid-
span of the
P beam, as shown in the gure. By applying the equilibrium
equation MB 0 and using the resultant PR instead of the individual
loads in the equilibrium equation, we determine the vertical reaction
Ay to be
P
MB 0
 
L
Ay L PR xx 0
2
 
1 x x
Ay PR 
2 L L

Thus the bending moment under the load P2 is given by

 
L
M2 Ay x  P 1 a1
2
  
1 x x L
PR  x  P 1 a1
2 L L 2
 
L x xx x 2
PR   P1 a 1
4 2 L L

For M2 to be maximum, its derivative with respect to x must be zero;

that is,
 
dM2 x 2x
PR  0
dx L L
420 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

from which we obtain

x
x (9.9)
2

Based on Eq. (9.9), we can conclude that in a simply supported beam

subjected to a series of moving concentrated loads, the maximum bending
moment develops under a load when the midspan of the beam is located
halfway between the load and the resultant of all the loads on the beam.
By applying this criterion, a maximum bending moment can be com-
puted for each load acting on the beam. The largest of the maximum
bending moments thus obtained is the absolute maximum bending mo-
ment. However, in general it is not necessary to examine all the loads
acting on the beam, since the absolute maximum bending moment usu-
ally occurs under the load closest to the resultant, provided that it is of
equal or larger magnitude than the next adjacent load. Otherwise, the
maximum bending moments should be computed for the two loads ad-
jacent to the resultant and compared to obtain the absolute maximum
bending moment.

Example 9.5

Determine the absolute maximum bending moment in the simply supported beam due to the wheel loads of the HS20-
44 truck shown in Fig. 9.11(a).

Solution
Resultant of Load Series The magnitude of the resultant is obtained by summing the magnitudes of the loads of the
series. Thus
P
PR Pi 4 16 16 36 k
The location of the resultant can be determined by using the condition that the moment of the resultant about a point
equals the sum of the moments of the individual loads about the same point. Thus, by summing moments about the
16-k trailer-wheel load, we obtain
P
PR x Pi xi
36x 428 1614
x 9:33 ft
Absolute Maximum Bending Moment From Fig. 9.11(b), we observe that the second load of the series (the 16-k
rear-wheel load) is located closest to the resultant. Thus the absolute maximum bending moment occurs under the sec-
ond load when the series is positioned on the beam so that the midspan of the beam is located halfway between the load
and the resultant. The resultant is located 4.67 ft to the right of the second load (Fig. 9.11(b)), so we position this load at
a distance of 4:67=2 2:33 ft to the left of the beam midspan, as shown in Fig. 9.11(c). Next we compute the vertical
reaction at A to be
continued
 Summary 421

FIG. 9.11
 
22:67
Ay 36 16:32 k
50
Thus the absolute maximum bending moment, which occurs under the second load of the series, is
Absolute maximum bending moment M2 16:328:67 14  414
313:97 k-ft Ans.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have learned that the value of a response function
due to a single concentrated load can be obtained by multiplying the
magnitude of the load by the ordinate of the response function inuence
422 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

line at the position of the load. To determine the maximum positive

(or negative) value of a response function due to a single moving con-
centrated load, the load must be placed at the location of the maximum
positive (or negative) ordinate of the response function inuence line.
The value of a response function due to a uniformly distributed load
applied over a portion of the structure can be obtained by multiplying
the load intensity by the net area under the corresponding portion of the
response function inuence line. To determine the maximum positive (or
negative) value of a response function due to a uniformly distributed
live load, the load must be placed over those portions of the structure
where the ordinates of the response function inuence line are positive
(or negative).
The maximum value of a response function at a particular location
in a structure due to a series of moving concentrated loads can be de-
termined by successively placing each load of the series on the structure
at the location of the maximum ordinate of the response function in-
uence line, by computing the value of the response function for each
position of the series through algebraically summing the products of the
load magnitudes and the respective inuence-line ordinates, and by
comparing the values of the response function thus obtained to de-
termine the maximum value of the response function.
In simply supported beams (a) the absolute maximum shear devel-
ops at sections just inside the supports, (b) the absolute maximum
bending moment due to a single concentrated, or a uniformly dis-
tributed, live load occurs at the beam midspan, and (c) the absolute
maximum bending moment due to a series of moving concentrated
loads occurs under one of the loads near the resultant of the loads when
the midspan of the beam is located halfway between the load and the
resultant.

PROBLEMS
Sections 9.1 and 9.2 9.4 For the beam of Problem 8.5, determine the maximum
9.1 For the beam of Problem 8.4, determine the maximum positive and negative shears and the maximum positive and
negative bending moment at point B due to a 15-k con- negative bending moments at point C due to a concentrated
centrated live load. live load of 100 kN, a uniformly distributed live load of 50
kN/m, and a uniformly distributed dead load of 20 kN/m.
9.2 For the beam of Problem 8.4, determine the maximum
upward reaction at support A due to a 3-k/ft uniformly 9.5 For the cantilever beam of Problem 8.9, determine the
distributed live load. maximum upward vertical reaction and the maximum
counterclockwise reaction moment at support A due to a
9.3 For the beam of Problem 8.4, determine the maximum concentrated live load of 25 k, a uniformly distributed live
negative shear at point B due to a 3-k/ft uniformly dis- load of 2 k/ft, and a uniformly distributed dead load of
tributed live load. 0.5 k/ft.
 Problems 423

9.6 For the beam of Problem 8.10, determine the maximum series of three moving concentrated loads shown in Fig.
positive and negative shears and the maximum positive and P9.13.
negative bending moments at point C due to a concentrated
live load of 150 kN, a uniformly distributed live load of 50
kN/m, and a uniformly distributed dead load of 25 kN/m.
9.7 For the beam of Problem 8.23, determine the maximum
positive and negative shears and the maximum positive and
negative bending moments at point D due to a concentrated FIG. P9.13, P9.17, P9.18, P9.22
live load of 30 k, a uniformly distributed live load of 3 k/ft,
and a uniformly distributed dead load of 1 k/ft.
9.14 For the beam of Problem 8.7, determine the maximum
9.8 For the beam of Problem 8.27, determine the maximum positive bending moment at point B due to the series of four
positive and negative shears and the maximum positive and moving concentrated loads shown in Fig. P9.14.
negative bending moments at point E due to a concentrated
live load of 40 k, a uniformly distributed live load of 2 k/ft,
and a uniformly distributed dead load of 1 k/ft.
9.9 For the truss of Problem 8.47, determine the max-
imum compressive axial force in member GH due to a
concentrated live load of 30 k, a uniformly distributed FIG. P9.14, P9.16, P9.19, P9.23
live load of 2 k/ft, and a uniformly distributed dead load
of 1 k/ft.
9.15 For the beam of Problem 8.23, determine the max-
9.10 For the truss of Problem 8.50, determine the maximum imum positive bending moment at point D due to the wheel
tensile axial force in member BE and the maximum com- loads of the moving HS15-44 truck shown in Fig. P9.15.
pressive axial force in member BF due to a concentrated
live load of 120 kN, a uniformly distributed live load of
40 kN/m, and a uniformly distributed dead load of 20 kN/m.
9.11 For the truss of Problem 8.51, determine the maximum
tensile and compressive axial forces in member DI due to a
concentrated live load of 40 k, a uniformly distributed live
load of 4 k/ft, and a uniformly distributed dead load of FIG. P9.15, P9.21
2 k/ft.
9.16 For the truss of Problem 8.49, determine the maximum
Section 9.3 compressive axial force in member GH due to the series of
four moving concentrated loads shown in Fig. P9.14.
9.12 For the beam of Problem 8.2, determine the maximum
positive shear and bending moment at point B due to the 9.17 For the truss of Problem 8.53, determine the maximum
wheel loads of the moving H20-44 truck shown in Fig. tensile axial force in member DI due to the series of three
P9.12. moving concentrated loads shown in Fig. P9.13.

Section 9.4
9.18 Determine the absolute maximum shear in a 15-m-
long simply supported beam due to the series of three mov-
FIG. P9.12, P9.20 ing concentrated loads shown in Fig. P9.13.
9.19 Determine the absolute maximum shear in a 60-ft-long
9.13 For the beam of Problem 8.1, determine the maximum simply supported beam due to the series of four moving
positive shear and bending moment at point B due to the concentrated loads shown in Fig. P9.14.
424 CHAPTER 9 Application of Influence Lines

9.20 Determine the absolute maximum bending moment in 9.22 Determine the absolute maximum bending moment in
a 12-m-long simply supported beam due to the wheel loads a 15-m-long simply supported beam due to the series of
of the moving H20-44 truck shown in Fig. P9.12. three moving concentrated loads shown in Fig. P9.13.
9.21 Determine the absolute maximum bending moment in 9.23 Determine the absolute maximum bending moment in
a 75-ft-long simply supported beam due to the wheel loads a 60-ft-long simply supported beam due to the series of four
of the moving HS15-44 truck shown in Fig. P9.15. moving concentrated loads shown in Fig. P9.14.
 10
Analysis of Symmetric
Structures
10.1 Symmetric Structures
10.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loadings
10.3 Behavior of Symmetric Structures under Symmetric and Antisymmetric
Loadings
10.4 Procedure for Analysis of Symmetric Structures
Summary
Problems

Taj Mahal, Built in the Seventeenth

Century in Agra, India
Luciano Mortula/Shutterstock

Many structures, because of aesthetic and/or functional considerations,

are arranged in symmetric forms. Provided a symmetric structure is lin-
early elastic, the response (i.e., member forces and deformations) of the
entire structure under any general loading can be obtained from the re-
sponse of one of its portions separated by the axes of symmetry. Thus
only a portion (usually half ) of the symmetric structure needs to be an-
alyzed. In this chapter we discuss how to recognize structural symmetry
and how to utilize it to reduce the computational eort required in the
analysis of symmetric structures.
We rst dene symmetric structures and then discuss symmetric and
antisymmetric loadings. In this presentation, we develop a procedure for
decomposing a general loading into symmetric and antisymmetric com-
ponents. Next we examine the behavior of symmetric structures under
the symmetric and antisymmetric loadings; nally, we present a step-by-
step procedure for the analysis of symmetric structures.
Although the discussion in this chapter is conned to structures
with a single axis of symmetry, the concepts developed herein can be
extended to the analysis of structures with multiple axes of symmetry.

425
426 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

10.1 SYMMETRIC STRUCTURES

Reflection
The denition of symmetry can be developed by using the concept of
reection, or mirror image. Consider a structure located in the xy plane,
as shown in Fig. 10.1(a). The reection of the structure about the y axis
is obtained by rotating the structure through 180 about the y axis, as
shown in Fig. 10.1(b). It can be seen from Fig. 10.1(a) and (b) that if the
coordinates of a point D of the structure are x1 and y1 , then the coor-
dinates of that point on the reection of the structure about the y axis
become x1 and y1 . The reection of the structure about the x axis can
be obtained in a similar mannerthat is, by rotating the structure
through 180 about the x axis, as shown in Fig. 10.1(c). Note that the
coordinates of point D on the reection of the structure about the x axis
become x1 and y1 .
Based on the foregoing discussion, we realize that the reection of
a structure about an arbitrary s axis can be obtained by rotating the
structure through 180 about the s axis. Alternatively, the structures
reection can be obtained by joining the reections of its various joints

FIG. 10.1
 SECTION 10.1 Symmetric Structures 427

FIG. 10.2

and/or ends, which are determined by changing the signs of their coor-
dinates in the direction perpendicular to the s axis. To illustrate the lat-
ter approach, consider the truss shown in Fig. 10.2(a). Suppose that
we wish to determine its reection about the y axis. As shown in Fig.
10.2(b), the reections of the ve joints of the truss are rst determined
by changing the signs of the x coordinates of the joints. The reections
of the joints are then connected by straight lines to obtain the reection
of the entire truss. Note that the reection of joint C, which is located
on the y axis, is in the same position as joint C itself.

Symmetric Structures
A plane structure is considered to be symmetric with respect to an axis
of symmetry in its plane if the reection of the structure about the axis
is identical in geometry, supports, and material properties to the structure
itself.

Some examples of symmetric structures are shown in Fig. 10.3. For each
structure, the axis of symmetry is identied as the s axis. Note that the
428 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

FIG.10.3 Examples of Symmetric

Structures
 SECTION 10.1 Symmetric Structures 429

FIG. 10.3 (contd.)

reection of each structure about its axis of symmetry is identical in ge-

ometry, supports, and material properties to the structure itself.
Although the concept of reection provides a mathematically
precise means of dening symmetry, it is usually not necessary to draw
the reection of a structure to determine whether or not the structure
is symmetric. Instead, most symmetric structures can be identied by
inspectionthat is, by simply comparing the geometry, supports, and
material properties of the two halves of the structure on each side of the
axis of symmetry. Considering any of the structures of Fig. 10.3, if we
imagine that a half of the structure on either side of the axis of symme-
try is rotated through 180 about the axis of symmetry, it will exactly
overlay the other half of the structure, indicating that the structure is
symmetric.
As stated previously, a structure, in general, is considered to be
symmetric if its geometry, supports, and material properties are sym-
metric with respect to the axis of symmetry. However, when examining
430 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

structural symmetry for the purpose of an analysis, it is necessary to

consider the symmetry of only those structural properties that have an
eect on results of that particular type of analysis. In other words, a
structure can be considered to be symmetric for the purpose of an anal-
ysis if its structural properties that have an eect on the results of the
analysis are symmetric.
Consider, for example, the statically determinate truss subjected to
vertical loads, as shown in Fig. 10.4. We can see from the gure that the
geometry of the truss (i.e., the dimensions of the truss and the arrange-
ment of truss members) and its material and cross-sectional properties
(E and A) are symmetric with respect to the s axis, but the supports
FIG. 10.4 violate symmetry because the hinged support at A can exert both hori-
zontal and vertical reactions, whereas the roller support at C can exert
only a vertical reaction. However, the truss can be considered to be
symmetric when subjected to vertical loads only because under such
loads, the horizontal reaction at the hinged support will be zero
Ax 0; therefore, it will not have any eect on the response (e.g.,
member axial forces and deections) of the truss. This truss cannot be
considered to be symmetric when subjected to any horizontal loads,
however.

Example 10.1

The truss shown in Fig. 10.5(a) is to be analyzed to determine its member axial forces and deections due to a general
system of loads acting at the joints. Can the truss be considered to be symmetric for such an analysis?

FIG. 10.5

Solution
We can see from Fig. 10.5(b) that the dimensions, the arrangement of members, the material and cross-sectional prop-
erties (E and A), and the supports of the given truss are all symmetric with respect to the vertical s axis passing through
the member CG of the truss. Thus the truss is symmetric with respect to the s axis. Ans.
 SECTION 10.1 Symmetric Structures 431

Example 10.2

The beam shown in Fig. 10.6(a) is to be analyzed to determine the member end forces and deections due to the vertical
loading shown. Can the beam be considered to be symmetric for the analysis?

FIG. 10.6

Solution
We can see from Fig. 10.6(b) that the dimensions and properties (E and I ) of the beam are symmetric with respect to
the vertical s axis passing through the mid-point F of the beam, but the supports are not symmetric because the hinged
support at A can develop both horizontal and vertical reactions, whereas the roller supports at B; C, and E can develop
only vertical reactions. However, the beam can be considered to be symmetric under the vertical loads because the
horizontal reaction at A is zero Ax 0; therefore, it does not have any eect on the member end forces and deections
of the beam. Ans.

Example 10.3

The frame shown in Fig. 10.7(a) is to be analyzed to determine its member end forces and deections due to a general
system of loads. Can the frame be considered to be symmetric?

Solution
From Fig. 10.7(b) we can see that although the frames geometry and supports are symmetric with respect to the vertical
s axis passing through the internal hinge D, its moment of inertia (I ) is not symmetric. Since the frame is statically de-
terminate, its member end forces are independent of the material and cross-sectional properties (E; I, and A); therefore,
the frame can be considered to be symmetric for the purpose of analysis of its member forces. However, this frame
cannot be considered to be symmetric for the analysis of deections, which depend on the moments of inertia of the
members of the frame. Ans.
continued
432 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

FIG. 10.7

10.2 SYMMETRIC AND ANTISYMMETRIC COMPONENTS OF LOADINGS

As discussed in the preceding section for structures, the reection of a
system of forces (or deections) about an axis can be obtained by rotat-
ing the force system (or deections) through 180 about the axis. Con-
sider a system of forces and moments, Fx ; Fy , and M, acting at a point A
in the xy plane, as shown in Fig. 10.8(a). The reections of the force

FIG. 10.8
SECTION 10.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loadings 433

system about the y and x axes are shown in Fig. 10.8(b) and (c), respec-
tively. As shown in these gures, the reections of the counterclockwise
moment M are clockwise. Conversely, the reections of a clockwise
moment will always be counterclockwise. The reections of the deec-
tions Dx and Dy and the rotation y of point A (Fig. 10.8(a)) can be ob-
tained in a similar manner and are also shown in Fig. 10.8(b) and (c).

Symmetric Loadings
A loading is considered to be symmetric with respect to an axis in its plane
if the reection of the loading about the axis is identical to the loading
itself.

Some examples of symmetric loadings are shown in Fig. 10.9. The re-
ection of each loading about its axis of symmetry is also shown in the
gure for verication. However, it is usually not necessary to draw the
reections, since most loadings can be identied as symmetric, or not,
by inspection.

FIG. 10.9 Examples of Symmetric Loadings

434 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

FIG. 10.9 (contd.)

Antisymmetric Loadings
A loading is considered to be antisymmetric with respect to an axis in its
plane if the negative of the reection of the loading about the axis is iden-
tical to the loading itself.
Some examples of antisymmetric loadings are shown in Fig. 10.10. For
each loading case, the reection and the negative of reection are also

FIG. 10.10 Examples of Antisymmetric Loadings

SECTION 10.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loadings 435

FIG. 10.10 (contd.)

436 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

shown in the gure. The negative of a reection is obtained by simply

reversing the directions of all the forces and moments on the reection.
It can be seen from the gure that the negative of reection of each
loading about its s axis is identical to the loading itself.

Decomposition of a General Loading into Symmetric

and Antisymmetric Components
Any general loading can be decomposed into symmetric and anti-
symmetric components with respect to an axis by applying the following
procedure:
1. Divide the magnitudes of the forces and/or moments of the given
loading by 2 to obtain the half loading.
2. Draw a reection of the half loading about the specied axis.
3. Determine the symmetric component of the given loading by adding
the half loading to its reection.
4. Determine the antisymmetric component of the given loading
by subtracting the symmetric loading component from the given
loading.
To illustrate this procedure, consider the unsymmetric loading
shown in Fig. 10.11(a). Suppose that we wish to determine the com-

FIG. 10.11
 SECTION 10.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loadings 437

FIG. 10.11 (contd.)

ponents of this loading, which are symmetric and antisymmetric with

respect to an arbitrarily located s axis shown in the gure. We rst
compute the half loading by dividing the magnitudes of the distributed
and the concentrated loads by 2 (Fig. 10.11(b)). The reection of this
half loading about the s axis is then drawn, as shown in Fig. 10.11(c).
The symmetric component of the given loading is determined by adding
the half loading (Fig. 10.11(b)) to its reection (Fig. 10.11(c)). The
symmetric loading component thus obtained is shown in Fig. 10.11(d).
Finally, the antisymmetric component is computed by subtracting the
symmetric component (Fig. 10.11(d)) from the given loading (Fig.
10.11(a)). The antisymmetric loading component thus obtained is shown
in Fig. 10.11(e). Note that the sum of the symmetric and antisymmetric
components is equal to the given loading.

Example 10.4

A Pratt bridge truss is subjected to the loading shown in Fig. 10.12(a). Determine the symmetric and antisymmetric
components of the loading with respect to the axis of symmetry of the truss.

Solution
Symmetric Loading Component The axis of symmetry (s axis) of the truss and the half loading are shown in
Fig. 10.12(b); the reection of the half loading about the s axis is drawn in Fig. 10.12(c). The symmetric component of
the given loading is determined by adding the half loading (Fig. 10.12(b)) to its reection (Fig. 10.12(c)), as shown in
Fig. 10.12(d). Ans.

continued
438 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

FIG. 10.12

Antisymmetric Loading Component The antisymmetric component of the loading is obtained by subtracting the
symmetric loading component (Fig. 10.12(d)) from the total loading (Fig. 10.12(a)) and is shown in Fig. 10.12(e).
Ans.
Note that the sum of the symmetric and antisymmetric components is equal to the given loading.

Example 10.5

A beam is subjected to the loading shown in Fig. 10.13(a). Determine the symmetric and antisymmetric components of
the loading with respect to the axis of symmetry of the beam.

FIG. 10.13 continued

 SECTION 10.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loadings 439

FIG. 10.13 (contd.)

Solution
Symmetric Loading Component The axis of symmetry (s axis) of the beam and the half loading are shown in
Fig. 10.13(b), and the reection of the half loading about the s axis is drawn in Fig. 10.13(c). The symmetric component
of the given loading is determined by adding the half loading (Fig. 10.13(b)) to its reection (Fig. 10.13(c)), as shown
in Fig. 10.13(d). Ans.
Antisymmetric Loading Component The antisymmetric component is obtained by subtracting the symmetric com-
ponent (Fig. 10.13(d)) from the total loading (Fig. 10.13(a)) and is shown in Fig. 10.13(e). Ans.
Note that the sum of the symmetric and antisymmetric components is equal to the given loading.

Example 10.6

A four-span continuous beam is subjected to the loading shown in Fig. 10.14(a). Determine the symmetric and anti-
symmetric components of the loading with respect to the axis of symmetry of the beam.

Solution
Symmetric Loading Component The half loading and its reection are shown in Fig. 10.14(b) and (c), respectively.
The symmetric component of the given loading is obtained by adding the half loading to its reection, as shown in
Fig. 10.14(d). Ans.

continued
440 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

s
50 kN 50 kN
20 kN/m 30 kN/m

7m 3m 3m 3m 3m 7m
(a) Given Loading

s
25 kN 25 kN
10 kN/m 15 kN/m

(b) Half Loading

s
25 kN 25 kN
15 kN/m 10 kN/m

(c) Reflection of Half Loading

FIG. 10.14

Antisymmetric Loading Component By subtracting the symmetric component from the total loading (Fig. 10.14(a)),
we determine the antisymmetric component as shown in Fig. 10.14(e). Ans.
 SECTION 10.2 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loadings 441

Example 10.7

A gable frame is subjected to the loading shown in Fig. 10.15(a). Determine the symmetric and antisymmetric compo-
nents of the loading with respect to the axis of symmetry of the frame.

FIG. 10.15
continued
442 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

Solution
Symmetric Loading Component The half loading and its reection are shown in Fig. 10.15(b) and (c), respectively.
The symmetric component of the given loading is determined by adding the half loading to its reection, as shown in
Fig. 10.15(d). Ans.
Antisymmetric Loading Component By subtracting the symmetric component from the total loading (Fig. 10.15(a)),
we obtain the antisymmetric component as shown in Fig. 10.15(e). Ans.

Example 10.8

A two-story frame is subjected to the loading shown in Fig. 10.16(a). Determine the symmetric and antisymmetric
components of the loading with respect to the axis of symmetry of the frame.

Solution
Half Loading and Its Reection See Fig. 10.16(b) and (c), respectively.
Symmetric Loading Component See Fig. 10.16(d). Ans.
Antisymmetric Loading Component See Fig. 10.16(e). Ans.

s s

15 kN/m 7.5 kN/m

25 kN 12.5 kN

6m
30 kN/m 15 kN/m
50 kN 25 kN

6m

5m

10 m
FIG. 10.16 (a) Given Loading (b) Half Loading

continued
 SECTION 10.3 Behavior of Symmetric Structures under Symmetric and Antisymmetric Loadings 443

s s

7.5 kN/m 15 kN/m

12.5 kN 12.5 kN 12.5 kN

15 kN/m 30 kN/m
25 kN 25 kN 25 kN

(c) Reflection of Half Loading (d) Symmetric Loading Component

12.5 kN 12.5 kN

25 kN 25 kN

FIG. 10.16 (contd.) (e) Antisymmetric Loading Component

10.3 BEHAVIOR OF SYMMETRIC STRUCTURES UNDER SYMMETRIC AND ANTISYMMETRIC

LOADINGS
In the preceding section, we discussed how a general unsymmetric load-
ing can be decomposed into symmetric and antisymmetric components.
In this section, we examine the response characteristics of symmetric
structures under symmetric and antisymmetric loading conditions. The
insight gained into the behavior of symmetric structures will enable us
444 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

to develop, in the following section, a general procedure that can con-

siderably expedite the analysis of such structures.

Symmetric Structures Subjected to Symmetric Loadings

When a symmetric structure is subjected to a loading that is symmetric with
respect to the structures axis of symmetry, the response of the structure is
also symmetric, with the points of the structure at the axis of symmetry
neither rotating (unless there is a hinge at such a point) nor deecting per-
pendicular to the axis of symmetry.
Thus, to determine the response (i.e., member forces and deformations)
of the entire structure, we need to analyze only half the structure, on
either side of the axis of symmetry, with symmetric boundary conditions
(i.e., slopes must be either symmetric or zero, and deections perpen-
dicular to the axis of symmetry must be zero) at the axis. The response
of the remaining half of the structure can then be obtained by reection.
Consider, for example, a symmetric frame subjected to a loading
that is symmetric with respect to the frames axis of symmetry (s axis),
as shown in Fig. 10.17(a). The deected shape (elastic curve) of the
frame is also shown in the gure. It can be seen that, like the loading,
the deected shape is symmetric with respect to the axis of symmetry of
the frame. Note that the slope and the horizontal deection are zero at
point D, where the axis of symmetry intersects the frame, whereas the
vertical deection at D is not zero. The response of the entire frame can
be determined by analyzing only half the frame, on either side of the
axis of symmetry. The left half of the frame cut by the axis of symmetry

FIG. 10.17
 SECTION 10.3 Behavior of Symmetric Structures under Symmetric and Antisymmetric Loadings 445

is shown in Fig. 10.17(b). Note that the symmetric boundary conditions

are imposed on this substructure by supporting it at the end D by a col-
lar type of support (denoted by the symbol in Fig. 10.17(b)),
which prevents the rotation and the horizontal deection at the axis of
symmetry but cannot prevent the vertical deection along the axis. Once
the response of the left half of the frame has been determined by analy-
sis, the response of the right half can be obtained from that of the left
half by reection.
Consider another symmetric frame subjected to symmetric loading,
as shown in Fig. 10.18(a). The left half of the frame with symmetric
boundary conditions is shown in Fig. 10.18(b). As this gure indicates,
the rotation and horizontal deection at joint E have been restrained.
The hinged joint B is already restrained from moving in the horizontal
direction by the hinged support. Note that on the half of the frame se-
lected for analysis (Fig. 10.18(b)), the magnitude of the concentrated
load P, which acts along the axis of symmetry, has been reduced by half.

FIG. 10.18
446 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

Similarly, the cross-sectional area (A) and the moment of inertia (I ) of

member BE, which is located along the axis of symmetry, have been
halved. Although it is usually considered convenient to reduce by half
both properties A and I of the members along the axis of symmetry, we
must realize that the values of the moments of inertia (I ) of these mem-
bers are not relevant in the analysis, because the members located along
the axis of symmetry will undergo only axial deformations without
bending. Once the response of the left half of the frame (Fig. 10.18(b))
has been determined by analysis, the response of the right half is ob-
tained by reection.

Symmetric Structures Subjected to Antisymmetric Loadings

When a symmetric structure is subjected to a loading that is antisymmetric
with respect to the structures axis of symmetry, the response of the struc-
ture is also antisymmetric, with the points of the structure at the axis of
symmetry not deecting in the direction of the axis of symmetry.
Thus to determine the response of the entire structure, we need to ana-
lyze only half the structure, on either side of the axis of symmetry, with
antisymmetric boundary conditions (i.e., deections in the direction of
the axis of symmetry must be zero) at the axis. The response of the re-
maining half is given by the negative of the reection of the response of
the half structure that is analyzed.
Consider a symmetric frame subjected to a loading that is anti-
symmetric with respect to the frames axis of symmetry (s axis), as
shown in Fig. 10.19(a). It can be seen that, like the loading, the deected
shape of the frame is antisymmetric with respect to the frames axis of

FIG. 10.19
 SECTION 10.4 Procedure for Analysis of Symmetric Structures 447

symmetry. Note that the vertical deection is zero at point D, where the
axis of symmetry intersects the frame, whereas the horizontal deection
and slope at D are not zero. The response of the entire frame can be
determined by analyzing only half the frame, on either side of the axis of
symmetry. The left half of the frame cut by the axis of symmetry is
shown in Fig. 10.19(b). Note that the antisymmetric boundary con-
ditions are imposed on this substructure by supporting it at end D by a
roller support, which prevents the vertical deection at the axis of sym-
metry but cannot prevent the horizontal deection and rotation at D.
Once the response of the left half of the frame has been determined by
analysis, the response of the right half is given by the negative of the
reection of the response of the left half.
If a structure contains a member along the axis of symmetry, the
properties of the member, I and A, should be reduced by half on the half
structure selected for analysis. Note that the members along the axis of
symmetry cannot undergo any axial deformations, but they can bend.
Thus the axial forces in the members of trusses located along the axis of
symmetry will be zero, and such members may be removed from the
half structure to simplify its analysis. The magnitudes of any loads and
couples acting on the structure at the axis of symmetry should be
halved, on the half of the structure to be analyzed.

Symmetric Structures Subjected to General Loadings

As shown in Section 10.2, any general unsymmetric loading acting
on a symmetric structure can be decomposed into symmetric and anti-
symmetric components with respect to the axis of symmetry of the
structure. The responses of the structure due to the symmetric and
antisymmetric loading components are then determined by analyzing a
half of the structure, with symmetric and antisymmetric boundary
conditions, respectively, as discussed in the preceding paragraphs. The
symmetric and antisymmetric responses thus determined are then su-
perimposed to obtain the total response of the structure due to the
given unsymmetric loading.

10.4 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS OF SYMMETRIC STRUCTURES

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to take advantage of

structural symmetry in the analysis of structures.

1. Check the given structure for symmetry, as discussed in Section

10.1. If the structure is found to be symmetric, then proceed to step
2. Otherwise, end the analysis at this stage.
448 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

2. Select a substructure (half the structure) on either side of the axis of

symmetry for analysis. The cross-sectional areas and moments of
inertia of the members of the substructure, which are located along
the axis of symmetry, should be reduced by half, whereas full values
of these properties should be used for all other members.
3. Decompose the given loading into symmetric and antisymmetric
components with respect to the axis of symmetry of the structure by
using the procedure described in Section 10.2.
4. Determine the response of the structure due to the symmetric load-
ing component as follows:
a. At each joint and end of the substructure, which is located at
the axis of symmetry, apply restraints to prevent rotation and
deection perpendicular to the axis of symmetry. If there is a
hinge at such a joint or end, then only the deection, but not
rotation, should be restrained at that joint or end.
b. Apply the symmetric component of loading on the substructure
with the magnitudes of the concentrated loads at the axis of
symmetry reduced by half.
c. Analyze the substructure to determine its response.
d. Obtain the symmetric response of the complete structure by re-
ecting the response of the substructure to the other side of the
axis of symmetry.
5. Determine the response of the structure due to the antisymmetric
loading component as follows:
a. At each joint and end of the substructure located at the axis of
symmetry, apply a restraint to prevent deection in the direc-
tion of the axis of symmetry. In the case of trusses, the axial
forces in members located along the axis of symmetry will be
zero. Remove such members from the substructure.
b. Apply the antisymmetric component of loading on the sub-
structure with the magnitudes of the loads and couples, applied
at the axis of symmetry, reduced by half.
c. Analyze the substructure to determine its response.
d. Obtain the antisymmetric response of the complete structure by
reecting the negative of the response of the substructure to the
other side of the axis of symmetry.
6. Determine the total response of the structure due to the given load-
ing by superimposing the symmetric and antisymmetric responses
obtained in steps 4 and 5, respectively.
The foregoing procedure can be applied to statically determinate as
well as indeterminate symmetric structures. It will become obvious in
subsequent chapters that the utilization of structural symmetry consid-
erably reduces the computational eort required in the analysis of stat-
ically indeterminate structures.
 SECTION 10.4 Procedure for Analysis of Symmetric Structures 449

Example 10.9

Determine the force in each member of the Warren truss shown in Fig. 10.20(a).

FIG. 10.20 continued

450 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

Solution
This truss was analyzed in Example 4.4 without taking advantage of its symmetry.

Symmetry This truss is symmetric with respect to the vertical s axis passing through member CG, as shown in
Fig. 10.20(b). The truss is subjected to vertical loads only, so the horizontal reaction at support A is zero Ax 0. The
half of the truss to the right of the axis of symmetry, CEHG, will be used for analysis.

Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loading The symmetric and antisymmetric components of the given
loading with respect to the axis of symmetry of the truss are determined by using the procedure described in Section
10.2. These loading components are shown in Fig. 10.20(b) and (c). Note that the sum of the two components is equal
to the total loading given in Fig. 10.20(a).

Member Forces Due to the Symmetric Loading Component The substructure (right half of the truss) with symmetric
boundary conditions is shown in Fig. 10.20(d). Note that the joints C and G, which are located at the axis of symmetry,
are supported by rollers that prevent their movements in the horizontal direction (perpendicular to the s axis). The
symmetric component of loading (Fig. 10.20(b)) is applied to the substructure, with the magnitude of the 30-k con-
centrated load acting along the axis of symmetry reduced by half, as shown in Fig. 10.20(d). The reactions of the sub-
structure are obtained by applying the equilibrium equations:

P
" Fy 0 15  18 Ey 0 Ey 33 k "
P
MC 0 Gx 15  1820 3340 0 Gx 64 k !
P
! Fx 0 Cx 64 0 Cx 64 k

The axial forces in the members of the substructure are determined by applying the method of joints. These member
forces are also shown in Fig. 10.20(d).
The member axial forces in the left half of the truss can now be obtained by rotating the member forces in the right
half (Fig. 10.20(d)) through 180 about the s axis, as shown in Fig. 10.20(e).
Member Forces Due to the Antisymmetric Loading Component The substructure with antisymmetric boundary
conditions is shown in Fig. 10.20(f ). Note that joints C and G, located at the axis of symmetry, are supported by rollers
to prevent their deections in the vertical direction. Also, member CG, which is located along the axis of symmetry,
is removed from the substructure, as shown in the gure. (The force in member CG will be zero under antisymmetric
loading.) The antisymmetric component of loading (Fig. 10.20(c)) is applied to the substructure, and its reactions
and member axial forces are computed by applying the equilibrium equations and the method of joints (see Fig.
10.20(f )).
The member axial forces in the left half of the truss are then obtained by reecting the negatives (i.e., the tensile
forces are changed to compressive forces and vice versa) of the member forces in the right half to the left side of the axis
of symmetry, as shown in Fig. 10.20(g).
Total Member Forces Finally, the total axial forces in members of the truss are obtained by superimposing
the forces due to the symmetric and antisymmetric components of the loading, as given in Fig. 10.20(e) and (g),
respectively. These member forces are shown in Fig. 10.20(h). Ans.
 SECTION 10.4 Procedure for Analysis of Symmetric Structures 451

Example 10.10

Determine the member end forces of the frame shown in Fig. 10.21(a).

Solution
Symmetry The frame is symmetric with respect to the vertical s axis passing through the hinge at D, as shown in
Fig. 10.21(b). The left half of the frame, ACD, will be used for analysis.
Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loading See Fig. 10.21(b) and (c).

FIG. 10.21

continued
452 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

FIG. 10.21 (contd.)

Member Forces Due to the Symmetric Loading Component The substructure with symmetric boundary conditions
is shown in Fig. 10.21(d). The reactions and the member end forces of the substructure, as determined from equilibrium
considerations, are shown in Fig. 10.21(d) and to the left of the s axis in Fig. 10.21(e), respectively. The member end
forces to the right of the s axis are then obtained by reection (see Fig. 10.21(e)).
Member Forces Due to the Antisymmetric Loading Component The substructure with antisymmetric boundary
conditions is shown in Fig. 10.21(f ). The member forces are determined by analyzing the substructure and by reecting
the negatives of the computed forces and moments about the axis of symmetry (see Fig. 10.21(g)).
Total Member Forces The total member end forces, obtained by superimposing the member forces due to the
symmetric and antisymmetric components of the loading, are shown in Fig. 10.21(h). Ans.
 SECTION 10.4 Procedure for Analysis of Symmetric Structures 453

Example 10.11

Determine the substructures for the analysis of the symmetric and antisymmetric responses of the statically in-
determinate beam shown in Fig. 10.22(a).

60 kN
20 kN/m

8m 8m 4m 4m 8m
EI = constant
(a) Given Beam and Loading

s
30 kN 30 kN
10 kN/m 10 kN/m

4m 4m
(b) Symmetric Loading Component

s
30 kN 30 kN
10 kN/m 10 kN/m

(c) Antisymmetric Loading Component

s
30 kN
10 kN/m

(d) Substructure for Analysis of Symmetric Response

s
30 kN
10 kN/m

FIG. 10.22 (e) Substructure for Analysis of Antisymmetric Response

continued
454 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

Solution
Symmetry The beam is symmetric with respect to the vertical s axis shown in Fig. 10.22(b). The left half of the
beam is selected for analysis.

Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loading See Fig. 10.22(b) and (c).
Substructures The substructures for the analysis of the symmetric and antisymmetric responses are shown in
Fig. 10.22(d) and (e), respectively. Ans.

Example 10.12

Determine the substructures for the analysis of the symmetric and antisymmetric responses of the statically in-
determinate frame shown in Fig. 10.23(a).

FIG. 10.23 continued

 Summary 455

FIG. 10.23 (contd.)

Solution
Symmetry The frame is symmetric with respect to the vertical s axis shown in Fig. 10.23(b). The left half of the
frame is selected for analysis.
Symmetric and Antisymmetric Components of Loading See Fig. 10.23(b) and (c).
Substructures The substructures for the analysis of the symmetric and antisymmetric responses are shown in
Fig. 10.23(d) and (e), respectively. Ans.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have learned that a plane structure is considered to
be symmetric with respect to an axis in its plane if the reection of the
structure about the axis is identical in geometry, supports, and material
properties to the structure itself.
456 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

A loading is considered to be symmetric with respect to an axis in

its plane if the reection of the loading about the axis is identical to the
loading itself. A loading is considered to be antisymmetric with respect
to an axis in its plane if the negative of the reection of the loading about
the axis is identical to the loading itself. Any general unsymmetrical
loading can be decomposed into symmetric and antisymmetric compo-
nents with respect to an axis.
When a symmetric structure is subjected to a loading that is sym-
metric with respect to the structures axis of symmetry, the response of
the structure is also symmetric. Thus we can obtain the response of the
entire structure by analyzing a half of the structure, on either side of the
axis of symmetry, with symmetric boundary conditions; and by reect-
ing the computed response about the axis of symmetry.
When a symmetric structure is subjected to a loading that is anti-
symmetric with respect to the structures axis of symmetry, the response
of the structure is also antisymmetric. Thus, the response of the entire
structure can be obtained by analyzing a half of the structure, on either
side of the axis of symmetry, with antisymmetric boundary conditions;
and by reecting the negative of the computed response about the axis
of symmetry.
The response of a symmetric structure due to a general unsymmetric
loading can be obtained by determining the responses of the structure
due to the symmetric and antisymmetric components of the unsym-
metric loading, and by superimposing the two responses.

PROBLEMS
Sections 10.1 and 10.2
10.1 through 10.15 Determine the symmetric and anti- P10.1P10.15 with respect to the axis of symmetry of the
symmetric components of the loadings shown in Figs. structure.

12 ft

B
4 ft

10 k
C
4 ft
A 20 k

E, A = constant
FIG. P10.1, P10.16 FIG. P10.2 and P10.17
 Problems 457

60 kN 120 kN 60 kN 10.21 through 10.23 Determine the member end forces of

the frames shown in Figs. P10.6P10.8 by utilizing struc-
C D E
50 kN tural symmetry.

12 m

A B

3.5 m 5m 5m 3.5 m

FIG. P10.3, P10.18

Sections 10.3 and 10.4

10.16 through 10.20 Determine the force in each member
of the trusses shown in Figs. P10.1P10.5 by utilizing
structural symmetry.
FIG. P10.6, P10.21

30 k 30 k 50 k 50 k 50 k
A B C D E F G

20 ft

H I J K L

6 at 20 ft = 120 ft
FIG. P10.4, P10.19

FIG. P10.5, P10.20 FIG. P10.7, P10.22

458 CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Symmetric Structures

30 k
4 k/ft
C E
A F
B D
12 ft 12 ft 6 ft 6 ft 12 ft
E, I = constant

FIG. P10.12 and P10.27

30 kN

10 kN
15 kN D 15 kN
4m

FIG. P10.8, P10.23 35 kN

C E

10.24 through 10.30 Determine the substructures for the

analysis of the symmetric and antisymmetric responses of 10 m
the structures shown in Figs. P10.9P10.15.

A B
40 kN 7.5 m 7.5 m
B E, I, A = constant
A D
C FIG. P10.13 and P10.28
6m 3m 3m
E, I = constant

FIG. P10.9 and P10.24

3 k/ft
A C
B

20 ft 20 ft
E, I = constant
FIG. P10.10 and P10.25
FIG. P10.14, P10.29
60 kN 20 kN/m
A
B C D E

4m
8m 8m 8m
I 2I I

E = constant
FIG. P10.11 and P10.26 FIG. P10.15, P10.30
Part Three
Analysis of Statically
Indeterminate Structures
This page intentionally left blank
 11
Introduction to Statically
Sydney Harbour, Australia
Aliciahh/Shutterstock
Indeterminate Structures
11.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Indeterminate Structures
11.2 Analysis of Indeterminate Structures
Summary

In Part Two of this text, we considered the analysis of statically deter-

minate structures. In this part (Chapters 11 through 18), we focus our
attention on the analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
As discussed previously, the support reactions and internal forces of
statically determinate structures can be determined from the equations
of equilibrium (including equations of condition, if any). However, since
indeterminate structures have more support reactions and/or members
than required for static stability, the equilibrium equations alone are not
sucient for determining the reactions and internal forces of such
structures, and must be supplemented by additional relationships based
on the geometry of deformation of structures.
These additional relationships, which are termed the compatibility
conditions, ensure that the continuity of the displacements is maintained
throughout the structure and that the structures various parts t to-
gether. For example, at a rigid joint the deections and rotations of all
the members meeting at the joint must be the same. Thus the analysis of
an indeterminate structure involves, in addition to the dimensions and
arrangement of members of the structure, its cross-sectional and mate-
rial properties (such as cross-sectional areas, moments of inertia, moduli
of elasticity, etc.), which in turn, depend on the internal forces of the

461
462 CHAPTER 11 Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Structures

structure. The design of an indeterminate structure is, therefore, carried

out in an iterative manner, whereby the (relative) sizes of the structural
members are initially assumed and used to analyze the structure, and the
internal forces thus obtained are used to revise the member sizes; if the
revised member sizes are not close to those initially assumed, then the
structure is reanalyzed using the latest member sizes. The iteration con-
tinues until the member sizes based on the results of an analysis are close
to those assumed for that analysis.
Despite the foregoing diculty in designing indeterminate struc-
tures, a great majority of structures being built today are statically in-
determinate; for example, most modern reinforced concrete buildings
are statically indeterminate. In this chapter, we discuss some of the im-
portant advantages and disadvantages of indeterminate structures as
compared to determinate structures and introduce the fundamental
concepts of the analysis of indeterminate structures.

11.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

The advantages of statically indeterminate structures over determinate

structures include the following.
1. Smaller Stresses The maximum stresses in statically in-
determinate structures are generally lower than those in comparable de-
terminate structures. Consider, for example, the statically determinate
and indeterminate beams shown in Fig. 11.1(a) and (b), respectively.
The bending moment diagrams for the beams due to a uniformly dis-
tributed load, w, are also shown in the gure. (The procedures for ana-
lyzing indeterminate beams are considered in subsequent chapters.) It
can be seen from the gure that the maximum bending momentand
consequently the maximum bending stressin the indeterminate beam
is signicantly lower than in the determinate beam.
2. Greater Stinesses Statically indeterminate structures generally
have higher stinesses (i.e., smaller deformations), than those of com-
parable determinate structures. From Fig. 11.1, we observe that the
maximum deection of the indeterminate beam is only one-fth that of
the determinate beam.
3. Redundancies Statically indeterminate structures, if properly de-
signed, have the capacity for redistributing loads when certain structural
portions become overstressed or collapse in cases of overloads due to
earthquakes, tornadoes, impact (e.g., gas explosions or vehicle impacts),
and other such events. Indeterminate structures have more members
and/or support reactions than required for static stability, so if a part
(or member or support) of such a structure fails, the entire structure will
SECTION 11.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Indeterminate Structures 463

FIG. 11.1

not necessarily collapse, and the loads will be redistributed to the ad-
jacent portions of the structure. Consider, for example, the statically
determinate and indeterminate beams shown in Fig. 11.2(a) and (b), re-
spectively. Suppose that the beams are supporting bridges over a water-
way and that the middle pier, B, is destroyed when a barge accidentally

FIG. 11.2
464 CHAPTER 11 Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Structures

FIG. 11.3

rams into it. Because the statically determinate beam is supported by

just the sucient number of reactions required for static stability, the
removal of support B will cause the entire structure to collapse, as shown
in Fig. 11.2(a). However, the indeterminate beam (Fig. 11.2(b)) has one
extra reaction in the vertical direction; therefore, the structure will not
necessarily collapse and may remain stable, even after the support B has
failed. Assuming that the beam has been designed to support dead loads
only in case of such an accident, the bridge will be closed to trac until
pier B is repaired and then will be reopened.
The main disadvantages of statically indeterminate structures, over
determinate structures, are the following.
1. Stresses Due to Support Settlements Support settlements do not
cause any stresses in determinate structures; they may, however, induce
signicant stresses in indeterminate structures, which should be taken
into account when designing indeterminate structures. Consider the de-
terminate and indeterminate beams shown in Fig. 11.3. It can be seen
from Fig. 11.3(a) that when the support B of the determinate beam
undergoes a small settlement DB , the portions AB and BC of the
beam, which are connected together by an internal hinge at B, move as
rigid bodies without bendingthat is, they remain straight. Thus, no
stresses develop in the determinate beam. However, when the con-
tinuous indeterminate beam of Fig. 11.3(b) is subjected to a similar
support settlement, it bends, as shown in the gure; therefore, bending
moments develop in the beam.
2. Stresses Due to Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors
Like support settlements, these eects do not cause stresses in determi-
nate structures but may induce signicant stresses in indeterminate ones.
Consider the determinate and indeterminate beams shown in Fig. 11.4.
It can be seen from Fig. 11.4(a) that when the determinate beam is sub-
jected to a uniform temperature increase DT, it simply elongates, with
the axial deformation given by d aDTL (Eq. 7.24). No stresses
develop in the determinate beam, since it is free to elongate. How-
ever, when the indeterminate beam of Fig. 11.4(b), which is restrained
 SECTION 11.2 Analysis of Indeterminate Structures 465

FIG. 11.4

from deforming axially by the xed supports, is subjected to a similar

temperature change, DT, a compressive axial force, F dAE=L
aDTAE, develops in the beam, as shown in the gure. The eects of
fabrication errors are similar to those of temperature changes on deter-
minate and indeterminate structures.

11.2 ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

Fundamental Relationships
Regardless of whether a structure is statically determinate or in-
determinate, its complete analysis requires the use of three types of re-
lationships:
 Equilibrium equations
 Compatibility conditions
 Member force-deformation relations
The equilibrium equations relate the forces acting on the structure (or
its parts), ensuring that the entire structure as well as its parts remain
in equilibrium; the compatibility conditions relate the displacements of
the structure so that its various parts t together; and the member force-
deformation relations, which involve the material and cross-sectional
properties (E; I , and A) of the members, provide the necessary link be-
tween the forces and displacements of the structure.
In the analysis of statically determinate structures, the equations
of equilibrium are rst used to obtain the reactions and the internal
forces of the structure; then the member force-deformation relations and
the compatibility conditions are employed to determine the structures
displacements. For example, consider the statically determinate truss
466 CHAPTER 11 Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Structures

FIG. 11.5

shown in Fig. 11.5(a). The axial forces in the truss members can be de-
termined by considering the equilibrium of joint A (see Fig. 11.5(b)):
P
! Fx 0 0:6FAB 0:6FAC 0 FAB FAC
P
" Fy 0 20:8FAB  500 0 FAB FAC 312:5 k T
(11.1)
Similarly, the reactions at the supports B and C can be obtained by
considering the equilibrium of joints B and C, respectively (Fig. 11.5(c)).
To determine the displacement D of joint A of the truss, we rst employ
the member force-deformation relationship, d F L=AE, to compute
the member axial deformations:
 
20
dAB dAC 312:5 0:313 ft (11.2)
20;000
 SECTION 11.2 Analysis of Indeterminate Structures 467

Then these member axial deformations are related to the joint displace-
ment D by using the compatibility condition (see Fig. 11.5(d)):
dAB dAC D sin y 0:8D (11.3)
in which D is assumed to be small. Note that Eq. (11.3) states the com-
patibility requirement that the vertical displacements of the ends A of
members AB and AC must be equal to the vertical displacement, D, of
joint A. By substituting Eq. (11.2) into Eq. (11.3), we nd the displace-
ment of joint A to be
0:313
D 0:391 ft 4:69 in: (11.4)
0:8
The displacement D could also have been computed by employing
the virtual work method formulated in Chapter 7, which automatically
satises the member force-deformation relations and the necessary
compatibility conditions.

Indeterminate Structures
In the analysis of statically indeterminate structures, the equilibrium
equations alone are not sucient for determining the reactions and in-
ternal forces. Therefore, it becomes necessary to solve the equilibrium
equations in conjunction with the compatibility conditions of the struc-
ture to determine its response. Because the equilibrium equations con-
tain the unknown forces, whereas the compatibility conditions involve
displacements as the unknowns, the member force-deformation relations
are utilized to express either the unknown forces in terms of the un-
known displacements or vice versa. The resulting system of equations
containing only one type of unknowns is then solved for the unknown
forces or displacements, which are then substituted into the fundamental
relationships to determine the remaining response characteristics of the
structure.
Consider, for example, the indeterminate truss shown in Fig.
11.6(a). The truss is obtained by adding a vertical member AD to the
determinate truss of Fig. 11.5(a), considered previously. The free-body
diagram of joint A of the truss is shown in Fig. 11.6(b). The equations of
equilibrium for this joint are given by
P
! Fx 0 FAB FAC (11.5)
P
" Fy 0 1:6FAB FAD 500 (11.6)
Note that the two equilibrium equations are not sucient for determin-
ing the three unknown member axial forces. The compatibility condi-
tions are based on the requirement that the vertical displacements of the
ends A of the three members connected to joint A must be equal to the
468 CHAPTER 11 Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Structures

FIG. 11.6

vertical displacement D of joint A. The displacement diagram of joint A

is shown in Fig. 11.6(c). Assuming the displacement D to be small, we
write the compatibility conditions as
dAB dAC D sin y 0:8D (11.7)
dAD D (11.8)
 SECTION 11.2 Analysis of Indeterminate Structures 469

By substituting Eq. (11.8) into Eq. (11.7), we obtain the desired rela-
tionship between the member axial deformations:
dAB dAC 0:8dAD (11.9)
which indicates that the axial deformations of the inclined members AB
and AC are equal to 0.8 times the axial deformation of the vertical
member AD. To express Eq. (11.9) in terms of member axial forces, we
utilize the member force-deformation relations:
   
LAB 20
dAB FAB FAB 0:001FAB (11.10)
EA 20;000
   
LAC 20
dAC FAC FAC 0:001FAC (11.11)
EA 20;000
   
LAD 12
dAD FAD FAD 0:0006FAD (11.12)
EA 20;000
Substitution of Eqs. (11.10) through (11.12) into Eq. (11.9) yields
0:001FAB 0:001FAC 0:80:0006FAD
or
FAB FAC 0:48FAD (11.13)
Now, we can determine the axial forces in the three members of the
truss by solving Eq. (11.13) simultaneously with the two equilibrium
equations (Eqs. (11.5) and (11.6)). Thus (Fig. 11.6(d)),
FAB FAC 135:747 k T and FAD 282:805 k T
The member axial deformations can now be computed by substituting
these values of member axial forces into the member force-deformation
relations (Eqs. (11.10) through (11.12)) to obtain
dAB dAC 0:136 ft 1:629 in: and dAD 0:17 ft 2:036 in:
Finally, by substituting the values of member axial deformations into
the compatibility conditions (Eqs. (11.7) and (11.8)), we determine the
displacement of joint A as
D 0:17 ft 2:036 in:

Methods of Analysis
Since the mid-1800s, many methods have been developed for analyzing
statically indeterminate structures. These methods can be broadly clas-
sied into two categories, namely, the force (exibility) methods and the
displacement (stiness) methods, depending on the type of unknowns
(forces or displacements, respectively), involved in the solution of the
470 CHAPTER 11 Introduction to Statically Indeterminate Structures

governing equations. The force methods, which are presented in Chap-

ters 13 and 14, are generally convenient for analyzing small structures
with a few redundants (i.e., fewer excess members and/or reactions than
required for static stability). These methods are also used to derive the
member force-deformation relations needed to develop the displacement
methods. The displacement methods are considered in Chapters 16
through 18. These methods are more systematic, can be easily im-
plemented on computers, and are, therefore, preferred for the analysis of
large and highly redundant structures.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have learned that the advantages of statically in-
determinate structures over determinate structures include smaller max-
imum stresses, greater stinesses, and redundancies. Support settle-
ments, temperature changes, and fabrication errors may induce
signicant stresses in indeterminate structures, which should be taken
into account when designing such structures.
The analysis of structures involves the use of three fundamental
relationships: equilibrium equations, compatibility conditions, and
member force-deformation relations. In the analysis of indeterminate
structures, the equilibrium equations must be supplemented by the com-
patibility conditions based on the geometry of the deformation of the
structure. The link between the equilibrium equations and the com-
patibility conditions is established by means of the member force-
deformation relations of the structure.
The methods for the analysis of indeterminate structures can be
classied into two categories, namely, the force (exibility) methods and
the displacement (stiness) methods.
 12
Approximate Analysis of
Rectangular Building Frames
12.1 Assumptions for Approximate Analysis
12.2 Analysis for Vertical Loads
12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method
12.4 Analysis for Lateral LoadsCantilever Method
Summary
Problems

St. Louis Gateway Arch and Old

Courthouse
R. Gino Santa Maria/Shutterstock

The analysis of statically indeterminate structures using the force and

displacement methods introduced in the preceding chapter can be con-
sidered as exact in the sense that the compatibility and equilibrium
conditions of the structure are exactly satised in such an analysis.
However, the results of such an exact analysis represent the actual
structural response only to the extent that the analytical model of the
structure represents the actual structure. Experimental results have
demonstrated that the response of most common types of structures
under service loads can be reliably predicted by the force and displace-
ment methods, provided an accurate analytical model of the structure is
used in the analysis.
Exact analysis of indeterminate structures involves computation
of deections and solution of simultaneous equations, so it can be quite
time consuming. Moreover, such an analysis depends on the relative
sizes (cross-sectional areas and/or moments of inertia) of the members
of the structure. Because of these diculties associated with the exact
analysis, the preliminary designs of indeterminate structures are often
based on the results of approximate analysis, in which the internal forces
are estimated by making certain assumptions about the deformations
and/or the distribution of forces between the members of structures,
thereby avoiding the necessity of computing deections.

471
472 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

Approximate analysis proves to be quite convenient to use in the

planning phase of projects, when several alternative designs of the
structure are usually evaluated for relative economy. The results of ap-
proximate analysis can also be used to estimate the sizes of various
structural members needed to initiate the exact analysis. The prelimi-
nary designs of members are then revised iteratively, using the results of
successive exact analyses, to arrive at their nal designs. Furthermore,
approximate analysis is sometimes used to roughly check the results
of exact analysis, which due to its complexity can be prone to errors.
Finally, in recent years, there has been an increased tendency toward
renovating and retrotting older structures. Many such structures con-
structed prior to 1960, including many high-rise buildings, were de-
signed solely on the basis of approximate analysis, so a knowledge and
understanding of approximate methods used by the original designers is
usually helpful in a renovation undertaking.
Unlike the exact methods, which are general in the sense that they
can be applied to various types of structures subjected to various load-
ing conditions, a specic method is usually required for the approximate
analysis of a particular type of structure for a particular loading. For
example, a dierent approximate method must be employed for the
analysis of a rectangular frame under vertical (gravity) loads than for
the analysis of the same frame subjected to lateral loads. Numerous
methods have been developed for approximate analysis of indeterminate
structures. Some of the more common approximate methods pertaining
to rectangular frames are presented in this chapter. These methods can
be expected to yield results within 20% of the exact solutions.
The objectives of this chapter are to consider the approximate
analysis of rectangular building frames as well as to gain an under-
standing of the techniques used in the approximate analysis of struc-
tures in general. We present a general discussion of the simplifying
assumptions necessary for approximate analysis and then consider the
approximate analysis of rectangular frames under vertical (gravity)
loads. Finally, we present the two common methods used for the ap-
proximate analysis of rectangular frames subjected to lateral loads.

12.1 ASSUMPTIONS FOR APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS

As discussed in Chapters 3 through 5, statically indeterminate structures
have more support reactions and/or members than required for static
stability; therefore, all the reactions and internal forces (including any
moments) of such structures cannot be determined from the equations
of equilibrium. The excess reactions and internal forces of an in-
determinate structure are referred to as redundants, and the number of
redundants (i.e., the dierence between the total number of unknowns and
the number of equilibrium equations) is termed the degree of indeterminacy
 SECTION 12.1 Assumptions for Approximate Analysis 473

of the structure. Thus, in order to determine the reactions and internal

forces of an indeterminate structure, the equilibrium equations must be
supplemented by additional equations, whose number must equal the
degree of indeterminacy of the structure. In an approximate analysis,
these additional equations are established by using engineering judg-
ment to make simplifying assumptions about the response of the struc-
ture. The total number of assumptions must be equal to the degree of
indeterminacy of the structure, with each assumption providing an in-
dependent relationship between the unknown reactions and/or internal
forces. The equations based on the simplifying assumptions are then
solved in conjunction with the equilibrium equations of the structure to
determine the approximate values of its reactions and internal forces.
Two types of assumptions are commonly employed in approximate
analysis.

Assumptions about the Location of Points of Inflection

In the rst approach, a qualitative deected shape of the indeterminate
structure is sketched and used to assume the location of the points of
inectionthat is, the points where the curvature of the elastic curve
changes signs, or becomes zero. Since the bending moments must be zero
at the points of inection, internal hinges are inserted in the in-
determinate structure at the assumed locations of inection points to
obtain a simplied determinate structure. Each of the internal hinges
provides one equation of condition, so the number of inection points
assumed should be equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the structure.
Moreover, the inection points should be selected such that the resulting
determinate structure must be statically and geometrically stable. The
simplied determinate structure thus obtained is then analyzed to de-
termine the approximate values of the reactions and internal forces of
the original indeterminate structure.
Consider, for example, a portal frame subjected to a lateral load P,
as shown in Fig. 12.1(a). As the frame is supported by four reaction
components and since there are only three equilibrium equations, it is
statically indeterminate to the rst degree. Therefore, we need to make
one simplifying assumption about the response of the frame. By exam-
ining the deected shape of the frame sketched in Fig. 12.1(a), we ob-
serve that an inection point exists near the middle of the girder CD.
Although the exact location of the inection point depends on the (yet
unknown) properties of the two columns of the frame and can be de-
termined only from an exact analysis, for the purpose of approximate
analysis we can assume that the inection point is located at the mid-
point of the girder CD. Since the bending moment at an inection point
must be zero, we insert an internal hinge at the midpoint E of girder CD
to obtain the determinate frame shown in Fig. 12.1(b). The four
reactions of the frame can now be determined by applying the three
474 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

FIG. 12.1
P P P
equilibrium equations, P FX 0, Y 0, and
FP M 0, and one
equation of condition, MEAE 0 or MEBE 0, to the determinate
frame (Fig. 12.1(b)):
P Ph
MB 0 AY L  Ph 0 AY #
L
P Ph Ph
" FY 0  BY 0 BY "
L L
 SECTION 12.2 Analysis for Vertical Loads 475
 
P Ph L P
MEBE 0  BX h 0 BX
L 2 2
P P P
! FX 0 P  AX  0 AX
2 2
By using these approximate reactions, the approximate shear, bending
moment, and axial force diagrams for the frame can be constructed
by considering the equilibrium of its members and joints. The bend-
ing moment diagrams for the members of the frame are shown in
Fig. 12.1(c).

Assumptions about Distribution of Forces among Members

and/or Reactions
Approximate analysis of indeterminate structures is sometimes per-
formed by making assumptions about the distribution of forces among
the members and/or reactions of the structures. The number of such
assumptions required for the analysis of a structure is equal to the de-
gree of indeterminacy of the structure, with each assumption providing
an independent equation relating the unknown member forces and/or
reactions. The equations based on these assumptions are then solved si-
multaneously with the equilibrium equations of the structure to de-
termine its approximate reactions and internal forces. For example, the
portal frame of Fig. 12.1(a) can alternatively be analyzed by assuming
that the horizontal reactions AX and BX are equal; that is, AX BX . By
solving this equation simultaneously with the three equilibrium equa-
tions of the frame, we obtain the same reactions as previously de-
termined by assuming an inection point at the midpoint of the girder
CD of the frame.
The two types of assumptions described in this section can either
be used individually or they can be combined with each other and/or
with other types of assumptions based on the engineering judgment of
the structural response to develop methods for approximate analysis of
various types of structures. In the rest of this chapter, we focus our at-
tention on the approximate analysis of rectangular building frames.

12.2 ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS

Recall from Section 5.5 that the degree of indeterminacy of a rec-
tangular building frame with xed supports is equal to three times the
number of girders in the frame provided that the frame does not contain
any internal hinges or rollers. Thus, in an approximate analysis of such
a rigid frame, the total number of assumptions required is equal to three
times the number of girders in the frame.
476 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

A commonly used procedure for approximate analysis of rec-

tangular building frames subjected to vertical (gravity) loads involves
making three assumptions about the behavior of each girder of the
frame. Consider a frame subjected to uniformly distributed loads w, as
shown in Fig. 12.2(a). The free-body diagram of a typical girder DE of
the frame is shown in Fig. 12.2(b). From the deected shape of the
girder sketched in the gure, we observe that two inection points exist
near both ends of the girder. These inection points develop because the
columns and the adjacent girder connected to the ends of girder DE of-
fer partial restraint or resistance against rotation by exerting negative
moments MDE and MED at the girder ends D and E, respectively. Al-
though the exact location of the inection points depends on the relative
stinesses of the frame members and can be determined only from an
exact analysis, we can establish the regions along the girder in which
these points are located by examining the two extreme conditions of ro-
tational restraint at the girder ends shown in Fig. 12.2(c) and (d). If the
girder ends were free to rotate, as in the case of a simply supported
girder (Fig. 12.2(c)), the zero bending momentsand thus the inection
pointswould occur at the ends. On the other extreme, if the girder
ends were completely xed against rotation, we can show by the exact
analysis presented in subsequent chapters that the inection points
would occur at a distance of 0.211L from each end of the girder, as il-
lustrated in Fig. 12.2(d). Therefore, when the girder ends are only par-
tially restrained against rotation (Fig. 12.2(b)), the inection points must
occur somewhere within a distance of 0.211L from each end. For
the purpose of approximate analysis, it is common practice to assume
that the inection points are located about halfway between the two
extremesthat is, at a distance of 0.1L from each end of the girder.
Estimating the location of two inection points involves making two
assumptions about the behavior of the girder. The third assumption is
based on the experience gained from the exact analyses of rectangular
frames subjected to vertical loads only, which indicates that the axial
forces in girders of such frames are usually very small. Thus, in an ap-
proximate analysis, it is reasonable to assume that the girder axial forces
are zero.
To summarize the foregoing discussion, in the approximate analysis
of a rectangular frame subjected to vertical loads the following assump-
tions are made for each girder of the frame:
1. The inection points are located at one-tenth of the span from each
end of the girder.
2. The girder axial force is zero.
The eect of these simplifying assumptions is that the middle eight-
tenths of the span (0.8L) of each girder can be considered to be simply
supported on the two end portions of the girder, each of which is
of the length equal to one-tenth of the girder span (0.1L), as shown in
Fig. 12.2(e). Note that the girders are now statically determinate, and
 SECTION 12.2 Analysis for Vertical Loads 477

FIG. 12.2
478 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

FIG. 12.2 (contd.)

 SECTION 12.2 Analysis for Vertical Loads 479

their end forces and moments can be determined from statics, as shown
in the gure. It should be realized that by making three assumptions
about the behavior of each girder of the frame, we have made a total
number of assumptions equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the
frame, thereby rendering the entire frame statically determinate, as
shown in Fig. 12.2(f ). Once the girder end forces have been computed,
the end forces of the columns and the support reactions can be de-
termined from equilibrium considerations.

Example 12.1

Draw the approximate shear and bending moment diagrams for the girders of the frame shown in Fig. 12.3(a).

Solution
As the span lengths and loads for the four girders of the frame are the same (Fig. 12.3(a)), the approximate shear and
bending moment diagrams for the girders will also be the same. By applying the assumptions discussed in this section to
any of the girders of the frame, we obtain the statically determinate girder shown in Fig. 12.3(b). Note that the middle
portion of the girder, which has a length of 0:8L 0:830 24 ft, is simply supported on the two end portions, each of
length 0:1L 0:130 3 ft.
By considering the equilibrium of the simply supported middle portion of the girder, we obtain the vertical re-
actions at the ends of this portion to be 1:524=2 18 k. These forces are then applied in opposite directions (Newtons
law of action and reaction) to the two end portions, as shown in the gure. The vertical forces (shears) and moments at
the ends of the girder can now be determined by considering the equilibrium of the end portions. By applying the
equations of equilibrium to the left end portion, we write
P
" FY 0 SL  1:53  18 0 SL 22:5 k "

FIG. 12.3
continued
480 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

FIG. 12.3 (contd.)

 
P 3
ML 0 ML  1:53  183 0 ML 60:75 k-ft
2
Similarly, by applying the equilibrium equations to the right end portion, we obtain
SR 22:5 k " and MR 60:75 k-ft @
By using these approximate values of the girder end forces and moments, we construct the shear and bending moment
diagrams for the girder, as shown in Fig. 12.3(b). Ans.
 SECTION 12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method 481

12.3 ANALYSIS FOR LATERAL LOADSPORTAL METHOD

The behavior of rectangular building frames is dierent under lateral
(horizontal) loads than under vertical loads, so dierent assumptions
must be used in the approximate analysis for lateral loads than were
used in the case of vertical loads considered previously. Two methods
are commonly used for approximate analysis of rectangular frames
subjected to lateral loads. These are (1) the portal method and (2) the
cantilever method. The portal method is described in this section,
whereas the cantilever method is considered in the following section.
The portal method was initially developed by A. Smith in 1915 and
is generally considered to be appropriate for the approximate analysis of
relatively low building frames. Before we consider the analysis of multi-
story, multibay frames by using the portal method, let us examine the
behavior of a portal frame with xed supports under a lateral load, as
shown in Fig. 12.4(a). The degree of indeterminacy of this frame is
three; therefore, three assumptions must be made for its approximate

FIG. 12.4
482 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

FIG. 12.4 (contd.)

analysis. From the deected shape of the frame sketched in Fig. 12.4(a),
we observe that an inection point exists near the middle of each mem-
ber of the frame. Thus, in approximate analysis, it is reasonable to as-
sume that the inection points are located at the midpoints of the frame
members. Since the bending moments at the inection points must be
zero, internal hinges are inserted at the midpoints of the three frame
members to obtain the statically determinate frame shown in Fig.
12.4(b). To determine the six reactions, we pass a horizontal section aa
through the hinges E and G, as shown in Fig. 12.4(b), and apply the
equations of equilibrium (and condition, if any) to the three portions of
the frame. Applying the three equilibrium equations and one equation
of condition to the portion ECDG (Fig. 12.4(c)), we compute the forces
at the internal hinges E and G to be
 SECTION 12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method 483
 
P h Ph
MG 0 EY L  P 0 EY #
2 2L
P Ph Ph
" FY 0  GY 0 GY "
2L 2L
   
P Ph L h P
MFEF 0  EX 0 EX
2L 2 2 2
P P P
! FX 0 P  GX 0 GX
2 2

The reactions at supports A and B can now be determined by consider-

ing the equilibrium of portions AE and BG, respectively. For portion
AE (Fig. 12.4(c)):
P P
! FX 0 AX
2
P Ph
" FY 0 AY #
2L
 
P P h Ph
MA 0  MA 0 MA
2 2 4
Similarly, for portion BG (Fig. 12.4(c)):
P P
! FX 0 BX
2
P Ph
" FY 0 BY "
2L
 
P P h Ph
MB 0  MB 0 MB
2 2 4
Note that the horizontal reactions at the supports A and B are equal
(i.e., AX BX ), indicating that the shears in the two columns of the
frame must also be equal to each other. The bending moment diagrams
for the members of the portal frame are shown in Fig. 12.4(d).
To develop the portal method for approximate analysis of frames,
consider the two-story, three-bay building frame shown in Fig. 12.5(a).
The frame contains six girders, so its degree of indeterminacy is
36 18. From the deected shape of the frame sketched in Fig.
12.5(a), we observe that the deection behavior of this frame is similar
to that of the portal frame considered previously (Fig. 12.4(a)), in the
sense that an inection point exists near the middle of each member of
the frame. In the portal method, it is assumed that these inection points
are located at the midpoints of the members, and, therefore, an internal
hinge is inserted at the middle of each of the frame members to obtain a
simplied frame, as shown in Fig. 12.5(b). Note that this simplied
484 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

FIG. 12.5

frame is not statically determinate because it is obtained by inserting

only 14 internal hinges (i.e., one hinge in each of the 14 members) into
the original frame, which is indeterminate to the 18th degree. Thus, the
degree of indeterminacy of the simplied frame of Fig. 12.5(b) is
 SECTION 12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method 485

18  14 4; therefore, four additional assumptions must be made be-

fore an approximate analysis involving only statics can be carried out.
In the portal method, it is further assumed that the frame is composed
of a series of portal frames, as shown in Fig. 12.5(c), with each interior
column of the original multibay frame representing two portal legs. We
showed previously (Fig. 12.4) that when a portal frame with internal
hinges at the midpoints of its members is subjected to a lateral load,
equal shears develop in the two legs of the portal. Since an interior col-
umn of the original multibay frame represents two portal legs, whereas
an exterior column represents only one leg, we can reasonably assume
that the shear in an interior column of a story of the multibay frame is
twice as much as the shear in an exterior column of that story (Fig.
12.5(c)). The foregoing assumption regarding shear distribution between
columns yields one more equation for each story of the frame with
multiple bays than necessary for approximate analysis. For example, for
each story of the frame of Fig. 12.5, this assumption can be used to ex-
press shears in any three of the columns in terms of that in the fourth.
Thus, for the entire frame, this assumption provides a total of six equa-
tionsthat is, two equations more than necessary for approximate
analysis. However, as the extra equations are consistent with the rest,
they do not cause any computational diculty in the analysis.
From the foregoing discussion, we gather that the assumptions
made in the portal method are as follows:
1. An inection point is located at the middle of each member of the
frame.
2. On each story of the frame, interior columns carry twice as much
shear as exterior columns.

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for the approximate
analysis of building frames by the portal method.
1. Draw a sketch of the simplied frame obtained by inserting an in-
ternal hinge at the midpoint of each member of the given frame.
2. Determine column shears. For each story of the frame:
a. Pass a horizontal section through all the columns of the story,
cutting the frame into two portions.
b. Assuming that the shears in interior columns are twice as much
as in exterior columns, determine the columnPshears by apply-
ing the equation of horizontal equilibrium FX 0 to the
free body of the upper portion of the frame.
3. Draw free-body diagrams of all the members and joints of the
frame, showing the external loads and the column end shears com-
puted in the previous step.
4. Determine column moments. Determine moments at the ends
of each column by applying the equations of condition that the
486 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

FIG. 12.6

bending moment is zero at the column midheight, where an

inection point (internal hinge) has been assumed. As P shown in
Fig. P
12.6(a), by applying the equations of condition, MHBH 0
and MHTH 0, to the free body of a column of height h, we nd
that the moments at the two ends of the column are equal in mag-
nitude and have the same sense (i.e., either both end moments are
clockwise or both are counterclockwise). The magnitude of the col-
umn end moments (MC ) is equal to the magnitude of the column
shears (SC ) times half the column height; that is,
 
h
MC SC (12.1)
2

Determine end moments for all the columns of the frame.

5. Determine girder axial forces, moments, and shears. Proceeding
from the top story of the frame to the bottom, compute axial forces,
moments, and shears at the ends of the girders of each successive
story by starting at the far left joint of the story and working across
to the right, as follows:
 SECTION 12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method 487
P P
a. Apply the equilibrium equations, FX 0 and M 0, to
the free body of the joint under consideration to compute the
axial force and moment, respectively, at the left (adjoining) end
of the girder on the right side of the joint.
b. Considering the free body of the girder, determine the shear at
the girders left end by dividing the girder moment by half the
girder length (see Fig. 12.6(b)); that is,

Mg
Sg (12.2)
L=2

Equation (12.2) is based on the condition that the bending mo-

ment at the girder midpoint is zero. P P
c. By applying
P the equilibrium equations FX 0, FY 0,
and M 0 to the free body of the girder, determine the axial
force, shear, and moment, respectively, at the right end. As
shown in Fig. 12.6(b), the axial forces and shears at the ends of
the girder must be equal but opposite, whereas the two end
moments must be equal to each other in both magnitude and
direction.
d. Select the joint to the right of the girder considered previously,
and repeat steps 5(a) through 5(c) until the axial forces, mo-
ments, and shears in all the girders ofPthe story haveP been de-
termined. The equilibrium equations FX 0 and M0
for the right end joint have not been utilized so far, so these
equations can be used to check the calculations.
e. Starting at the far left joint of the story below the one consid-
ered previously, repeat steps 5(a) through 5(d) until the axial
forces, moments, and shears in all of the girders of the frame
have been determined.
6. Determine column axial Pforces. Starting at the top story, apply the
equilibrium equation FY 0 successively to the free body of
each joint to determine the axial forces in the columns of the story.
Repeat the procedure for each successive story, working from top to
bottom, until the axial forces in all the columns of the frame have
been determined.
7. Realizing that the forces and moments at the lower ends of the
bottom-story columns represent the support reactions, use the three
equilibrium equations of the entire frame to check the calculations.
If the analysis has been performed correctly, then these equilibrium
equations must be satised.
In steps 5 and 6 of the foregoing procedure, if we wish to compute
member forces and moments by proceeding from the right end of the
story toward the left, then the term left should be replaced by right and
vice versa.
488 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

Example 12.2

Determine the approximate axial forces, shears, and moments for all the members of the frame shown in Fig. 12.7(a) by
using the portal method.

Solution
Simplied Frame The simplied frame for approximate analysis is obtained by inserting internal hinges at the
midpoints of all the members of the given frame, as shown in Fig. 12.7(b).

Column Shears To compute shears in the columns of the frame, we pass an imaginary section aa through the
columns just above the support level, as shown in Fig. 12.7(b). The free-body diagram of the portion of the frame
above section aa is shown in Fig. 12.7(c). Note that the shear in the interior column BE hasP
been assumed to be twice
as much as in the exterior columns AD and CF . By applying the equilibrium equation FX 0, we obtain (see
Fig. 12.7(c))
P
! FX 0 60  S  2S  S 0 S 15 kN

Thus, the shear forces at the lower ends of the columns are

SAD SCF S 15 kN SBE 2S 30 kN

P
Shear forces at the upper ends of the columns are obtained by applying the equilibrium equation FX 0 to the
free body of each column.
P For example, from the free-body diagram of column AD shown in Fig. 12.7(d), we observe
that in order to satisfy FX 0, the shear force at the upper end, SDA , must act to the right with a magnitude of 15 kN
to balance the shear force at the lower end, SAD 15 kN to the left. Thus, SDA 15 kN !. Shear forces at the upper
ends of the remaining columns are determined in a similar manner and are shown in Fig. 12.7(e), which depicts the free-
body diagrams of all the members and joints of the frame.

Column Moments With the column shears now known, the column end moments can be computed by multiplying
the column shears by half of the column heights. For example, since column AD (see Fig. 12.7(d)) is 8 m high and has
end shears of 15 kN, its end moments are
 
8
MAD MDA 15 60 kN  m
2
Note that the end moments, MAD and MDA , are both counterclockwisethat is, opposite to the clockwise moments of
the 15 kN end shears about the internal hinge at the column midheight. The end moments of the remaining columns of
the frame are computed in a similar manner and are shown in Fig. 12.7(e).

Girder Axial Forces, Moments, and Shears We begin the calculation of girder end actions at the upper left joint
D. The column shear SDA and moment MDA computed previously are applied to the free-body diagram of joint D
in
P opposite directions according to Newtons third law, as shown in Fig. 12.7(d). By applying the equilibrium equation
FX 0, we obtain the girder axial force QDE 45 kN on joint D. Note that QDE must act in the opposite
directionthat is, to the rightat end D of girder DE. From the free-body diagram of joint D (Fig. 12.7(d)), we can

continued
 SECTION 12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method 489

P
also see that in order to satisfy the moment equilibrium equation, M 0, the girder end moment MDE must be
equal and opposite to the 60 kN  m column end moment. Thus, MDE 60 kN  m, with a counterclockwise direction
on joint D but a clockwise direction at the end D of girder DE.
To evaluate the girder shear SDE , we consider the moment equilibrium of the left half of girder DE. From the free-
body diagram of girder DE in Fig. 12.7(d), we can see that the shear force SDE must act downward with a magnitude of
MDE =L=2 so that it can develop a counterclockwise moment of magnitude, MDE , about the internal hinge to balance
the clockwise end moment, MDE . Thus,

MDE 60
SDE 12 kN #
L=2 10=2

The axial force, shear, and moment at the right end E can now be determined by applying the three equilibrium equa-
tions to the free body of girder DE (Fig. 12.7(d)):

P
! FX 0 45  QED 0 QED 45 kN
P
" FY 0 12 SED 0 SED 12 kN "
P
MD 0 60  MED 1210 0 MED 60 kN  m @

Note that the girder end moments, MDE and MED , are equal in magnitude and have the same P direction. P
Next, we calculate the end actions for girder EF . We rst apply the equilibrium equations FX 0 and M 0
to the free body of joint E (Fig. 12.7(e)) to obtain the axial force QEF 15 kN ! and the moment MEF
60 kN  m @ at the left end E of the girder. We then obtain the shear SEF 12 kN # by dividing the moment MEF by
half of the girder length, and we apply the three equilibrium equations to the free body of the girder to obtain QFE
15 kN , SFE 12 kN ", and MFE 60 kN  m @ at the right end F of the girder (see Fig. 12.7(e)).
Since all the moments and horizontal forces acting at the upper right joint F are nowPknown, we can P check the
calculations that have been performed thus far by applying the two equilibrium equations FX 0 and M 0 to
the free body of this joint. From the free-body diagram of joint F shown in Fig. 12.7(e), it is obvious that these equili-
brium equations are indeed satised.
Column Axial Forces We begin the calculation of column axial forces at the upper left joint D. From the free-body
diagram of this joint shown in Fig. 12.7(d), we observe that the axial force in column AD must be equal and opposite to
the shear in girder DE. Thus, the axial force at the upper end D of column AD is QDA 12 kN ". By applying
P
FY 0 to the free body of column AD, we obtain the axial force at the lower end A of the column to be
QAD 12 kN #. Thus, the column AD is subjected to an axial tensile force of 12 kN. Axial forces for the remaining
columns BE and CF are calculated similarly by considering the equilibrium of joints E and F , respectively. The axial
forces thus obtained are shown in Fig. 12.7(e). Ans.
Reactions The forces and moments at the lower ends of the columns AD; BE, and CF , represent the reactions at
the xed supports A; B, and C, respectively, as shown in Fig. 12.7(f ). Ans.

continued
 490
D E F
60 kN

CHAPTER 12
8m

B
A C

Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

10 m 10 m
(a)
D E F D E F
60 kN 60 kN
4m

4m
a a
A B C
A B C S 2S S
5m 5m 5m 5m (c) Section aa
(b) Simplified Frame
5m 5m
12
MDE = 60 MDE = 60
E
60 kN QDE = 45 QDE = 45 QED = 45
D D MED = 60
60 15
SDE = 12 SED = 12
QDA = 12

QDA = 12
MDA = 60 Y
SDA = 15
D
4m

X
4m
MAD = 60
A SAD = 15

QAD = 12 (d)
FIG. 12.7
 12 12 12 12
60 60 60 60 60
60 45 45 15
D 45 45 E 15 15 15 F
60 60
60 15 60 30 15
12 12 120 12 12 60 12
12
12
12
60
15 120 30 15
60

60 120 C 60
A 15 B 30 15

SECTION 12.3
12 12

(e) Member End Forces and Moments

D E F

Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method

60 kN

A 15 B 30 C 15
60 60
120
12 12
(f) Support Reactions

FIG. 12.7 (contd.)

491
492 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

Checking Computations To check our computations, we apply the three equilibrium equations to the free body of
the entire frame (Fig. 12.7(f )):
P
! FX 0 60  15  30  15 0 Checks
P
" FY 0 12 12 0 Checks
P
MC 0 608 1220 60 120 60 0 Checks

Example 12.3

Determine the approximate axial forces, shears, and moments for all the members of the frame shown in Fig. 12.8(a) by
using the portal method.

Solution
Simplied Frame The simplied frame is obtained by inserting internal hinges at the midpoints of all the members
of the given frame, as shown in Fig. 12.8(b).
Column Shears To compute shears in the columns of the second story of the frame, we pass an imaginary section
aa through the columns DG; EH, and FI just above the oor level, as shown in Fig. 12.8(b). The free-body diagram of
the portion of the frame above section aa is shown in Fig. 12.8(c). Note that the shear in the interior column EH has
been
P assumed to be twice as much as in the exterior columns DG and FI . By applying the equilibrium equation
FX 0, we obtain (Fig. 12.8(c))
P
! FX 0 10  S2  2S2  S2 0 S2 2:5 k

FIG. 12.8 continued

 SECTION 12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method 493

FIG. 12.8 (contd.) continued

494 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames
12.8 (contd.)
FIG.
 SECTION 12.3 Analysis for Lateral LoadsPortal Method 495

FIG. 12.8 (contd.)

Thus, the shear forces at the lower ends of the second-story columns are

SDG SFI S2 2:5 k SEH 2S2 5 k

Similarly, by employing section bb (Fig. 12.8(b)), we determine shear forces at the lower ends of the rst-story
columns AD; BE, and CF to be (see Fig. 12.8(d)):

SAD SCF S1 7:5 k SBE 2S1 15 k

P
Shear forces at the upper ends of columns are determined by applying the equilibrium equation FX 0 to the
free body of each column.
P For example, from the free-body diagram of column DG shown in Fig. 12.8(e), we can see
that in order to satisfy FX 0, the shear force at the upper end, SGD , must act to the right with a magnitude of 2.5 k.
Thus SGD 2:5 k !. Shear forces at the upper ends of the remaining columns are obtained in a similar manner and are
shown in Fig. 12.8(f ), which depicts the free-body diagrams of all the members and joints of the frame.
Column Moments Knowing column shears, we can now compute the column end moments by multiplying the
column shears by half of the column heights. For example, since column DG (see Fig. 12.8(e)) is 12 ft high and has end
shears of 2.5 k, its end moments are
 
12
MDG MGD 2:5 15 k-ft
2

Note that the end moments, MDG and MGD , are both counterclockwisethat is, opposite to the clockwise moments of
the 2.5-k end shears about the internal hinge at the column midheight. The end moments of the remaining columns are
computed in a similar manner and are shown in Fig. 12.8(f ).

Girder Axial Forces, Moments, and Shears We begin the computation of girder end actions at the upper left joint G.
The column shear SGD and moment MGD computed previously are applied to the free-body diagram of joint G in op-
posite directions in accordance with Newtons third law, as shown in Fig. 12.8(e). By summing forces in the horizontal

continued
496 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

direction, we obtain the girder axial force QGH 7:5 k on joint G. Note that QGH must act in the opposite direc-
tionthat is, to the rightat the end G of girder GH.PFrom the free-body diagram of joint G (Fig. 12.8(e)), we can also
see that in order to satisfy the moment equilibrium M 0, the girder end moment MGH must be equal and oppo-
site to the 15-k-ft column end moment. Thus MGH 15 k-ft, with a counterclockwise direction on joint G but a clock-
wise direction at the end G of girder GH.
To determine the girder shear SGH , we consider the moment equilibrium of the left half of girder GH. From the
free-body diagram of girder GH (Fig. 12.8(e)), we can see that the shear force SGH must act downward with a magni-
tude of MGH =L=2 so that it can develop a counterclockwise moment of magnitude MGH about the internal hinge to
balance the clockwise end moment MGH . Thus

MGH 15
SGH 1k#
L=2 30=2

The axial force, shear, and moment at the right end H can P now be computed by applying the three equilibrium
P equa-
tions to the free body of girder GH (Fig. 12.8(e)). Applying FX 0, we obtain QHG 7:5 k . From FY 0, we
obtain SHG 1 k ", and to compute MHG , we apply the equilibrium equation:
P
MG 0 15  MHG 130 0 MHG 15 k-ft @

Note that the girder end moments, MGH and MHG , are equal in magnitude and have the same Pdirection. P
Next, the end actions for girder HI are computed. The equilibrium equations FX 0 and M0
are rst applied to the free body of joint H (Fig. 12.8(f )) to obtain the axial force QHI 2:5 k ! and the
moment MHI 15 k-ft @ at the left end H of the girder. The shear SHI 1:5 k # is then obtained by dividing the
moment MHI by half the girder length, and the three equilibrium equations are applied to the free body of
the girder to obtain QIH 2:5 k , SIH 1:5 k ", and MIH 15 k-ft @ at the right end I of the girder (see
Fig. 12.8(f )).
All the moments and horizontal forces acting at P the upper right P joint I are now known, so we can
check the calculations performed thus far by applying FX 0 and M 0 to the free body of this joint.
From the free-body diagram of joint I shown in Fig. 12.8(f ), it is obvious that these equilibrium equations are indeed
satised.
The end actions for the rst-story girders DE and EF are computed in a similar manner, by starting at the left joint
D and working across to the right. The girder end actions thus obtained are shown in Fig. 12.8(f ).
Column Axial Forces We begin the computation of column axial forces at the upper left joint G. From the
free-body diagram of joint G shown in Fig. 12.8(e), we observe that the axial force in column DG must be equal
and opposite P to the shear in girder GH. Thus the axial force at the upper end G of column DG is QGD 1 k ".
By applying FY 0 to the free body of column DG, we obtain the axial force at the lower end of the column
to be QDG 1 k #. Thus, the column DG is subjected to an axial tensile force of 1 k. Axial forces for the
remaining second-story columns, EH and FI , are determined similarly by considering the equilibrium of joints
H and I , respectively; thereafter, the axial forces for the rst-story columns, AD; BE, and CF , are computed
from the equilibrium consideration of joints D; E, and F , respectively. The axial forces thus obtained are shown in
Fig. 12.8(f ). Ans.
Reactions The forces and moments at the lower ends of the rst-story columns AD; BE, and CF , represent the re-
actions at the xed supports A; B, and C, respectively, as shown in Fig. 12.8(g). Ans.

continued
 SECTION 12.4 Analysis for Lateral LoadsCantilever Method 497

Checking Computations To check our computations, we apply the three equilibrium equations to the free body of
the entire frame (Fig. 12.8(g)):
P
! FX 0 10 20  7:5  15  7:5 0 Checks
P
" FY 0 6  3 9 0 Checks
P
MC 0
 1028  2016 60 650 120 320 60 0 Checks

12.4 ANALYSIS FOR LATERAL LOADSCANTILEVER METHOD

The cantilever method was initially developed by A. C. Wilson in 1908
and is generally considered to be appropriate for the approximate anal-
ysis of relatively tall building frames. The cantilever method is based
on the assumption that under lateral loads, the building frames behave
like cantilever beams, as shown in Fig. 12.9. Recall (from mechanics of
materials) that the axial stress on a cross section of a cantilever beam
subjected to lateral loads varies linearly with the distance from the cen-
troidal axis (neutral surface), so that the longitudinal bers of the beam
on the concave side of the neutral surface are in compression, whereas
those on the convex side undergo tension. In the cantilever method, the
distribution of axial stress among the columns of a frame at the column
midheights is assumed to be analogous to the axial stress distribution
among the longitudinal bers of a cantilever beam. In other words, it is
assumed that the axial stress at the midheight of each column is linearly
proportional to the distance of the column from the centroid of the
areas of all the columns on that story. If we further assume that the
cross-sectional areas of all the columns on each story of the frame are
equal, then the axial force in each column will also be linearly propor-
tional to the distance of the column from the centroid of all the columns
on that story. When the lateral loads are acting on the frame toward the
right, as shown in Fig. 12.9, then the columns to the right of the cen-
troidal axis will be in compression, whereas those on the left side will be
in tension and vice versa.
In addition to the foregoing assumption, the cantilever method
makes the same assumption regarding the location of inection points
as used in the portal method. Thus the assumptions made in the canti-
lever method can be stated as follows:
1. An inection point is located at the middle of each member of the
FIG. 12.9 frame.
498 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

2. On each story of the frame, the axial forces in columns are linearly
proportional to their distances from the centroid of the cross-
sectional areas of all the columns on that story.

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for the approximate
analysis of building frames by the cantilever method.
1. Draw a sketch of the simplied frame obtained by inserting an in-
ternal hinge at the midpoint of each member of the given frame.
2. Determine column axial forces. For each story of the frame:
a. Pass a horizontal section through the internal hinges at the col-
umn midheights, cutting the frame into two portions.
b. Draw a free-body diagram of the portion of the frame above
the section. Because the section passes through the columns at
the internal hinges, only internal shears and axial forces (but no
internal moments) act on the free body at the points where the
columns have been cut.
c. Determine the location of the centroid of all the columns on the
story under consideration.
d. Assuming that the axial forces in the columns are proportional
to their distances from the centroid, determine the column
axial
P forces by applying the moment equilibrium equation,
M 0, to the free body of the frame above the section. To
eliminate the unknown column shears from the equilibrium
equation, the moments should be summed about one of the in-
ternal hinges at the column midheights through which the sec-
tion has been passed.
3. Draw free-body diagrams of all the members and joints of the frame
showing the external loads and the column axial forces computed in
the previous step.
4. Determine girder shears and moments. For each story of the frame,
the shears and moments at the ends of girders are computed by
starting at the far left joint and working across to the right (or vice
versa), as follows: P
a. Apply the equilibrium equation FY 0 to the free body of
the joint under consideration to compute the shear at the left
end of the girder that is on the right side of the joint.
b. Considering the free body of the girder, determine the moment
at the girders left end by multiplying the girder shear by half
the girder length; that is,
 
L
Mg S g (12.3)
2
 SECTION 12.4 Analysis for Lateral LoadsCantilever Method 499

Equation (12.3) is based on the condition that the bending mo-

ment at the girder midpoint is zero. P P
c. By applying the equilibrium equations FY 0 and M 0
to the free body of the girder, determine the shear and moment,
respectively, at the right end.
d. Select the joint to the right of the girder considered previously,
and repeat steps 4(a) through 4(c) until the shears and moments
in all the girders of thePstory have been determined. Because the
equilibrium equation FY 0 for the right end joint has not
been utilized so far, it can be used to check the calculations.
5. Determine column moments andPshears. Starting at the top story,
apply the equilibrium equation M 0 to the free body of each
joint of the story to determine the moment at the upper end of the
column below the joint. Next, for each column of the story, calcu-
late the shear at the upper end of the column by dividing the col-
umn moment by half the column height; that is,

MC
SC (12.4)
h=2

Determine the shear and moment at the P lower end of Pthe column
by applying the equilibrium equations FX 0 and M 0, re-
spectively, to the free body of the column. Repeat the procedure for
each successive story, working from top to bottom, until the mo-
ments and shears in all the columns of the frame have been de-
termined.
6. Determine girder axial forces. For each story of the frame, de-
termine the girder axial forces by P starting at the far left joint and
applying the equilibrium equation FX 0 successively to the free
body of each joint of the story.
7. Realizing that the forces and moments at the lower ends of the
bottom-story columns represent the support reactions, use the three
equilibrium equations of the entire frame to check the calculations.
If the analysis has been performed correctly, then these equilibrium
equations must be satised.

Example 12.4

Determine the approximate axial forces, shears, and moments for all the members of the frame shown in Fig. 12.10(a)
by using the cantilever method.

Solution
This frame was analyzed by the portal method in Example 12.3. continued
500 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

FIG. 12.10
continued
SECTION 12.4 Analysis for Lateral LoadsCantilever Method 501
12.10 (contd.)
FIG.
502 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

FIG. 12.10 (contd.)

Simplied Frame The simplied frame, obtained by inserting internal hinges at midpoints of all the members of the
given frame, is shown in Fig. 12.10(b).

Column Axial Forces To compute axial forces in the columns of the second story of the frame, we pass an imagi-
nary section aa through the internal hinges at the midheights of columns DG; EH, and FI , as shown in Fig. 12.10(b).
The free-body diagram of the portion of the frame above this section is shown in Fig. 12.10(c). Because the section cuts
the columns at the internal hinges, only internal shears and axial forces (but no internal moments) act on the free body
at the points where the columns have been cut. Assuming that the cross-sectional areas of the columns are equal, we
determine the location of the centroid of the three columns from the left column DG by using the relationship
P
Ax A0 A30 A50
x P 26:67 ft
A 3A
The lateral loads are acting on the frame to the right, so the axial force in column DG, which is to the left of the cent-
roid, must be tensile, whereas the axial forces in the columns EH and FI , located to the right of the centroid, must be
compressive as shown in Fig. 12.10(c). Also, since the axial forces in the columns are assumed to be linearly propor-
tional to their distances from the centroid, the relationships between them can be established by means of the similar
triangles shown in Fig. 12.10(c); that is,
3:33
QEH QDG 0:125QDG (1)
26:67
23:33
QFI QDG 0:875QDG (2)
26:67
By summing moments about the left internal hinge J, we write
P
MJ 0 106 QEH 30 QFI 50 0
Substituting Eqs. (1) and (2) into the preceding equation and solving for QDG , we obtain
60 0:125QDG 30 0:875QDG 50 0
QDG 1:26 k

continued
 SECTION 12.4 Analysis for Lateral LoadsCantilever Method 503

Therefore, from Eqs. (1) and (2),

QEH 0:1251:26 0:16 k
QFI 0:8751:26 1:1 k
The axial forces in the rst-story columns can be determined in a similar manner by employing section bb shown in
Fig. 12.10(b). The free-body diagram of the portion of the frame above this section is shown in Fig. 12.10(d). The ar-
rangement of columns for both stories of the frame is the same, so the location of the centroidas well as the rela-
tionships between the axial forcesof the columns for the two stories are also the same. Thus
QBE 0:125QAD (3)
QCF 0:875QAD (4)
By summing moments about the internal hinge K, we write
P
MK 0 1020  208 QBE 30 QCF 50 0
Substituting Eqs. (3) and (4), we obtain
360 0:125QAD 30 0:875QAD 50 0
QAD 7:58 k
Therefore,
QBE 0:95 k
QCF 6:63 k
The column axial forces are shown in Fig. 12.10(f ), which depicts the free-body diagrams of all the members and joints
of the frame.
Girder Shears and Moments Knowing column axial forces, the girder shears can now be computed by considering
equilibrium
P in the vertical direction of the joints. Starting at the upper left joint G, we apply the equilibrium equation
FY 0 to the free body of this joint (see Fig. 12.10(e)) to obtain the shear SGH 1:26 k # at the left end of girder
GH. The moment at the left end is then determined by multiplying the shear by half the girder length; that is,
MGH 1:2615 18:9 k-ft @
P
The shear and moment at the right end, H, can now be computed by applying the equilibrium equations
P FY 0 and
M 0, respectively, to the free body of girder GH (Fig. 12.10(e)). By applying these equations, we obtain SHG
1:26 k " and MHG 18:9 k-ft @. Note that the girder end moments, MGH and MHG , have the same magnitude and di-
rection.
Next, the end shears and moments for girder HI are P computed by considering the equilibrium of joints H and
girder HI (see Fig. 12.10(f )), and the equilibrium equation FY 0 is applied to the free body of the right joint I to
check the calculations performed thus far.
The shears and moments for the rst-story girders DE and EF are computed in a similar manner by starting
at the left joint D and working across to the right. The girder shears and moments thus obtained are shown in
Fig. 12.10(f ).
continued
504 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

Column Moments and Shears With the girder moments now known, the column moments P can be determined by
considering moment equilibrium of joints. Beginning at the second story and applying M 0 to the free body of

joint G (Fig. 12.10(e)), we obtain the moment at the upper end of column DG to be MGD 18:9 k-ft . The shear at the
upper end of column DG is then computed by dividing MGD by half the column height; that is,
18:9
SGD 3:15 k !
6
Note that SGD must act to the right, so that it can develop a clockwise moment to balance the counterclockwise end
moment
P MGD .P The shear and moment at the lower end D are then determined by applying the equilibrium equations
FX 0 and M 0 to the free body of column DG (see Fig. 12.10(e)). Next, the end moments and shears for col-
umns EH and FI are computed in a similar manner; thereafter, the procedure is repeated to determine the moments and
shears for the rst-story columns, AD; BE, and CF (see Fig. 12.10(f )).
P
Girder Axial Forces We begin the computation of girder axial forces at the upper left joint G. Applying FX 0
to the free-body diagram of joint G shown in Fig. 12.10(e), we nd the axial force in girder GH to be 6.85 k com-
pression. The axial force
P for girder HI is determined similarly by considering the equilibrium of joint H, after which the
equilibrium equation FX 0 is applied to the free body of the right joint I to check the calculations. The axial forces
for the rst-story girders DE and EF are then computed from the equilibrium consideration of joints D and E, in order.
The axial forces thus obtained are shown in Fig. 12.10(f ). Ans.
Reactions The forces and moments at the lower ends of the rst-story columns AD; BE, and CF represent the re-
actions at the xed supports A; B, and C, respectively, as shown in Fig. 12.10(g). Ans.
Checking Computations To check our computations, we apply the three equilibrium equations to the free body of
the entire frame (Fig. 12.10(g)):
P
! FX 0 10 20  9:5  15  5:54 0:04 & 0 Checks
P
" FY 0 7:58 0:95 6:63 0 Checks
P
MC 0
1028  2016 75:9 7:5850 120:2  0:9520 44:3 0:4 & 0
Checks

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have learned that in the approximate analysis of
statically indeterminate structures, two types of simplifying assumptions
are commonly employed: (1) assumptions about the location of in-
ection points and (2) assumptions about the distribution of forces
among members and/or reactions. The total number of assumptions re-
quired is equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the structure.
 Problems 505

The approximate analysis of rectangular frames subjected to verti-

cal loads is based on the following assumptions for each girder of the
frame: (1) the inection points are located at one-tenth of the span from
each end of the girder and (2) the girder axial force is zero.
Two methods commonly used for the approximate analysis of rec-
tangular frames subjected to lateral loads are the portal method and the
cantilever method.
The portal method involves making the assumptions that an in-
ection point is located at the middle of each member and that, on
each story, interior columns carry twice as much shear as exterior
columns.
In the cantilever method, the following assumptions are made about
the behavior of the frame: that an inection point is located at the mid-
dle of each member and that, on each story, the axial forces in the col-
umns are linearly proportional to their distances from the centroid of
the cross-sectional areas of all the columns on that story.

PROBLEMS
Section 12.2
12.1 through 12.5 Draw the approximate shear and bend- 1 k/ft
ing moment diagrams for the girders of the frames shown in
Figs. P12.1 through P12.5. E F

30 kN/m
15 ft
D E F

4m 1 k/ft

A B C C D

6m 6m

FIG. P12.1 15 ft

A B

15 ft

FIG. P12.2
506 CHAPTER 12 Approximate Analysis of Rectangular Building Frames

Section 12.3
12.6 through 12.13 Determine the approximate axial forces,
shears, and moments for all the members of the frames
shown in Figs. P12.6 through P12.13 by using the portal
method.

E F
40 kN

4m

60 kN D
C
FIG. P12.3

2 k/ft 4m
I
G
H A B
2 k/ft 10 ft
6m
D F
E FIG. P12.6, P12.14
10 ft
A B C

20 ft 20 ft

FIG. P12.4

10 kN/m

G I
H

8m
D E F
20 kN/m 50 k
D F
E

20 ft
8m

A B C A B C

8m 12 m 20 ft 20 ft

FIG. P12.5 FIG. P12.7, P12.15

 Problems 507

FIG. P12.11, P12.19

FIG. P12.8, P12.16

FIG. P12.12, P12.20

FIG. P12.9, P12.17

G H I
80 kN

6m

FIG. P12.13, P12.21

40 kN
D E F
Section 12.4
6m
12.14 through 12.21 Determine the approximate axial
C forces, shears, and moments for all the members of the
A B C
frames shown in Figs. P12.6 through P12.13 by using the
10 m 10 m cantilever method.
FIG. P12.10, P12.18
 13
Method of Consistent
DeformationsForce Method
13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy
13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants
13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy
13.4 Support Settlements, Temperature Changes, and Fabrication Errors
Summary
Problems

Cantilever Bridge
John Lund/CORBIS

In this chapter, we study a general formulation of the force (exibility)

method called the method of consistent deformations for the analysis of
statically indeterminate structures. The method, which was introduced
by James C. Maxwell in 1864, essentially involves removing enough
restraints from the indeterminate structure to render it statically deter-
minate. This determinate structure, which must be statically stable, is
referred to as the primary structure. The excess restraints removed from
the given indeterminate structure to convert it into the determinate pri-
mary structure are called redundant restraints, and the reactions or
internal forces associated with these restraints are termed redundants.
The redundants are then applied as unknown loads on the primary
structure, and their values are determined by solving the compatibility
equations based on the condition that the deformations of the primary
structure due to the combined eect of the redundants and the given
external loading must be the same as the deformations of the original
indeterminate structure.
Since the independent variables or unknowns in the method of con-
sistent deformations are the redundant forces (and/or moments), which
must be determined before the other response characteristics (e.g., dis-
placements) can be evaluated, the method is classied as a force method.
In this chapter, we rst develop the analysis of beams, frames, and
trusses with a single degree of indeterminacy by using the method of

508
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 509

consistent deformations. We then extend this method to structures with

multiple degrees of indeterminacy. Finally, we consider the analysis for
the eects of support settlements, temperature changes, and fabrication
errors.

13.1 STRUCTURES WITH A SINGLE DEGREE OF INDETERMINACY

To illustrate the basic concept of the method of consistent deformations,

consider the propped cantilever beam subjected to a concentrated
load P, as shown in Fig. 13.1(a). Since the beam is supported by four
support
P P (Ax ; Ay ; MP
reactions A , and Cy ), the three equations of equilibrium
( Fx 0, Fy 0, and M 0) are not sucient for determining
all the reactions. Therefore, the beam is statically indeterminate. The
degree of indeterminacy of the beam is equal to the number of
unknown reactions minus the number of equilibrium equationsthat is,
4  3 1which indicates that the beam has one more, or redundant,
reaction than necessary for static stability. Thus, if we can determine
one of the four reactions by using a compatibility equation based on the
geometry of the deformation of the beam, then the remaining three re-
actions can be obtained from the three equations of equilibrium.
To establish the compatibility equation, we select one of the re-
actions of the beam to be the redundant. Suppose that we select the
vertical reaction Cy exerted by the roller support C to be the redundant.
From Fig. 13.1(a), we can see that if the roller support C is removed
from the beam, it will become determinate while still remaining stat-
ically stable, because the xed support A alone can prevent it from
translating and/or rotating as a rigid body. Thus, the roller support C is
not necessary for the static stability of the beam, and its reaction Cy can
be designated as the redundant. Note however, that the presence of
support C imposes the compatibility condition on the deected shape of
the beam that the deection at C must be zero (Fig. 13.1(a)); that is,

DC 0 (13.1)

To determine the redundant Cy by using this compatibility condition,

we remove the roller support C from the indeterminate beam to convert
it into the determinate cantilever beam shown in Fig. 13.1(b). This de-
terminate beam is referred to as the primary beam. The redundant Cy is
then applied as an unknown load on the primary beam, along with the
given external load P 32 k, as shown in Fig. 13.1(b). The redundant
Cy can be determined by using the reasoning that if the value of the
unknown load Cy acting on the primary beam (Fig. 13.1(b)) is to be the
same as that of the reaction Cy exerted on the indeterminate beam by
the roller support C (Fig. 13.1(a)), then the deection at the free end C
510 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.1
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 511

of the primary beam due to the combined eect of the external load P
and the redundant Cy must be the same as the deection of the in-
determinate beam at support C. Because the deection DC at support C
of the indeterminate beam is zero (Eq. 13.1), the deection at end C of
the primary beam due to the combined eect of the external load P and
the redundant Cy must also be zero. The total deection DC at end C
of the primary beam due to the combined eect of P and Cy can be
conveniently expressed by superimposing (algebraically adding) the de-
ections due to the external load P and the redundant Cy acting in-
dividually on the beam; that is,
DC DCO DCC (13.2)
in which DCO and DCC represent, respectively, the deections at the
end C of the primary beam due to the external load P and the re-
dundant Cy , each acting alone on the beam. Note that two subscripts
are used to denote the deections DCO and DCC of the primary beam.
The rst subscript, C, indicates the location of these deections; the
second subscript, O, is used to indicate that DCO is caused by the given
external loading, whereas the second subscript, C, of DCC implies that it
is due to the redundant Cy . Both of these deections are considered to
be positive if they occur in the direction of the redundant Cy , which is
assumed to be upward, as shown in Fig. 13.1(b).
Since the redundant Cy is unknown, it is convenient to determine
DCC by rst evaluating the deection at C due to a unit value of the re-
dundant Cy , as shown in Fig. 13.1(d), and then multiplying the deection
thus obtained by the unknown magnitude of the redundant. Thus,
DCC fCC Cy (13.3)
in which fCC denotes the deection at point C of the primary beam due
to the unit value of the redundant Cy . It may be recalled from Section
7.8 that fCC , which has units of deection per unit force, is referred to as
a exibility coecient. By substituting Eqs. (13.1) and (13.3) into Eq.
(13.2), we obtain the compatibility equation

DC DCO fCC Cy 0 (13.4)

which can be solved to express the redundant Cy in terms of the de-

ections DCO and fCC of the primary beam:
DCO
Cy  (13.5)
fCC
Equations (13.4) and (13.5) can also be established intuitively by
regarding the redundant Cy as the force necessary to correct the de-
ected shape of the primary structure so that it matches the deected
shape of the original indeterminate structure. When support C is imag-
ined to be removed from the indeterminate beam of Fig. 13.1(a), the
512 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

external load P causes a downward deection of DCO at end C, as

shown in Fig. 13.1(c). Since the deection at C in the original in-
determinate beam is zero, the redundant force Cy must be of sucient
magnitude to push the end C back into its original position by produc-
ing an upward deection of DCO at end C of the primary beam. To
evaluate the eect of Cy on the beam, we compute the exibility co-
ecient fCC , which is the deection at C due to a unit value of the re-
dundant (Fig. 13.1(d)). Since superposition is valid, deection is directly
proportional to load; that is, if a unit load causes a deection of fCC ,
then a load ten times as much will cause a deection of 10fCC . Thus, the
upward redundant of magnitude Cy causes an upward deection of
Cy fCC at end C of the primary beam. Since the upward deection
Cy fCC caused by the redundant Cy must be equal to the downward
deection DCO due to the external load P, we write
Cy fCC DCO (13.6)
in which both deections, fCC and DCO , are assumed to be positive up-
ward. Note that Eq. (13.6) is equivalent to Eqs. (13.4) and (13.5) derived
previously.
Since the primary beam is statically determinate, the deections
DCO and fCC can be computed by either using the methods previously
described in Chapters 6 and 7 or by using the beam-deection formulas
given inside the front cover of the book. By using the beam-deection
formulas, we determine the deection at end C of the primary beam due
to the external load P 32 k to be
5PL 3 53220 3
DCO   0:25 ft 3 in:
48EI 4830;000512=144
(see Fig. 13.1(c)) in which a negative sign has been assigned to the
magnitude of DCO to indicate that the deection occurs in the downward
directionthat is, in the direction opposite to that of the redundant Cy .
Similarly, the exibility coecient fCC is evaluated as
L3 20 3
fCC 0:025 ft/k 0:3 in:/k
3EI 330;000512=144
(see Fig. 13.1(d)). By substituting the expressions or the numerical values
of DCO and fCC into Eq. (13.5), we determine the redundant Cy to be
  
5PL 3 3EI 5
Cy   P 10 k "
48EI L3 16
The positive answer for Cy indicates that our initial assumption about
the upward direction of Cy was correct.
With the reaction Cy known, the three remaining reactions can now
be determined by applying the three equilibrium equations to the free
body of the indeterminate beam (Fig. 13.1(e)):
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 513
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0
P
" Fy 0 Ay  32 10 0 Ay 22 k "
P
MA 0 MA  3210 1020 0 MA 120 k-ft
After the redundant Cy has been computed, the reactions and all
other response characteristics of the beam can also be determined by
employing superposition relationships similar in form to the deection
superposition relationship expressed in Eq. (13.4). Thus, the reactions
can alternatively be determined by using the superposition relationships
(see Fig. 13.1(a), (c), and (d)):
! Ax AxO AxC Cy 0
" Ay AyO AyC Cy 32  110 22 k "

MA MAO MAC Cy 320  2010 120 k-ft
Note that the second subscript O is used to denote reactions due to the
external loading only (Fig. 13.1(c)), whereas the second subscript C de-
notes reactions due to a unit value of the redundant Cy (Fig. 13.1(d)).
Similarly, the bending moment diagram for the indeterminate
beam can be obtained by superimposing the bending moment diagram
of the primary beam due to external loading only, on the bending mo-
ment diagram of the primary beam due to a unit value of redundant Cy
multiplied by the value of Cy . The bending moment diagram for the in-
determinate beam thus constructed is shown in Fig. 13.1(f ).

Moment as the Redundant

In the foregoing analysis of the propped cantilever of Fig. 13.1(a),
we arbitrarily selected the vertical reaction at roller support C to be the
redundant. When analyzing a structure by the method of consistent de-
formations, we can choose any support reaction or internal force (or mo-
ment) as the redundant, provided that the removal of the corresponding
restraint from the given indeterminate structure results in a primary
structure that is statically determinate and stable.
Considering again the propped cantilever beam of Fig. 13.1(a),
which is redrawn in Fig. 13.2(a), we can see that the removal of the re-
straint corresponding to the horizontal reaction Ax will render the beam
statically unstable. Therefore, Ax cannot be used as the redundant.
However, either of the two other reactions at support A can be used as
the redundant.
Let us consider the analysis of the beam by using the reaction mo-
ment MA as the redundant. The actual sense of MA is not known and is
arbitrarily assumed to be counterclockwise, as shown in Fig. 13.2(a). To
obtain the primary beam, we remove the restraint against rotation at
end A by replacing the xed support by a hinged support, as shown in
514 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.2

Fig. 13.2(b). Note that the simply supported beam thus obtained is stat-
ically determinate and stable. The redundant MA is now treated as an un-
known load on the primary beam, and its magnitude can be determined
from the compatibility condition that the slope at A due to the combined
eect of the external load P and the redundant MA must be zero.
The primary beam is subjected separately to the external load
P 32 k and a unit value of the unknown redundant MA , as shown in
Fig. 13.2(b) and (c), respectively. As shown in these gures, yAO repre-
sents the slope at end A due to the external load P, whereas, fAA denotes
the exibility coecientthat is, the slope at A due to a unit value of
the redundant MA . Thus the slope at A due to MA equals yAA fAA MA .
Because the algebraic sum of the slopes at end A due to the external
load P and the redundant MA must be zero, we can express the com-
patibility equation as

yAO fAA MA 0 (13.7)

 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 515

The slopes yAO and fAA can be easily computed by using the beam-
deection formulas inside the front cover of the book. Thus
PL 2 3220 2
yAO   0:0075 rad
16EI 1630;000512=144
L 20
fAA 0:0000625 rad/k-ft
3EI 330;000512=144
Note that a negative sign has been assigned to the magnitude of yAO ,
because this rotation occurs in the clockwise directionthat is, opposite
to the counterclockwise direction assumed for the redundant MA (Fig.
13.2(a)). By substituting the numerical values of yAO and fAA into the
compatibility equation (Eq. 13.7), we write
0:0075 0:0000625MA 0
from which
0:0075
MA 120 k-ft
0:0000625
The positive answer implies that the counterclockwise sense initially as-
sumed for MA was correct. Note that the value of the reaction moment

MA 120 k-ft computed here is identical to that obtained previously
by using the vertical reaction Cy as the redundant (Fig. 13.1). Once the
redundant MA is known, the remaining reactions as well as the other
response characteristics of the beam can be determined either through
equilibrium considerations or by superposition, as discussed previously.

Procedure for Analysis

Based on the foregoing discussion, we can develop the following step-
by-step procedure for the analysis of externally indeterminate structures
with a single degree of indeterminacy.
1. Determine the degree of indeterminacy of the given structure. If
the degree of indeterminacy is greater than 1, and/or if the struc-
ture is internally indeterminate, then end the analysis at this stage.
The analysis of internally indeterminate structures and structures
with multiple degrees of indeterminacy is considered in subsequent
sections.
2. Select one of the support reactions as the redundant. The choice of
redundant is merely a matter of convenience, and any reaction can
be selected as the redundant, provided that the removal of the cor-
responding restraint from the given indeterminate structure results
in a primary structure that is statically determinate and stable. The
sense of the redundant is not known and can be arbitrarily assumed.
The actual sense of the redundant will be known after its magni-
tude has been determined by solving the compatibility equation. A
516 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

positive magnitude for the redundant will imply that the sense ini-
tially assumed was correct, whereas a negative value of the mag-
nitude will indicate that the actual sense is opposite to the one
assumed initially.
3. Remove the restraint corresponding to the redundant from the
given indeterminate structure to obtain the primary determinate
structure.
4. a. Draw a diagram of the primary structure with only the exter-
nal loading applied to it. Sketch a deected shape of the
structure, and show the deection (or slope) at the point of
application and in the direction of the redundant by an appro-
priate symbol.
b. Next, draw a diagram of the primary structure with only the
unit value of the redundant applied to it. The unit force (or
moment) must be applied in the positive direction of the re-
dundant. Sketch a deected shape of the structure, and show by
an appropriate symbol the exibility coecient representing the
deection (or slope) at the point of application and in the di-
rection of the redundant. To indicate that the load as well as the
response of the structure is to be multiplied by the redundant,
show the redundant preceded by a multiplication sign () next
to the diagram of the structure. The deection (or slope) at the
location of the redundant due to the unknown redundant equals
the exibility coecient multiplied by the unknown magnitude
of the redundant.
5. Write the compatibility equation by setting the algebraic sum of the
deections (or slopes) of the primary structure at the location of the
redundant due to the external loading and the redundant equal to
the given displacement (or rotation) of the redundant support of the
actual indeterminate structure. Since we assume here that supports
are unyielding, the algebraic sum of the deections due to the ex-
ternal loading and the redundant can be simply set equal to zero to
obtain the compatibility equation. (The case of support movements
is considered in a subsequent section.)
6. Compute the deections of the primary structure at the location of
the redundant due to the external loading and due to the unit value
of the redundant. A deection is considered to be positive if it has
the same sense as that assumed for the redundant. The deections
can be determined by using any of the methods discussed in Chap-
ters 6 and 7. For beams with constant exural rigidity EI , it is usu-
ally convenient to determine these quantities by using the deection
formulas given inside the front cover of the book, whereas the de-
ections of trusses and frames can be conveniently computed by
using the method of virtual work.
7. Substitute the values of deections (or slopes) computed in step
6 into the compatibility equation, and solve for the unknown
redundant.
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 517

8. Determine the remaining support reactions of the indeterminate

structure either by applying the three equilibrium equations to the
free body of the indeterminate structure or by superposition of the
reactions of the primary structure due to the external loading and
due to the redundant.
9. Once the reactions have been evaluated, the other response charac-
teristics (e.g., shear and bending diagram and/or member forces) of
the indeterminate structure can be determined either through equili-
brium considerations or by superposition of the responses of the pri-
mary structure due to the external loading and due to the redundant.

Example 13.1

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 13.3(a) by the
method of consistent deformations.

FIG. 13.3

continued
518 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.3 (contd.)

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy The beam is supported by four reactions, Ax ; Ay ; MA , and By (Fig. 13.3(a)); that is, r 4.
Since there are only three equilibrium equations, the degree of indeterminacy of the beam is equal to r  3 1.

Primary Beam The vertical reaction By at the roller support B is selected to be the redundant. The sense of By is
assumed to be upward, as shown in Fig. 13.3(a). The primary beam obtained by removing the roller support B from the
given indeterminate beam is shown in Fig. 13.3(b). Note that the primary cantilever beam is statically determinate and
stable. Next, the primary beam is subjected separately to the external moment M and a unit value of the unknown re-
dundant By , as shown in Fig. 13.3(b) and (c), respectively. As shown in the gure, DBO denotes the deection at B due to
the external moment M, whereas fBB denotes the exibility coecient representing the deection at B due to the unit
value of the redundant By . Thus, the deection at B due to the unknown redundant By equals fBB By .

Compatibility Equation The deection at support B of the actual indeterminate beam is zero, so the algebraic sum
of the deections of the primary beam at B due to the external moment M and the redundant By must also be zero.
Thus, the compatibility equation can be written as
DBO fBB By 0 (1)
Deections of Primary Beam By using the beam-deection formulas, we obtain the deections DBO and fBB to be
ML 2 L3
DBO  and fBB
2EI 3EI

continued
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 519

in which the negative sign for DBO indicates that this deection occurs in the downward directionthat is, opposite to
the upward direction assumed for the redundant By .

Magnitude of the Redundant By substituting the expressions for DBO and fBB into the compatibility equation
(Eq. (1)), we determine the redundant By as
 3
ML 2 L 3M
 By 0 By " Ans.
2EI 3EI 2L
The positive answer for By indicates that our initial assumption about the upward direction of By was correct.
Reactions The remaining reactions of the indeterminate beam can now be determined by superposition of the
reactions of the primary beam due to the external moment M and the redundant By , shown in Fig. 13.3(b) and (c),
respectively:
! Ax 0 Ax 0 Ans.
 
3M 3M 3M
" Ay 1  Ay # Ans.
2L 2L 2L
 
3M M M
MA M  L  MA @ Ans.
2L 2 2
The reactions are shown in Fig. 13.3(d).

Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams By using the reactions, the shear and bending moment diagrams for the in-
determinate beam are constructed. These diagrams are shown in Fig. 13.3(e). Ans.

Example 13.2

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 13.4(a) by the
method of consistent deformations. Select the reaction moment at the xed support to be the redundant.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy The beam is supported by four reactions (Fig. 13.4(a)), so its degree of indeterminacy is
equal to 4  3 1.
Primary Beam The reaction moment MA at the xed support A is selected to be the redundant. The sense of MA
is assumed to be counterclockwise, as shown in Fig. 13.4(a). To obtain the primary beam, we remove the restraint
against rotation at end A by replacing the xed support by a hinged support, as shown in Fig. 13.4(b). The primary
simply supported beam is then subjected separately to the external loading and a unit value of the unknown re-
dundant MA , as shown in Fig. 13.4(b) and (c), respectively. As shown in these gures, yAO represents the slope at A
due to the external loading, whereas fAA denotes the exibility coecient representing the slope at A due to the unit
value of the redundant MA .

continued
520 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Compatibility Equation By setting the algebraic sum of the slopes of the primary beam at A due to the external
loading and the redundant MA equal to the slope at the xed support A of the actual indeterminate beam, which is zero,
we write the compatibility equation:
yAO fAA MA 0 (1)
Slopes of Primary Beam From the beam-deection formulas,
1;800 k-ft 2 10 k-ft 2 /k-ft
yAO  and fAA
EI EI

FIG. 13.4

continued
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 521

1.6 k/ft
Ax = 0 B
A
MA = 180
k-ft
Ay = 30 k By = 18 k
(d) Support Reactions for Indeterminate Beam

30

C
A B
18.75 ft

18
Shear diagram (k)

101.25

A
C B

180
Bending moment diagram (k-ft)

(e) Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams

FIG. 13.4 (contd.) for Indeterminate Beam

Magnitude of the Redundant By substituting the values of yAO and fAA into the compatibility equation (Eq. (1)), we
obtain
 
1;800 10
 MA 0 MA 180 k-ft Ans.
EI EI
Reactions To determine the remaining reactions of the indeterminate beam, we apply the equilibrium equations
(Fig. 13.4(d)):
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0 Ans.
MB 0 180  Ay 30 1:63015 0 Ay 30 k " Ans.
P
" Fy 0 30  1:630 By 0 By 18 k " Ans.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 13.4(e). Ans.
522 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Example 13.3

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the two-span continuous beam shown in
Fig. 13.5(a) using the method of consistent deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy The beam is supported by four reactions, so its degree of indeterminacy is equal to
4  3 1.
Primary Beam The vertical reaction By at the roller support B is selected to be the redundant, and the primary
beam is obtained by removing the roller support B from the given indeterminate beam, as shown in Fig. 13.5(b). Next,
the primary beam is subjected separately to the external loading and a unit value of the unknown redundant By , as
shown in Fig. 13.5(b) and (c), respectively. As shown in these gures, DBO denotes the deection at B due to the external
loading, whereas fBB denotes the exibility coecient representing the deection at B due to the unit value of the
redundant By .
Compatibility Equation Because the deection at support B of the actual indeterminate beam is zero, the algebraic
sum of the deections of the primary beam at B due to the external loading and the redundant By must also be zero.
Thus, the compatibility equation can be written as
DBO fBB By 0 (1)
Deections of Primary Beam The exural rigidity EI of the primary beam is not constant (since the moment of
inertia of the right half of the beam, BD, is twice the moment of inertia of the left half, AB), so we cannot use the for-
mulas given inside the front cover of the book for computing deections. Therefore, we will use the conjugate-beam
method, discussed in Chapter 6, for determining the deections of the primary beam.
To determine the deection DBO due to the external loading, we draw the conjugate beams for the 15-kN/m
uniformly distributed load and the 60-kN concentrated load, as shown in Fig. 13.5(d) and (e), respectively. Recalling
that the deection at a point on a real beam is equal to the bending moment at that point in the corresponding
conjugate beam, we determine the deection DBO due to the combined eect of the distributed and concentrated
loads as
         
2 30 1 10
EI DBO 4;218:7510 10750 718:7510 10150
3 8 2 3
28;125 kN  m 3
DBO 
EI
in which the negative sign indicates that the deection occurs in the downward direction. Note that although the nu-
merical values of E and I are given, it is usually convenient to carry out the analysis in terms of EI . The exibility co-
ecient fBB can be computed similarly by using the conjugate beam shown in Fig. 13.5(f ). Thus
   
1 10
EIfBB 20:83310  105 125 kN  m 3 /kN
2 3
125 kN  m 3 /kN
fBB
EI

continued
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 523

FIG. 13.5

continued
524 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Magnitude of the Redundant By substituting the values of DBO and fBB into the compatibility equation (Eq. (1)), we
obtain
 
28;125 125
 By 0 By 225 kN " Ans.
EI EI
Reactions To determine the remaining reactions of the indeterminate beam, we apply the equilibrium equations
(Fig. 13.5(g)):
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0 Ans.
P
MD 0 Ay 20  22510 152010 605 0
Ay 52:5 kN " Ans.
P
" Fy 0 52:5 225  1520  60 Dy 0
Dy 82:5 kN " Ans.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 13.5(h). Ans.

Example 13.4

Determine the reactions and the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 13.6(a) using the method of consistent
deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy The truss is indeterminate to the rst degree.
Primary Truss The horizontal reaction Dx at the hinged support D is selected to be the redundant. The direction of
Dx is arbitrarily assumed to the right, as shown in Fig. 13.6(a). The primary truss is obtained by removing the restraint
against horizontal displacement at joint D by replacing the hinged support by a roller support, as shown in Fig. 13.6(b).
Next, the primary truss is subjected separately to the external loading and a unit value of the unknown redundant Dx , as
shown in Fig. 13.6(b) and (c), respectively.

Compatibility Equation If DDO denotes the horizontal deection at joint D of the primary truss due to external
loading and if fDD denotes the exibility coecient representing the horizontal deection at D due to the unit value of
the redundant Dx , then the compatibility equation can be written as
DDO fDD Dx 0 (1)
Deections of Primary Truss The deections DDO and fDD can be evaluated by using the virtual work method.
Recall from Chapter 7 that the virtual work expression for truss deections is given by (Eq. (7.23))
P FFv L
D (2)
AE

continued
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 525

FIG. 13.6

in which F symbolically represents the axial forces in truss members due to the real loading that causes the deection D,
and Fv represents the axial forces in the truss members due to a virtual unit load acting at the joint and in the direction
of the desired deection D.
For computing the deection DDO of the primary truss, the real system consists of the given external loading, as
shown in Fig. 13.6(b). The member axial forces due to this loading are symbolically denoted as FO forces, and their

continued
526 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.6 (contd.)

numerical values, obtained by the method of joints, are shown in Fig. 13.6(b). The virtual system for DDO consists of a
unit load applied at the location and in the direction of the redundant Dx , which is the same as the system shown in Fig.
13.6(c) (without the multiplier Dx ). The member axial forces due to the unit value of the redundant Dx are symbolically
denoted as uD forces, and their numerical values, obtained by the method of joints, are shown in Fig. 13.6(c). Thus, the
virtual work expression for DDO can be written as
P FO uD L
DDO (3)
AE
The FO and uD member forces are then tabulated, and Eq. (3) is applied to determine DDO , as shown in Table
13.1. Thus
5;493:6 k/in:
DDO
E
The positive magnitude of DDO indicates that the deection occurs to the rightthat is, in the same direction as that
assumed for the redundant Dx .
For computing the exibility coecient fDD , both the real and the virtual systems consist of a unit value of the re-
dundant Dx applied to the primary truss, as shown in Fig. 13.6(c) (without the multiplier Dx ). Thus, the virtual work
expression for fDD becomes
P uD2 L
fDD (4)
AE
Equation (4) is applied to determine fDD , as shown in Table 13.1. Thus,
1201/in:
fDD
E
Magnitude of Redundant By substituting the values of DDO and fDD into the compatibility equation (Eq. (1)), we
determine the redundant Dx to be
 
5;493:6 120
Dx 0
E E
Dx 45:78 k

continued
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 527

TABLE 13.1

FO uD L uD2 L
L A FO uD A A F FO uD Dx
Member (in.) (in. 2 ) (k) (k/k) (k/in.) (1/in.) (k)
AB 240 6 52 1 2,080 40 6.22
BC 240 6 42.67 1 1,706.8 40 3.11
CD 240 6 42.67 1 1,706.8 40 3.11
EF 240 6 24 0 0 0 24
BE 180 4 18 0 0 0 18
CF 180 4 25 0 0 0 25
AE 300 6 30 0 0 0 30
BF 300 4 11.67 0 0 0 11.67
DF 300 6 53.33 0 0 0 53.33
P
5,493.6 120

1 P FO uD L 5;493:6 k=in: 1 P uD2 L 1201=in:

DDO fDD
E A E E A E
DDO
Dx  45:78 k
fDD

The negative answer for Dx indicates that our initial assumption about Dx acting to the right was incorrect and that Dx
actually acts to the left.
Dx 45:78 k Ans.
Reactions The remaining reactions of the indeterminate truss can now be determined by superposition of the
reactions of the primary truss due to the external loads (Fig. 13.6(b)) and due to the redundant Dx (Fig. 13.6(c)).
Ax 28  145:78 17:78 k ! Ans.
Ay 18 k " Ans.
Dy 32 k " Ans.
The reactions are shown in Fig. 13.6(d).

Member Axial Forces The axial forces in the members of the indeterminate truss can be determined by super-
position of the member forces of the primary truss due to the external loads and due to the redundant Dx ; that is,
F FO uD Dx (5)
The computation of nal member forces can be conveniently carried out in a tabular form, as shown in Table 13.1. For
each member, the nal force F is computed by algebraically adding the entry in the fourth column FO , to the corre-
sponding entry in the fth column uD multiplied by the magnitude of the redundant Dx 45:78 k. The value of the
nal force thus computed is then recorded in the eighth column, as shown in Table 13.1. The member forces thus
obtained are also shown in Fig. 13.6(d). Ans.
528 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Example 13.5

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the frame shown in Fig. 13.7(a) by the
method of consistent deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy The frame is indeterminate to the rst degree.
Primary Frame The horizontal reaction AX at the hinged support A is selected to be the redundant. The primary
frame is obtained by removing the restraint against horizontal displacement at joint A, which is done by replacing
the hinged support by a roller support, as shown in Fig. 13.7(b). Next, the primary frame is subjected separately to the
external loading and a unit value of the unknown redundant AX , as shown in Fig. 13.7(b) and (c), respectively.
Compatibility Equation From Fig. 13.7(a), (b), and (c), we observe that
DAO fAA AX 0 (1)
Deections of Primary Frame The deections DAO and fAA of the primary frame will be evaluated by using the
virtual work method discussed in Chapter 7. The virtual work expression for DAO , which represents the horizontal
deection at joint A of the primary frame due to external loading, can be written as

P MO mA
DAO dx (2)
EI
in which MO denotes the bending moments due to the (real) external loading (Fig. 13.7(b)) and mA denotes the
bending moments due to a (virtual) unit load at the location and in the direction of the redundant (Fig. 13.7(c)). The
x coordinates used for determining the bending moment equations for members AB and BC of the primary frame
are shown in Fig. 13.7(b) and (c), and the equations for MO and mA are tabulated in Table 13.2. By applying Eq. (2),
we obtain
  
1 30 3 2 67;500 k-ft 3
DAO 45x  x 2 20 x dx 
EI 0 2 3 EI
For computing the exibility coecient fAA , both the real and virtual systems consist of a unit value of the re-
dundant AX applied to the primary frame, as shown in Fig. 13.7(c) (without the multiplier AX ). Thus, the virtual work
expression for fAA becomes
P mA2
fAA dx (3)
EI
By substituting the equations for mA from Table 13.2, we obtain
" 30   #
1 20
2 2 2 6;666:66 ft 3
fAA x dx 20 x dx
EI 0 0 3 EI
Magnitude of the Redundant By substituting the values of DAO and fAA into the compatibility equation (Eq. (1)),
we determine the redundant AX to be
 
67;500 6;666:66
 AX 0
EI EI
AX 10:13 k ! Ans.

continued
 SECTION 13.1 Structures with a Single Degree of Indeterminacy 529

FIG. 13.7
continued
530 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.7 (contd.)

continued
 SECTION 13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants 531

TABLE 13.2

x coordinate
Member Origin Limits (ft) MO (k-ft) mA (k-ft/k)
AB A 020 0 1x
3 2
BC B 030 45x  x 2 20 x
2 3

Reactions The remaining reactions and member end forces of the indeterminate frame can now be determined
from equilibrium. The reactions and member end forces thus obtained are shown in Fig. 13.7(d). Ans.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 13.7(e). Ans.

13.2 INTERNAL FORCES AND MOMENTS AS REDUNDANTS

Thus far, we have analyzed externally indeterminate structures with a
single degree of indeterminacy by selecting a support reaction as the re-
dundant. The analysis of such structures can also be carried out by
choosing an internal force or moment as the redundant, provided that
the removal of the corresponding internal restraint from the indeterminate
structure results in a primary structure that is statically determinate and
stable.
Consider the two-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 13.8(a). The
beam is indeterminate to the rst degree. As discussed in the preceding
section, this beam can be analyzed by treating one of the vertical reactions
as the redundant. However, it is usually more convenient to analyze con-
tinuous beams (especially those with unequal spans) by selecting internal
bending moments as redundants. Let us consider the analysis of the beam
of Fig. 13.8(a) by using the bending moment, MB , at the interior support
B as the redundant. From Fig. 13.8(a), we can see that the slope of the
elastic curve of the indeterminate beam is continuous at B. In other words,
there is no change of slope of the tangents to the elastic curve at just to the
left of B and at just to the right of B; that is, the angle between the tan-
gents is zero. When the restraint corresponding to the redundant bending
moment MB is removed by inserting an internal hinge at B, as shown in
Fig. 13.8(b), a discontinuity develops in the slope of the elastic curve at B,
in the sense that the tangent to the elastic curve at just to the left of B ro-
tates relative to the tangent at just to the right of B. The change of slope
(or the angle) between the two tangents due to the external loads is de-
noted by yBO rel: and can be expressed as
yBO rel: yBL yBR (13.8)
532 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.8
 SECTION 13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants 533

FIG. 13.8 (contd.)

(see Fig. 13.8(b)) in which yBL and yBR denote the slopes at the ends B
of the left and right spans of the beam, respectively, due to the given
external loading.
Since the redundant bending moment MB provides continuity of
slope of the elastic curve at B in the actual indeterminate beam, it must
be of sucient magnitude to remove the discontinuity yBO rel: from the
primary beam by bringing the tangents back together. To evaluate the
eect of MB on the primary beam, we determine the exibility coecient
fBB rel: representing the change of slope (or the angle) between the tan-
gents to the elastic curve at just to the left of B and at just to the right of
B due to a unit value of MB , as shown in Fig. 13.8(c). An internal bend-
ing moment is dened by a pair of equal but opposite couples. Thus, two
opposite couples of unit magnitude must be applied to the primary beam
to determine the exibility coecient, as shown in Fig. 13.8(c). Note that
the redundant MB is considered to be positive in accordance with the
beam conventionthat is, when it causes compression in the upper bers
and tension in the lower bers of the beam. From Fig. 13.8(c), we can see
that the exibility coecient can be expressed as
fBB rel: fBBL fBBR (13.9)
534 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

in which fBBL and fBBR denote the slopes at the ends B of the left and
the right spans of the beam, respectively, due to the unit value of the
redundant MB .
The compatibility equation is based on the requirement that the
slope of the elastic curve of the actual indeterminate beam is continuous
at B; that is, there is no change of slope from just to the left of B to just
to the right of B. Therefore, the algebraic sum of the angles between the
tangents at just to the left and at just to the right of B due to the external
loading and the redundant MB must be zero. Thus,

yBO rel: fBB rel: MB 0 (13.10)

which can be solved for the redundant bending moment MB after the
changes of slopes yBO rel: and fBB rel: have been evaluated.
Since each of the spans of the primary beam can be treated as a
simply supported beam, the slopes at the ends B of the left and the right
spans can be easily computed by using the conjugate-beam method. The
conjugate beams for the external loading are shown in Fig. 13.8(d). Re-
calling that the slope at a point on a real beam is equal to the shear at
that point on the corresponding conjugate beam, we determine the slopes
yBL and yBR at ends B of the left and the right spans, respectively, as
420 k-ft 2 533:33 k-ft 2
yBL and yBR @
EI EI
Thus, from Eq. (13.8), we obtain
420 533:33 953:33 k-ft 2
yBO rel: yBL yBR
EI EI
The exibility coecient fBB rel: can be computed similarly by using the
conjugate beam for a unit value of the redundant MB shown in Fig.
13.8(e). Thus
6:67 k-ft 2 /k-ft 10 k-ft 2 /k-ft
fBBL and fBBR @
EI EI
From Eq. (13.9), we obtain
6:67 10 16:67 k-ft 2 /k-ft
fBB rel: fBBL fBBR
EI EI
By substituting the values of yBO rel: and fBB rel: into the compatibility
equation (Eq. (13.10)), we determine the magnitude of the redundant
MB as
 
953:33 16:67
MB 0
EI EI
or
MB 57:19 k-ft
 SECTION 13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants 535

With the redundant MB known, the forces at the ends of the mem-
bers as well as the support reactions can be determined by considering
the equilibrium of the free bodies of the members AB and BC and
joint B, as shown in Fig. 13.8(f ). Note that the negative bending mo-
ment MB is applied at the ends B of members AB and BC so that it
causes tension in the upper bers and compression in the lower bers of
the members.
When moments at the ends of the members of a continuous beam
are known, it is usually convenient to construct its bending moment di-
agram in two parts; one for the external loading and another for the
member end moments. This procedure is commonly referred to as con-
structing the bending moment diagram by simple-beam parts, because
each member of the continuous beam is treated as a simply supported
beam, to which the external loads and the end moments are applied
separately and the corresponding bending moment diagrams are drawn.
Such diagrams for the members AB and BC of the continuous beam
under consideration are shown in Fig. 13.8(g). The member bending
moment diagrams can be drawn together, as shown in Fig. 13.8(h), to
obtain the bending moment diagram for the entire continuous beam.

Internally Indeterminate Structures

As the foregoing discussion indicates, structures with a single degree
of indeterminacy that are externally indeterminate can be analyzed by
selecting either a reaction or an internal force or moment as the
redundant. However, if a structure is internally indeterminate but
externally determinate, then only an internal force or moment can be
used as the redundant, because the removal of an external reaction from
such a structure will yield a statically unstable primary structure.
Consider, for example, the truss shown in Fig. 13.9(a). The truss
consists of six members connected together by four joints and is sup-
ported by three reaction components. Thus, as discussed in Section
4.4, the degree of indeterminacy of the truss is equal to m r  2j
6 3  24 1. Because the three reactions can be determined from
the three equations of equilibrium of the entire truss, the truss is in-
ternally indeterminate to the rst degree; that is, it contains one extra
member than required for internal stability.
To analyze the truss, we must select the axial force in one of its
members to be the redundant. Suppose that we select the force FAD in
the diagonal member AD to be the redundant. The restraint corre-
sponding to FAD is then removed from the truss by cutting member AD
to obtain the primary truss shown in Fig. 13.9(b). Note that since
member AD can no longer sustain a force, the primary truss is statically
determinate. When the primary truss is subjected to the external load P,
it deforms and a gap DADO opens up between the ends of the two por-
tions of member AD, as shown in Fig. 13.9(b). Since no such gap exists
536 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.9

in the actual indeterminate truss, we conclude that the redundant force

FAD must be of sucient magnitude to bring the ends of the two por-
tions of member AD back together to close the gap. To evaluate the ef-
fect of FAD in closing the gap, we subject the primary truss to a unit
value of FAD by applying equal and opposite unit axial loads to the two
portions of member AD, as shown in Fig. 13.9(c). Note that the actual
sense of the redundant FAD is not yet known and is arbitrarily assumed
to be tensile, with the unit axial forces tending to elongate the portions
of member AD, as shown in the gure. The unit value of FAD deforms
the primary truss and causes the ends of the two portions of member
AD to overlap by an amount fAD; AD , as shown in Fig. 13.9(c). Thus, the
overlap in member AD due to the axial force of magnitude FAD equals
fAD; AD FAD .
 SECTION 13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants 537

Since neither a gap nor an overlap exists in member AD in the actual

indeterminate truss, we can express the compatibility equation as

DADO fAD; AD FAD 0 (13.11)

which can be solved for the redundant axial force FAD after the magni-
tudes of DADO and fAD; AD have been determined.
Note that DADO and fAD; AD are actually relative displacements be-
tween the joints A and D of the primary truss. These displacements can
be conveniently computed using the virtual work method by employing
a virtual system consisting of two unit loads applied with opposite
senses in the direction of member AD at joints A and D, as shown in
Fig. 13.9(d). A comparison of Fig. 13.9(c) and (d) indicates that the
axial forces in the members of the primary truss due to virtual unit
loads (Fig. 13.9(d)) will be the same as the uAD forces due to the unit
axial force in member AD (Fig. 13.9(c)). Thus the truss with a unit axial
force in member AD can be used as the virtual system for computing
the relative displacements. If the member axial forces due to the exter-
nal load P are symbolically denoted as FO forces (Fig. 13.9(b)), then the
virtual work expression for DADO can be written as

P FO uAD L
DADO (13.12)
AE

For computing the exibility coecient fAD; AD , both the real and the
virtual systems consist of a unit axial force in member AD, as shown in
Fig. 13.9(c). Thus, the virtual work expression for fAD; AD is given by

2
P uAD L
fAD; AD (13.13)
AE

in which the force in the redundant member AD must be included in the

summation to take into account the deformation of this member.
Once the relative displacements DADO and fAD; AD have been eval-
uated, their values are substituted into the compatibility equation
(Eq. (13.11)), which is then solved for the redundant FAD . With the re-
dundant FAD known, the axial forces in the members of the in-
determinate truss can be determined by superposition of the member
forces of the primary truss due to the external load P and due to the re-
dundant FAD ; that is,

F FO uAD FAD (13.14)

538 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Example 13.6

Determine the reactions and draw the bending moment diagram for the two-span continuous beam shown in Fig.
13.10(a) by the method of consistent deformations. Select the bending moment at the interior support B to be the
redundant.

Solution
This beam was analyzed in Example 13.3 by selecting the vertical reaction at support B as the redundant.
Primary Beam The primary beam is obtained by removing the restraint corresponding to the redundant bending
moment MB by inserting an internal hinge at B in the given indeterminate beam, as shown in Fig. 13.10(b). Next, the
primary beam is subjected separately to the external loading and a unit value of the redundant MB , as shown in Fig.
13.10(b) and (c), respectively.

FIG. 13.10

continued
 SECTION 13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants 539

FIG. 13.10 (contd.)

Compatibility Equation See Fig. 13.10(b) and (c):

yBO rel: fBB rel: MB 0 (1)
Slopes of Primary Beam Each of the spans of the primary beam can be treated as a simply supported beam of
constant exural rigidity EI , so we can use the beam-deection formulas given inside the front cover of the book for
evaluating the changes of slopes yBO rel: and fBB rel: . From Fig. 13.10(b), we can see that
yBO rel: yBL yBR
in which yBL and yBR are the slopes at the ends B of the left and the right spans of the primary beam, respectively, due
to the external loading. By using the deection formulas, we obtain

continued
540 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

1510 3 625 kN  m 2
yBL
24EI EI
1510 3 6010 2 500 kN  m 2
yBR
24E2I 16E2I EI
Thus,
625 500 1;125 kN  m 2
yBO rel:
EI EI EI
The exibility coecient fBB rel: can be computed in a similar manner. From Fig. 13.10(c), we can see that
fBB rel: fBBL fBBR
in which
10 3:33 m 10 1:67 m
fBBL and fBBR
3EI EI 3E2I EI
Thus,
3:33 1:67 5 m
fBB rel:
EI EI EI
Magnitude of the Redundant By substituting the values of yBO rel: and fBB rel: into the compatibility equation
(Eq. (1)), we obtain
 
1;125 5
MB 0
EI EI
MB 225 kN  m Ans.
Reactions The forces at the ends of the members AB and BD of the continuous beam can now be determined by
applying the equations of equilibrium to the free bodies of the members shown in Fig. 13.10(d). By considering the
equilibrium of member AB, we obtain
   
1 225
Ay 1510  52:5 kN " Ans.
2 10
   
1 225
ByAB 1510 97:5 kN "
2 10
Similarly, for member BD,
     
1 60 225
ByBD 1510 127:5 kN "
2 2 10
     
1 60 225
Dy 1510  82:5 kN " Ans.
2 2 10
By considering the equilibrium of joint B in the vertical direction, we obtain
By ByAB ByBD 97:5 127:5 225 kN " Ans.

continued
 SECTION 13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants 541

Bending Moment Diagram The bending moment diagram for the continuous beam, constructed by simple-
beam parts, is shown in Fig. 13.10(e). The two parts of the diagram due to the external loading and the member
end moments may be superimposed, if so desired, to obtain the resultant bending moment diagram shown in
Example 13.3. Ans.

Example 13.7

Determine the reactions and the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 13.11(a) by the method of consistent
deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy The truss consists of ten members connected by six joints and is supported by three
reaction components. Thus the degree of indeterminacy of the truss is equal to m r  2j 10 3  26 1.
The three reactions can be determined from the three equations of external equilibrium, so the truss is internally in-
determinate to the rst degree.
Primary Truss The axial force FCE in the diagonal member CE is selected to be the redundant. The sense of FCE is
arbitrarily assumed to be tensile. The primary truss obtained by removing member CE is shown in Fig. 13.11(b). Next,
the primary truss is subjected separately to the external loading and a unit tensile force in the redundant member CE, as
shown in Fig. 13.11(b) and (c), respectively.

Compatibility Equation The compatibility equation can be expressed as

DCEO fCE; CE FCE 0 (1)
in which DCEO denotes the relative displacement between joints C and E of the primary truss due to the external loads,
and the exibility coecient fCE; CE denotes the relative displacement between the same joints due to a unit value of the
redundant FCE .
Deections of Primary Truss The virtual work expression for DCEO can be written as
P FO uCE L
DCEO (2)
AE
in which FO and uCE represent, respectively, the member forces due to the external loads and the unit tensile force in
member CE. The numerical values of these forces are computed by the method of joints (Fig. 13.11(b) and (c)) and are
tabulated in Table 13.3. Equation (2) is then applied as shown in Table 13.3, to obtain
1;116 k-ft
DCEO 
AE
Next, the exibility coecient fCE; CE is computed by using the virtual work expression (see Table 13.3):
2
P uCE L 103:68 ft
fCE; CE
AE AE

continued
542 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.11
continued
 SECTION 13.2 Internal Forces and Moments as Redundants 543

TABLE 13.3
2
L FO uCE FO uCE L uCE L F FO uCE FCE
Member (ft) (k) (k/k) (k-ft) (ft) (k)
AB 18 30 0 0 0 30
BC 18 26.25 0.6 283.5 6.48 19.79
CD 18 26.25 0 0 0 26.25
EF 18 30 0.6 324 6.48 36.46
BE 24 40 0.8 768 15.36 31.39
CF 24 30 0.8 576 15.36 21.39
AE 30 50 0 0 0 50
BF 30 6.25 1 187.5 30 17.01
CE 30 0 1 0 30 10.76
DF 30 43.75 0 0 0 43.75
P
1,116 103.68

1 P 1;116 k-ft
DCEO F0 uCE L 
AE AE
1 P 2 103:68 ft
fCE; CE uCE L
AE AE
DCEO
FCE  10:76 k T
fCE; CE

Magnitude of the Redundant By substituting the values of DCEO and fCE; CE into the compatibility equation
(Eq. (1)), we determine the redundant FCE to be
 
1;116 103:68
 FCE 0
AE AE
FCE 10:76 k T Ans.
Reactions See Fig. 13.11(d). Note that the reactions due to the redundant FCE are zero, as shown in
Fig. 13.11(c). Ans.
Member Axial Forces The forces in the remaining members of the indeterminate truss can now be determined by
using the superposition relationship:

F FO uCE FCE

The member forces thus obtained are shown in Table 13.3 and Fig. 13.11(d).
Ans.
544 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

13.3 STRUCTURES WITH MULTIPLE DEGREES OF INDETERMINACY

The method of consistent deformations developed in the preceding sec-

tions for analyzing structures with a single degree of indeterminacy can
easily be extended to the analysis of structures with multiple degrees of
indeterminacy. Consider, for example, the four-span continuous beam
subjected to a uniformly distributed load w, as shown in Fig. 13.12(a).
The beam is supported by six support reactions; thus its degree of in-
determinacy is equal to 6  3 3. To analyze the beam, we must select
three support reactions as redundants. Suppose that we select the verti-
cal reactions By ; Cy , and Dy at the interior supports B; C, and D, re-
spectively, to be the redundants. The roller supports at B; C, and D are
then removed from the given indeterminate beam to obtain the statically
determinate and stable primary beam, as shown in Fig. 13.12(b). The
three redundants are now treated as unknown loads on the primary
beam, and their magnitudes can be determined from the compatibility
conditions that the deections of the primary beam at the locations
B; C, and D of the redundants due to the combined eect of the known
external load w and the unknown redundants By ; Cy , and Dy must be
equal to zero. This is because the deections of the given indeterminate
beam at the roller supports B; C, and D are zero.
To establish the compatibility equations, we subject the primary
beam separately to the external load w (Fig. 13.12(b)) and a unit value
of each of the redundants By ; Cy , and Dy (Fig. 13.12(c), (d), and (e), re-
spectively). As shown in Fig. 13.12(b), the deections of the primary
beam at points B; C, and D due to the external load w are denoted by
DBO ; DCO , and DDO , respectively. Note that the rst subscript of a de-
ection D indicates the location of the deection, whereas the second
subscript, O, is used to indicate that the deection is due to the external
loading. The exibility coecients representing the deections of the
primary beam due to unit values of the redundants are also dened by
using double subscripts, as shown in Fig. 13.12(c) through (e). The rst
subscript of a exibility coecient denotes the location of the deection,
and the second subscript indicates the location of the unit load causing
the deection. For example, the exibility coecient fCB denotes the
deection at point C of the primary beam due to a unit load at point B
(Fig. 13.12(c)), whereas fBC denotes the deection at B due to a unit
load at C (Fig. 13.12(d)), and so on. Alternatively, a exibility co-
ecient fij may also be interpreted as the deection corresponding to a
redundant i due to a unit value of a redundant j; for example, fCB de-
notes the deection corresponding to the redundant Cy due to a unit
value of the redundant By (Fig. 13.12(c)), fBC denotes the deection
corresponding to the redundant By due to a unit value of the redundant
Cy , and so on. A deection or exibility coecient at the location of a
redundant is considered to be positive if it has the same sense as that
assumed for the redundant.
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 545

FIG. 13.12
546 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Focusing our attention at point B of the primary beam, we see that

the deection at this point due to the external load is DBO (Fig.
13.12(b)), the deection due to By is fBB By (Fig. 13.12(c)), the deection
due to Cy is fBC Cy (Fig. 13.12(d)), and the deection due to Dy is fBD Dy
(Fig. 13.12(e)). Thus, the total deection at B due to the combined eect
of the external load and all of the redundants is DBO fBB By fBC Cy
fBD Dy . Since the deection of the actual indeterminate beam (Fig.
13.12(a)) at support B is zero, we set the algebraic sum of the deections
of the primary beam at B equal to zero to obtain the compatibility
equation, DBO fBB By fBC Cy fBD Dy 0. Next, we focus our at-
tention at point C of the primary beam; by algebraically adding the de-
ections at C due to the external load and the redundants and by setting
the sum equal to zero, we obtain the second compatibility equation,
DCO fCB By fCC Cy fCD Dy 0. Similarly, by setting equal to zero
the algebraic sum of the deections of the primary beam at D due to
the external load and the redundants, we obtain the third compatibility
equation, DDO fDB By fDC Cy fDD Dy 0. The three compatibility
equations thus obtained are

DBO fBB By fBC Cy fBD Dy 0 (13.15)

DCO fCB By fCC Cy fCD Dy 0 (13.16)

DDO fDB By fDC Cy fDD Dy 0 (13.17)

Since the number of compatibility equations is equal to the number

of unknown redundants, these equations can be solved for the re-
dundants. As Eqs. (13.15) through (13.17) indicate, the compatibility
equations of structures with multiple degrees of indeterminacy are, in
general, coupled, in the sense that each equation may contain more than
one unknown redundant. The coupling occurs because the deection
at the location of a redundant may be caused not just by that par-
ticular redundant (and the external load), but also by some, or all, of
the remaining redundants. Because of such coupling, the compatibility
equations must be solved simultaneously to determine the unknown
redundants.
The primary beam is statically determinate, so its deections due to
the external loading as well as the exibility coecients can be evaluated
by using the methods discussed previously in this text. The total number
of deections (including exibility coecients) involved in a system of
compatibility equations depends on the degree of indeterminacy of the
structure. From Eqs. (13.15) through (13.17), we can see that for the
beam under consideration, which is indeterminate to the third degree,
the compatibility equations contain a total of 12 deections (i.e., 3 de-
ections due to the external loading plus 9 exibility coecients). How-
ever, according to Maxwells law of reciprocal deections (Section 7.8),
fCB fBC , fDB fBD , and fDC fCD . Thus, three of the exibility co-
ecients can be obtained by the application of Maxwells law, thereby
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 547

reducing the number of deections to be computed to 9. Using similar

reasoning, it can be shown that the total number of deections needed
for the analysis of a structure with the degree of indeterminacy of i
equals i i 2 , of which 3i i 2 =2 deections must be computed,
whereas the remaining can be obtained by the application of Maxwells
law of reciprocal deections.
Once the redundants have been determined by solving the compati-
bility equations, the other response characteristics of the structure can
be evaluated either by equilibrium or by superposition.

Procedure for Analysis

Based on the foregoing discussion, we can develop the following step-
by-step procedure for the analysis of structures by the method of con-
sistent deformations:
1. Determine the degree of indeterminacy of the structure.
2. Select redundant forces and/or moments. The total number of re-
dundants must be equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the
structure. Also, the redundants must be chosen so that the removal
of the corresponding restraints from the given indeterminate struc-
ture results in a primary structure that is statically determinate and
stable. The senses of the redundants are not known and can be ar-
bitrarily assumed. A positive answer for a redundant will imply that
the sense initially assumed for the redundant was correct.
3. Remove the restraints corresponding to the redundants from the
given indeterminate structure to obtain the primary (determinate)
structure.
4. a. Draw a diagram of the primary structure with only the external
loading applied to it. Sketch a deected shape of the structure,
and show the deection (or slope) at the point of applica-
tion and in the direction of each redundant by an appropriate
symbol.
b. Next, for each redundant, draw a diagram of the primary
structure with only the unit value of the redundant applied to
it. The unit force (or moment) must be applied in the positive
direction of the redundant. Sketch a deected shape of the
structure, and show by appropriate symbols the exibility co-
ecients at the locations of all the redundants. To indicate that
the load as well as the structural response is to be multiplied by
the redundant under consideration, show the redundant pre-
ceded by a multiplication sign () next to the diagram of the
structure. The deection (or slope) at the location of any re-
dundant due to the redundant under consideration equals the
exibility coecient at that location multiplied by the unknown
magnitude of the redundant.
548 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

5. Write a compatibility equation for the location of each redun-

dant by setting the algebraic sum of the deections (or slopes) of the
primary structure due to the external loading and each of the re-
dundants equal to the known displacement (or rotation) at the cor-
responding location on the actual indeterminate structure. The total
number of compatibility equations thus obtained must be equal to
the number of redundants.
6. Compute the deections (and the exibility coecients) involved
in the compatibility equations by using the methods discussed pre-
viously in this text and by the application of Maxwells law of re-
ciprocal deections. A deection (or exibility coecient) at the
location of a redundant is considered to be positive if it has the
same sense as that assumed for the redundant.
7. Substitute the values of deections computed in step 6 into
the compatibility equations, and solve them for the unknown
redundants.
8. Once the redundants have been determined, the other response
characteristics (e.g., reactions, shear and bending moment dia-
grams, and/or member forces) of the indeterminate structure can be
evaluated either through equilibrium considerations or by super-
position of the responses of the primary structure due to the ex-
ternal loading and due to each of the redundants.

Example 13.8

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the three-span continuous beam shown
in Fig. 13.13(a) using the method of consistent deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy i 2.

Primary Beam The vertical reactions By and Cy at the interior supports B and C, respectively, are selected as the
redundants. The roller supports at B and C are then removed to obtain the primary beam shown in Fig. 13.13(b). Next,
the primary beam is subjected separately to the 2-k/ft external load and the unit values of the redundants By and Cy , as
shown in Fig. 13.13(b), (c), and (d), respectively.

Compatibility Equations Since the deections of the actual indeterminate beam at supports B and C are zero, we set
equal to zero the algebraic sum of the deections at points B and C, respectively, of the primary beam due to the 2-k/ft
external load and each of the redundants to obtain the compatibility equations:
DBO fBB By fBC Cy 0 (1)
DCO fCB By fCC Cy 0 (2)

continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 549

FIG. 13.13

continued
550 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.13 (contd.)

Deections of the Primary Beam By using the beam-deection formulas, we obtain

293;333:333 k-ft 3
DBO DCO 
EI
3;555:556 ft 3
fBB fCC
EI
3;111:111 ft 3
fCB
EI
By applying Maxwells law,
3;111:111 ft 3
fBC
EI
Magnitudes of the Redundants By substituting the values of the deections and exibility coecients of the primary
beam just computed into the compatibility equations (Eqs. (1) and (2)), we obtain
293;333:333 3;555:556By 3;111:111Cy 0
293;333:333 3;111:111By 3;555:556Cy 0

continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 551

or
3;555:556By 3;111:111Cy 293;333:333 (1a)
3;111:111By 3;555:556Cy 293;333:333 (2a)
Solving Eqs. (1a) and (2a) simultaneously for By and Cy , we obtain
By Cy 44 k " Ans.
Reactions The remaining reactions can now be determined by applying the three equations of equilibrium to the
free body of the continuous beam as follows (Fig. 13.13(e)):
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0 Ans.
P
MD 0 Ay 60 26030  4440 20 0
Ay 16 k " Ans.
P
" Fy 0 16  260 44 44 Dy 0
Dy 16 k " Ans.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams The shear and bending moment diagrams of the beam are shown in
Fig. 13.13(f ). Ans.
The shapes of the shear and bending moment diagrams for continuous beams, in general, are similar to those for
the three-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 13.13(f ). As shown in this gure, negative bending moments generally
develop at the interior supports of continuous beams, whereas the bending moment diagram is usually positive over the
middle portions of the spans. The bending moment at a hinged support at an end of the beam must be zero, and it is
generally negative at a xed end support. Also, the shape of the bending moment diagram is parabolic for the spans
subjected to uniformly distributed loads, and it consists of linear segments for spans subjected to concentrated loads.
The actual values of the bending moments, of course, depend on the magnitude of the loading as well as on the lengths
and exural rigidities of the spans of the continuous beam.

Example 13.9

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 13.14(a) by the
method of consistent deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy i 2.

Primary Beam The vertical reactions Cy and Ey at the roller supports C and E, respectively, are selected as
the redundants. These supports are then removed to obtain the cantilever primary beam shown in Fig. 13.14(b).
Next, the primary beam is subjected separately to the external loading and the unit values of the redundants Cy and Ey ,
as shown in Fig. 13.14(b), (c), and (d), respectively.

continued
552 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

120 kN 120 kN

Ax A B C D E

MA
Ay Cy Ey

5m 5m 5m 5m
E = 70 GPa I = 1,250 (106) mm4

(a) Indeterminate Beam

120 kN 120 kN

A B C D E
CO
2,400
EO
240

(b) Primary Beam Subjected to External Loading

fCC
10
A
fEC Cy
C E

1 kN
1

(c) Primary Beam Loaded with Redundant Cy

fEE

20 fCE
A Ey
C E

1 kN
1

FIG. 13.14 (d) Primary Beam Loaded with Redundant Ey

continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 553

MA = 128.58 kN . m 120 kN 120 kN

Ax = 0 C E
A B D

Ay = 53.572 kN Cy = 145.714 kN Ey = 40.714 kN

(e) Support Reactions for Indeterminate Beam

79.286
53.572

D E
A B C

40.714
66.428
Shear diagram (kN)

203.57
139.28

A C
B D E

128.58
192.86
Bending moment diagram (kN . m)

(f) Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams for

FIG. 13.14 (contd.) Indeterminate Beam

Compatibility Equations See Fig. 13.14(a) through (d).

DCO fCC Cy fCE Ey 0 (1)

DEO fEC Cy fEE Ey 0 (2)

Deections of Primary Beam By using the deection formulas, we obtain

82;500 kN  m 3 230;000 kN  m 3
DCO  DEO 
EI EI

continued
554 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

333:333 m 3 833:333 m 3
fCC fEC
EI EI
2;666:667 m 3
fEE
EI

By applying Maxwells law,

833:333 m 3
fCE
EI

Magnitudes of the Redundants By substituting the deections of the primary beam into the compatibility equations,
we obtain

 82;500 333:333Cy 833:333Ey 0

230;000 833:333Cy 2;666:667Ey 0
or
333:333Cy 833:333Ey 82;500 (1a)
833:333Cy 2;666:667Ey 230;000 (2a)
Solving Eqs. (1a) and (2a) simultaneously for Cy and Ey , we obtain

Cy 145:714 kN " Ey 40:714 kN " Ans.

Reactions The remaining reactions can now be determined by applying the three equations of equilibrium to the
free body of the indeterminate beam (Fig. 13.14(e)):
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0 Ans.
P
" Fy 0 Ay  120 145:714  120 40:714 0
Ay 53:572 kN " Ans.
P
MA 0 MA  1205 145:71410  12015 40:71420 0

MA 128:58 kN  m Ans.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 13.14(f ).

Example 13.10

Determine the moments at the supports of the xed beam shown in Fig. 13.15(a) by the method of consistent deforma-
tions. Also, draw the bending moment diagram for the beam.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy The beam is supported by six support reactions; thus, its degree of indeterminacy is
i 6  3 3. However, since the beam is subjected only to vertical loading, the horizontal reactions Ax and Cx must be
zero. Therefore, to analyze this beam, we need to select only two of the remaining four reactions as the redundants.
continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 555

FIG. 13.15
continued
556 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Primary Beam The moments MA and MC at the xed supports A and C, respectively, are selected as the re-
dundants. The restraints against rotation at ends A and C of the xed beam are then removed to obtain the simply
supported primary beam shown in Fig. 13.15(b). Next, the primary beam is subjected separately to the external load P
and the unit values of redundants MA and MC , as shown in Fig. 13.15(b), (c), and (d), respectively.
Compatibility Equations Noting that the slopes of the actual indeterminate beam at the xed supports A and C
are zero, we write the compatibility equations:
yAO fAA MA fAC MC 0 (1)
yCO fCA MA fCC MC 0 (2)
Slopes of the Primary Beam The slopes at ends A and C of the primary beam due to the external load P and due to
the unit value of each of the redundants obtained by using either the deection formulas or the conjugate-beam method are
PbL 2  b 2
yAO 
6EIL

PaL 2  a 2
yCO 
6EIL

L
fAA fCC
3EI

L
fCA
6EI

By applying Maxwells law,

L
fAC
6EI

Magnitudes of the Redundants By substituting the expressions for slopes into the compatibility equations (Eqs. (1)
and (2)), we obtain
   
PbL 2  b 2 L L
 MA MC 0 (1a)
6EIL 3EI 6EI
   
PaL 2  a 2 L L
 MA MC 0 (2a)
6EIL 6EI 3EI

which can be simplied as

PbL 2  b 2
2MA MC (1b)
L2

PaL 2  a 2
MA 2MC (2b)
L2
To solve Eqs. (1b) and (2b) for MA and MC , we multiply Eq. (1b) by 2 and subtract it from Eq. (2b):
P
MA  aL 2  a 2  2bL 2  b 2 
3L 2
P
 aL  aL a  2bL  bL b
3L 2
continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 557

Pab
 L a  2L b
3L 2
Pab 2

L2
Pab 2
MA Ans.
L2
By substituting the expression for MA into Eq. (1b) or Eq. (2b) and solving for MC , we obtain the following.
Pa 2 b
MC @ Ans.
L2
Bending Moment Diagram The vertical reactions Ay and Cy can now be determined by superposition of the
reactions of the primary beam due to the external load P and due to each of the redundants (Fig. 13.15(b)
through (d)). Thus
Pb 1 Pb 2
Ay MA  MC 3 3a b
L L L
Pa 1 Pa 2
Cy  MA  MC 3 a 3b
L L L
The bending moment diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 13.15(e). Ans.
The moments at the ends of beams whose ends are xed against rotation are usually referred to as xed-end
moments. Such moments play an important role in the analysis of structures by the displacement method, to be
considered in subsequent chapters. As illustrated here, the expressions for xed-end moments due to various
loading conditions can be conveniently derived by using the method of consistent deformations. The xed-end-
moment expressions for some common types of loading conditions are given inside the back cover of the book for
convenient reference.

Example 13.11

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the four-span continuous beam shown in
Fig. 13.16(a) using the method of consistent deformations.

Solution
Symmetry As the beam and the loading are symmetric with respect to the vertical s axis passing through roller
support C (Fig. 13.16(a)), we will analyze only the right half of the beam with symmetric boundary conditions, as
shown in Fig. 13.16(b). The response of the left half of the beam will then be obtained by reecting the response of the
right half to the other side of the axis of symmetry.

continued
558 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.16
continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 559

FIG. 13.16 (contd.)

continued
560 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Degree of Indeterminacy The degree of indeterminacy of the substructure (Fig. 13.16(b)) is 2. Note that, since the
degree of indeterminacy of the complete continuous beam (Fig. 13.16(a)) is three, the utilization of structural symmetry
will reduce the computational eort required in the analysis.
Primary Beam The vertical reactions Dy and Ey at the roller supports D and E, respectively, of the substructure are
selected as the redundants. The roller supports at D and E are then removed to obtain the cantilever primary beam
shown in Fig. 13.16(c).
Compatibility Equations See Fig. 13.16(b) through (e).

DDO fDD Dy fDE Ey 0 (1)

DEO fED Dy fEE Ey 0 (2)
Deections of the Primary Beam By using the deection formulas, we obtain
17wL 4 2wL 4
DDO  DEO 
24EI EI

L3 5L 3
fDD fED
3EI 6EI

8L 3
fEE
3EI

By applying Maxwells law,

5L 3
fDE
6EI

Magnitudes of the Redundants By substituting the deections of the primary beam into the compatibility equations,
we obtain
 3  3
17wL 4 L 5L
 Dy Ey 0 (1a)
24EI 3EI 6EI
 3  3
2wL 4 5L 8L
 Dy Ey 0 (2a)
EI 6EI 3EI

which can be simplied to

8Dy 20Ey 17wL (1b)

5Dy 16Ey 12wL (2b)
Solving Eqs. (1b) and (2b) simultaneously for Dy and Ey , we obtain
8 11
Dy wL " Ey wL " Ans.
7 28

continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 561

Reactions The remaining reactions of the substructure, obtained by applying the equations of equilibrium,
are shown in Fig. 13.16(f ). The reactions to the left of the s axis are then obtained by reection, as shown in
Fig. 13.16(g).
Ans.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams By using the reactions of the continuous beam, its shear and bending mo-
ment diagrams are constructed. These diagrams are shown in Fig. 13.16(h). Ans.

Example 13.12

Determine the reactions and the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 13.17(a) by the method of consistent
deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy i m r  2j 14 4  28 2.
Primary Truss The vertical reaction Dy at the roller support D and the axial force FBG in the diagonal member BG
are selected as the redundants. The roller support D and member BG are then removed from the given indeterminate
truss to obtain the primary truss shown in Fig. 13.17(b). The primary truss is subjected separately to the external load-
ing (Fig. 13.17(b)), a unit value of the redundant Dy (Fig. 13.17(c)), and a unit tensile force in the redundant member
BG (Fig. 13.17(d)).
Compatibility Equations The compatibility equations can be expressed as
DDO fDD Dy fD; BG FBG 0 (1)
DBGO fBG; D Dy fBG; BG FBG 0 (2)

FIG. 13.17

continued
562 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.17 (contd.)

continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 563

in which DDO vertical deection at joint D of the primary truss due to the external loading; DBGO relative dis-
placement between joints B and G due to the external loading; fDD vertical deection at joint D due to a unit load at
joint D; fBG; D relative displacement between joints B and G due to a unit load at joint D; fBG; BG relative displace-
ment between joints B and G due to a unit tensile force in member BG; and fD; BG vertical deection at joint D due to
a unit tensile force in member BG.

Deections of Primary Truss The virtual work expressions for the preceding deections are
P FO uD L P FO uBG L
DDO DBGO
AE AE
P uD2 L 2
P uBG L
fDD fBG; BG
AE AE
P uD uBG L
fBG; D fD; BG
AE

in which FO ; uD , and uBG represent the member forces due to the external loading, a unit load at joint D, and a unit
tensile force in member BG, respectively. The numerical values of the member forces, as computed by the method of
joints (Fig. 13.17(b) through (d)), are tabulated in Table 13.4. Note that since the axial rigidity EA is the same for all the
members, only the numerators of the virtual work expressions are evaluated in Table 13.4. Thus
4;472:642 kN  m 992:819 kN  m
DDO  DBGO 
AE AE
48:736 m 48:284 m
fDD fBG; BG
AE AE
6:773 m
fBG; D fD; BG 
AE

Magnitudes of the Redundants By substituting these deections and exibility coecients into the compatibility
equations (Eqs. (1) and (2)), we write
4;472:642 48:736Dy  6:773FBG 0 (1a)
992:819  6:773Dy 48:284FBG 0 (2a)
Solving Eqs. (1a) and (2a) simultaneously for Dy and FBG , we obtain
Dy 96:507 kN " FBG 34:1 kN T Ans.
Reactions The remaining reactions of the indeterminate truss can now be determined by superposition of reactions
of the primary truss due to the external loading and due to each of the redundants. The reactions thus obtained are
shown in Fig. 13.17(e). Ans.
Member Axial Forces The forces in the remaining members of the indeterminate truss can be determined by using
the superposition relationship:
F FO uD Dy uBG FBG
The member forces thus obtained are shown in Table 13.4 and Fig. 13.17(e).
Ans.

continued
564 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

TABLE 13.4

L FO uD uBG FO uD L FO uBG L uD2 L 2

uBG L uD uBG L F FO uD Dy
Member (m) (kN) (kN/kN) (kN/kN) (kN  m) (kN  m) (m) (m) (m) uBG FBG (kN)
AB 10 152.5 0.25 0 381.25 0 0.625 0 0 128.373
BC 10 152.5 0.25 0.707 381.25 1,078.175 0.625 5 1.768 104.265
CD 10 77.5 0.75 0 581.25 0 5.625 0 0 5.12
DE 10 77.5 0.75 0 581.25 0 5.625 0 0 5.12
FG 10 85 0.5 0.707 425 600.95 2.5 5 3.535 60.855
GH 10 85 0.5 0 425 0 2.5 0 0 36.747
BF 10 80 0 0.707 0 565.60 0 5 0 55.891
CG 10 0 0 0.707 0 0 0 5 0 24.109
DH 10 0 1 0 0 0 10 0 0 96.507
AF 14.142 116.673 0.354 0 584.096 0 1.772 0 0 82.51
BG 14.142 0 0 1 0 0 0 14.142 0 34.1
CF 14.142 3.536 0.354 1 17.702 50.006 1.772 14.142 5.006 3.473
CH 14.142 109.602 0.354 0 548.697 0 1.772 0 0 143.765
EH 14.142 109.602 1.061 0 1,644.541 0 15.92 0 0 7.208
P
4,472.642 992.819 48.736 48.284 6.773

Example 13.13

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the frame shown in Fig. 13.18(a) by the
method of consistent deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy i 2.
Primary Frame The reactions DX and DY at the hinged support D are selected as the redundants. The hinged
support D is then removed to obtain the primary frame shown in Fig. 13.18(b). Next, the primary frame is subjected
separately to the external loading and the unit values of the redundants DX and DY , as shown in Fig. 13.18(b), (c), and
(d), respectively.

Compatibility Equations Noting that the horizontal and vertical deections of the actual indeterminate frame at the
hinged support D are zero, we write the compatibility equations:

continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 565

FIG. 13.18

continued
566 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.18 (contd.)

continued
 SECTION 13.3 Structures with Multiple Degrees of Indeterminacy 567

TABLE 13.5

x coordinate
Member Origin Limits (ft) MO (k-ft) mDX (k-ft/k) mDY (k-ft/k)
AB A 015 1;050 10x x 30
CB C 030 x 2 15 x
DC D 015 0 x 0

DDXO fDX ; DX DX fDX ; DY DY 0 (1)

DDYO fDY ; DX DX fDY ; DY DY 0 (2)

Deections of Primary Frame The equations for bending moments for the members of the frame due to the external
loading and unit values of the redundants are tabulated in Table 13.5. By applying the virtual work method, we obtain

P MO mDX 241;875 k-ft 3
DDXO dx
EI EI

P MO mDY 641;250 k-ft 3
DDYO dx 
EI EI
2
P mDX 9;000 ft 3
fDX ; DX dx
EI EI
2
P mDY 22;500 ft 3
fDY ; DY dx
EI EI

P mDX mDY 10;125 ft 3
fDX ; DY fDY ; DX dx 
EI EI

Magnitudes of the Redundants By substituting these deections and exibility coecients into the compatibility
equations, we write

241;875 9;000DX  10;125DY 0 (1a)

641;250  10;125DX 22;500DY 0 (2a)
Solving Eqs. (1a) and (2a) simultaneously for DX and DY , we obtain

DX 10:503 k DY 33:226 k " Ans.

Reactions The remaining reactions and the member end forces of the indeterminate frame can now be
determined by applying the equations of equilibrium. The reactions and member and forces thus obtained are shown
in Fig. 13.18(e). Ans.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 13.18(f ). Ans.
568 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

13.4 SUPPORT SETTLEMENTS, TEMPERATURE CHANGES, AND FABRICATION ERRORS

Support Settlements
Thus far, we have considered the analysis of structures with unyielding
supports. As discussed in Chapter 11, support movements due to weak
foundations and the like may induce signicant stresses in externally in-
determinate structures and must be considered in their designs. Support
settlements, however, do not have any eect on the stress conditions of
structures that are internally indeterminate but externally determinate.
This lack of eect is due to the fact that the settlements cause such
structures to displace and/or rotate as rigid bodies without changing
their shapes. The method of consistent deformations, as developed in
the preceding sections, can be easily modied to include the eect of
support settlements in the analysis.
Consider, for example, a two-span continuous beam subjected to a
uniformly distributed load w, as shown in Fig. 13.19(a). Suppose that
the supports B and C of the beam undergo small settlements DB and DC ,
respectively, as shown in the gure. To analyze the beam, we consider
the vertical reactions By and Cy to be the redundants. The supports B
and C are removed from the indeterminate beam to obtain the primary
beam, which is then subjected separately to the external load w and the
unit values of the redundants By and Cy , as shown in Fig. 13.19(b), (c),
and (d), respectively. By realizing that the deections of the actual in-
determinate beam at supports B and C are equal to the settlements DB
and DC , respectively, we obtain the compatibility equations

DBO fBB By fBC Cy DB (13.18)

DCO fCB By fCC Cy DC (13.19)

which can be solved for the redundants By and Cy . Note that the right-
hand sides of the compatibility equations (Eqs. (13.18) and (13.19)) are
no longer equal to zero, as in the case of unyielding supports considered
in the previous sections, but are equal to the prescribed values of settle-
ments at supports B and C, respectively. Once the redundants have been
determined by solving the compatibility equations, the other response
characteristics of the beam can be evaluated either by equilibrium or by
superposition.
Although support settlements are usually specied with respect to
the undeformed position of the indeterminate structure, the magnitudes
of such displacements to be used in the compatibility equations must
be measured from the chord connecting the deformed positions of
the supports of the primary structure to the deformed positions of the
redundant supports. Any such support displacement is considered to be
positive if it has the same sense as that assumed for the redundant.
 SECTION 13.4 Support Settlements, Temperature Changes, and Fabrication Errors 569

FIG. 13.19

In the case of the beam of Fig. 13.19(a), since the end supports A and D
do not undergo any settlement, the chord AD of the primary beam
coincides with the undeformed position of the indeterminate beam;
therefore, the settlements of supports B and C relative to the chord of
the primary beam are equal to the prescribed settlements DB and DC ,
respectively.
Now, suppose that all of the supports of a beam undergo settlement
as shown in Fig. 13.20. If we consider the reactions By and Cy to be the
redundants, then the displacements DBR and DCR of supports B and C,
respectively, relative to the chord of the primary beam should be used in
570 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.20

the compatibility equations instead of the specied displacements DB

and DC . This is because only the displacements relative to the chord
cause stresses in the beam. In other words, if the supports of the beam
would have settled either by equal amounts or by amounts so that the
deformed positions of all of the supports would lie on a straight line,
then the beam would remain straight without bending, and no stresses
would develop in the beam.

Example 13.14

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the three-span continuous beam shown
in Fig. 13.21(a) due to the uniformly distributed load and due to the support settlements of 5/8 in. at B, 112 in. at C, and
3/4 in. at D. Use the method of consistent deformations.

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed in Example 13.8 for the 2-k/ft uniformly distributed loading by selecting the vertical
reactions at the interior supports B and C as the redundants. We will use the same primary beam as used previously.
Relative Settlements The specied support settlements are depicted in Fig. 13.21(b) using an exaggerated scale. It
can be seen from this gure that the settlements of supports B and C relative to the chord of the primary beam (which is
the line connecting the displaced positions of supports A and D) are
DBR 0:375 in: and DCR 1:0 in:
in which the negative signs for the magnitudes of DBR and DCR indicate that these settlements occur in the downward
directionthat is, opposite to the upward direction assumed for the redundants By and Cy .
Compatibility Equations The compatibility equations for the beam remain the same as in Example 13.8, except that
the right-hand sides of the equations must now be set equal to the settlements DBR and DCR . Thus

continued
 SECTION 13.4 Support Settlements, Temperature Changes, and Fabrication Errors 571

FIG. 13.21
DBO fBB By fBC Cy DBR (1)
DCO fCB By fCC Cy DCR (2)
Deections of Primary Beam In Example 13.8, the deections and the exibility coecients of the beam were ex-
pressed in terms of EI . Since the right-hand sides of the compatibility equations were zero, the EI terms simply canceled

continued
572 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

out of the computations. In the present example, however, because of the presence of support settlements on the right-
hand sides of the compatibility equations, the EI terms cannot be canceled out; therefore, the actual numerical values of
deections and exibility coecients must be computed.
293;333:333 k-ft 3 293;333:33312 3
DBO DCO   2:241 in:
EI 29;0007;800
3;555:556 ft 3 3;555:55612 3
fBB fCC 0:0272 in:=k
EI 29;0007;800
3;111:111 ft 3 3;111:11112 3
fCB fBC 0:0238 in:=k
EI 29;0007;800
Magnitudes of the Redundants By substituting the numerical values into the compatibility equations, we write
2:241 0:0272By 0:0238Cy 0:375 (1a)
2:241 0:0238By 0:0272Cy 1 (2a)
By solving Eqs. (1a) and (2a) simultaneously for By and Cy , we obtain
By 122:373 k " and Cy 61:451 k 61:451 k # Ans.
Reactions and Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams The remaining reactions of the continuous beam can now be
determined by equilibrium. The reactions and the shear and bending moment diagrams of the beam are shown in
Fig. 13.21(c). A comparison of these results with those of Example 13.8 (without settlement) indicates that even small
support settlements may have a signicant eect on the reactions and the shear and bending moment diagrams of
indeterminate structures. Ans.

Example 13.15

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 13.22(a) due to
the loading shown and due to the support settlements of 40 mm at C and 25 mm at E. Use the method of consistent
deformations.

120 kN 120 kN

C E
A
B D

5m 5m 5m 5m
E = 70 GPa I = 1,250 (106) mm4
FIG. 13.22 (a) Indeterminate Beam

continued
 SECTION 13.4 Support Settlements, Temperature Changes, and Fabrication Errors 573

A C E
Ax
0.025 m
0.04 m
MA

Ay
Ey
Cy
(b) Support Settlements

120 kN 120 kN

Ax = 0 C E
A B D
MA = 288 kN.m

Ay = 80.6 kN Cy = 107.6 kN Ey = 51.8 kN

Reactions

80.6
68.2

D E
A B C

39.4
51.8
Shear diagram (kN)

259

115

A C
B D E

82

288
Bending moment diagram (kN . m)
(c) Support Reactions and Shear and Bending Moment
FIG. 13.22 (contd.) Diagrams for Indeterminate Beam

continued
574 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed in Example 13.9 for the external loading by selecting the vertical reactions at the
roller supports C and E as the redundants. We will use the same primary beam as used previously.

Support Settlements The specied support settlements are depicted in Fig. 13.22(b), from which it can be seen
that the chord AE of the primary beam coincides with the undeformed position of the indeterminate beam; therefore,
the settlements of supports C and E relative to the chord of the primary beam are equal to the prescribed settlements,
that is
DCR DC 0:04 m and DER DE 0:025 m

Compatibility Equations
DCO fCC Cy fCE Ey DCR (1)
DEO fEC Cy fEE Ey DER (2)
Deections of Primary Beam From Example 13.9,
82;500 kN  m 3 82;500
DCO   0:943 m
EI 7010 6 1;250106
230;000 kN  m 3 230;000
DEO   2:629 m
EI 7010 1;250106
6

333:333 m 3 333:333
fCC 0:00381 m=kN
EI 7010 6 1;250106
833:333 m 3 833:333
fEC fCE 0:00952 m=kN
EI 7010 6 1;250106
2;666:667 m 3 2;666:667
fEE 0:0305 m=kN
EI 7010 6 1;250106
Magnitudes of the Redundants By substituting the numerical values into the compatibility equations, we write
0:943 0:00381Cy 0:00952Ey 0:04 (1a)
2:629 0:00952Cy 0:0305Ey 0:025 (2a)
Solving Eqs. (1a) and (2a) simultaneously for Cy and Ey , we obtain
Cy 107:6 kN " and Ey 51:8 kN " Ans.
Reactions and Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams The remaining reactions of the indeterminate beam
can now be determined by equilibrium. The reactions and the shear and bending moment diagrams are shown in
Fig. 13.22(c). Ans.

Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors

Unlike support settlements, which aect only externally indeterminate
structures, temperature changes and fabrication errors may aect the
 SECTION 13.4 Support Settlements, Temperature Changes, and Fabrication Errors 575

stress conditions of externally and/or internally indeterminate struc-

tures. The procedure for the analysis of structures subjected to temper-
ature changes and/or fabrication errors is the same as used previously
for the case of external loads. The only dierence is that the primary
structure is now subjected to the prescribed temperature changes and/or
fabrication errors (instead of external loads) to evaluate its deection at
the locations of redundants due to these eects. The redundants are then
determined by applying the usual compatibility conditions that the de-
ections of the primary structure at the locations of the redundants due
to the combined eect of temperature changes and/or fabrication errors
and the redundants must equal the known deections at the corre-
sponding locations on the actual indeterminate structure. The procedure
is illustrated by the following example.

Example 13.16

Determine the reactions and the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 13.23(a) due to a temperature
increase of 45 C in member AB and a temperature drop of 20 C in member CD. Use the method of consistent
deformations.

Solution
Degree of Indeterminacy i m r  2j 6 3  24 1. The truss is internally indeterminate to the rst
degree.

Primary Truss The axial force FAD in the diagonal member AD is selected to be the redundant. The primary truss
obtained by removing member AD is shown in Fig. 13.23(b). Next, the primary truss is subjected separately to the pre-
scribed temperature changes and a 1-kN tensile force in the redundant member AD, as shown in Fig. 13.23(b) and (c),
respectively.
Compatibility Equation The compatibility equation can be expressed as

DADO fAD; AD FAD 0 (1)

in which DADO denotes the relative displacement between joints A and D of the primary truss due to temperature
changes and the exibility coecient fAD; AD denotes the relative displacement between the same joints due to a unit
value of the redundant FAD .

Deections of Primary Truss As discussed in Section 7.3, the virtual work expression for DADO can be written as
P
DADO aDTLuAD
in which the product aDTL equals the axial deformation of a member of the primary truss due to a change in tem-
perature DT, and uAD represents the axial force in the same member due to a 1-kN tensile force in member AD. The
numerical values of these quantities are tabulated in Table 13.6, from which DADO is determined to be
DADO 1:92 mm

continued
576 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. 13.23

Next, the exibility coecient fAD; AD is computed by using the virtual work expression (see Table 13.6)
2
P uAD L
fAD; AD 0:0479 mm
AE
Magnitude of the Redundant By substituting the values of DADO and fAD; AD into the compatibility equation
(Eq. (1)), we obtain
1:92 0:0479FAD 0
FAD 40:084 kN T Ans.

continued
 Summary 577

TABLE 13.6
2
L A DT uAD DTLuAD uAD L=A F uAD FAD
Member (m) (m 2 ) ( C) (kN/kN) ( C  m) (1/m) (kN)

AB 8 0.005 45 0.8 288 1,024 32.067

CD 8 0.005 20 0.8 128 1,024 32.067
AC 6 0.005 0 0.6 0 432 24.05
BD 6 0.005 0 0.6 0 432 24.05
AD 10 0.003 0 1.0 0 3,333.333 40.084
BC 10 0.003 0 1.0 0 3,333.333 40.084
P
160 9,578.667
P
DADO a DTLuAD 1:2105 160 0:00192 m 1:92 mm
2
1 P uAD L 9;578:667
fAD; AD 47:893106 m=kN 0:0479 mm=kN
E A 20010 6
DADO
FAD  40:084 kN T
fAD; AD

Reactions Since the truss is statically determinate externally, its reactions due to the temperature changes are
zero. Ans.
Member Axial Forces The forces in the members of the primary truss due to the temperature changes are zero, so
the forces in the members of the indeterminate truss can be expressed as
F uAD FAD
The member forces thus obtained are shown in Table 13.6 and Fig. 13.23(d).
Ans.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have discussed a general formulation of the force (ex-
ibility) method of analysis of statically indeterminate structures, called the
method of consistent deformations. The method involves removing
enough restraints from the indeterminate structure to render it statically
determinate. The determinate structure is called the primary structure,
and the reactions or internal forces associated with the excess restraints
removed from the indeterminate structure are termed redundants. The re-
dundants are now treated as unknown loads applied to the primary struc-
ture, and their magnitudes are determined by solving the compatibility
equations based on the condition that the deections of the primary
structure at the locations (and in the directions) of the redundants, due to
the combined eect of the prescribed external loading and the unknown
redundants, must be equal to the known deections at the corresponding
578 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

locations on the original indeterminate structure. Once the redundants

have been determined, the other response characteristics of the in-
determinate structure can be evaluated either through equilibrium consid-
erations or by superposition of the responses of the primary structure due
to the external loading and due to each of the redundants.

PROBLEMS
Section 13.1
13.1 through 13.4 Determine the reactions and draw the
shear and bending moment diagrams for the beams shown
in Figs. P13.1P13.4 using the method of consistent de-
formations. Select the reaction at the roller support to be
the redundant.
60 kN 100 kN

A D
B C
FIG. P13.4, P13.8
3m 3m 3m
E = 200 GPa
I = 3,250 (106) mm4 13.9 through 13.12 Determine the reactions and draw the
shear and bending moment diagrams for the beams shown
FIG. P13.1, P13.5, P13.49 in Figs. P13.9P13.12 using the method of consistent de-
formations. Select the reaction at the interior support to be
the redundant.

50 k 50 k

A C E
B D
FIG. P13.2, P13.6
12 ft 12 ft 12 ft 12 ft
13.5 through 13.8 Determine the reactions and draw the
E = 29,000 ksi
shear and bending moment diagrams for the beams shown
I = 1,500 in.4
in Figs. P13.1P13.4 by using the method of consistent de-
formations. Select the reaction moment at the xed support FIG. P13.9, P13.30, P13.50
to be the redundant.

FIG. P13.3, P13.7 FIG. P13.10, P13.31

 Problems 579

15 kN/m

A B C

7m 7m
EI = constant

FIG. P13.15
FIG. P13.11, P13.32

3 k/ft
A C
B
25 ft 15 ft
2I I
E = 29,000 ksi
I = 2,500 in.4
FIG. P13.16

FIG. P13.12, P13.33, P13.51

13.13 through 13.25 Determine the reactions and draw the

shear and bending moment diagrams for the structures
shown in Figs. P13.13P13.25 using the method of con-
sistent deformations.
FIG. P13.17

FIG. P13.13

1.5 k/ft
C
A B

10 ft 20 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P13.14 FIG. P13.18
580 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

150 kN 3 k/ft
B D 40 k
C D
C
15 ft

10 m 20 kN/m A B

30 ft
A EI = constant

5m 5m
FIG. P13.22
EI = constant

FIG. P13.19

FIG. P13.20

FIG. P13.21 FIG. P13.23

 Problems 581

FIG. P13.27, P13.52

FIG. P13.24

FIG. P13.28

FIG. P13.25

13.26 through 13.29 Determine the reactions and the force

in each member of the trusses shown in Figs. P13.26
P13.29 using the method of consistent deformations.

FIG. P13.29

Section 13.2
13.30 through 13.33 Solve Problems 13.9 through 13.12 by
selecting the bending moment at the interior support to be
FIG. P13.26 the redundant. See Figs. P13.9P13.12.
582 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

13.34 through 13.36 Determine the reactions and the force

in each member of the trusses shown in Figs. P13.34
P13.36 using the method of consistent deformations.

20 k 20 k

C (6 in.2) D
15 k
(8
in. 2
)
(6 in.2)

(6 in.2)
12 ft
2)
n.
(8i
A B
(6 in.2) FIG. P13.36

16 ft Section 13.3
E = 29,000 ksi 13.37 through 13.45 Determine the reactions and draw the
FIG. P13.34 shear and bending moment diagrams for the structures
shown in Figs. P13.37P13.45 using the method of con-
sistent deformations.
E
50 kN
25 kN/m

A C
4m B

C 8m 8m
100 kN D
E = 70 GPa I = 1,300 (106) mm4
FIG. P13.37, P13.53
4m

A B

3m
EA = constant

FIG. P13.35

35 k
1 k/ft 2 k/ft

E
A B C D

10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 20 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P13.38
 Problems 583

120 kN 120 kN 150 kN

A C E
G
B D F

6m 4m 6m 4m 4m 4m

I 2I I
E = 200 Gpa
I = 500 (106) mm4

FIG. P13.39, P13.54

FIG. P13.43
FIG. P13.40

FIG. P13.41

FIG. P13.42
FIG. P13.44
584 CHAPTER 13 Method of Consistent DeformationsForce Method

FIG. P13.48

13.49 Solve Problem 13.1 for the loading shown and a set-
FIG. P13.45 tlement of 30 mm at support D. See Fig. P13.1.
13.50 Solve Problem 13.9 for the loading shown in Fig.
13.46 and 13.47 Determine the reactions and the force in P13.9 and a settlement of 114 in. at support C.
each member of the trusses shown in Figs. P13.46 and
P13.47 using the method of consistent deformations. 13.51 Solve Problem 13.12 for the loading shown in Fig.
P13.12 and the support settlements of 14 in. at A, 1 in. at B,
and 34 in at C.
13.52 Solve Problem 13.27 for the loading shown in Fig.
P13.27 and the support settlements of 1 in. at A, 3 in. at C,
and 134 in. at D.
13.53 Solve Problem 13.37 for the loading shown in Fig.
P13.37 and the support settlements of 50 mm at B and 25
mm at C.
13.54 Solve Problem 13.39 for the loading shown in Fig.
P13.39 and the support settlements of 10 mm at A, 65 mm
at C, 40 mm at E, and 25 mm at G.

FIG. P13.46 13.55 Determine the reactions and the force in each mem-
ber of the truss shown in Fig. P13.55 due to a temperature
drop of 25 C in members AB; BC, and CD and a temper-
ature increase of 60 C in member EF . Use the method of
consistent deformations.

FIG. P13.47

Section 13.4
13.48 Determine the reactions for the beam shown in Fig.
P13.48 due to a small settlement D at the roller support C. FIG. P13.55, P13.56
 Problems 585

13.56 Determine the reactions and the force in each mem-

ber of the truss shown in Fig. P13.55 if member EF is 30
mm too short. Use the method of consistent deformations.
13.57 Determine the reactions and the force in each mem-
ber of the truss shown in Fig. P13.57 due to a temperature
increase of 70 F in member AB. Use the method of con-
sistent deformations.

FIG. P13.57
 14
Three-Moment Equation and
the Method of Least Work
14.1 Derivation of Three-Moment Equation
14.2 Application of Three-Moment Equation
14.3 Method of Least Work
Summary
Continuous Beam Bridges Problems
Peter Albrektsen/Shutterstock

In this chapter, we consider two alternate formulations of the force

(exibility) method of analysis of statically indeterminate structures:
(1) the three-moment equation and (2) the method of least work.
The three-moment equation, which was initially presented by
Clapeyron in 1857, provides a convenient tool for analyzing continuous
beams. The three-moment equation represents, in a general form, the
compatibility condition that the slope of the elastic curve be continu-
ous at an interior support of the continuous beam. Since the equation
involves three momentsthe bending moments at the support under
consideration and at the two adjacent supportsit commonly is re-
ferred to as the three-moment equation. When using this method, the
bending moments at the interior (and any xed) supports of the con-
tinuous beam are treated as the redundants. The three-moment equation
is then applied at the location of each redundant to obtain a set of
compatibility equations which can be solved for the unknown redundant
moments.
Another formulation of the force method, called the method of least
work, is also discussed in this chapter. This method, which is based on
Castiglianos second theorem, essentially is similar to the method of
consistent deformations, except that the compatibility equations in the

586
 SECTION 14.1 Derivation of Three-Moment Equation 587

method of least work are established by minimizing the structures strain

energy expressed in terms of the unknown redundants instead of by de-
ection superposition, as in the method of consistent deformations.
We begin this chapter with the derivation of the three-moment
equation for beams with prismatic spans and subjected to external loads
and support settlements. Next, we present a procedure for the applica-
tion of this equation for the analysis of continuous beams. Finally, we
consider the method of least work.

14.1 DERIVATION OF THREE-MOMENT EQUATION

Consider an arbitrary continuous beam subjected to external loads and
support settlements as shown in Fig. 14.1(a). As discussed in the pre-
vious chapter, this beam can be analyzed by the method of consistent
deformations by treating the bending moments at the interior supports
to be the redundants. From Fig. 14.1(a), we can see that the slope of the
elastic curve of the indeterminate beam is continuous at the interior
supports. When the restraints corresponding to the redundant bending
moments are removed by inserting internal hinges at the interior support
points, the primary structure thus obtained consists of a series of simply
supported beams. As shown in Figs. 14.1(b) and (c), respectively, when
this primary structure is subjected to the known external loading and
support settlements, discontinuities develop in the slope of the elastic
curve at the locations of the interior supports. Since the redundant
bending moments provide continuity of the slope of the elastic curve,
these unknown moments are applied as loads on the primary structure
as shown in Fig. 14.1(d), and their magnitudes are determined by solv-
ing the compatibility equations based on the condition that, at each in-
terior support of the primary structure, the slope of the elastic curve,
due to the combined eect of the external loading, support settlements,
and unknown redundants, must be continuous.
The three-moment equation uses the foregoing compatibility con-
dition of slope continuity at an interior support to provide a general re-
lationship between the unknown bending moments at the support where
compatibility is being considered and at the adjacent supports to the left
and to the right, in terms of the loads on the intermediate spans and any
settlements of the three supports.
To derive the three-moment equation, we focus our attention on the
compatibility equation at an interior support c of the continuous beam,
with prismatic spans and a constant modulus of elasticity, shown in
Fig. 14.1(a). As indicated in this gure, the adjacent supports to the left
and to the right of c are identied as l and r, respectively; the subscripts l
and r are used to refer to the loads and properties of the left span, lc, and
the right span, cr, respectively; and the settlements of supports l; c, and
r are denoted by D l ; D c , and D r , respectively. The support settlements
588 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

FIG. 14.1
 SECTION 14.1 Derivation of Three-Moment Equation 589

are considered positive when in the downward direction, as shown in the

gure.
From Fig. 14.1(a), we can see that the slope of the elastic curve of
the indeterminate beam is continuous at c. In other words, there is
no change of slope of the tangents to the elastic curve at just to the left
of c and just to the right of c; that is, the angle between the tangents is
zero. However, when the primary structure, obtained by inserting in-
ternal hinges at the interior support points, is subjected to external
loads, as shown in Fig. 14.1(b), a discontinuity develops in the slope of
the elastic curve at c, in the sense that the tangent to the elastic curve at
just to the left of c rotates relative to the tangent at just to the right of c.
The change of slope (or the angle) between the two tangents due to ex-
ternal loads is denoted by y1 and can be expressed as (see Fig. 14.1(b))
y1 yl1 yr1 (14.1)
in which yl1 and yr1 denote, respectively, the slopes at the ends c of the
spans to the left and to the right of the support c, due to external loads.
Similarly, the slope discontinuity at c in the primary structure, due to
support settlements (Fig. 14.1(c)), can be written as
y2 yl2 yr2 (14.2)
in which yl2 and yr2 represent, respectively, the slopes of the spans to the
left and to the right of c, due to support settlements. Finally, when the
primary structure is loaded with the redundant support bending mo-
ments, as shown in Fig. 14.1(d), the slope discontinuity at c can be
expressed as
y3 yl3 yr3 (14.3)
in which yl3 and yr3 denote, respectively, the slopes at end c of the spans
to the left and to the right of the support c, due to unknown redundant
moments.
The compatibility equation is based on the requirement that the
slope of the elastic curve of the actual indeterminate beam is continuous
at c; that is, there is no change of slope from just to the left of c to just to
the right of c. Therefore, the algebraic sum of the angles between the
tangents at just to the left and at just to the right of c due to the external
loading, support settlements and the redundant bending moments must
be zero. Thus,
y 1 y2 y3 0 (14.4)
By substituting Eqs. (14.1) through (14.3) into Eq. (14.4), we obtain
yl1 yr1 yl2 yr2 yl3 yr3 0 (14.5)
Since each span of the primary structure can be treated as a simply
supported beam, the slopes at the ends c of the left and the right spans,
due to the external loads (Fig. 14.1(b)), can be conveniently determined
either by the conjugate-beam method or by using the beam-deection
590 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

formulas given inside the front cover of the book. By using the de-
ection formulas, we obtain
P Pl Ll2 kl 1  kl2 wl Ll3
yl1 (14.6a)
6EIl 24EIl
P Pr Lr2 kr 1  kr2 wr Lr3
yr1 (14.6b)
6EIr 24EIr
in which the summation signs have been added to the rst terms on the
right sides of these equations, so that multiple concentrated loads can be
applied to each span (instead of a single concentrated load as shown
in Figs. 14.1(a) and (b) for simplicity). As continuous beams usually are
loaded with uniformly distributed loads over entire spans and concen-
trated loads, the eects of only these two types of loadings generally are
considered in the three-moment equation. However, the eects of other
types of loads can be included simply by adding the expressions of
slopes due to these loads to the right sides of Eqs. (14.6a) and (14.6b).
The slopes yl2 and yr2 , of the left and the right spans, respectively,
due to support settlements, can be obtained directly from the deformed
positions of the spans depicted in Fig. 14.1(c). Since the settlements are
assumed to be small, the slopes can be expressed as
Dl  Dc Dr  Dc
yl2 yr2 (14.7)
Ll Lr
The slopes at ends c of the left and the right spans, due to redundant
support bending moments, (Fig. 14.1(d)), can be determined conve-
niently by using the beam-deection formulas. Thus,
Ml Ll Mc Ll
yl3 (14.8a)
6EIl 3EIl
Mc Lr Mr Lr
yr3 (14.8b)
3EIr 6EIr
in which Ml , Mc and Mr denote the bending moments at supports l, c
and r, respectively. As shown in Fig. 14.1(d), these redundant bending
moments are considered to be positive in accordance with the beam
conventionthat is, when causing compression in the upper bers and
tension in the lower bers of the beam.
By substituting Eqs. (14.6) through (14.8) into Eq. (14.5), we write
the compatibility equation as
P Pl Ll2 kl 1  kl2 wl Ll3 P Pr Lr2 kr 1  kr2 wr Lr3 D l  D c

6EIl 24EIl 6EIr 24EIr Ll
D r  D c Ml Ll Mc Ll Mc Lr Mr Lr
0
Lr 6EIl 3EIl 3EIr 6EIr
By simplifying the foregoing equation and rearranging it to separate the
terms containing redundant moments from those involving loads and
 SECTION 14.1 Derivation of Three-Moment Equation 591

support settlements, we obtain the general form of the three-moment

equation:

 
Ml Ll Ll Lr Mr L r
2Mc
Il Il Ir Ir
P Pl Ll2 kl P Pr Lr2 kr wl Ll3 wr Lr3
 1  kl2  1  kr2  
Il Ir 4Il 4Ir
 
Dl  Dc Dr  Dc
 6E
Ll Lr

(14.9)

in which Mc bending moment at support c where the compatibility is

being considered; Ml , Mr bending moments at the adjacent supports
to the left and to the right of c, respectively; E modulus of elasticity;
Ll ; Lr lengths of the spans to the left and to the right of c, re-
spectively; Il ; Ir moments of inertia of the spans to the left and to the
right of c, respectively; Pl ; Pr concentrated loads acting on the left
and the right spans, respectively; kl (or kr ) ratio of the distance of Pl
(or Pr ) from the left (or right) support to the span length;
wl ; wr uniformly distributed loads applied to the left and the right
spans, respectively; D c settlement of the support c under consid-
eration; and D l ; D r settlements of the adjacent supports to the left and
to the right of c, respectively. As noted before, the support bending
moments are considered to be positive in accordance with the beam
conventionthat is, when causing compression in the upper bers and
tension in the lower bers of the beam. Furthermore, the external
loads and support settlements are considered positive when in the
downward direction, as shown in Fig. 14.1(a).
If the moments of inertia of two adjacent spans of a continuous
beam are equal (i.e., Il Ir I ), then the three-moment equation sim-
plies to

Ml Ll 2Mc Ll Lr Mr Lr
P P 1
 Pl Ll2 kl 1  kl2  Pr Lr2 kr 1  kr2  wl Ll3 wr Lr3
4
 
Dl  Dc Dr  Dc
 6EI
Ll Lr

(14.10)

If both the moments of inertia and the lengths of two adjacent spans
are equal (i.e., Il Ir I and Ll Lr L), then the three-moment
equation becomes
592 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

Ml 4Mc Mr
P P
 Pl Lkl 1  kl2  Pr Lkr 1  kr2 (14.11)
2
L 6EI
 wl wr  2 D l  2D c D r
4 L

The foregoing three-moment equations are applicable to any three

consecutive supports, l, c and r, of a continuous beam, provided that
there are no discontinuities, such as internal hinges, in the beam between
the left support l and the right support r.

14.2 APPLICATION OF THREE-MOMENT EQUATION

The following step-by-step procedure can be used for analyzing con-
tinuous beams by the three-moment equation.
1. Select the unknown bending moments at all interior supports of the
beam as the redundants.
2. By treating each interior support successively as the intermedi-
ate support c, write a three-moment equation. When writing these
equations, it should be realized that bending moments at the simple
end supports are known. For such a support with a cantilever over-
hang, the bending moment equals that due to the external loads
acting on the cantilever portion about the end support. The total
number of three-moment equations thus obtained must be equal to
the number of redundant support bending moments, which must be
the only unknowns in these equations.
3. Solve the system of three-moment equations for the unknown sup-
port bending moments.
4. Compute the span end shears. For each span of the beam, (a) draw
a free-body diagram showing the external loads and end moments
and (b) apply the equations of equilibrium to calculate the shear
forces at the ends of the span.
5. Determine support reactions by considering the equilibrium of the
support joints of the beam.
6. If so desired, draw shear and bending moment diagrams of the
beam by using the beam sign convention.

Fixed Supports
The three-moment equations, as given by Eqs. (14.9) through (14.11),
were derived to satisfy the compatibility condition of slope continuity at
the interior supports of continuous beams. These equations can, how-
 SECTION 14.2 Application of Three-Moment Equation 593

FIG. 14.2

ever, be used to satisfy the compatibility condition of zero slope at the

xed end supports of beams. This can be achieved by replacing the xed
support by an imaginary interior roller support with an adjoining end
span of zero length simply supported at its outer end, as shown in Fig.
14.2. The reaction moment at the actual xed support is now treated as
the redundant bending moment at the imaginary interior support, and
the three-moment equation when applied to this imaginary support
satises the compatibility condition of zero slope of the elastic curve at
the actual xed support. When analyzing a beam for support settle-
ments, both imaginary supportsthat is, the interior roller support and
the outer simple end supportare considered to undergo the same set-
tlement as the actual xed support.

Example 14.1

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 14.3(a) by using
the three-moment equation.

30 k 20 k
2.5 k/ft
A C
B

8 ft 8 ft 8 ft 20 ft

2I I

E = constant

FIG. 14.3 (a) Indeterminate Beam

continued
594 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

30 k 20 k 29.6 32.6
151.5 151.5 2.5 k/ft
A B
B B C
151.5 151.5

Ay = 20.4 ByAB = 29.6 ByBC= 32.6 Cy = 17.4

By = 62.2

(b) Span End Moments and Shears

30 k 20 k
2.5 k/ft
A C
Ax = 0 D E B

Ay = 20.4 k By = 62.2 k Cy = 17.4 k

(c) Support Reactions

32.6
20.4
7 ft
D E C
A B F
9.6
17.4
29.6
Shear diagram (k)

163.2

86.4
60.9

B
A D E F C

151.5
Bending moment diagram (k-ft)

FIG. 14.3 (contd.) (d) Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams

continued
 SECTION 14.2 Application of Three-Moment Equation 595

Solution
Redundant The beam has one degree of indeterminacy. The bending moment MB , at the interior support B, is the
redundant.

Three-Moment Equation at Joint B Considering the supports, A, B, and C as l, c, and r, respectively, and sub-
stituting Ll 24 ft, Lr 20 ft, Il 2I , Ir I, Pl1 30 k, kl1 1=3, Pl2 20 k, kl2 2=3, wr 2:5 k/ft, and Pr
wl D l D c D r 0, into Eq. (14.9), we obtain
 
MA 24 24 20 MC 20 3024 2 1=3
2MB  1  1=3 2 
2I 2I I I 2I
2024 2 2=3 2:520 3
 1  2=3 2  
2I 4I

Since A and C are simple end supports, we have by inspection

MA MC 0

Thus, the three-moment equation becomes

64MB 9;693:33

from which we obtain the redundant bending moment to be

MB 151:5 k-ft Ans.

Span End Shears and Reactions The shears at the ends of the spans AB and BC of the continuous beam can now be
determined by applying the equations of equilibrium to the free bodies of the spans shown in Fig. 14.3(b). Note that the
negative bending moment MB is applied at the ends B of spans AB and BC so that it causes tension in the upper bers
and compression in the lower bers of the beam. By considering the equilibrium of span AB, we obtain
P
MB 0 Ay 24 3016 208  151:5 0
Ay 20:4 k " Ans.
P
" Fy 0 20:4  30  20 ByAB 0
ByAB 29:6 k "
Similarly, for span BC,
P
MC 0 ByBC 20 151:5 2:52010 0
ByBC 32:6 k "
P
" Fy 0 32:6  2:520 Cy 0
Cy 17:4 k " Ans.
By considering the equilibrium of joint B in the vertical direction, we obtain

By ByAB ByBC 29:6 32:6 62:2 k " Ans.

The reactions are shown in Fig. 14.3(c).
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 14.3(d). Ans.
596 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

Example 14.2

Determine the reactions for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 14.4(a) due to the uniformly distributed load and due to
the support settlements of 10 mm at A, 50 mm at B, 20 mm at C, and 40 mm at D. Use the three-moment equation.

30 kN/m
A D
B C

10 m 10 m 10 m

EI = constant

E = 200 GPa I = 700 (106) mm4

(a) Indeterminate Beam

115.2 161.5 116.4 115.2 451.2 183.6 195.1 451.2

30 kN/m 30 kN/m 30 kN/m
B C
A
B 115.2 115.2 B C 451.2 451.2 C D

Ay = 138.5 ByAB = 161.5 ByBC = 116.4 CyBC = 183.6 CyCD = 195.1 Dy = 104.9

By = 277.9 Cy = 378.7
(b) Span End Moments and Shears

30 kN/m
Ax = 0 A
D
B C

Ay = 138.5 kN By = 277.9 kN Cy = 378.7 kN Dy = 104.9 kN

(c) Support Reactions
FIG. 14.4

Solution
Redundants The bending moments MB and MC , at the interior supports B and C, respectively, are the redundants.
Three-Moment Equation at Joint B By considering the supports A, B, and C as l, c, and r, respectively, and sub-
stituting L 10 m, E 200 GPa 20010 6 kN/m 2 , I 70010 6 mm 4 700106 m 4 , wl wr 30 kN/m, D l
DA 10 mm 0.01 m, D c DB 50 mm 0.05 m, D r D C 20 mm 0.02 m and Pl Pr 0, into Eq. (14.11),
we write

continued
 SECTION 14.2 Application of Three-Moment Equation 597

10 2 6200700
MA 4MB MC  30 30  0:01  20:05 0:02
4 10 2
Since A is a simple end support, MA 0. The foregoing equation thus simplies to
4MB MC 912 (1)
Three-Moment Equation at Joint C Similarly, by considering the supports B, C, and D as l, c, and r, respectively,
and by substituting the appropriate numerical values in Eq. (14.11), we obtain
10 2 6200700
MB 4MC MD  30 30  0:05  20:02 0:04
4 10 2
Since D is a simple end support, MD 0. Thus, the foregoing equation becomes
MB 4MC 1;920 (2)
Support Bending Moments Solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously for MB and MC , we obtain
MB 115:2 kN  m Ans.
MC 451:2 kN  m Ans.
Span End Shears and Reactions With the redundants MB and MC known, the span end shears and the support re-
actions can be determined by considering the equilibrium of the free bodies of the spans AB; BC, and CD, and joints B
and C, as shown in Fig. 14.4(b). The reactions are shown in Fig. 14.4(c). Ans.

Example 14.3

Determine the reactions for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 14.5(a) by the three-moment equation.

Solution
Since support A of the beam is xed, we replace it with an imaginary interior roller support with an adjoining end span
of zero length, as shown in Fig. 14.5(b).
Redundants From Fig. 14.5(b), we can see that the bending moments MA and MB at the supports A and B, re-
spectively, are the redundants.
Three-Moment Equation at Joint A By using Eq. (14.10) for supports A 0 , A, and B, we obtain
2MA 0 20 MB 20 4520 2 1=21  1=2 2 
or
2MA MB 337:5 (1)

continued
598 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

45 k
1.8 k/ft

A
B C D

10 ft 10 ft 30 ft 10 ft

EI = constant
(a) Indeterminate Beam

45 k
1.8 k/ft
A A
B C D

0 10 ft 10 ft 30 ft 10 ft
(b) Equivalent Beam to be Analyzed by Three-Moment Equation

45 k 24.75 28.75 142.5 90 25.25 18 90

97.5 142.5 1.8 k/ft 1.8 k/ft
B C
A B B C C D
142.5 142.5 90 90

20.25 24.75 28.75 25.25 18

By = 53.5 Cy = 43.25
(c) Span End Moments and Shears

45 k
1.8 k/ft
B
97.5 A
C D
k-ft

20.25 k 53.5 k 43.25 k

FIG. 14.5 (d) Support Reactions

Three-Moment Equation at Joint B Similarly, applying Eq. (14.10) for supports A; B, and C, we write
MA 20 2MB 20 30 MC 30
4520 2 1=21  1=2 2   1=41:830 3
continued
 SECTION 14.3 Method of Least Work 599

The bending moment at end C of the cantilever overhang CD is computed as

MC 1:8105 90 k-ft Ans.
By substituting MC 90 k-ft into the foregoing three-moment equation and simplifying, we obtain
MA 5MB 810 (2)
Support Bending Moments Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), we obtain
MA 97:5 k-ft Ans.
MB 142:5 k-ft Ans.
Span End Shears and Reactions See Figs. 14.5(c) and (d). Ans.

14.3 METHOD OF LEAST WORK

In this section, we consider another formulation of the force method
called the method of least work. In this method, the compatibility equa-
tions are established by using Castiglianos second theorem instead of
by deection superposition, as in the method of consistent deformations
considered in the previous chapter. With this exception, the two meth-
ods are similar and require essentially the same amount of computa-
tional eort. The method of least work usually proves to be more
convenient for analyzing composite structures that contain both axial
force members and exural members (e.g., beams supported by cables).
However, the method is not as general as the method of consistent de-
formations in the sense that, in its original form (as presented here), the
method of least work cannot be used for analyzing the eects of support
settlements, temperature changes, and fabrication errors.
To develop the method of least work, let us consider a statically
indeterminate beam with unyielding supports subjected to an external
loading w, as shown in Fig. 14.6. Suppose that we select the vertical re-
action By at the interior support B to be the redundant. By treating the
redundant as an unknown load applied to the beam along with the pre-
scribed loading w, an expression for the strain energy can be written in
terms of the known load w and the unknown redundant By as
FIG. 14.6
U f w; By (14.12)
Equation (14.12) indicates symbolically that the strain energy for the
beam is expressed as a function of the known external load w and the
unknown redundant By .
According to Castiglianos second theorem (Section 7.7), the partial
derivative of the strain energy with respect to a force equals the de-
ection of the point of application of the force along its line of action.
600 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

Since the deection at the point of application of the redundant By is

zero, by applying Castiglianos second theorem, we can write
qU
0 (14.13)
qBy
It should be realized that Eq. (14.13) represents the compatibility equa-
tion in the direction of redundant By , and it can be solved for the
redundant.
As Eq. (14.13) indicates, the rst partial derivative of the strain en-
ergy with respect to the redundant must be equal to zero. This implies
that for the value of the redundant that satises the equations of equili-
brium and compatibility, the strain energy of the structure is a minimum
or maximum. Since for a linearly elastic structure there is no maximum
value of strain energy, because it can be increased indenitely by in-
creasing the value of the redundant, we conclude that for the true value
of the redundant the strain energy must be a minimum. This conclusion
is known as the principle of least work:
The magnitudes of the redundants of a statically indeterminate structure must
be such that the strain energy stored in the structure is a minimum (i.e., the
internal work done is the least).
The method of least work, as described here, can be easily extended
to the analysis of structures with multiple degrees of indeterminacy. If a
structure is indeterminate to the nth degree, then n redundants are se-
lected, and the strain energy for the structure is expressed in terms of the
known external loading and the n unknown redundants as
U f w; R1 ; R 2 ; . . . ; Rn (14.14)
in which w represents all the known loads and R1 ; R 2 ; . . . ; Rn denote the n
redundants. Next, the principle of least work is applied separately for
each redundant by partially dierentiating the strain energy expression
(Eq. (14.14)) with respect to each of the redundants and by setting each
partial derivative equal to zero; that is,
qU
0
qR1
qU
0
qR 2 (14.15)
..
.
qU
0
qRn
which represents a system of n simultaneous equations in terms of n
redundants and can be solved for the redundants.
The procedure for the analysis of indeterminate structures by the
method of least work is illustrated by the following examples.
 SECTION 14.3 Method of Least Work 601

Example 14.4

Determine the reactions for the beam shown in Fig. 14.7 by the method of least work.

1.6 k/ft

Ax B
A
MA
x
Ay By
30 ft
EI = constant

FIG. 14.7

Solution
This beam was analyzed in Example 13.2 by the method of consistent deformations.
The beam is supported by four reactions, so its degree of indeterminacy is equal to 1. The vertical reaction By , at
the roller support B, is selected as the redundant. We will evaluate the magnitude of the redundant by minimizing the
strain energy of the beam with respect to By .
As discussed in Section 7.6, the strain energy of a beam subjected only to bending can be expressed as
L
M2
U dx (1)
0 2EI

According to the principle of least work, the partial derivative of strain energy with respect to By must be zero;
that is,
L 
qU qM M
dx 0 (2)
qBy 0 qBy EI

Using the x coordinate shown in Fig. 14.7, we write the equation for bending moment, M, in terms of By , as

1:6x 2
M By x 
2

Next, we partially dierentiate the expression for M with respect to By , to obtain

qM
x
qBy

By substituting the expressions for M and qM=qBy into Eq. (2), we write
 30 
1
xBy x  0:8x 2 dx 0
EI 0

continued
602 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

By integrating, we obtain
9;000By  162;000 0
from which
By 18 k " Ans.
To determine the remaining reactions of the indeterminate beam, we apply the equilibrium equations (Fig. 14.7):
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0 Ans.
P
" Fy 0 Ay  1:630 18 0 Ay 30 k " Ans.
P
MA 0 MA  1:63015 1830 0 MA 180 k-ft Ans.

Example 14.5

Determine the reactions for the two-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 14.8 by the method of least work.

FIG. 14.8

Solution
The beam is supported by four reactions, Ax ; Ay ; By , and Dy . Since there are only three equilibrium equations, the de-
gree of indeterminacy of the beam is equal to 1. Let us select the reaction By to be the redundant. The magnitude of the
redundant will be determined by minimizing the strain energy of the beam with respect to By .
The strain energy of a beam subjected only to bending is expressed as
L 2
M
U dx (1)
0 2EI
According to the principle of least work,
L 
qU qM M
dx 0 (2)
qBy 0 qBy EI
Before we can obtain the equations for bending moments, M, we must express the reactions at the supports A and D of
the beam in terms of the redundant By . Applying the three equilibrium equations, we write
P
! Fx 0 Ax 0 Ans.

continued
 SECTION 14.3 Method of Least Work 603

TABLE 14.1

x coordinate
Segment Origin Limits (m) M qM=qBy
2
AB A 010 245  0:5By x  15x 0:5x
DC D 05 135  0:5By x 0:5x
CB D 510 135  0:5By x  80x  5 0:5x

P
MD 0
Ay 20 301015  By 10 805 0
Ay 245  0:5By (3)
P
" Fy 0
245  0:5By  3010 By  80 Dy 0
Dy 135  0:5By (4)

To determine the equations for bending moments, M, the beam is divided into three segments, AB; BC, and CD. The x
coordinates used for determining the equations are shown in Fig. 14.8, and the bending moment equations, in terms of
By , are tabulated in Table 14.1. Next, the derivatives of the bending moments with respect to By are evaluated. These
derivatives are listed in the last column of Table 14.1.
By substituting the expressions for M and qM=qBy into Eq. (2), we write
 10
1
0:5x245x  0:5By x  15x 2 dx
EI 0
5
0:5x135x  0:5By x dx
0
10 
0:5x55x  0:5By x 400 dx 0
5

By integrating, we obtain

40;416:667 166:667By 0
from which
By 242:5 kN " Ans.
By substituting the value of By into Eqs. (3) and (4), respectively, we determine the vertical reactions at supports A and D.

Ay 123:75 kN " Ans.

Dy 13:75 kN " Ans.
604 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

Example 14.6

Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 14.9(a) by the method of least work.

FIG. 14.9
Solution
The truss contains one more member than necessary for internal stability; therefore, its degree of indeterminacy is equal
to 1. Let us select the force FAD in member AD to be the redundant. We will determine the magnitude of FAD by mini-
mizing the strain energy of the truss with respect to FAD .
As discussed in Section 7.6, the strain energy of a truss can be expressed as
P F 2L
U (1)
2AE
According to the principle of least work, the partial derivative of strain energy with respect to FAD must be zero; that is,
 
qU P qF FL
0 (2)
qFAD qFAD AE

TABLE 14.2
 
L qF qF
FL
Member (ft) F qFAD qFAD F (k)
AD 20 FAD 1 20FAD 13.474
BD 12 20  1:4FAD 1:4 336 23:52FAD 1.136
CD 16.971 28:284 1.131 542:889 13:045
1:131FAD 21:709FAD
P
878:889 65:229FAD
 
1 P qF
FL 0
AE qFAD
878:889 65:229FAD 0
FAD 13:474 k T
continued
 SECTION 14.3 Method of Least Work 605

The axial forces in members BD and CD are expressed in terms of the redundant FAD by considering the equilibrium of
joint D (Fig. 14.9(b)). These member forces F , along with their partial derivatives with respect to FAD , are tabulated
in Table 14.2. To apply Eq. (2), the terms qF =qFAD FL are computed for the individual members and are added as
shown in Table 14.2. Note that since EA is constant, it is not included in the summation. Equation (2) is then solved, as
shown in Table 14.2, to determine the magnitude of the redundant.
FAD 13:474 k T Ans.
Finally, the forces in members BD and CD are evaluated by substituting the value of FAD into the expressions for the
member forces given in the third column of Table 14.2.
FBD 1:136 k T Ans.
FCD 13:045 k C Ans.

Example 14.7

A beam is supported by a xed support A and a cable BD, as shown in Fig. 14.10(a). Determine the tension in the cable
by the method of least work.

FIG. 14.10

Solution
We will analyze the structure by considering the tension T in cable BD to be redundant. The magnitude of the re-
dundant will be determined by minimizing the strain energy of the structure with respect to T.
Because the structure contains both axially loaded and exural members, its total strain energy is expressed as the
sum of the strain energy due to axial forces and the strain energy due to bending; that is,
continued
606 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

TABLE 14.3

x coordinate qM qF
Segment Origin Limits (ft) M F qT qT

CB C 04 15x 0 0 0
BA C 412 15x 0:6Tx  4 0:8T 0:6x  4 0:8
BD 0 T 0 1

P F 2L P M 2
U dx (1)
2AE 2EI
According to the principle of least work,
   
qU P qF FL P qM M
dx 0 (2)
qT qT AE qT EI
The expressions for the bending moments M and the axial forces F in terms of the redundant T and their derivatives
with respect to T are tabulated in Table 14.3. By substituting these expressions and derivatives into Eq. (2), we write
"
1 0:80:8T812 2 1T1012 2

E 12 0:8

12 #
12 4
0:6x  415x 0:6Tx  2:4T dx 0
400 4

T 27:612 k Ans.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have studied two formulations of the force (exi-
bility) method of analysis of statically indeterminate structures, namely,
the three-moment equation and the method of least work.
The three-moment equation represents, in a general form, the com-
patibility condition that the slope of the elastic curve be continuous at
an interior support of the continuous beam. This method, which can be
used for analyzing continuous beams subjected to external loads and
support settlements, involves treating the bending moments at the in-
terior (and any xed) supports of the beam as the redundants. The
three-moment equation is then applied at the location of each redundant
to obtain a set of compatibility equations which can then be solved for
the redundant bending moments.
The principle of least work states that the magnitudes of the redun-
dants of an indeterminate structure must be such that the strain energy
stored in the structure is a minimum. To analyze an indeterminate struc-
ture by the method of least work, the strain energy of the structure is
 Problems 607

rst expressed in terms of the redundants. Then the partial derivatives of

the strain energy with respect to each of the redundants are determined
and set equal to zero to obtain a system of simultaneous equations that
can be solved for the redundants. The method of least work cannot
be used for analyzing the eects of support settlements, temperature
changes, and fabrication errors.

PROBLEMS
Section 14.2 15 kN/m
14.1 through 14.8 Determine the reactions and draw the
shear and bending moment diagrams for the beams shown in A B C
Figs. P14.1 through P14.8 using the three-moment equation.
7m 7m
EI = constant
FIG. P14.4, P14.11

FIG. P14.1
FIG. P14.5, P14.12

120 kN 120 kN 150 kN

3 k/ft
A C E
A C G
B B D F
25 ft 15 ft
2I I
E = 29,000 ksi 6m 4m 6m 4m 4m 4m
I = 2,500 in.4
I 2I I
FIG. P14.2, P14.9
E = 200 Gpa
I = 500 (106) mm4
FIG. P14.6, P14.10

FIG. P14.3 FIG. P14.7

608 CHAPTER 14 Three-Moment Equation and the Method of Least Work

35 k
1 k/ft 2 k/ft

E
A B C D

10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 20 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P14.8

14.9 Solve Problem 14.2 for the loading shown in Fig. P14.2 14.14 A beam is supported by a xed support A and a cable
and the support settlements of 14 in. at A, 1 in. at B, BC, as shown in Fig. P14.14. Determine the tension in the
and 34 in. at C. cable by the method of least work.
14.10 Solve Problem 14.6 for the loading shown in Fig. P14.6
and the support settlements of 10 mm at A, 65 mm at C,
40 mm at E, and 25 mm at G.

Section 14.3
14.11 Solve Problem 14.4 by the method of least work. See
Fig. P14.4.
14.12 Solve Problem 14.5 by the method of least work. See
Fig. P14.5.
14.13 Determine the reactions and the force in each mem-
ber of the truss shown in Fig. P14.13 using the method of
least work.

E FIG. P14.14
50 kN

4m

C
100 kN D

4m

A B

3m
EA = constant
FIG. P14.13
 15
Influence Lines for Statically
Indeterminate Structures
15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses
15.2 Qualitative Influence Lines by Muller-Breslaus Principle
Summary
Problems

The Golden Gate Bridge, San

Francisco
Acoi/Shutterstock

In this chapter, we discuss the procedures for constructing inuence lines

for statically indeterminate structures. It may be recalled from Chapter 8
that an inuence line is a graph of a response function of a structure as
a function of the position of a downward unit load moving across the
structure.
The basic procedure for constructing inuence lines for in-
determinate structures is the same as that for determinate structures
considered in Chapter 8. The procedure essentially involves computing
the values of the response function of interest for various positions of a
unit load on the structure and plotting the response function values as
ordinates against the position of the unit load as abscissa to obtain the
inuence line. Since the inuence lines for forces and moments of deter-
minate structures consist of straight-line segments, such inuence lines
were constructed in Chapter 8 by evaluating the ordinates for only a few
positions of the unit load and by connecting them with straight lines.
The inuence lines for indeterminate structures, however, are generally
curved lines. (For indeterminate girders with oor systems and trusses
and for other indeterminate structures to which moving loads are trans-
mitted via framing systems, the inuence lines usually consist of chords
of curved lines.) Thus the construction of inuence lines for in-
determinate structures requires computation of many more ordinates
than necessary in the case of determinate structures.

609
610 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

Although any of the methods of analysis of indeterminate structures

presented in Part Three can be used for computing the ordinates of
inuence lines, we will use the method of consistent deformations, dis-
cussed in Chapter 13, for such purposes. Once the inuence lines for in-
determinate structures have been constructed, they can be used in the
same manner as those for determinate structures discussed in Chapter 9.
In this chapter, the procedure for constructing inuence lines for stat-
ically indeterminate beams and trusses is developed, and the application
of Muller-Breslaus principle for constructing qualitative inuence lines
for indeterminate beams and frames is discussed.

15.1 INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS AND TRUSSES

Consider the continuous beam shown in Fig. 15.1(a). Suppose that we
wish to draw the inuence line for the vertical reaction at the interior
support B of the beam. The beam is subjected to a downward-moving
concentrated load of unit magnitude, the position of which is dened by
the coordinate x measured from the left end A of the beam, as shown in
the gure.
To develop the inuence line for the reaction By , we need to de-
termine the expression for By in terms of the variable position x of the
unit load. Noting that the beam is statically indeterminate to the rst
degree, we select the reaction By to be the redundant. The roller support
at B is then removed from the actual indeterminate beam to obtain the
statically determinate primary beam shown in Fig. 15.1(b). Next, the
primary beam is subjected, separately, to the unit load positioned at an
arbitrary point X at a distance x from the left end, and the redundant
By , as shown in Fig. 15.1(b) and (c), respectively. The expression for By
can now be determined by using the compatibility condition that the
deection of the primary beam at B due to the combined eect of the
external unit load and the unknown redundant By must be equal to
zero. Thus
fBX fBB By 0
from which
fBX
By  (15.1)
fBB
in which the exibility coecient fBX denotes the deection of the pri-
mary beam at B due to the unit load at X (Fig. 15.1(b)), whereas the
exibility coecient fBB denotes the deection at B due to the unit value
of the redundant By (Fig. 15.1(c)).
We can use Eq. (15.1) for constructing the inuence line for By by
placing the unit load successively at a number of positions X along the
beam, evaluating fBX for each position of the unit load, and plotting the
FIG. 15.1 values of the ratio fBX =fBB . However, a more ecient procedure can
 SECTION 15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses 611

be devised by applying Maxwells law of reciprocal deections (Section

7.8), according to which the deection at B due to a unit load at X must
be equal to the deection at X due to a unit load B; that is, fBX fXB .
Thus, Eq. (15.1) can be rewritten as
fXB
By  (15.2)
fBB
which represents the equation of the inuence line for By . Note that the
deections fXB and fBB are considered to be positive when in the up-
ward direction (i.e., in the positive direction of the redundant By ) in ac-
cordance with the sign convention adopted for the method of consistent
deformations in Chapter 13.
Equation (15.2) is more convenient to apply than Eq. (15.1) in con-
structing the inuence line, because according to Eq. (15.2), the unit
load needs to be placed on the primary beam only at B, and the de-
ections fXB at a number of points X along the beam are to be com-
puted. The inuence line can then be constructed by plotting the values
of the ratio fXB =fBB as ordinates against the distance x, which repre-
sents the position of point X , as abscissa.
The equation of an inuence line, when expressed in the form of
Eq. (15.2), shows the validity of Muller-Breslaus principle for statically
indeterminate structures. It can be seen from Eq. (15.2) for the inuence
line for By that since fBB is a constant, the ordinate of the inuence line at
any point X is proportional to the deection fXB of the primary beam
at that point due to the unit load at B. Furthermore, this equation in-
dicates that the inuence line for By can be obtained by multiplying the
deected shape of the primary beam due to the unit load at B by the scaling
factor 1=fBB . Note that this scaling yields a deected shape, with a unit
displacement at B, as shown in Fig. 15.1(d). The foregoing observation
shows the validity of Muller-Breslaus principle for indeterminate struc-
tures. Recall from Section 8.2 that, according to this principle, the inuence
line for By can be obtained by removing the support B from the original
beam and by giving the released beam a unit displacement in the direction
of By . Also, note from Fig. 15.1(d) that, unlike the case of statically deter-
minate structures considered in Chapter 8, the removal of support B from
the indeterminate beam does not render it statically unstable; therefore, the
inuence line for its reaction By is a curved line. Once the inuence line for
the redundant By has been determined, the inuence lines for the remaining
reactions and the shears and bending moments of the beam can be ob-
tained through equilibrium considerations.

Influence Lines for Structures with Multiple Degrees

of Indeterminacy
The procedure for constructing the inuence lines for structures with
multiple degrees of indeterminacy is similar to that for structures with
a single degree of indeterminacy. Consider, for example, the three-span
continuous beam shown in Fig. 15.2(a). Because the beam is statically
612 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

FIG. 15.2

indeterminate to the second degree, we select the reactions By and Cy to

be the redundants. To determine the inuence lines for the redundants,
we place a unit load successively at a number of positions X along the
beam; and for each position of the unit load, the ordinates of the inu-
ence lines for By and Cy are evaluated by applying the compatibility
equations (see Fig. 15.2(a) through (d))
fBX fBB By fBC Cy 0 (15.3)
fCX fCB By fCC Cy 0 (15.4)
Once the inuence lines for the redundants have been obtained, the
inuence lines for the remaining reactions and the shears and bending
moments of the beam can be determined by statics.
As discussed previously, the analysis can be considerably expedited
by the application of Maxwells law of reciprocal deections, accord-
ing to which fBX fXB and fCX fXC . Thus, the unit load needs to be
placed successively only at points B and C, and the deections fXB and
 SECTION 15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses 613

fXC at a number of points X along the beam are computed instead of

computing the deections fBX and fCX at points B and C, respectively,
for each of a number of positions of the unit load.

Procedure for Analysis

The procedure for constructing inuence lines for statically indeterminate
structures by the method of consistent deformations can be summarized as
follows:
1. Determine the degree of indeterminacy of the structure and select
redundants.
2. Select a number of points along the length of the structure at which
the numerical values of the ordinates of the inuence lines will be
evaluated.
3. To construct the inuence lines for the redundants, place a unit load
successively at each of the points selected in step 2; and for each posi-
tion of the unit load, apply the method of consistent deformations to
compute the values of the redundants. Plot the values of the redundants
thus obtained as ordinates against the position of the unit load as ab-
scissa, to construct the inuence lines for the redundants. (Evaluation
of the deections involved in the compatibility equations can be con-
siderably expedited by the application of Maxwells law of reciprocal
deections, as illustrated by Examples 15.1 through 15.3.)
4. Once the inuence lines for the redundants have been determined, the
inuence lines for the other force and/or moment response functions
of the structure can be obtained through equilibrium considerations.

Example 15.1

Draw the inuence lines for the reaction at support B and the bending moment at point C of the beam shown in Fig.
15.3(a).

Solution
The beam has one degree of indeterminacy. We select the vertical reaction By at the roller support B to be the re-
dundant. The ordinates of the inuence lines will be computed at 3-m intervals at points A through E, as shown in Fig.
15.3(a).
Inuence Line for Redundant By The value of the redundant By for an arbitrary position X of the unit load can be
determined by solving the compatibility equation (see Fig. 15.3(b) and (c))
fBX fBB By 0
from which
fBX
By  (1)
fBB

continued
614 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

FIG. 15.3 continued

 SECTION 15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses 615

1 kN
fDB
A B C D E
fCB
fBB
fAB

(d) Primary Beam Subjected to Unit Load at D

1.5

1.0

0.519

0.148
0
A B C D E
(e) Influence Line for By (kN/kN)

1 kN

B
E
A C D

By = 1.5
(f)

1.56

0.44

A 0 0
B C D E

1.5
(g) Influence Line for MC (kN . m/kN)
FIG. 15.3 (contd.) continued
616 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

Since by Maxwells law of reciprocal deections, fBX fXB , we place the unit load at B on the primary beam
(Fig. 15.3(d)) and compute the deections at points A through E by using the beam-deection formulas given inside the
front cover of the book. Thus,
364:5 kN  m 3 =kN
fBA fAB 
EI
243 kN  m 3 =kN
fBB 
EI
126 kN  m 3 =kN
fBC fCB 
EI
36 kN  m 3 =kN
fBD fDB 
EI
fBE fEB 0
in which the negative signs indicate that these deections are in the downward direction. Note that the exibility co-
ecient fBB in Eq. (1) denotes the upward (positive) deection of the primary beam at B due to the unit value of the
redundant By (Fig. 15.3(c)), whereas the deection fBB represents the downward (negative) deection at B due to the
external unit load at B (Fig. 15.3(d)). Thus,
243 kN  m 3 =kN
fBB fBB
EI
The ordinates of the inuence line for By can now be evaluated by applying Eq. (1) successively for each position of the
unit load. For example, when the unit load is located at A, the value of By is obtained as
fBA 364:5
By  1:5 kN=kN
fBB 243
The remaining ordinates of the inuence line for By are calculated in a similar manner. These ordinates are tabulated in
Table 15.1, and the inuence line for By is shown in Fig. 15.3(e). Ans.

TABLE 15.1

Inuence Line Ordinates

Unit Load at By (kN/kN) MC (kN  m/kN)

A 1.5 1.5
B 1.0 0
C 0.519 1.56
D 0.148 0.44
E 0 0

Inuence Line for MC With the inuence line for By known, the ordinates of the inuence line for the bending
moment at C can now be evaluated by placing the unit load successively at points A through E on the indeterminate
beam and by using the corresponding values of By computed previously. For example, as depicted in Fig. 15.3(f ), when
the unit load is located at point A, the value of the reaction at B is By 1:5 kN/kN. By considering the equilibrium of
the free body of the portion of the beam to the left of C, we obtain
MC 16 1:53 1:5 kN  m=kN
The values of the remaining ordinates of the inuence line are calculated in a similar manner. These ordinates are listed
in Table 15.1, and the inuence line for MC is shown in Fig. 15.3(g). Ans.
 SECTION 15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses 617

Example 15.2

Draw the inuence lines for the vertical reactions at the supports and the shear and bending moment at point C of the
two-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 15.4(a).

Solution
The beam is indeterminate to the rst degree. We select the vertical reaction Dy at the interior support D as the re-
dundant. The inuence line ordinates will be evaluated at 10-ft intervals at points A through F shown in Fig. 15.4(a).
Inuence Line for Redundant Dy The value of the redundant Dy for an arbitrary position X of the unit load can be
determined by solving the compatibility equation (see Fig. 15.4(b) and (c))

fDX fDD Dy 0

from which

fDX
Dy  (1)
fDD

Since fDX fXD in accordance with Maxwells law, we place the unit load at D on the primary beam (Fig. 15.4(d)) and
compute the deections at points A through F by using the conjugate-beam method. The conjugate beam is shown in
Fig. 15.4(e), from which we obtain the following:

fDA fAD 0
    
1 1 10 826:667 k-ft 3 =k
fDB fBD  8610  102 
EI 2 3 EI
    
1 1 20 1;453:333 k-ft 3 =k
fDC fCD  8620  204 
EI 2 3 EI
   
1 1 1;680 k-ft 3 =k
fDD  8630  30610 
EI 2 EI
    
1 1 10 1;140 k-ft 3 =k
fDE fED  12410  106 
EI 2 3 EI

fDF fFD 0

in which the negative signs indicate that these deections occur in the downward direction. Note that the exibility co-
ecient fDD in Eq. (1) denotes the upward (positive) deection of the primary beam at D due to the unit value of the
redundant Dy (Fig. 15.4(c)), whereas the deection fDD represents the downward (negative) deection at D due to the
external unit load at D (Fig. 15.4(d)). Thus

1;680 k-ft 3 =k
fDD fDD
EI

continued
618 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

FIG. 15.4
continued
 SECTION 15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses 619

FIG. 15.4 (contd.)

continued
620 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

TABLE 15.2

Inuence Line Ordinates

Unit Load at Dy (k/k) Ay (k/k) Fy (k/k) SC (k/k) MC (k-ft/k)

A 0 1.0 0 0 0
B 0.492 0.603 0.095 0.397 2.06
C 0.865 0.254 0.119 0.746 (left) 5.08
0.254 (right)
D 1.0 0 0 0 0
E 0.679 0.072 0.393 0.072 1.44
F 0 0 1.0 0 0

The ordinates of the inuence line for Dy can now be computed by applying Eq. (1) successively for each position of the
unit load. For example, when the unit load is located at B, the value of Dy is given by
fDB 826:667
Dy  0:492 k=k
fDD 1;680

The remaining ordinates of the inuence line for Dy are computed in a similar manner. These ordinates are tabulated in
Table 15.2, and the inuence line for Dy is shown in Fig. 15.4(f ). Ans.
Inuence Lines for Ay and Fy With the inuence line for Dy known, the inuence lines for the remaining reactions
can now be determined by applying the equations of equilibrium. For example, for the position of the unit load at point
B as shown in Fig. 15.4(g), the value of the reaction Dy has been found to be 0.492 k/k. By applying the equilibrium
equations, we determine the values of the reactions Ay and Fy to be
P
MF 0 Ay 50 140  0:49220 0
Ay 0:603 k=k "
P
" Fy 0 0:603  1 0:492 Fy 0
Fy 0:095 k=k 0:095 k=k #
The values of the remaining inuence line ordinates are computed in a similar manner. These ordinates are listed in
Table 15.2, and the inuence lines for Ay and Fy are shown in Fig. 15.4(h) and (i), respectively. Ans.
Inuence Lines for SC and MC The ordinates of the inuence lines for the shear and bending moment at C can now
be evaluated by placing the unit load successively at points A through F on the indeterminate beam and by using the
corresponding values of the reactions computed previously. For example, as shown in Fig. 15.4(g), when the unit load is
located at point B, the values of the reactions are Ay 0:603 k/k; Dy 0:492 k/k; and Fy 0:095 k/k. By considering
the equilibrium of the free body of the portion of the beam to the left of C, we obtain
SC 0:603  1 0:397 k=k
MC 0:60320  110 2:06 k-ft=k
The values of the remaining ordinates of the inuence lines are computed in a similar manner. These ordinates are listed
in Table 15.2, and the inuence lines for the shear and bending moment at C are shown in Fig. 15.4( j) and (k),
respectively. Ans.
 SECTION 15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses 621

Example 15.3

Draw the inuence lines for the reactions at supports for the beam shown in Fig. 15.5(a).

Solution
The beam is indeterminate to the second degree. We select the vertical reactions Dy and Gy at the roller supports D and
G, respectively, to be the redundants. The inuence line ordinates will be evaluated at 5-m intervals at points A through
G shown in Fig. 15.5(a).
Inuence Lines for Redundants Dy and Gy The values of the redundants Dy and Gy for an arbitrary position
X of the unit load can be determined by solving the compatibility equations (see Fig. 15.5(b) through (d)):
fDX fDD Dy fDG Gy 0 (1)
fGX fGD Dy fGG Gy 0 (2)
Since by Maxwells law, fDX fXD , we place the unit load at D on the primary beam (Fig. 15.5(e)) and compute
the deections at points A through G by using the beam-deection formulas given inside the front cover of the
book. Thus,

fDA fAD 0
166:667 kN  m 3 =kN
fDB fBD 
EI
583:333 kN  m 3 =kN
fDC fCD 
EI
1;125 kN  m 3 =kN
fDD 
EI
1;687:5 kN  m 3 =kN
fDE fED 
EI
2;250 kN  m 3 =kN
fDF fFD 
EI
2;812:5 kN  m 3 =kN
fDG fGD 
EI

Similarly, the deections fGX fXG are computed by placing the unit load at G (Fig. 15.5(f )):
fGA fAG 0
354:167 kN  m 3 =kN
fGB fBG 
EI
1;333:333 kN  m 3 =kN
fGC fCG 
EI

continued
622 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

FIG. 15.5 continued

 SECTION 15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses 623

4;666:667 kN  m 3 =kN
fGE fEG 
EI
6;770:833 kN  m 3 =kN
fGF fFG 
EI
9;000 kN  m 3 =kN
fGG 
EI
In these equations the negative signs indicate that these deections are in the downward direction.
The upward deections due to the unit values of the redundants (Fig. 15.5(c) and (d)) are given by
1;125 kN  m 3 =kN
fDD
EI
2;812:5 kN  m 3 =kN
fDG fGD
EI
9;000 kN  m 3 =kN
fGG
EI
By substituting the numerical values of these exibility coecients into the compatibility equations (Eqs. (1) and (2))
and solving for Dy and Gy , we obtain
EI
Dy 8fDX 2:5fGX (3)
1;968:75
EI
Gy 2:5fDX  fGX (4)
1;968:75
The values of the redundants Dy and Gy for each position of the unit load can now be determined by substituting the
corresponding values of the deections fDX and fGX into Eqs. (3) and (4). For example, the ordinates of the inuence
lines for Dy and Gy for the position of the unit load at B can be computed by substituting fDX fDB 166:667=EI
and fGX fGB 354:167=EI into Eqs. (3) and (4):
    
EI 166:667 354:167
Dy 8  2:5  0:228 kN=kN "
1;968:75 EI EI
   
EI 166:667 354:167
Gy 2:5  0:032 kN=kN
1;968:75 EI EI
0:032 kN=kN #
The remaining ordinates of the inuence lines for the redundants are computed in a similar manner. These ordinates are
tabulated in Table 15.3, and the inuence lines for Dy and Gy are shown in Fig. 15.5(g) and (h), respectively. Ans.
Inuence Lines for Ay and MA The ordinates of the inuence lines for the remaining reactions can now be de-
termined by placing the unit load successively at points A through G on the indeterminate beam and by applying the
equations of equilibrium. For example, for the position of the unit load at B (Fig. 15.5(i)), the values of the reactions Dy
and Gy have been found to be 0.228 kN/kN and 0.032 kN/kN, respectively. By considering the equilibrium of the
beam, we determine the values of the reactions Ay and MA to be as follows:
P
" Fy 0 Ay  1 0:228  0:032 0
Ay 0:804 kN=kN "
P
MA 0 MA  15 0:22815  0:03230 0

MA 2:54 kN  m=kN
continued
624 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

TABLE 15.3

Inuence Line Ordinates

Unit Load at Dy (kN/kN) Gy (kN/kN) Ay (kN/kN) MA (kN  m/kN)
A 0 0 1.0 0
B 0.228 0.032 0.804 2.540
C 0.677 0.063 0.386 1.735
D 1.0 0 0 0
E 0.931 0.228 0.159 0.805
F 0.545 0.582 0.127 0.635
G 0 1.0 0 0

The values of the remaining inuence line ordinates are computed in a similar manner. These ordinates are listed in
Table 15.3, and the inuence lines for Ay and MA are shown in Fig. 15.5( j) and (k), respectively. Ans.

Example 15.4

Draw the inuence lines for the forces in members BC; BE, and CE of the truss shown in Fig. 15.6(a). Live loads are
transmitted to the top chord of the truss.

Solution
The truss is internally indeterminate to the rst degree. We select the axial force FCE in the diagonal member CE to be
the redundant.
Inuence Line for Redundant FCE To determine the inuence line for FCE , we place a unit load successively at joints B
and C of the truss, and for each position of the unit load, we apply the method of consistent deformations to compute the
value of FCE . The primary truss, obtained by removing member CE, is subjected separately to the unit load at B and C, as
shown in Fig. 15.6(b) and (c), respectively, and a unit tensile force in the redundant member CE, as shown in Fig. 15.6(d).
When the unit load is located at B, the compatibility equation can be expressed as
fCE; B fCE; CE FCE 0
in which fCE; B denotes the relative displacement between joints C and E of the primary truss due to the unit load at B
and fCE; CE denotes the relative displacements between the same joints due to a unit value of the redundant FCE . Ap-
plying the virtual work method (see Fig. 15.6(b) and (d) and Table 15.4), we obtain
1 P uB uCE L 37:856
fCE; B 
E A E
2
1 P uCE L 233:6
fCE; CE
E A E
continued
 SECTION 15.1 Influence Lines for Beams and Trusses 625

FIG. 15.6

By substituting these numerical values into the compatibility equation, we determine the ordinate of the inuence line
for FCE at B to be
FCE 0:162 k=k T
Similarly, when the unit load is located at C, the compatibility equation is given by
fCE; C fCE; CE FCE 0 continued
626 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

TABLE 15.4
2
L A uB uC uCE uB uCE L uC uCE L uCE L
Member (in.) (in. 2 ) (k/k) (k/k) (k/k) A A A

AB 240 6 0.889 0.444 0 0 0 0

BC 240 6 0.444 0.889 0.8 14.208 28.448 25.6
CD 240 6 0.444 0.889 0 0 0 0
EF 240 6 0.889 0.444 0.8 28.448 14.208 25.6
BE 180 4 0.667 0.333 0.6 18.009 8.991 16.2
CF 180 4 0 1.0 0.6 0 27.0 16.2
AE 300 6 1.111 0.555 0 0 0 0
BF 300 4 0.555 0.555 1.0 41.625 41.625 75.0
CE 300 4 0 0 1.0 0 0 75.0
DF 300 6 0.555 1.111 0 0 0 0
P
37.856 91.856 233.6

(see Fig. 15.6(c) and (d) and Table 15.4) in which

1 P uC uCE L 91:856
fCE; C
E A E
By substituting the numerical values of fCE; C and fCE; CE into the compatibility equation, we determine the ordinate of
the inuence line for FCE at C to be
FCE 0:393 k=k 0:393 k=k C
The inuence line for FCE is shown in Fig. 15.6(e). Ans.
Inuence Lines for FBC and FBE The ordinate at B of the inuence line for force in any member of the truss can be
determined by the superposition relationship (see Fig. 15.6(b) and (d) and Table 15.4)
F uB uCE FCE
in which FCE denotes the ordinate at B of the inuence line for the redundant FCE . Thus the ordinates at B of the in-
uence lines for FBC and FBE are
FBC 0:444 0:80:162 0:575 k=k 0:575 k=k C
FBE 0:667 0:60:162 0:764 k=k 0:764 k=k C
Similarly, the ordinates of the inuence lines for FBC and FBE at C can be determined by using the superposition
relationship (see Fig. 15.6(c) and (d) and Table 15.4)
F uC uCE FCE
in which FCE now denotes the ordinate at C of the inuence line for the redundant FCE . Thus
FBC 0:889 0:80:393 0:575 k=k 0:575 k=k C
FBE 0:333 0:60:393 0:097 k=k 0:097 k=k C
The inuence lines for FBC and FBE are shown in Fig. 15.6(f ) and (g), respectively. Ans.
 SECTION 15.2 Qualitative Influence Lines by Muller-Breslaus Principle 627

15.2 QUALITATIVE INFLUENCE LINES BY MULLER-BRESLAUS PRINCIPLE

In many practical applications, such as when designing continuous
beams or building frames subjected to uniformly distributed live
loads, it is usually sucient to draw only the qualitative inuence
lines to decide where to place the live loads to maximize the response
functions of interest. As in the case of statically determinate struc-
tures (Section 8.2), Muller-Breslaus principle provides a convenient
means of establishing qualitative inuence lines for indeterminate
structures.
Recall from Section 8.2 that Muller-Breslaus principle can be
stated as follows:
The inuence line for a force (or moment) response function is given by
the deected shape of the released structure obtained by removing the
restraint corresponding to the response function from the original struc-
ture and by giving the released structure a unit displacement (or rotation)
at the location and in the direction of the response function, so that only
the response function and the unit load perform external work.
The procedure for constructing qualitative inuence lines for in-
determinate structures is the same as that for determinate structures
discussed in Section 8.2. The procedure essentially involves: (1) remov-
ing from the given structure the restraint corresponding to the response
function of interest to obtain the released structure; (2) applying a small
displacement (or rotation) to the released structure at the location and
in the positive direction of the response function; and (3) drawing a de-
ected shape of the released structure consistent with its support and
continuity conditions. The inuence lines for indeterminate structures
are generally curved lines.
Once a qualitative inuence line for a structural response function
has been constructed, it can be used to decide where to place the live
loads to maximize the value of the response function. As discussed in
Section 9.2, the value of a response function due to a uniformly dis-
tributed live load is maximum positive (or negative) when the load is
placed over those portions of the structure where the ordinates of the
response function inuence line are positive (or negative). Because the
inuence-line ordinates tend to diminish rapidly with distance from
the point of application of the response function, live loads placed more
than three span lengths away from the location of the response function
generally have a negligible eect on the value of the response function.
With the live-load pattern known, an indeterminate analysis of the
structure can be performed to determine the maximum value of the re-
sponse function.
628 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

Example 15.5

Draw qualitative inuence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A and B, the bending moment at point B, and the
shear and bending moment at point C of the four-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 15.7(a). Also, show the ar-
rangements of a uniformly distributed downward live load wl to cause the maximum positive reactions at supports A
and B, the maximum negative bending moment at B, the maximum negative shear at C, and the maximum positive
bending moment at C.

Solution
Inuence Line for Ay To determine the qualitative inuence line for the vertical reaction Ay at support A, we re-
move the vertical restraint at A from the actual beam and give the released beam a small displacement in the positive
direction of Ay . The deected shape of the released beam thus obtained (Fig. 15.7(b)) represents the general shape of the
inuence line (i.e., the qualitative inuence line) for Ay . Note that the deected shape is consistent with the support
conditions of the released beam; that is, points B; D; E, and F of the released beam, which are attached to roller sup-
ports, do not displace. Ans.
To maximize the positive value of Ay , the live load wl is placed over spans AB and DE of the beam, where the
ordinates of the inuence line for Ay are positive, as shown in Fig. 15.7(b). Ans.
Inuence Line for By The qualitative inuence line for By and the live-load arrangement for the maximum positive
value of By are determined in a similar manner and are shown in Fig. 15.7(c). Ans.
Inuence Line for MB To determine the qualitative inuence line for the bending moment at B, we insert a hinge at
B in the actual beam and give the released beam a small rotation in the positive direction of MB by rotating the portion
to the left of B counterclockwise and the portion to the right of B clockwise, as shown in Fig. 15.7(d). The deected
shape of the released beam thus obtained represents the qualitative inuence line for MB . Ans.
To cause the maximum negative bending moment at B, we place the live load wl over spans AB; BD, and EF of the
beam, where the ordinates of the inuence line for MB are negative, as shown in Fig. 15.7(d). Ans.

FIG. 15.7
continued
 SECTION 15.2 Qualitative Influence Lines by Muller-Breslaus Principle 629

FIG. 15.7 (contd.)

continued
630 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

Inuence Line for SC The qualitative inuence line for SC is determined by cutting the actual beam at C and by
giving the released beam a small relative displacement in the positive direction of SC by moving end C of the left por-
tion of the beam downward and end C of the right portion upward, as shown in Fig. 15.7(e). Ans.
To obtain the maximum negative shear at C, the live load is placed over span DE and the portion BC of the span
BD of the beam, where the ordinates of the inuence line for Sc are negative, as shown in Fig. 15.7(e). Ans.
Inuence Line for MC The qualitative inuence line for the bending moment at C and the live-load arrangement
for the maximum positive value of MC are shown in Fig. 15.7(f ). Ans.

Example 15.6

Draw qualitative inuence lines for the bending moment and shear at point A of the building frame shown in
Fig. 15.8(a). Also, show the arrangements of a uniformly distributed downward live load wl that will cause the max-
imum positive bending moment and the maximum negative shear at A.

Solution
Inuence Line for MA The qualitative inuence line for the bending moment at A is shown in Fig. 15.8(b). Note
that since the members of the frame are connected together by rigid joints, the original angles between the members
intersecting at a joint must be maintained in the deected shape of the frame. To obtain the maximum positive bending
moment at A, the live load wl is placed over those spans of the frame where the ordinates of the inuence line for MA
are positive, as shown in Fig. 15.8(b). This type of live-load pattern is sometimes referred to as a checker-board load
pattern. Ans.

FIG. 15.8

continued
 SECTION 15.2 Qualitative Influence Lines by Muller-Breslaus Principle 631

FIG. 15.8 (contd.)

Inuence Line for SA The qualitative inuence line for the shear at A and the live-load arrangement for the
maximum negative value of SA are shown in Fig. 15.8(c). Ans.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have discussed inuence lines for statically indeterminate
structures. The procedure for constructing such inuence lines by the
method of consistent deformations essentially involves (1) constructing the
inuence lines for the redundants by placing a unit load successively at a
number of points along the length of the structure and, for each position of
the unit load, computing the values of the redundants by applying the
method of consistent deformations, and (2) using the inuence lines for
the redundants and, by applying the equations of equilibrium, determining
the inuence lines for other response functions of the structure.
632 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

Evaluation of the deections involved in the application of the

method of consistent deformations can be considerably expedited by us-
ing Maxwells law of reciprocal deections. The procedure for construct-
ing qualitative inuence lines for indeterminate structures by Muller-
Breslaus principle is presented in Section 15.2.

PROBLEMS
Section 15.1 beam shown in Fig. P15.4. Determine the inuence line or-
15.1 Draw the inuence lines for the reactions at the sup- dinates at 10-ft intervals.
ports and the shear and bending moment at point B of the
beam shown in Fig. P15.1. Determine the inuence line or-
dinates at 3-m intervals. Select the reaction at support C to
be the redundant.

A B C FIG. P15.4

15.5 Draw the inuence lines for the reactions at the sup-
6m ports and the shear and bending moment at point C of the
beam shown in Fig. P15.5. Determine the inuence line or-
12 m dinates at 4-m intervals.

EI = constant
FIG. P15.1, P15.2

15.2 Determine the inuence lines for the reactions

at the supports for the beam of Problem 15.1 by select-
ing the moment at support A to be the redundant. See
FIG. P15.5
Fig. P15.1.
15.3 Draw the inuence lines for the reaction at support C 15.6 Draw the inuence lines for the reactions at the sup-
and the shear and bending moment at point B of the beam ports and the forces in members BC; CE, and EF of the
shown in Fig. P15.3. Determine the inuence line ordinates truss shown in Fig. P15.6. Live loads are transmitted to the
at 5-ft intervals. bottom chord of the truss.

A B C D

15 ft 5 ft 5 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P15.3

15.4 Draw the inuence lines for the reactions at the sup-
ports and the shear and bending moment at point C of the FIG. P15.6
 Problems 633

15.7 Draw the inuence lines for the forces in members BC 15.11 Draw the inuence lines for the reaction at support C
and CD of the truss shown in Fig. P15.7. Live loads are and the forces in members BC; CE, and EF of the truss
transmitted to the top chord of the truss. shown in Fig. P15.11. Live loads are transmitted to the
bottom chord of the truss.

FIG. P15.7
FIG. P15.11
15.8 Draw the inuence lines for the forces in members
BC; BF , and CF of the truss shown in Fig. P15.8. Live 15.12 Draw the inuence lines for the forces in members
loads are transmitted to the bottom chord of the truss. BG; CD, and DG of the truss shown in Fig. P15.12. Live
loads are transmitted to the bottom chord of the truss.

FIG. P15.8

15.9 Draw the inuence lines for the reactions at supports B FIG. P15.12
and D and the shear and bending moment at point C of the
beam shown in Fig. P15.9. Determine the inuence line or-
dinates at 5-ft intervals. Section 15.2
15.13 through 15.15 Draw qualitative inuence lines for
the vertical reactions at supports A and B, the bending mo-
ment at point B, and the shear and bending moment at
point C of the beams shown in Figs. P15.13P15.15. Also,
show the arrangements of a uniformly distributed down-
ward live load wl to cause the maximum upward reactions
FIG. P15.9
at supports A and B, the maximum negative bending mo-
ment at B, the maximum negative shear at C, and the
15.10 Draw the inuence lines for the reactions at the sup-
maximum positive bending moment at C.
ports for the beam shown in Fig. P15.10. Determine the
inuence line ordinates at 3-m intervals.
A B C

L L
L L 2 2 L

FIG. P15.10 FIG. P15.13

634 CHAPTER 15 Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures

A B C 15.17 For the building frame shown in Fig. P15.17, de-

termine the arrangements of a uniformly distributed down-
ward live load wl that will cause the maximum negative
L L
L 2 2 L L bending moment at point A and the maximum positive
bending moment at point B.
FIG. P15.14

A B C

L L
L 2 2 L

FIG. P15.15

15.16 Draw qualitative inuence lines for the bending mo-

ment and shear at point A of the building frame shown in
Fig. P15.16. Also, show the arrangements of a uniformly
distributed downward live load wl to cause the maximum
positive bending moment at A, and the maximum negative FIG. P15.17
shear at A.

FIG. P15.16
 16
Slope-Deflection Method
16.1 Slope-Deflection Equations
16.2 Basic Concept of the Slope-Deflection Method
16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams
16.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway
16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway
Summary
Problems

Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur,

Malaysia
Andrea Seemann/Shutterstock

In Chapters 13 and 14, we considered various formulations of the force

(exibility) method of analysis of statically indeterminate structures.
Recall that in the force method, the unknown redundant forces are de-
termined rst by solving the structures compatibility equations; then the
other response characteristics of the structure are evaluated by equili-
brium equations or superposition. An alternative approach that can be
used for analyzing indeterminate structures is termed the displacement
(stiness) method. Unlike the force method, in the displacement method
the unknown displacements are determined rst by solving the struc-
tures equilibrium equations; then the other response characteristics
are evaluated through compatibility considerations and member force-
deformation relations.
In this chapter, we consider a classical formulation of the displace-
ment method, called the slope-deection method. An alternative classi-
cal formulation, the moment-distribution method, is presented in the next
chapter, followed by an introduction to the modern matrix stiness
method in Chapter 18.
The slope-deection method for the analysis of indeterminate beams
and frames was introduced by George A. Maney in 1915. The method
takes into account only the bending deformations of structures. Al-
though the slope-deection method is itself considered to be a useful
tool for analyzing indeterminate beams and frames, an understanding of

635
636 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

the fundamentals of this method provides a valuable introduction to the

matrix stiness method, which forms the basis of most computer soft-
ware currently used for structural analysis.
We rst derive the fundamental relationships necessary for the
application of the slope-deection method and then develop the basic
concept of the slope-deection method. We consider the application of
the method to the analysis of continuous beams and present the analysis
of the frames in which joint translations are prevented. Finally, we con-
sider the analysis of frames with joint translations.

16.1 SLOPE-DEFLECTION EQUATIONS

When a continuous beam or a frame is subjected to external loads, in-
ternal moments generally develop at the ends of its individual members.
The slope-deection equations relate the moments at the ends of a member
to the rotations and displacements of its ends and the external loads applied
to the member.
To derive the slope-deection equations, let us focus our attention on
an arbitrary member AB of the continuous beam shown in Fig. 16.1(a).
When the beam is subjected to external loads and support settlements,
member AB deforms, as shown in the gure, and internal moments
are induced at its ends. The free-body diagram and the elastic curve for
member AB are shown using an exaggerated scale in Fig. 16.1(b). As
indicated in this gure, double-subscript notation is used for member
end moments, with the rst subscript identifying the member end at
which the moment acts and the second subscript indicating the other end
of the member. Thus, MAB denotes the moment at end A of member AB,
whereas MBA represents the moment at end B of member AB. Also, as
shown in Fig. 16.1(b), yA and yB denote, respectively, the rotations of
ends A and B of the member with respect to the undeformed (horizontal)
position of the member; D denotes the relative translation between the
two ends of the member in the direction perpendicular to the undeformed
axis of the member; and the angle c denotes the rotation of the mem-
bers chord (i.e., the straight line connecting the deformed positions of
the member ends) due to the relative translation D. Since the deforma-
tions are assumed to be small, the chord rotation can be expressed as
D
c (16.1)
L
The sign convention used in this chapter is as follows:

The member end moments, end rotations, and

chord rotation are positive when counterclockwise.
 SECTION 16.1 Slope-Deflection Equations 637

FIG. 16.1
638 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.1 (contd.)

Note that all the moments and rotations are shown in the positive sense
in Fig. 16.1(b).
The slope-deection equations can be derived by relating the mem-
ber end moments to the end rotations and chord rotation by applying
the second moment-area theorem (Section 6.4). From Fig. 16.1(b), we
can see that
 SECTION 16.1 Slope-Deflection Equations 639

DBA D DAB D
yA yB (16.2)
L L

By substituting D=L c into the preceding equations, we write

DBA DAB
yA  c yB  c (16.3)
L L

in which, as shown in Fig. 16.1(b), DBA is the tangential deviation of

end B from the tangent to the elastic curve at end A and DAB is the
tangential deviation of end A from the tangent to the elastic curve at
end B. According to the second moment-area theorem, the expressions
for the tangential deviations DBA and DAB can be obtained by summing
the moments about the ends B and A, respectively, of the area under the
M=EI diagram between the two ends.
The bending moment diagram for the member is constructed in
parts by applying MAB ; MBA , and the external loading separately on
the member with simply supported ends. The three simple-beam bending
moment diagrams thus obtained are shown in Fig. 16.1(c). Assuming
that the member is prismaticthat is, EI is constant along the length of
the memberwe sum the moments of the area under the M=EI dia-
gram about the ends B and A, respectively, to determine the tangential
deviations:
      
1 MAB L 2L MBA L L
DBA   gB
EI 2 3 2 3
or
MAB L 2 MBA L 2 gB
DBA   (16.4a)
3EI 6EI EI
and
       
1 MAB L L MBA L 2L
DAB  gA
EI 2 3 2 3
or
MAB L 2 MBA L 2 gA
DAB  (16.4b)
6EI 3EI EI

in which gB and gA are the moments about the ends B and A, respec-
tively, of the area under the simple-beam bending moment diagram
due to external loading (ML diagram in Fig. 16.1(c)). The three terms
in Eqs. (16.4a) and (16.4b) represent the tangential deviations due to
MAB ; MBA , and the external loading, acting separately on the member
(Fig. 16.1(d)), with a negative term indicating that the corresponding
tangential deviation is in the direction opposite to that shown on the
elastic curve of the member in Fig. 16.1(b).
640 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

By substituting the expressions for DBA and DAB (Eqs. (16.4)) into
Eq. (16.3), we write
MAB L MBA L gB
yA  c   (16.5a)
3EI 6EI EIL

MAB L MBA L gA
yB  c  (16.5b)
6EI 3EI EIL

To express the member end moments in terms of the end rotations, the
chord rotation, and the external loading, we solve Eqs. (16.5a) and
(16.5b) simultaneously for MAB and MBA . Rewriting Eq. (16.5a) as

MBA L 2MAB L 2gB

  2yA  c
3EI 3EI EIL

By substituting this equation into Eq. (16.5b) and solving the resulting
equation for MAB , we obtain

2EI 2
MAB 2yA yB  3c 2 2gB  gA (16.6a)
L L

and by substituting Eq. (16.6a) into either Eq. (16.5a) or Eq. (16.5b), we
obtain the expression for MBA :

2EI 2
MBA yA 2yB  3c 2 gB  2gA (16.6b)
L L

As Eqs. (16.6) indicate, the moments that develop at the ends of a

member depend on the rotations and translations of the members ends
as well as on the external loading applied between the ends.
Now, suppose that the member under consideration, instead of be-
ing a part of a larger structure, was an isolated beam with both its ends
completely xed against rotations and translations, as shown in Fig.
16.1(e). The moments that would develop at the ends of such a xed
beam are referred to as xed-end moments, and their expressions can be
obtained from Eqs. (16.6) by setting yA yB c 0; that is,

2
FEMAB 2gB  gA (16.7a)
L2

2
FEMBA gB  2gA (16.7b)
L2

in which FEMAB and FEMBA denote the xed-end moments due to ex-
ternal loading at the ends A and B, respectively, of the xed beam AB
(see Fig. 16.1(e)).
By comparing Eqs. (16.6) and (16.7), we nd that the second terms
on the right sides of Eqs. (16.6) are equal to the xed-end moments that
would develop if the ends of the member were xed against rotations
 SECTION 16.1 Slope-Deflection Equations 641

and translations. Thus, by substituting Eqs. (16.7) into Eqs. (16.6), we

obtain

2EI
MAB 2yA yB  3c FEMAB (16.8a)
L
2EI
MBA yA 2yB  3c FEMBA (16.8b)
L

Equations (16.8), which express the moments at the ends of a member in

terms of its end rotations and translations for a specied external load-
ing, are called the slope-deection equations. These equations are valid
only for prismatic members composed of linearly elastic material and
subjected to small deformations. Also, although the equations take into
account the bending deformations of members, the deformations due to
axial forces and shears are neglected.
From Eqs. (16.8), we observe that the two slope-deection equa-
tions have the same form and that either one of the equations can be
obtained from the other simply by switching the subscripts A and B.
Thus it is usually convenient to express these equations by the following
single slope-deection equation:

2EI
Mnf 2yn yf  3c FEMnf (16.9)
L

in which the subscript n refers to the near end of the member where the
moment Mnf acts and the subscript f identies the far (other) end of the
member.

Fixed-End Moments
The expressions for xed-end moments due to any loading condition
can be derived by using the method of consistent deformations, as dis-
cussed in Chapter 13 (see Example 13.10). However, it is usually more
convenient to determine the xed-end moment expressions by applying
Eqs. (16.7), which require only the computation of the moments of the
area under the simple-beam bending moment diagram about the ends of
the beam.
To illustrate the application of Eqs. (16.7), consider a xed beam
subjected to a concentrated load P, as shown in Fig. 16.2(a). The
xed-end moments of this beam were previously determined in Example
13.10 by the method of consistent deformations. To apply Eqs. (16.7),
we replace the xed ends of the beam by simple supports and construct
the simple-beam bending moment diagram, as shown in Fig. 16.2(b).
642 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.2

The moments of the area under the simple-beam bending moment dia-
gram about the ends A and B are given by
     
1 Pab 2a 1 Pab b
gA a b a
2 L 3 2 L 3
     
1 Pab a 1 Pab 2b
gB a b b
2 L 3 2 L 3
By substituting L a b into these equations and simplifying, we
obtain
Pab Pab
gA 2a b gB a 2b
6 6
By substituting the expressions for gA and gB into Eqs. (16.7), we de-
termine the xed-end moments to be
 SECTION 16.1 Slope-Deflection Equations 643
 
2 2Pab Pab Pab 2
FEMAB 2 a 2b  2a b 2
L 6 6 L
 
2 Pab 2Pab Pa 2 b
FEMBA 2 a 2b  2a b  2
L 6 6 L
Recall that Eqs. (16.7) are based on the sign convention that the coun-
terclockwise end moments are positive. Thus the negative answer for
FEMBA indicates that its correct sense is clockwise; that is,
Pa 2 b
FEMBA @
L2
as shown in Fig. 16.2(c).
The xed-end moment expressions for some common types of
loading conditions are given inside the back cover of the book for con-
venient reference.

Members with One End Hinged

The slope-deection equations derived previously (Eqs. (16.8) or Eq.
(16.9)) are based on the condition that the member is rigidly connected
to joints at both ends, so that the member end rotations yA and yB are
equal to the rotations of the adjacent joints. When one of the members
ends is connected to the adjacent joint by a hinged connection, the
moment at the hinged end must be zero. The slope-deection equations
can be easily modied to reect this condition. With reference to
Fig. 16.1(b), if the end B of member AB is hinged, then the moment at
B must be zero. By substituting MBA 0 into Eqs. (16.8), we write
2EI
MAB 2yA yB  3c FEMAB (16.10a)
L
2EI
MBA 0 yA 2yB  3c FEMBA (16.10b)
L
Solving Eq. (16.10b) for yB , we obtain
yA 3 L
yB  c FEMBA (16.11)
2 2 4EI
To eliminate yB from the slope-deection equations, we substitute Eq.
(16.11) into Eq. (16.10a), thus obtaining the modied slope-deection
equations for member AB with a hinge at end B:
 
3EI FEMBA
MAB yA  c FEMAB  (16.12a)
L 2
MBA 0 (16.12b)
Similarly, it can be shown that for a member AB with a hinge at
end A, the rotation of the hinged end is given by
644 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

yB 3 L
yA  c FEMAB (16.13)
2 2 4EI
and the modied slope-deection equations can be expressed as
 
3EI FEMAB
MBA yB  c FEMBA  (16.14a)
L 2
MAB 0 (16.14b)
Because the modied slope-deection equations given by Eqs.
(16.12) and (16.14) are similar in form, they can be conveniently sum-
marized as
 
3EI FEMhr
Mrh yr  c FEMrh  (16.15a)
L 2
Mhr 0 (16.15b)

in which the subscript r refers to the rigidly connected end of the member
where the moment Mrh acts and the subscript h identies the hinged end
of the member. The rotation of the hinged end can now be written as
yr 3 L
yh  c FEMhr (16.16)
2 2 4EI

16.2 BASIC CONCEPT OF THE SLOPE-DEFLECTION METHOD

To illustrate the basic concept of the slope-deection method, consider
the three-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 16.3(a). Although the

FIG. 16.3
 SECTION 16.2 Basic Concept of the Slope-Deflection Method 645

FIG. 16.3 (contd.)

646 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

structure actually consists of a single continuous beam between the xed

supports A and D, for the purpose of analysis it is considered to be
composed of three members, AB; BC, and CD, rigidly connected at
joints A; B; C, and D located at the supports of the structure. Note that
the continuous beam has been divided into members and joints, so that
the unknown external reactions act only at the joints.

Degrees of Freedom
With the joint locations now established, we identify the unknown in-
dependent displacements (translations and rotations) of the joints of the
structure. These unknown joint displacements are referred to as the de-
grees of freedom of the structure. From the qualitative deected shape of
the continuous beam shown in Fig. 16.3(a), we can see that none of its
joints can translate. Furthermore, the xed joints A and D cannot ro-
tate, whereas joints B and C are free to rotate. Thus the continuous
beam has two degrees of freedom, yB and yC , which represent the un-
known rotations of joints B and C, respectively.
The number of degrees of freedom is sometimes called the degree of
kinematic indeterminacy of the structure. Since the beam of Fig. 16.3(a)
has two degrees of freedom, it is considered to be kinematically in-
determinate to the second degree. A structure without any degrees of
freedom is termed kinematically determinate. In other words, if the dis-
placements of all the joints of a structure are either zero or known, the
structure is considered to be kinematically determinate.

Equations of Equilibrium
The unknown joint rotations are determined by solving the equations of
equilibrium of the joints that are free to rotate. The free-body diagrams
of the members and joints B and C of the continuous beam are shown in
Fig. 16.3(b). In addition to the external loads, each member is subjected
to an internal moment at each of its ends. Since the correct senses of the
member end moments are not yet known, it is assumed that the mo-
ments at the ends of all the members are positive (counterclockwise)
in accordance with the slope-deection sign convention adopted in the
preceding section. Note that the free-body diagrams of the joints show
the member end moments acting in an opposite (clockwise) direction, in
accordance with Newtons law of action and reaction.
Because the entire structure is in equilibrium, each of its members
and joints must also
P be in equilibrium.
P By applying the moment equili-
brium equations MB 0 and MC 0, respectively, to the free
bodies of joints B and C, we obtain the equilibrium equations
MBA MBC 0 (16.17a)
MCB MCD 0 (16.17b)
 SECTION 16.2 Basic Concept of the Slope-Deflection Method 647

Slope-Deflection Equations
The foregoing equilibrium equations (Eqs. (16.17)) can be expressed
in terms of the unknown joint rotations, yB and yC , by using slope-
deection equations that relate member end moments to the unknown
joint rotations. However, before we can write the slope-deection equa-
tions, we need to compute the xed-end moments due to the external
loads acting on the members of the continuous beam.
To calculate the xed-end moments, we apply imaginary clamps
at joints B and C to prevent them from rotating, as shown in Fig.
16.3(c). The xed-end moments that develop at the ends of the members
of this fully restrained or kinematically determinate structure can easily
be evaluated either by applying Eqs. (16.7) or by using the xed-end
moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book. By using
the xed-end moment expressions, we calculate the xed-end moments
as follows:
For member AB:

wL 2 1:520 2
FEMAB 50 k-ft or 50 k-ft
12 12
FEMBA 50 k-ft @ or 50 k-ft
For member BC:

PL 3020
FEMBC 75 k-ft or 75 k-ft
8 8
FEMCB 75 k-ft @ or 75 k-ft
Note that, in accordance with the slope-deection sign convention, the
counterclockwise xed-end moments are considered to be positive. Since
no external loads act on member CD, its xed-end moments are zero;
that is,
FEMCD FEMDC 0

The xed-end moments are shown on the diagram of the restrained

structure in Fig. 16.3(c).
The slope-deection equations for the three members of the con-
tinuous beam can now be written by using Eq. (16.9). Since none of the
supports of the continuous beam translates, the chord rotations of the
three members are zero (i.e., cAB cBC cCD 0). Also, since sup-
ports A and D are xed, the rotations yA yD 0. By applying Eq.
(16.9) for member AB, with A as the near end and B as the far end, we
obtain the slope-deection equation

2EI
MAB 0 yB  0 50 0:1EI yB 50 (16.18a)
20

Next, by considering B as the near end and A as the far end, we write
648 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

2EI
MBA 2yB 0  0  50 0:2EI yB  50 (16.18b)
20
Similarly, by applying Eq. (16.9) for member BC, we obtain
2EI
MBC 2yB yC 75 0:2EI yB 0:1EI yC 75 (16.18c)
20
2EI
MCB 2yC yB  75 0:2EI yC 0:1EI yB  75 (16.18d)
20
and for member CD,
2EI
MCD 2yC 0:267EI yC (16.18e)
15
2EI
MDC yC 0:133EI yC (16.18f )
15
These slope-deection equations automatically satisfy the compatibility
conditions of the structure. Since the member ends are rigidly connected
to the adjacent joints, the rotations of member ends are equal to the ro-
tations of the adjacent joints. Thus, the y terms in the slope-deection
equations (Eqs. (16.18)) represent the rotations of the member ends as
well as those of the joints.

Joint Rotations
To determine the unknown joint rotations yB and yC , we substitute the
slope-deection equations (Eqs. (16.18)) into the joint equilibrium
equations (Eqs. (16.17)) and solve the resulting system of equations si-
multaneously for yB and yC . Thus by substituting Eqs. (16.18b) and
(16.18c) into Eq. (16.17a), we obtain
0:2EI yB  50 0:2EI yB 0:1EI yC 75 0
or
0:4EI yB 0:1EI yC 25 (16.19a)
and by substituting Eqs. (16.18d) and (16.18e) into Eq. (16.17b), we get
0:2EI yC 0:1EI yB  75 0:267EI yC 0
or
0:1EI yB 0:467EI yC 75 (16.19b)
Solving Eqs. (16.19a) and (16.19b) simultaneously for EI yB and EI yC ,
we obtain
EI yB 108:46 k-ft 2
EI yC 183:82 k-ft 2
 SECTION 16.2 Basic Concept of the Slope-Deflection Method 649

By substituting the numerical values of E 29;000 ksi 29;00012 2 ksf

and I 500 in. 4 500=12 4 ft 4 , we determine the rotations of joints B
and C to be
yB 0:0011 rad or 0:0011 rad @

yC 0:0018 rad

Member End Moments

The moments at the ends of the three members of the continuous beam
can now be determined by substituting the numerical values of EI yB
and EI yC into the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (16.18)). Thus

MAB 0:1108:46 50 39:2 k-ft
MBA 0:2108:46  50 71:7 k-ft or 71:7 k-ft @

MBC 0:2108:46 0:1183:82 75 71:7 k-ft
MCB 0:2183:82 0:1108:46  75
49:1 k-ft or 49:1 k-ft @

MCD 0:267183:82 49:1 k-ft

MDC 0:133183:82 24:4 k-ft
Note that a positive answer for an end moment indicates that its sense is
counterclockwise, whereas a negative answer for an end moment implies
a clockwise sense.
To check that the solution of simultaneous equations (Eqs. (16.19))
has been carried out correctly, the numerical values of member end
moments should be substituted into the joint equilibrium equations
(Eqs. (16.17)). If the solution is correct, then the equilibrium equations
should be satised.
MBA MBC 71:7 71:7 0 Checks
MCB MCD 49:1 49:1 0 Checks

Member End Shears

The member end moments just computed are shown on the free-body
diagrams of the members and joints in Fig. 16.3(d). The shear forces at
the ends of members can now be determined by applying the equations
of equilibrium to the free bodies of the members. Thus, for member AB,
P
MB 0 39:2  SAB 20 1:52010  71:7 0
SAB 13:38 k "
P
" Fy 0 13:38  1:520 SBA 0
SBA 16:62 k "
650 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

Similarly, for member BC,

P
MC 0 71:7  SBC 20 3010  49:1 0
SBC 16:13 k "
P
" Fy 0 16:13  30 SCB 0
SCB 13:87 k "
and for member CD,
P
MD 0 49:1  SCD 15 24:4 0 SCD 4:9 k "
P
" Fy 0 SDC 4:9 k #
The foregoing member end shears can, alternatively, be evaluated
by superposition of end shears due to the external load and each of the
end moments acting separately on the member. For example, the shear
at end A of member AB is given by
1:520 39:2 71:7
SAB  13:38 k "
2 20 20
in which the rst term equals the shear due to the 1.5-k/ft uniformly
distributed load, whereas the second and third terms are the shears due
to the 39.2-k-ft and 71.7-k-ft moments, respectively, at the ends A and B
of the member.

Support Reactions
From the free-body diagram of joint B in Fig. 16.3(d), we can see that
the vertical reaction at the roller support B is equal to the sum of the
shears at ends B of members AB and BC; that is,
By SBA SBC 16:62 16:13 32:75 k "
Similarly, the vertical reaction at the roller support C equals the sum of
the shears at ends C of members BC and CD. Thus
Cy SCB SCD 13:87 4:9 18:77 k "
The reactions at the xed support A are equal to the shear and moment
at the end A of member AB; that is,
Ay SAB 13:38 k "

MA MAB 39:2 k-ft
Similarly, the reactions at the xed support D equal the shear and mo-
ment at end D of member CD. Thus
Dy SDC 4:9 k #

MD MDC 24:4 k-ft
The support reactions are shown in Fig. 16.3(e).
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 651

Equilibrium Check
To check our computations of member end shears and support re-
actions, we apply the equations of equilibrium to the free body of the
entire structure. Thus (Fig. 16.3(e)),
P
" Fy 0
13:38  1:520 32:75  30 18:77  4:9 0 Checks
P
MD 0
39:2  13:3855 1:52045  32:7535 3025
 18:7715 24:4 0:1 & 0 Checks

This equilibrium check, as well as the check performed previously on

the solution of simultaneous equations, does not detect any errors in-
volved in the slope-deection equations. Therefore, the slope-deection
equations should be developed very carefully and should always be
checked before proceeding with the rest of the analysis.

Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams

With the support reactions known, the shear and bending moment dia-
grams can now be constructed in the usual manner by using the beam
sign convention described in Section 5.1. The shear and bending mo-
ment diagrams thus obtained for the continuous beam are shown in Fig.
16.3(f ) and (g), respectively.

16.3 ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Based on the discussion presented in the preceding section, the procedure
for the analysis of continuous beams by the slope-deection method can
be summarized as follows:
1. Identify the degrees of freedom of the structure. For continuous
beams, the degrees of freedom consist of the unknown rotations of
the joints.
2. Compute xed-end moments. For each member of the structure,
evaluate the xed-end moments due to the external loads by using
the expressions given inside the back cover of the book. The coun-
terclockwise xed-end moments are considered to be positive.
3. In the case of support settlements, determine the rotations of the
chords of members adjacent to the supports that settle by dividing
the relative translation between the two ends of the member by the
member length c D=L. The chord rotations are measured from
652 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

the undeformed (horizontal) positions of members, with counter-

clockwise rotations considered as positive.
4. Write slope-deection equations. For each member, apply Eq. (16.9)
to write two slope-deection equations relating member end mo-
ments to the unknown rotations of the adjacent joints.
5. Write equilibrium equations. For each jointP that is free to rotate,
write a moment equilibrium equation, M 0, in terms of the
moments at the member ends connected to the joint. The total
number of such equilibrium equations must be equal to the number
of degrees of freedom of the structure.
6. Determine the unknown joint rotations. Substitute the slope-
deection equations into the equilibrium equations, and solve the
resulting system of equations for the unknown joint rotations.
7. Calculate member end moments by substituting the numerical values
of joint rotations determined in step 6 into the slope-deection
equations. A positive answer for an end moment indicates that its
sense is counterclockwise, whereas a negative answer for an end
moment implies a clockwise sense.
8. To check whether or not the solution of simultaneous equations was
carried out correctly in step 6, substitute the numerical values of
member end moments into the joint equilibrium equations devel-
oped in step 5. If the solution is correct, then the equilibrium equa-
tions should be satised.
9. Compute member end shears. For each member, (a) draw a free-
body diagram showing the external loads and end moments and (b)
apply the equations of equilibrium to calculate the shear forces at
the ends of the member.
10. Determine support reactions by considering the equilibrium of the
joints of the structure.
11. To check the calculations of member end shears and support re-
actions, apply the equations of equilibrium to the free body of the
entire structure. If the calculations have been carried out correctly,
then the equilibrium equations should be satised.
12. Draw shear and bending moment diagrams of the structure by using
the beam sign convention.

Beams with Simple Supports at Their Ends

Although the foregoing procedure can be used to analyze continuous
beams that are simply supported at one or both ends, the analysis of
such structures can be considerably expedited by using the modied
slope-deection equations (Eqs. (16.15)) for spans adjacent to the simple
end supports, thereby eliminating the rotations of simple supports from
the analysis (see Example 16.3). However, this simplied approach can
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 653

be used only for those simple end supports at which no external moment
is applied. This is because the modied slope-deection equations for a
member with one end hinged (Eqs. (16.15)) are based on the condition
that the moment at the hinged end is zero.

Structures with Cantilever Overhangs

Consider a continuous beam with a cantilever overhang, as shown in
Fig. 16.4(a). Since the cantilever portion CD of the beam is statically
determinate in the sense that the shear and moment at its end C can be
obtained by applying the equations of equilibrium (Fig. 16.4(b)), it is
not necessary to include this portion in the analysis. Thus, for the pur-
pose of analysis, the cantilever portion CD can be removed from the
structure, provided that the moment and the force exerted by the can-
tilever on the remaining structure are included in the analysis. The in-
determinate part AC of the structure, which needs to be analyzed, is
shown in Fig. 16.4(c).

FIG. 16.4
654 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

Example 16.1

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the two-span continuous beam shown in
Fig. 16.5(a) by the slope-deection method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom From Fig. 16.5(a), we can see that only joint B of the beam is free to rotate. Thus, the
structure has only one degree of freedom, which is the unknown joint rotation, yB .

Fixed-End Moments By using the xed-end moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book, we
evaluate the xed-end moments due to the external loads for each member:
Pab 2 181015 2
FEMAB 64:8 k-ft or 64:8 k-ft
L2 25 2
Pa 2 b 1810 2 15
FEMBA 43:2 k-ft @ or 43:2 k-ft
L2 25 2
wL 2 230 2
FEMBC 150 k-ft or 150 k-ft
12 12
FEMCB 150 k-ft @ or 150 k-ft
Note that in accordance with the slope-deection sign convention, the counterclockwise xed-end moments are consid-
ered as positive, whereas the clockwise xed-end moments are considered to be negative.
Chord Rotations Since no support settlements occur, the chord rotations of both members are zero; that is,
cAB cBC 0.
Slope-Deection Equations To relate the member end moments to the unknown joint rotation, yB , we write
the slope-deection equations for the two members of the structure by applying Eq. (16.9). Note that since the
supports A and C are xed, the rotations yA yC 0. Thus the slope-deection equations for member AB can be
expressed as
2EI
MAB yB 64:8 0:08EI yB 64:8 (1)
25
2EI
MBA 2yB  43:2 0:16EI yB  43:2 (2)
25
Similarly, by applying Eq. (16.9) for member BC, we obtain the slope-deection equations
2EI
MBC 2yB 150 0:133EI yB 150 (3)
30
2EI
MCB yB  150 0:0667EI yB  150 (4)
30
Equilibrium Equation The free-body diagram of joint B is shown in Fig. 16.5(b). Note that the member end
moments, which are assumed to be in a counterclockwise direction on the ends of the members, must be applied
in the (opposite) clockwise direction on the free body of the joint, in accordance with Newtons third law.

continued
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 655

FIG. 16.5

continued
656 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

P
By applying the moment equilibrium equation MB 0 to the free body of joint B, we obtain the equilibrium
equation
MBA MBC 0 (5)
Joint Rotation To determine the unknown joint rotation, yB , we substitute the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (2)
and (3)) into the equilibrium equation (Eq. (5)) to obtain
0:16EI yB  43:2 0:133EI yB 150 0
or
0:293EI yB 106:8
from which
EI yB 364:5 k-ft 2
Member End Moments The member end moments can now be computed by substituting the numerical value of
EI yB back into the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (4)). Thus,

MAB 0:08364:5 64:8 35:6 k-ft
MBA 0:16364:5  43:2 101:5 k-ft or 101:5 k-ft @

MBC 0:133364:5 150 101:5 k-ft
MCB 0:0667364:5  150 174:3 k-ft or 174:3 k-ft @
Note that a positive answer for an end moment indicates that its sense is counterclockwise, whereas a negative answer
for an end moment implies a clockwise sense. Since the end moments MBA and MBC are equal in magnitude but oppo-
site in sense, the equilibrium equation, MBA MBC 0, is indeed satised.
Member End Shears The member end shears, obtained by considering the equilibrium of each member, are shown
in Fig. 16.5(c).

Support Reactions The reactions at the xed supports A and C are equal to the forces and moments at the ends of
the members connected to these joints. To determine the reaction at the roller support B, we consider the equilibrium of
the free body of joint B in the vertical direction (see Fig. 16.5(c)), to obtain
By SBA SBC 9:84 27:57 37:41 k "
The support reactions are shown in Fig. 16.5(d). Ans.
Equilibrium Check To check our calculations of member end shears and support reactions, we apply the equations
of equilibrium to the free body of the entire structure. Thus (see Fig. 16.5(d)),
P
" Fy 0
8:16  18 37:41  230 32:43 0 Checks
P
MC 0
35:6  8:1655 1845  37:4130 23015  174:3 0:2 & 0 Checks
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams The shear and bending moment diagrams can now be constructed by using
the beam sign convention described in Section 5.1. These diagrams are shown in Fig. 16.5(e) and (f ). Ans.
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 657

Example 16.2

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the three-span continuous beam shown
in Fig. 16.6(a) by the slope-deection method.

3 k/ft

A D
B C

18 ft 18 ft 18 ft

EI = constant

(a) Continous Beam

MBA MCB
B C
MBC MCD

(b) Free-Body Diagrams of Joints B and C

3 k/ft 20.7 27 3 k/ft 27 20.7 3 k/ft

B C
21.6 A B 70.2 70.2 B C 70.2 70.2 C D 21.6
6.3 20.7 27 27 20.7 6.3

By = 47.7 Cy = 47.7

(c) Member End Moments and Shears

3 k/ft

21.6 21.6
k-ft A B C D k-ft

6.3 k 47.7 k 47.7 k 6.3 k

(d) Support Reactions

FIG. 16.6
continued
658 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

27
20.7

6.3 8.7 ft
E F
D
A B C G
8.7 ft 9 ft 6.3

20.7
27

(e) Shear Diagram (k)

51.3

14.9 14.9
A B C D
E F G
21.6 21.6

70.2 70.2
FIG. 16.6 (contd.) (f) Bending Moment Diagram (k-ft)

Solution
Degrees of Freedom yB and yC
Fixed-End Moments
318 2
FEMAB 32:4 k-ft or 32:4 k-ft
30
318 2
FEMBA 48:6 k-ft @ or 48:6 k-ft
20
318 2
FEMBC 81 k-ft or 81 k-ft
12
FEMCB 81 k-ft @ or 81 k-ft
2
318
FEMCD 48:6 k-ft or 48:6 k-ft
20
318 2
FEMDC 32:4 k-ft @ or 32:4 k-ft
30
continued
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 659

Slope-Deection Equations Using Eq. (16.9) for members AB, BC, and CD, we write
2EI
MAB yB 32:4 0:111EI yB 32:4 (1)
18
2EI
MBA 2yB  48:6 0:222EI yB  48:6 (2)
18
2EI
MBC 2yB yC 81 0:222EI yB 0:111EI yC 81 (3)
18
2EI
MCB yB 2yC  81 0:111EI yB 0:222EI yC  81 (4)
18
2EI
MCD 2yC 48:6 0:222EI yC 48:6 (5)
18
2EI
MDC yC  32:4 0:111EI yC  32:4 (6)
18
Equilibrium Equations See Fig. 16.6(b).
MBA MBC 0 (7)
MCB MCD 0 (8)
Joint Rotations By substituting the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)) into the equilibrium equations
(Eqs. (7) and (8)), we obtain
0:444EI yB 0:111EI yC 32:4 (9)
0:111EI yB 0:444EI yC 32:4 (10)
By solving Eqs. (9) and (10) simultaneously, we determine the values of EI yB and EI yC to be
EI yB 97:3 k-ft 2
EI yC 97:3 k-ft 2
Member End Moments To compute the member end moments, we substitute the numerical values of EI yB and
EI yC back into the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)) to obtain

MAB 0:11197:3 32:4 21:6 k-ft Ans.
MBA 0:22297:3  48:6 70:2 k-ft or 70:2 k-ft @ Ans.

MBC 0:22297:3 0:11197:3 81 70:2 k-ft Ans.
MCB 0:11197:3 0:22297:3  81
70:2 k-ft or 70:2 k-ft @ Ans.

MCD 0:22297:3 48:6 70:2 k-ft Ans.
MDC 0:11197:3  32:4 21:6 k-ft or 21:6 k-ft @ Ans.
Note that the numerical values of MBA ; MBC ; MCB , and MCD do satisfy the equilibrium equations (Eqs. (7) and (8)).
Member End Shears and Support Reactions See Fig. 16.6(c) and (d). Ans.
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 16.6(e) and (f ). Ans.
660 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

Example 16.3

Determine the member end moments and reactions for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 16.7(a) by the slope-
deection method.

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed in Example 13.6 by the method of consistent deformations.

FIG. 16.7
continued
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 661

From Fig. 16.7(a), we can see that all three joints of the beam are free to rotate. Thus the beam can be considered
to have three degrees of freedom, yA ; yB , and yD , and it can be analyzed by using the usual slope-deection equations
(Eq. (16.9)) for members rigidly connected at both ends. However, this approach is quite time consuming, since it re-
quires solving three simultaneous equations to determine the three unknown joint rotations.
Since the end supports A and D of the beam are simple supports at which no external moment is applied, the mo-
ments at the end A of member AB and at the end D of member BD must be zero. (This can easily be veried by con-
sidering moment equilibrium of the free bodies of joints A and D shown in Fig. 16.7(b).) Thus the end A of member AB
and the end D of member BD can be considered to be hinged ends, and the modied slope-deection equations (Eqs.
(16.15)) can be used for these members. Furthermore, since the modied slope-deection equations do not contain the
rotations of the hinged ends, by using these equations the rotations yA and yD of the simple supports can be eliminated
from the analysis, which will then involve only one unknown joint rotation, yB . It should be noted that once yB has been
evaluated, the values of the rotations yA and yD , if desired, can be computed by using Eq. (16.16). In the following, we
use this simplied approach to analyze the continuous beam.
Degrees of Freedom yB
Fixed-End Moments
1510 2
FEMAB 125 kN  m or 125 kN  m
12
FEMBA 125 kN  m @ or 125 kN  m
2
6010 1510
FEMBD 200 kN  m or 200 kN  m
8 12
FEMDB 200 kN  m @ or 200 kN  m
Slope-Deection Equations Since both members of the beam have one end hinged, we use Eqs. (16.15) to obtain the
slope-deection equations for both members. Thus
MAB 0 Ans.
 
3EI 125
MBA yB 125  0:3EI yB  187:5 (1)
10 2
 
3E2I 200
MBD yB 200 0:6EI yB 300 (2)
10 2
MDB 0 Ans.
Equilibrium Equation By considering the moment equilibrium of the free body of joint B (Fig. 16.7(b)), we obtain
the equilibrium equation
MBA MBD 0 (3)
Joint Rotation To determine the unknown joint rotation yB , we substitute the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1)
and (2)) into the equilibrium equation (Eq. (3)) to obtain
0:3EI yB  187:5 0:6EI yB 300 0
or
0:9EI yB 112:5

continued
662 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

from which
EI yB 125 kN  m 2
Member End Moments The member end moments can now be computed by substituting the numerical value
of EI yB into the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) and (2)). Thus
MBA 0:3125  187:5 225 kN  m or 225 kN  m @ Ans.

MBD 0:6125 300 225 kN  m Ans.
Member End Shears and Support Reactions See Fig. 16.7(c) and (d).
Equilibrium Check See Fig. 16.7(d).
P
" Fy 0 52:5  1520 225  60 82:5 0 Checks
P
MD 0
52:520 152010  22510 605 0 Checks

Example 16.4

Determine the member end moments and reactions for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 16.8(a) by the slope-
deection method.

Solution
Since the moment and shear at end C of the cantilever member CD of the beam can be computed directly by
applying the equations of equilibrium (see Fig. 16.8(b)), it is not necessary to include this member in the analysis.
Thus, only the indeterminate part AC of the beam, shown in Fig. 16.8(c), needs to be analyzed. Note that, as
shown in this gure, the 120-kN  m moment and the 30-kN force exerted at joint C by the cantilever CD must be
included in the analysis.
Degrees of Freedom From Fig. 16.8(c), we can see that joints B and C are free to rotate. Thus, the structure to be
analyzed has two degrees of freedom, which are the unknown joint rotations yB and yC .

Fixed-End Moments
FEMAB FEMBA 0
109 2
FEMBC 67:5 kN  m or 67:5 kN  m
12
FEMCB 67:5 kN  m @ or 67:5 kN  m

continued
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 663

FIG. 16.8
continued
664 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

Slope-Deection Equations By applying Eq. (16.9) to members AB and BC, we write the slope-deection
equations:

2EI
MAB yB 0:333EI yB (1)
6

2EI
MBA 2yB 0:667EI yB (2)
6

2EI
MBC 2yB yC 67:5 0:444EI yB 0:222EI yC 67:5 (3)
9

2EI
MCB 2yC yB  67:5 0:222EI yB 0:444EI yC  67:5 (4)
9

Equilibrium Equations By considering the moment equilibrium of the free bodies of joints B and C (Fig. 16.8(d)),
we obtain the equilibrium equations

MBA MBC 0 (5)

MCB 120 0 (6)
Joint Rotations Substitution of the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (2) through (4)) into the equilibrium equations
(Eqs. (5) and (6)) yields

1:111EI yB 0:222EI yC 67:5 (7)

0:222EI yB 0:444EI yC 52:5 (8)
By solving Eqs. (7) and (8) simultaneously, we determine the values of EI yB and EI yC to be
EI yB 41:25 kN  m 2

EI yC 97:62 kN  m 2

Member End Moments The member end moments can now be computed by substituting the numerical values of
EI yB and EI yC into the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (4)):
MAB 0:33341:25 13:7 kN  m or 13:7 kN  m @ Ans.
MBA 0:66741:25 27:5 kN  m or 27:5 kN  m @ Ans.
MBC 0:44441:25 0:22297:62 67:5

27:5 kN  m Ans.
MCB 0:22241:25 0:44497:62  67:5
120 kN  m or 120 kN  m @ Ans.
Note that the numerical values of MBA ; MBC , and MCB do satisfy the equilibrium equations (Eqs. (5) and (6)).
Member End Shears and Support Reactions See Fig. 16.8(e) and (f ). Ans.
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 665

Example 16.5

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the continuous beam shown in
Fig. 16.9(a) due to a settlement of 20 mm at support B. Use the slope-deection method.

23.63 18.37 18.37 10.5

91 B 91 C 28
A B B C C D
98 56 56
23.63 23.63 18.37 18.37 10.5 10.5
By = 42 Cy = 28.87
(d) Member End Moments and Shears

A B C D
98 kN . m 28 kN . m

23.63 kN 42 kN 28.87 kN 10.5 kN

(e) Support Reactions
FIG. 16.9

continued
666 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

23.63

10.5

A B C D

18.37
(f) Shear Diagram (kN)

91

28
A C
B D

56

98
FIG. 16.9 (contd.) (g) Bending Moment Diagram (kN . m)

Solution
Degrees of Freedom yB and yC
Fixed-End Moments Since no external loads act on the beam, the xed-end moments are zero.

Chord Rotations The specied support settlement is depicted in Fig. 16.9(b), using an exaggerated scale. The
inclined dashed lines in this gure indicate the chords (not the elastic curves) of the members in the deformed positions.
Because the length of member AB is 8 m, the rotation of its chord is
0:02
cAB  0:0025
8
in which the negative sign has been assigned to the value of cAB to indicate that its direction is clockwise, as shown in
Fig. 16.9(b). Similarly, the chord rotation for member BC is
0:02
cBC 0:0025
8
From Fig. 16.9(b), we can see that
cCD 0
Slope-Deection Equations Applying Eq. (16.9) to members AB; BC, and CD, we write
2EI
MAB yB 0:0075 (1)
8
2EI
MBA 2yB 0:0075 (2)
8

continued
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 667

2EI
MBC 2yB yC  0:0075 (3)
8
2EI
MCB yB 2yC  0:0075 (4)
8
2EI
MCD 2yC (5)
8
2EI
MDC yC (6)
8

Equilibrium Equations See Fig. 16.9(c).

MBA MBC 0 (7)

MCB MCD 0 (8)
Joint Rotations Substitution of the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)) into the equilibrium equations
(Eqs. (7) and (8)) yields

4yB yC 0 (9)
yB 4yC 0:0075 (10)
By solving Eqs. (9) and (10) simultaneously, we determine

yB 0:0005 rad
yC 0:002 rad

Member End Moments To compute the member end moments, we substitute the numerical values of yB ; yC ,
and EI 70800 56;000 kN  m 2 into the right sides of the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6))
to obtain

MAB 98 kN  m Ans.

MBA 91 kN  m Ans.
MBC 91 kN  m or 91 kN  m @ Ans.
MCB 56 kN  m or 56 kN  m @ Ans.

MCD 56 kN  m Ans.

MDC 28 kN  m Ans.
Member End Shears and Support Reactions See Fig. 16.9(d) and (e). Ans.
Equilibrium Check See Fig. 16.9(e).
P
" Fy 0 23:63  42 28:87  10:5 0 Checks
MA 0
98  428 28:8716  10:524 28 0:08 & 0 Checks
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 16.9(f ) and (g). Ans.
668 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

Example 16.6

Determine the member end moments and reactions for the three-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 16.10(a) due to
the uniformly distributed load and due to the support settlements of 58 in. at B, 1 12 in. at C, and 34 in. at D. Use the slope-
deection method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom Although all four joints of the beam are free to rotate, we will eliminate the rotations of the
simple supports at the ends A and D from the analysis by using the modied slope-deection equations for members AB
and CD, respectively. Thus, the analysis will involve only two unknown joint rotations, yB and yC .
Fixed-End Moments

220 2
FEMAB FEMBC FEMCD 66:7 k-ft or 66:7 k-ft
12

FEMBA FEMCB FEMDC 66:7 k-ft @ or 66:7 k-ft

Chord Rotations The specied support settlements are depicted in Fig. 16.10(b) using an exaggerated scale. The
inclined dashed lines in this gure indicate the chords (not the elastic curves) of the members in the deformed positions.
It can be seen from this gure that since support A does not settle but support B settles by 58 in., the relative settlement
between the two ends of member AB is 58 in. 0:0521 ft. Because the length of member AB is 20 ft, the rotation of the
chord of member AB is

0:0521
cAB  0:0026
20

in which the negative sign has been assigned to the value of cAB to indicate that its direction is clockwise, as shown
in Fig. 16.10(b). The chord rotation for member BC can be computed in a similar manner by using the settlement
of supports B and C. From Fig. 16.10(b), we observe that the relative settlement between the ends of member BC is
1 12 in.  58 in. 0:875 in. 0:0729 ft, and so

0:0729
cBC  0:00365
20

Similarly, the chord rotation for member CD is

1:5  0:75
cCD 0:00313
1220

Slope-Deection Equations

MAB 0 Ans.
3EI
MBA yB 0:0026  100 0:15EI yB 0:00039EI  100 (1)
20

continued
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 669

FIG. 16.10

continued
670 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

2EI
MBC 2yB yC  30:00365 66:7
20
0:2EI yB 0:1EI yC 0:0011EI 66:7 (2)
2EI
MCB 2yC yB  30:00365  66:7
20
0:1EI yB 0:2EI yC 0:0011EI  66:7 (3)
3EI
MCD yC  0:00313 100 0:15EI yC  0:00047EI 100 (4)
20
MDC 0 Ans.
Equilibrium Equations See Fig. 16.10(c).
MBA MBC 0 (5)
MCB MCD 0 (6)
Joint Rotations By substituting the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (4)) into the equilibrium equations
(Eqs. (5) and (6)), we obtain
0:35EI yB 0:1EI yC 0:00149EI 33:3
0:1EI yB 0:35EI yC 0:00063EI  33:3
Substituting EI 29;0007;800=12 2 k-ft 2 into the right sides of the above equations yields
0:35EI yB 0:1EI yC 2;307:24 (7)
0:1EI yB 0:35EI yC 1;022:93 (8)
By solving Eqs. (7) and (8) simultaneously, we determine the values of EI yB and EI yC to be
EI yB 6;268:81 k-ft 2
EI yC 1;131:57 k-ft 2

Member End Moments To compute the member end moments, we substitute the numerical values of EI yB and
EI yC back into the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (4)) to obtain
MBA 427:7 k-ft or 427:7 k-ft @ Ans.

MBC 427:7 k-ft Ans.

MCB 808 k-ft Ans.
MCD 808 k-ft or 808 k-ft @ Ans.
Member End Shears and Support Reactions See Fig. 16.10(d) and (e). Ans.
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.
We previously analyzed the continuous beam considered here in Example 13.14 by the method of consistent
deformations. Theoretically, the slope-deection method and the method of consistent deformations should yield
identical results for a given structure. The small dierences between the results determined here and those obtained in
Example 13.14 are due to the round-o errors.
 SECTION 16.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 671

Example 16.7

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the four-span continuous beam shown in
Fig. 16.11(a).

Solution
Because the beam and the loading are symmetric with respect to the vertical s axis passing through roller support C
(Fig. 16.11(a)), the response of the complete beam can be determined by analyzing only the left half, AC, of the beam,
with symmetric boundary conditions as shown in Fig. 16.11(b). Furthermore, from Fig. 16.11(b), we can see that the
one-half of the beam with symmetric boundary conditions is also symmetric with respect to the s 0 axis passing through
roller support B. Therefore, we need to analyze only one-fourth of the beamthat is, the portion ABwith symmetric
boundary conditions, as shown in Fig. 16.11(c).
Since the substructure to be analyzed consists simply of the xed beam AB (Fig. 16.11(c)), its end moments can be
obtained directly from the xed-end moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book. Thus

wL 2
MAB FEMAB
12

wL 2
MBA FEMBA @
12

FIG. 16.11

continued
672 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.11 (contd.)

The shears at the ends of member AB are determined by considering the equilibrium of the member.
The shears and moments at the ends of member BC can now be obtained by reecting the corresponding
responses of member AB to the right of the s 0 axis, and the member end moments and shears on the right half of
the beam can be determined by reecting the corresponding responses on the left half to the other side of the s axis.
The member end moments and shears thus obtained are shown in Fig. 16.11(d), and the support reactions are given in
Fig. 16.11(e).
The shear and bending moment diagrams for the beam are shown in Fig. 16.11(f ) and (g), respectively. Ans.
As this example shows, the utilization of structural symmetry can considerably reduce the computational eort
required in the analysis. The beam considered in this example (Fig. 16.11(a)) has three degrees of freedom, yB ; yC , and
yD . However, by taking advantage of the structures symmetry, we were able to eliminate all the degrees of freedom
from the analysis.
 SECTION 16.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway 673

16.4 ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITHOUT SIDESWAY

The slope-deection method can also be used for the analysis of frames.
Since the axial deformations of the members of frames composed of
common engineering materials are generally much smaller than the
bending deformations, the axial deformations of members are neglected
in the analysis, and the members are assumed to be inextensible (i.e.,
they cannot undergo any axial elongation or shortening).
Consider the frame shown in Fig. 16.12(a). A qualitative deected
shape of the frame for an arbitrary load P is also shown. From the g-
ure, we can see that the xed joints A and B can neither rotate nor
translate, whereas joint C, which is located at the hinged support, can
rotate, but it cannot translate. As for joint D, while it is free to rotate, its
translation in any direction is prevented by members AD and CD, which
are assumed to be inextensible. Similarly, joint E is free to rotate, but
since members BE and DE cannot deform axially and since joints B
and D do not translate, joint E also cannot translate. Thus none of the
joints of the frame can translate.
Now suppose that we remove member CD from the frame of Fig.
16.12(a) to obtain the frame shown in Fig. 16.12(b). Since the axial de-
formations of columns AD and BE are neglected, joints D and E cannot
translate in the vertical direction. However, there are no restraints to
prevent these joints from rotating, and displacing in the horizontal di-
rection, as shown in Fig. 16.12(b). Note that since the girder DE is as-
sumed to be inextensible, the horizontal displacements of joints D and E
must be the same.
The lateral displacements of building frames, like that of the frame
of Fig. 16.12(b), are commonly referred to as sidesways and the frames
whose joints undergo translations are termed frames with sidesway,
whereas the frames without joint translations are called frames without
sidesway. In applying the slope-deection method, it is usually con-
venient to distinguish between the frames without sidesway (i.e., without
unknown joint translations), and those with sidesway. For an arbitrary
plane frame subjected to a general coplanar loading, the number of in-
dependent joint translationswhich are commonly referred to as the
sidesway degrees of freedom, sscan be expressed as

ss 2j  2 f h r m (16.20)

in which j number of joints; f number of xed supports; h

number of hinged supports; r number of roller supports; and m
number of (inextensible) members. The foregoing expression is based on
the reasoning that two translations (e.g., in the horizontal and vertical
directions) are needed to specify the deformed position of each free joint
of a plane frame; and that each xed and hinged support prevents both
translations, each roller support prevents translation in one direction (of
the joint attached to it), and each inextensible member connecting two
674 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.12

joints prevents one joint translation in its axial direction. The number of
independent joint translations, ss, is then obtained by subtracting from
the total number of possible translations of j free joints the number of
translations restrained by the supports and members of the frame. We
can verify our conclusions about the frames of Figs. 16.12(a) and (b)
 SECTION 16.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway 675

by applying Eq. (16.20). Since the frame of Fig. 16.12(a) consists of

ve joints j 5, four members m 4, two xed supports f 2,
and one hinged support h 1, the application of Eq. (16.20) yields
ss 25  22 1 4 0, which indicates that this frame can be
considered as without sidesway. As for the frame of Fig. 16.12(b), since
it has j 4, m 3, and f 2, the number of its sidesway degrees of
freedom is given by ss 24  22 3 1, which indicates that the
frame can undergo one independent joint translation. Note that this in-
dependent joint translation is identied as the horizontal displacement D
of joints D and E in Fig. 16.12(b).
It is important to realize that a frame may contain joints that are
free to translate, but it may still be considered for analytical purposes as
one without sidesway under a particular loading condition if no joint
translations occur when the frame is subjected to that loading condi-
tion. An example of such a frame is shown in Fig. 16.12(c). Although
joints D and E of the symmetric frame are free to translate horizontally,
they will not translate when the frame is subjected to a loading that is
symmetric with respect to the structures axis of symmetry. Thus this
frame, when subjected to a symmetric loading, can be analyzed as a
frame without sidesway. In the following, we discuss the application of
the slope-deection method to the analysis of frames without sidesway.
The analysis of frames with sidesway is considered in the next section.
The procedure for the analysis of frames without sidesway is almost
identical to that for the analysis of continuous beams presented in the
preceding section. This similarity occurs because, like the continuous
beams, the degrees of freedom of frames without sidesway consist of
only the unknown joint rotations, with the joint translations being either
zero or known (as in the case of support settlements). However, unlike
the continuous beams, more than two members may be connected to a
joint of a frame, and the equilibrium equation for such a joint would
involve more than two member end moments. The analysis of frames
without sidesway is illustrated by the following examples.

Example 16.8

Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown in Fig. 16.13(a) by the slope-deection method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom The joints C; D, and E of the frame are free to rotate. However, we will eliminate the rotation
of the simple support at end E by using the modied slope-deection equations for member DE. Thus the analysis will
involve only two unknown joint rotations, yC and yD .

continued
676 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.13
continued
 SECTION 16.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway 677

Fixed-End Moments By using the xed-end moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book, we obtain

4020
FEMAC 100 k-ft or 100 k-ft
8

FEMCA 100 k-ft @ or 100 k-ft

FEMBD FEMDB 0

230 2
FEMCD FEMDE 150 k-ft or 150 k-ft
12

FEMDC FEMED 150 k-ft @ or 150 k-ft

Slope-Deection Equations As indicated in Fig. 16.13(a), the moments of inertia of the columns and the girders of
the frame are 800 in. 4 and 1,600 in. 4 , respectively. Using I Icolumn 800 in. 4 as the reference moment of inertia,
we express Igirder in terms of I as

Igirder 1;600 2800 2I

Next, we write the slope-deection equations by applying Eq. (16.9) to members AC; BD, and CD, and Eqs. (16.15) to
member DE. Thus

2EI
MAC yC 100 0:1EI yC 100 (1)
20
2EI
MCA 2yC  100 0:2EI yC  100 (2)
20
2EI
MBD yD 0:1EI yD (3)
20
2EI
MDB 2yD 0:2EI yD (4)
20
2E2I
MCD 2yC yD 150 0:267EI yC 0:133EI yD 150 (5)
30
2E2I
MDC 2yD yC  150 0:133EI yC 0:267EI yD  150 (6)
30
 
3E2I 150
MDE yD 150 0:2EI yD 225 (7)
30 2
MED 0 Ans.
P
Equilibrium Equations By applying the moment equilibrium equation, M 0, to the free bodies of joints C and
D (Fig. 16.13(b)), we obtain the equilibrium equations
MCA MCD 0 (8)
MDB MDC MDE 0 (9)

continued
678 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

Joint Rotations Substitution of the slope-deection equations into the equilibrium equations yields

0:467EI yC 0:133EI yD 50 (10)

0:133EI yC 0:667EI yD 75 (11)

By solving Eqs. (10) and (11) simultaneously, we determine the values of EI yC and EI yD to be

EI yC 79:545 k-ft 2

EI yD 96:591 k-ft 2

Member End Moments The member end moments can now be computed by substituting the numerical values of
EI yC and EI yD into the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (7)).

MAC 92 k-ft Ans.
MCA 115:9 k-ft or 115:9 k-ft @ Ans.
MBD 9:7 k-ft or 9:7 k-ft @ Ans.
MDB 19:3 k-ft or 19:3 k-ft @ Ans.

MCD 115:9 k-ft Ans.
MDC 186:4 k-ft or 186:4 k-ft @ Ans.

MDE 205:7 k-ft Ans.
To check that the solution of the simultaneous equations (Eqs. (10) and (11)) has been carried out correctly,
we substitute the numerical values of member end moments back into the equilibrium equations (Eqs. (8) and (9))
to obtain

MCA MCD 115:9 115:9 0 Checks

MDB MDC MDE 19:3  186:4 205:7 0 Checks

Member End Shears The member end shears, obtained by considering the equilibrium of each member, are shown
in Fig. 16.13(c).

Member Axial Forces With end shears known, member axial forces can now be evaluated by considering the
equilibrium of joints C and D in order. The axial forces thus obtained are shown in Fig. 16.13(c).

Support Reactions See Fig. 16.13(d). Ans.

Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.

 SECTION 16.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway 679

Example 16.9

Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame of Example 16.8 due to a settlement of 34 in. at support B.
Use the slope-deection method.

Solution
The frame is shown in Fig. 16.14(a).
Degrees of Freedom yC and yD are the degrees of freedom.

Chord Rotations Since the axial deformation of member BD is neglected, the 34-in. settlement of support B causes
the joint D to displace downward by the same amount, as shown in Fig. 16.14(b). The inclined dashed lines in this gure
represent the chords (not the elastic curves) of members CD and DE in the deformed positions. The rotation of the
chord of member CD is
3
cCD  4 0:00208
1230
in which the negative sign has been assigned to the value of cCD to indicate that its sense is clockwise. Similarly, for
member DE,
cDE 0:00208
Slope-Deection Equations
MAC 0:1EI yC (1)
MCA 0:2EI yC (2)
MBD 0:1EI yD (3)
MDB 0:2EI yD (4)
2E2I
MCD 2yC yD  30:00208
30
0:267EI yC 0:133EI yD 0:000832EI (5)
2E2I
MDC 2yD yC  30:00208
30
0:133EI yC 0:267EI yD 0:000832EI (6)
3E2I
MDE yD  0:00208 0:2EI yD  0:000416EI (7)
30
MED 0 Ans.
Equilibrium Equations See Fig. 16.14(c).
MCA MCD 0 (8)
MDB MDC MDE 0 (9)

continued
680 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.14
continued
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 681

Joint Rotations By substituting the slope-deection equations into the equilibrium equations, we obtain
0:467EI yC 0:133EI yD 0:000832EI
0:133EI yC 0:667EI yD 0:000416EI
Substitution of EI 29;000800=12 2 k-ft 2 into the right sides of the preceding equations yields
0:467EI yC 0:133EI yD 134 (10)
0:133EI yC 0:667EI yD 67 (11)
Solving Eqs. (10) and (11) simultaneously, we obtain
EI yC 273:883 k-ft 2
EI yD 45:838 k-ft 2
Member End Moments By substituting the numerical values of EI yC and EI yD into the slope-deection equations,
we obtain
MAC 27:4 k-ft or 27:4 k-ft @ Ans.
MCA 54:8 k-ft or 54:8 k-ft @ Ans.
MBD 4:6 k-ft or 4:6 k-ft @ Ans.
MDB 9:2 k-ft or 9:2 k-ft @ Ans.

MCD 54:8 k-ft Ans.

MDC 85:4 k-ft Ans.
MDE 76:2 k-ft or 76:2 k-ft @ Ans.
Back substitution of the numerical values of member end moments into the equilibrium equations (Eqs. (8) and (9))
yields
MCA MCD 54:8 54:8 0 Checks
MDB MDC MDE 9:2 85:4  76:2 0 Checks
Member End Shears and Axial Forces See Fig. 16.14(d).
Support Reactions See Fig. 16.14(e).
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.

16.5 ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITH SIDESWAY

A frame, in general, will undergo sidesway if its joints are not restrained
against translation, unless it is a symmetric frame subjected to symmet-
ric loading. To develop the analysis of frames with sidesway, consider
the rectangular frame shown in Fig. 16.15(a). A qualitative deected
shape of the frame for an arbitrary loading is also shown in the gure
using an exaggerated scale. While the xed joints A and B of the frame
682 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.15

are completely restrained against rotation as well as translation, the

joints C and D are free to rotate and translate. However, since the col-
umns AC and BD are assumed to be inextensible and the deformations
of the frame are assumed to be small, the joints C and D can translate
only in the horizontal directionthat is, in the direction perpendicular
to the columns AC and BD, respectively. Furthermore, since the girder
CD is also assumed to be inextensible, the horizontal displacements
of joints C and D must be the same. Thus the frame has three unknown
joint displacements or degrees of freedom, the rotations yC and yD
of joints C and D, respectively, and the horizontal displacement D of
both joints C and D.
As shown in Fig. 16.15(a), the displacement D of the joints C and D
causes the chords of the columns AC and BD to rotate, and these chord
rotations can be expressed in terms of the unknown displacement D as
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 683

D
cAC cBD  (16.21)
h
in which the negative sign indicates that the chord rotations are clock-
wise. Since joints C and D cannot displace vertically, the chord rotation
of the girder CD is zero; that is, cCD 0.
To relate the member end moments to the unknown joint displace-
ments, yC ; yD , and D, we write the slope-deection equations for the
three members of the frame. Thus by applying Eq. (16.9), we obtain
 
2EI 3D
MAC yC FEMAC (16.22a)
h h
 
2EI 3D
MCA 2yC FEMCA (16.22b)
h h
 
2EI 3D
MBD yD (16.22c)
h h
 
2EI 3D
MDB 2yD (16.22d)
h h
2EI
MCD 2yC yD FEMCD (16.22e)
L
2EI
MDC 2yD yC FEMDC (16.22f )
L
Note that the foregoing slope-deection equations contain three un-
knowns, yC ; yD , and D, which must be determined by solving three
independent equations of equilibrium before the values of the member
end moments can be computed. Two of the three equilibrium equations
necessary for the solution of the unknown joint displacements are ob-
tained by considering the moment equilibrium of joints C and D (Fig.
16.15(b)):
MCA MCD 0 (16.23a)
MDB MDC 0 (16.23b)
The third equilibrium equation, commonly termed the shear equation, is
based on the condition that the sum of all the horizontal forces acting
on the free body of the entire frame must be zero. The free-body dia-
gram of the frame, obtained by passing an imaginary section just above
the support
P level, is shown in Fig. 16.15(c). By applying the equilibrium
equation FX 0, we write
P  SAC  SBD 0 (16.23c)
in which SAC and SBD are the shears at the lower ends of the columns
AC and BD, respectively, as shown in Fig. 16.15(c). To express the third
684 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

equilibrium equation (Eq. (16.23c)) in terms of column end moments,

we consider the equilibrium of the free bodies of the columns AC and
BD shown in Fig. 16.15(d). By summing moments about the top of each
column, we obtain the following:
 
P AC h
MC 0 MAC  SAC h P MCA 0
2
MAC MCA P
SAC (16.24a)
h 2
P
MDBD 0 MBD MDB  SBD h 0

MBD MDB
SBD (16.24b)
h

By substituting Eqs. (16.24a) and (16.24b) into Eq. (16.23c), we obtain

the third equilibrium equation in terms of member end moments:
   
MAC MCA P MBD MDB
P  0
h 2 h
which reduces to
Ph
MAC MCA MBD MDB  0 (16.25)
2

With the three equilibrium equations (Eqs. (16.23a), (16.23b), and

(16.25)) now established, we can proceed with the rest of the analysis in
the usual manner. By substituting the slope-deection equations (Eqs.
(16.22)) into the equilibrium equations, we obtain the system of equa-
tions that can be solved for the unknown joint displacements yC ; yD ,
and D. The joint displacements thus obtained can then be back sub-
stituted into the slope-deection equations to determine the member end
moments, from which the end shears and axial forces of members and
the support reactions can be computed, as discussed previously.

Frames with Inclined Legs

The analysis of frames with inclined legs is similar to that of the rec-
tangular frames considered previously, except that when frames with
inclined legs are subjected to sidesway, their horizontal members also
undergo chord rotations, which must be included in the analysis. Recall
from our previous discussion that the chord rotations of the horizontal
members of rectangular frames, subjected to sidesway, are zero.
Consider the frame with inclined legs shown in Fig. 16.16(a). In or-
der to analyze this frame by the slope-deection method, we must relate
the chord rotations of its three members to each other or to an inde-
pendent joint translation. To that end, we subject the joint C of the
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 685

FIG. 16.16
686 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.16 (contd.)

frame to an arbitrary horizontal displacement D and draw a qualitative

deected shape of the frame, which is consistent with its support con-
ditions as well as with our assumption that the members of the frame
are inextensible. To draw the deected shape, which is shown in Fig.
16.16(b), we rst imagine that the members BD and CD are dis-
connected at joint D. Since member AC is assumed to be inextensible,
joint C can move only in an arc about point A. Furthermore, since the
translation of joint C is assumed to be small, we can consider the arc to
be a straight line perpendicular to member AC.
Thus, in order to move joint C horizontally by a distance D, we
must displace it in a direction perpendicular to member AC by a dis-
tance CC 0 (Fig. 16.16(b)), so that the horizontal component of CC 0
equals D. Note that although joint C is free to rotate, its rotation is ig-
nored at this stage of the analysis, and the elastic curve AC 0 of member
AC is drawn with the tangent at C 0 parallel to the undeformed direction
of the member. The member CD remains horizontal and translates as a
rigid body into the position C 0 D1 with the displacement DD1 equal to
CC 0 , as shown in the gure. Since the horizontal member CD is as-
sumed to be inextensible and the translation of joint D is assumed to be
small, the end D of this member can be moved from its deformed posi-
tion D1 only in the vertical direction. Similarly, since member BD is also
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 687

assumed to be inextensible, its end D can be moved only in the direction

perpendicular to the member. Therefore, to obtain the deformed posi-
tion of joint D, we move the end D of member CD from its deformed
position D1 in the vertical direction and the end D of member BD in the
direction perpendicular to BD, until the two ends meet at point D 0 ,
where they are reconnected to obtain the displaced position D 0 of
joint D. By assuming that joint D does not rotate, we draw the elastic
curves C 0 D 0 and BD 0 , respectively, of members CD and BD, to com-
plete the deected shape of the entire frame.
The chord rotation of a member can be obtained by dividing the
relative displacement between the two ends of the member in the direc-
tion perpendicular to the member, by the members length. Thus we can
see from Fig. 16.16(b) that the chord rotations of the three members of
the frame are given by

CC 0 DD 0 D1 D 0
cAC  cBD  cCD (16.26)
L1 L2 L

in which the chord rotations of members AC and BD are considered to

be negative because they are clockwise (Fig. 16.16(c)). The three chord
rotations can be expressed in terms of the joint displacement D by con-
sidering the displacement diagrams of joints C and D, shown in Fig.
16.16(b). Since CC 0 is perpendicular to AC, which is inclined at an angle
b1 with the vertical, CC 0 must make the same angle b 1 with the horizon-
tal. Thus, from the displacement diagram of joint C (triangle CC 0 C2 ), we
can see that
D
CC 0 (16.27)
cos b1

Next, let us consider the displacement diagram of joint D (triangle

DD1 D 0 ). It has been shown previously that DD1 is equal in magnitude
and parallel to CC 0 . Therefore,
DD2 DD1 cos b1 D
Since DD 0 is perpendicular to member BD, it makes an angle b2 with
the horizontal. Thus, from the displacement diagram of joint D,

DD2 D
DD 0 (16.28)
cos b 2 cos b2
and
D D
D1 D 0 DD1 sin b1 DD 0 sin b2 sin b1 sin b 2
cos b1 cos b2
or
D1 D 0 Dtan b1 tan b2 (16.29)
688 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

By substituting Eqs. (16.27) through (16.29) into Eq. (16.26), we obtain

the chord rotations of the three members in terms of D:
D
cAC  (16.30a)
L1 cos b 1
D
cBD  (16.30b)
L2 cos b2
D
cCD tan b 1 tan b2 (16.30c)
L
The foregoing expressions of chord rotations can be used to write
the slope-deection equations, thereby relating member end moments
to the three unknown joint displacements, yC ; yD , and D. As in the case
of the rectangular frames considered previously, the three equilibrium
equations necessary for the solution of the unknown joint displacements
can be established by summing the moments acting on joints C and D
and by summing the horizontal forces acting on the entire frame. How-
ever, for frames with inclined legs, it is usually more convenient to
establish the third equilibrium equation by summing the moments of
all the forces and couples acting on the entire frame about a moment
center O, which is located at the intersection of the longitudinal axes of
the two inclined members, as shown in Fig. 16.16(d). The location of the
moment center O can be determined by using the conditions (see Fig.
16.16(d))
a1 cos b1 a2 cos b2 (16.31a)
a1 sin b1 a2 sin b2 L (16.31b)
By solving Eqs. (16.31a) and (16.31b) simultaneously for a1 and a2 , we
obtain
L
a1 (16.32a)
cos b1 tan b1 tan b 2
L
a2 (16.32b)
cos b2 tan b1 tan b 2
Once the equilibrium equations have been established, the analysis can
be completed in the usual manner, as discussed previously.

Multistory Frames
The foregoing method can be extended to the analysis of multistory
frames subjected to sidesway, as illustrated by Example 16.12. How-
ever, because of the considerable amount of computational eort in-
volved, the analysis of such structures today is performed on computers
using the matrix formulation of the displacement method presented in
Chapter 18.
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 689

Example 16.10

Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown in Fig. 16.17(a) by the slope-deection method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom The degrees of freedom are yC ; yD , and D (see Fig. 16.17(b)).

FIG. 16.17

continued
690 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.17 (contd.)

continued
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 691

Fixed-End Moments By using the xed-end moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book, we obtain
4034 2
FEMCD 39:2 kN  m or 39:2 kN  m
7 2
403 2 4
FEMDC 29:4 kN  m @ or 29:4 kN  m
7 2
FEMAC FEMCA FEMBD FEMDB 0

Chord Rotations From Fig. 16.17(b), we can see that

D D
cAC  cBD  cCD 0
7 5

Slope-Deection Equations
  
2EI D
MAC yC  3  0:286EI yC 0:122EI D (1)
7 7
  
2EI D
MCA 2yC  3  0:571EI yC 0:122EI D (2)
7 7
  
2EI D
MBD yD  3  0:4EI yD 0:24EI D (3)
5 5
  
2EI D
MDB 2yD  3  0:8EI yD 0:24EI D (4)
5 5

2EI
MCD 2yC yD 39:2 0:571EI yC 0:286EI yD 39:2 (5)
7

2EI
MDC yC 2yD  29:4 0:286EI yC 0:571EI yD  29:4 (6)
7

Equilibrium Equations By considering the moment equilibrium of joints C and D, we obtain the equilibrium
equations
MCA MCD 0 (7)
MDB MDC 0 (8)
P
To establish the third equilibrium equation, we apply the force equilibrium equation FX 0 to the free body of the
entire frame (Fig. 16.17(c)), to obtain
SAC SBD 0
in which SAC and SBD represent the shears at the lower ends of columns AC and BD, respectively, as shown in
Fig. 16.17(c). To express the column end shears in terms of column end moments, we draw the free-body diagrams
of the two columns (Fig. 16.17(d)) and sum the moments about the top of each column:
MAC MCA MBD MDB
SAC and SBD
7 5

continued
692 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

By substituting these equations into the third equilibrium equation, we obtain

MAC MCA MBD MDB
0
7 5
which can be rewritten as
5MAC MCA 7MBD MDB 0 (9)
Joint Displacements To determine the unknown joint displacements yC ; yD , and D, we substitute the slope-
deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)) into the equilibrium equations (Eqs. (7) through (9)) to obtain
1:142EI yC 0:286EI yD 0:122EI D 39:2 (10)
0:286EI yC 1:371EI yD 0:24EI D 29:4 (11)
4:285EI yC 8:4EI yD 4:58EI D 0 (12)
Solving Eqs. (10) through (12) simultaneously yields
EI yC 40:211 kN  m 2
EI yD 34:24 kN  m 2
EI D 25:177 kN  m 3
Member End Moments By substituting the numerical values of EI yC ; EI yD , and EI D into the slope-deection
equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)), we obtain
MAC 14:6 kN  m or 14:6 kN  m @ Ans.
MCA 26 kN  m or 26 kN  m @ Ans.

MBD 7:7 kN  m Ans.

MDB 21:3 kN  m Ans.

MCD 26 kN  m Ans.
MDC 21:3 kN  m or 21:3 kN  m @ Ans.
To check that the solution of the simultaneous equations (Eqs. (10) through (12)) has been carried out correctly, we
substitute the numerical values of member end moments back into the equilibrium equations (Eqs. (7) through (9)):
MCA MCD 26 26 0 Checks
MDB MDC 21:3  21:3 0 Checks
5MAC MCA 7MBD MDB 514:6  26 77:7 21:3 0 Checks
Member End Shears The member end shears, obtained by considering the equilibrium of each member, are shown
in Fig. 16.17(e).
Member Axial Forces With end shears known, member axial forces can now be evaluated by considering the
equilibrium of joints C and D. The axial forces thus obtained are shown in Fig. 16.17(e).
Support Reactions See Fig. 16.17(f ). Ans.
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 693

Example 16.11

Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown in Fig. 16.18(a) by the slope-deection method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom Degrees of freedom are yC ; yD , and D.
Fixed-End Moments Since no external loads are applied to the members, the xed-end moments are zero.

FIG. 16.18

continued
694 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. 16.18 (contd.)

continued
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 695

FIG. 16.18 (contd.)

Chord Rotations From Fig. 16.18(b), we can see that

 
5
0 D
CC 4
cAC   0:0625D
20 20
DD 0 D
cBD   0:0625D
16 16
 
3
0 D
C C1 4
cCD 0:0375D
20 20
continued
696 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

Slope-Deection Equations

2EI
MAC yC  30:0625D 0:1EI yC 0:0188EI D (1)
20
2EI
MCA 2yC  30:0625D 0:2EI yC 0:0188EI D (2)
20
2EI
MBD yD  30:0625D 0:125EI yD 0:0234EI D (3)
16
2EI
MDB 2yD  30:0625D 0:25EI yD 0:0234EI D (4)
16
2EI
MCD 2yC yD  30:0375D 0:2EI yC 0:1EI yD  0:0113EI D (5)
20
2EI
MDC 2yD yC  30:0375D 0:2EI yD 0:1EI yC  0:0113EI D (6)
20

Equilibrium Equations By considering the moment equilibrium of joints C and D, we obtain the equilibrium equations
MCA MCD 0 (7)
MDB MDC 0 (8)
The third equilibrium equation is established by summing the moments of all the forces and couples acting on the free
body of the entire frame about point O, which is located at the intersection of the longitudinal axes of the two columns,
as shown in Fig. 16.18(c). Thus
P
MO 0 MAC  SAC 53:33 MBD  SBD 42:67 3026:67 0
in which the shears at the lower ends of the columns can be expressed in terms of column end moments as (see Fig. 16.18(d))
MAC MCA MBD MDB
SAC and SBD
20 16
By substituting these expressions into the third equilibrium equation, we obtain
1:67MAC 2:67MCA 1:67MBD 2:67MDB 800 (9)
Joint Displacements Substitution of the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)) into the equilibrium
equations (Eqs. (7) through (9)) yields
0:4EI yC 0:1EI yD 0:0075EI D 0 (10)
0:1EI yC 0:45EI yD 0:0121EI D 0 (11)
0:71EI yC 0:877EI yD 0:183EI D 800 (12)
By solving Eqs. (10) through (12) simultaneously, we determine
EI yC 66:648 k-ft 2
EI yD 125:912 k-ft 2
EI D 5;233:6 k-ft 3
continued
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 697

Member End Moments By substituting the numerical values of EI yC ; EI yD , and EI D into the slope-deection
equations (Eqs. (1) through (6)), we obtain

MAC 91:7 k-ft Ans.

MCA 85:1 k-ft Ans.

MBD 106:7 k-ft Ans.

MDB 91 k-ft Ans.
MCD 85:1 k-ft or 85:1 k-ft @ Ans.
MDC 91 k-ft or 91 k-ft @ Ans.
Back substitution of the numerical values of member end moments into the equilibrium equations yields
MCA MCD 85:1  85:1 0 Checks
MDB MDC 91  91 0 Checks
1:67MAC 2:67MCA 1:67MBD 2:67MDB 1:6791:7 2:6785:1
1:67106:7 2:6791
801:5 & 800 Checks
Member End Shears and Axial Forces See Fig. 16.18(e).
Support Reactions See Fig. 16.18(f ). Ans.
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.

Example 16.12

Determine the member end moments, the support reactions, and the horizontal deection of joint F of the two-story
frame shown in Fig. 16.19(a) by the slope-deection method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom From Fig. 16.19(a), we can see that the joints C; D; E, and F of the frame are free to rotate,
and translate in the horizontal direction. As shown in Fig. 16.19(b), the horizontal displacement of the rst-story joints
C and D is designated as D1 , whereas the horizontal displacement of the second-story joints E and F is expressed as
D1 D2 , with D2 representing the displacement of the second-story joints relative to the rst-story joints. Thus, the
frame has six degrees of freedomthat is, yC ; yD ; yE ; yF ; D1 , and D2 .
Fixed-End Moments The nonzero xed-end moments are
FEMCD FEMEF 200 k-ft
FEMDC FEMFE 200 k-ft

continued
698 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

Chord Rotations See Fig. 16.19(b).

D1
cAC cBD 
20
D2
cCE cDF 
20
cCD cEF 0

Slope-Deection Equations Using Icolumn I and Igirder 2I , we write

MAC 0:1EI yC 0:015EI D1 (1)
MCA 0:2EI yC 0:015EI D1 (2)
MBD 0:1EI yD 0:015EI D1 (3)
MDB 0:2EI yD 0:015EI D1 (4)
MCE 0:2EI yC 0:1EI yE 0:015EI D2 (5)
MEC 0:2EI yE 0:1EI yC 0:015EI D2 (6)

FIG. 16.19
continued
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 699

FIG. 16.19 (contd.)

continued
700 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

MDF 0:2EI yD 0:1EI yF 0:015EI D2 (7)

MFD 0:2EI yF 0:1EI yD 0:015EI D2 (8)
MCD 0:2EI yC 0:1EI yD 200 (9)
MDC 0:2EI yD 0:1EI yC  200 (10)
MEF 0:2EI yE 0:1EI yF 200 (11)
MFE 0:2EI yF 0:1EI yE  200 (12)
Equilibrium Equations By considering the moment equilibrium of joints C, D, E, and F , we obtain
MCA MCD MCE 0 (13)
MDB MDC MDF 0 (14)
MEC MEF 0 (15)
MFD MFE 0 (16)
To establish the remaining two equilibrium equations, we successively pass a horizontal sectionP just above the lower
ends of the columns of each story of the frame and apply the equation of horizontal equilibrium FX 0 to the free
body of the portion of the frame above the section.
P The free-body diagrams thus obtained are shown in Fig. 16.19(c)
and (d). By applying the equilibrium equation FX 0 to the top story of the frame (Fig. 16.19(c)), we obtain
SCE SDF 10
P
Similarly, by applying FX 0 to the entire frame (Fig. 16.19(d)), we write
SAC SBD 30
By expressing column end shears in terms of column end moments as
MAC MCA MBD MDB
SAC SBD
20 20
MCE MEC MDF MFD
SCE SDF
20 20
and by substituting these expressions into the force equilibrium equations, we obtain
MCE MEC MDF MFD 200 (17)
MAC MCA MBD MDB 600 (18)
Joint Displacements Substitution of the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (1) through (12)) into the equilibrium
equations (Eqs. (13) through (18)) yields
0:6EI yC 0:1EI yD 0:1EI yE 0:015EI D1 0:015EI D2 200 (19)
0:1EI yC 0:6EI yD 0:1EI yF 0:015EI D1 0:015EI D2 200 (20)
0:1EI yC 0:4EI yE 0:1EI yF 0:015EI D2 200 (21)
0:1EI yD 0:1EI yE 0:4EI yF 0:015EI D2 200 (22)
0:3EI yC 0:3EI yD 0:3EI yE 0:3EI yF 0:06EI D2 200 (23)
0:1EI yC 0:1EI yD 0:02EI D1 200 (24)
continued
 SECTION 16.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 701

By solving Eqs. (19) through (24) by the Gauss-Jordan elimination method (Appendix B), we determine
EI yC 812:988 k-ft 2
EI yD 241:556 k-ft 2
EI yE 789:612 k-ft 2
EI yF 353:248 k-ft 2
EI D1 15;272:728 k-ft 3 or D1 0:0758 ft 0:91 in: !
EI D2 10;787:878 k-ft 3 or D2 0:0536 ft 0:643 in: !
Thus, the horizontal deection of joint F of the frame is as follows:
DF D1 D2 0:91 0:643 1:553 in: ! Ans.
Member End Moments By substituting the numerical values of the joint displacements into the slope-deection
equations (Eqs. (1) through (12)), we obtain

MAC 147:8 k-ft Ans.

MCA 66:5 k-ft Ans.

MBD 204:9 k-ft Ans.

MDB 180:8 k-ft Ans.
MCE 79:7 k-ft or 79:7 k-ft @ Ans.
MEC 77:4 k-ft or 77:4 k-ft @ Ans.

MDF 148:8 k-ft Ans.

MFD 208:3 k-ft Ans.

MCD 13:2 k-ft Ans.
MDC 329:6 k-ft or 329:6 k-ft @ Ans.

MEF 77:4 k-ft Ans.
MFE 208:3 k-ft or 208:3 k-ft @ Ans.
Back substitution of the numerical values of member end moments into the equilibrium equations yields
MCA MCD MCE 66:5 13:2  79:7 0 Checks
MDB MDC MDF 180:8  329:6 148:8 0 Checks
MEC MEF 77:4 77:4 0 Checks
MFD MFE 208:3  208:3 0 Checks
MCE MEC MDF MFD 79:7  77:4 148:8 208:3 200 Checks
MAC MCA MBD MDB 147:8 66:5 204:9 180:8 600 Checks
Member End Shears and Axial Forces See Fig. 16.19(e).
Support Reactions See Fig. 16.19(f ). Ans.
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.
702 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

SUMMARY
In this chapter, we have studied a classical formulation of the displace-
ment (stiness) method, called the slope-deection method, for the anal-
ysis of beams and frames. The method is based on the slope-deection
equation:
2EI
Mnf 2yn yf  3c FEMnf (16.9)
L
which relates the moments at the ends of a member to the rotations and
displacements of its ends and the external loads applied to the member.
The procedure for analysis essentially involves (1) identifying the
unknown joint displacements (degrees of freedom) of the structure; (2)
for each member, writing slope-deection equations relating member
end moments to the unknown joint displacements; (3) establishing the
equations of equilibrium of the structure in terms of member end mo-
ments; (4) substituting the slope-deection equations into the equili-
brium equations and solving the resulting system of equations to de-
termine the unknown joint displacements; and (5) computing member
end moments by substituting the values of joint displacements back into
the slope-deection equations. Once member end moments have been
evaluated, member end shears and axial forces, and support reactions,
can be determined through equilibrium considerations.

PROBLEMS
Section 16.3 16.6 Solve Problem 16.2 for the loading shown in Fig.
16.1 through 16.5 Determine the reactions and draw the P16.2 and a settlement of 12 in. at support B.
shear and bending moment diagrams for the beams shown
in Figs. P16.1P16.5 by using the slope-deection method. 20 k
3 k/ft
1.5 k/ft

A C
B

15 ft 15 ft 20 ft
E = 29,000 ksi I = 1,650 in.4

FIG. P16.1 FIG. P16.2, P16.6

 Problems 703

16.7 Solve Problem 16.4 for the loading shown in Fig. P16.4 16.8 through 16.14 Determine the reactions and draw the
and the support settlements of 50 mm at B and 25 mm at C. shear and bending moment diagrams for the beams shown
in Figs. P16.8P16.14 by using the slope-deection method.

1.5 k/ft

A D
B C
25 ft 20 ft 25 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P16.8
FIG. P16.3

25 kN/m

A C
B

8m 8m
E = 70 GPa I = 1,300 (106) mm4
FIG. P16.4, P16.7 FIG. P16.9, P16.15
3 k/ft
A C
B
25 ft 15 ft
2I I
E = 29,000 ksi
I = 2,500 in.4
FIG. P16.5

FIG. P16.10

35 k
1 k/ft 2 k/ft

E
A B C D

10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 20 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P16.11
704 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

120 kN 120 kN 150 kN

A C E
G
B D F

6m 4m 6m 4m 4m 4m

I 2I I
E = 200 Gpa
I = 500 (106) mm4

FIG. P16.12, P16.16 FIG. P16.17, P16.21

FIG. P16.13

FIG. P16.18, P16.22

3 k/ft
C E
D
FIG. P16.14
10 ft
16.15 Solve Problem 16.9 for the loading shown in Fig. I
P16.9 and a settlement of 25 mm at support C.
B 15 k
16.16 Solve Problem 16.12 for the loading shown in Fig.
P16.12 and support settlements of 10 mm at A; 65 mm at C; 5 ft
40 mm at E; and 25 mm at G. A

Section 16.4 20 ft 5 ft
16.17 through 16.20 Determine the member end moments 2I
and reactions for the frames shown in Figs. P16.17P16.20
E = constant
by using the slope-deection method.
FIG. P16.19
 Problems 705

30 kN/m 2 k/ft

25 k C
C D B

8m

20 ft

A B

10 m

EI = constant A

FIG. P16.20
15 ft

EI = constant
16.21 Solve Problem 16.17 for the loading shown in Fig.
P16.17 and a settlement of 50 mm at support D. FIG. P16.24
16.22 Solve Problem 16.18 for the loading shown in Fig.
P16.18 and a settlement of 14 in. at support A.
16.23 Determine the member end moments and reactions
for the frame in Fig. P16.23 for the loading shown and the
support settlements of 1 in. at A and 112 in. at D. Use the
slope-deection method.

FIG. P16.25
3 k/ft
40 k
C D

15 ft
FIG. P16.23
A B

Section 16.5
30 ft
16.24 through 16.31 Determine the member end moments EI = constant
and reactions for the frames shown in Figs. P16.24P16.31
by using the slope-deection method. FIG. P16.26
706 CHAPTER 16 Slope-Deflection Method

FIG. P16.27

FIG. P16.30

FIG. P16.28
FIG. P16.31

FIG. P16.29
 17
Moment-Distribution Method
17.1 Definitions and Terminology
17.2 Basic Concept of the Moment-Distribution Method
17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams
17.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway
17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway
Summary
Problems

The Empire State Building,

New York
Keith Levit/Shutterstock

In this chapter, we consider another classical formulation of the dis-

placement method, the moment-distribution method. Like the slope-
deection method, the moment-distribution method can be used only
for the analysis of continuous beams and frames, taking into account
their bending deformations only. This method, which was initially de-
veloped by Hardy Cross in 1924, was the most widely used method for
analysis of structures from 1930, when it was rst published, through the
1960s. Since the early 1970s, with the increasing availability of com-
puters, the use of the moment-distribution method has declined in favor
of the computer-oriented matrix methods of structural analysis. None-
theless, the moment-distribution method is still preferred by many en-
gineers for analyzing smaller structures, since it provides a better insight
into the behavior of structures. Furthermore, this method may also be
used for preliminary designs as well as for checking the results of com-
puterized analyses.
The main reason for the popularity of the moment-distribution
method in the precomputer era was due to the fact that it does not in-
volve the solution of as many simultaneous equations as required by the
other classical methods. In the analysis of continuous beams and frames
without sidesway, the moment-distribution method completely avoids

707
708 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

the solution of simultaneous equations, whereas in the case of frames

with sidesway, the number of simultaneous equations involved usually
equals the number of independent joint translations.
The moment-distribution method is classied as a displacement
method, and from a theoretical viewpoint, it is very similar to the
slope-deection method considered in the preceding chapter. How-
ever, unlike the slope-deection method in which all the structures
equilibrium equations are satised simultaneously, in the moment-
distribution method the moment equilibrium equations of the joints
are solved iteratively by successively considering the moment equili-
brium at one joint at a time, while the remaining joints of the struc-
ture are assumed to be restrained against displacement.
We rst derive the fundamental relations necessary for the applica-
tion of the moment-distribution method and then develop the basic
concept of the method. We next consider the application of the method
to the analysis of continuous beams and frames without sidesway and,
nally, discuss the analysis of frames with sidesway.

17.1 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Before we can develop the moment-distribution method, it is necessary
to adopt a sign convention and dene the various terms used in the
analysis.

Sign Convention
In applying the moment-distribution method, we will adopt the same
sign convention as used previously for the slope-deection method:

Counterclockwise member end moments

are considered positive.

Since a counterclockwise moment at an end of a member must act in a

clockwise direction on the adjacent joint, the foregoing sign convention
implies that clockwise moments on joints are considered positive.

Member Stiffness
Consider a prismatic beam AB, which is hinged at end A and xed at
end B, as shown in Fig. 17.1(a). If we apply a moment M at the end A,
the beam rotates by an angle y at the hinged end A and develops a mo-
ment MBA at the xed end B, as shown in the gure. The relationship
between the applied moment M and the rotation y can be established by
 SECTION 17.1 Definitions and Terminology 709

FIG. 17.1

using the slope-deection equation derived in Section 16.1. By substituting

Mnf M, yn y, and yf c FEMnf 0 into the slope-deection
equation (Eq. (16.9)), we obtain
 
4EI
M y (17.1)
L
The bending stiness, K, of a member is dened as the moment that must
be applied at an end of the member to cause a unit rotation of that end.
Thus, by setting y 1 rad in Eq. (17.1), we obtain the expression for the
bending stiness of the beam of Fig. 17.1(a) to be
4EI
K (17.2)
L
When the modulus of elasticity for all the members of a structure is
the same (i.e., E constant), it is usually convenient to work with the
relative bending stinesses of members in the analysis. The relative
bending stiness, K, of a member is obtained by dividing its bending sti-
ness, K, by 4E. Thus, the relative bending stiness of the beam of Fig.
17.1(a) is given by
K I
K (17.3)
4E L
Now, suppose that the far end B of the beam of Fig. 17.1(a) is
hinged, as shown in Fig. 17.1(b). The relationship between the applied
moment M and the rotation y of the end A of the beam can now be
determined by using the modied slope-deection equation (Eqs.
710 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

(16.15)) derived in Section 16.1. By substituting Mrh M, yr y, and

c FEMrh FEMhr 0 into Eq. 16.15(a), we obtain
 
3EI
M y (17.4)
L
By setting y 1 rad, we obtain the expression for the bending stiness
of the beam of Fig. 17.1(b) to be
3EI
K (17.5)
L
A comparison of Eqs. (17.2) and (17.5) indicates that the stiness of the
beam is reduced by 25 percent when the xed support at B is replaced
by a hinged support. The relative bending stiness of the beam can now
be obtained by dividing its bending stiness by 4E:
 
3 I
K (17.6)
4 L
From Eqs. (17.1) and (17.4), we can see that the relationship be-
tween the applied end moment M and the rotation y of the correspond-
ing end of a member can be summarized as follows:
8 
>
> 4EI
>
>
< L y if far end of member is xed
M   (17.7)
>
> 3EI
>
>
: y if far end of member is hinged
L

Similarly, based on Eqs. (17.2) and (17.5), the bending stiness of a

member is given by
8
>
> 4EI
>
< if far end of member is xed
K L (17.8)
>
> 3EI
>
: if far end of member is hinged
L

and the relative bending stiness of a member can be expressed as (see

Eqs. (17.3) and (17.6))
8
>
> I
>
<L if far end of member is xed
K   (17.9)
>
>3 I
>
: if far end of member is hinged
4 L
 SECTION 17.1 Definitions and Terminology 711

Carryover Moment
Let us consider again the hinged-xed beam of Fig. 17.1(a). When a
moment M is applied at the hinged end A of the beam, a moment MBA
develops at the xed end B, as shown in the gure. The moment MBA is
termed the carryover moment. To establish the relationship between
the applied moment M and the carryover moment MBA , we write the
slope-deection equation for MBA by substituting Mnf MBA , yf y,
and yn c FEMnf 0 into Eq. (16.9):
 
2EI
MBA y (17.10)
L

By substituting y ML=4EI from Eq. (17.1) into Eq. (17.10), we

obtain
M
MBA (17.11)
2

As Eq. (17.11) indicates, when a moment of magnitude M is applied at

the hinged end of a beam, one-half of the applied moment is carried over
to the far end, provided that the far end is xed. Note that the direction
of the carryover moment, MBA , is the same as that of the applied mo-
ment, M.
When the far end of the beam is hinged, as shown in Fig. 17.1(b),
the carryover moment MBA is zero. Thus, we can express the carryover
moment as

8
<M
>
if far end of member is xed
MBA 2 (17.12)
>
:
0 if far end of member is hinged

The ratio of the carryover moment to the applied moment

MBA =M is called the carryover factor of the member. It represents the
fraction of the applied moment M that is carried over to the far end of
the member. By dividing Eq. (17.12) by M, we can express the carryover
factor (COF) as

8
<1
>
if far end of member is xed
COF 2 (17.13)
>
:
0 if far end of member is hinged
712 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Derivation of Member Stiffness and Carryover Moment by

the Moment-Area Method
The foregoing expressions of member bending stiness and carryover
moment can, alternatively, be derived by applying the moment-area
method discussed in Chapter 6.
The hinged-xed beam of Fig. 17.1(a) is redrawn in Fig. 17.2(a),
which also shows the M=EI diagram of the beam. Because the right end
B of the beam is xed, the tangent to the elastic curve at B is horizontal,
and it passes through the left end A. Therefore, the tangential deviation
of end A from the tangent at end B is equal to zero (i.e., DAB 0). Since
according to the second moment-area theorem, this tangential deviation
is equal to the moment of the M=EI diagram between A and B about A,
we can write
       
1 M L 1 MBA 2L
DAB L  L 0
2 EI 3 2 EI 3
from which
M
MBA
2

Note that the preceding expression for carryover moment is identical to

Eq. (17.11), which was derived previously by using the slope-deection
equations.
With the tangent at B horizontal, the angle y at A equals the change
in slope yBA between A and B. Since, according to the rst moment-area
theorem, yBA is equal to the area of the M=EI diagram between A
and B, we write
   
1 M 1 MBA
y L L
2 EI 2 EI
FIG. 17.2
By substituting MBA M=2, we obtain
 
L
y M
4EI
from which
 
4EI
M y
L

which is the same as Eq. (17.1), derived previously.

The elastic curve and the M=EI diagram for the beam, when its far
end B is hinged, are shown in Fig. 17.2(b). From the elastic curve we
can see that
DBA
y
L
 SECTION 17.1 Definitions and Terminology 713

in which, according to the second moment-area theorem,

DBA moment of M=EI diagram between A and B about B
     2
1 M 2L L
L M
2 EI 3 3EI
Therefore,
 
DBA L
y M
L 3EI
from which
 
3EI
M y
L

which is identical to Eq. (17.4), derived previously by using the

slope-deection equations.

Distribution Factors
When analyzing a structure by the moment-distribution method, an im-
portant question that arises is how to distribute a moment applied at a
joint among the various members connected to that joint. Consider the
three-member frame shown in Fig. 17.3(a), and suppose that a moment
M is applied to the joint B, causing it to rotate by an angle y, as shown
in the gure. To determine what fraction of the applied moment M is
resisted by each of the three members connected to the joint, we draw
free-body diagrams of joint B and of the three members AB; BC, and
BD, as shown in Fig. 17.3(b). P By considering the moment equilibrium of
the free body of joint B (i.e., MB 0), we write
M MBA MBC MBD 0
or
M MBA MBC MBD (17.14)
Since members AB; BC, and BD are rigidly connected to joint B, the
rotations of the ends B of these members are the same as that of the
joint. The moments at the ends B of the members can be expressed in
terms of the joint rotation y by applying Eq. (17.7). Noting that the far
ends A and C, respectively, of members AB and BC are xed, whereas
the far end D of member BD is hinged, we apply Eqs. (17.7) through
(17.9) to each member to obtain
 
4EI1
MBA y K BA y 4EKBA y (17.15)
L1
 
4EI2
MBC y K BC y 4EKBC y (17.16)
L2
714 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. 17.3

 
3EI3
MBD y K BD y 4EKBD y (17.17)
L3
Substitution of Eqs. (17.15) through (17.17) into the equilibrium equa-
tion (Eq. (17.14)) yields
 
4EI1 4EI2 3EI3
M y
L1 L2 L3
P
K BA K BC K BD y  K B y (17.18)
P
in which K B represents the sum of the bending stinesses of all the
members connected to joint B.
The rotational stiness of a joint is dened as the moment required to
cause a unit rotation of the joint. From Eq. (17.18), we can see that the
rotational stiness of a joint is equal to the sum of the bending sti-
 SECTION 17.1 Definitions and Terminology 715

nesses of all the members rigidly connected to the joint. The negative
sign in Eq. (17.18) appears because of the sign convention we have
adopted, according to which the member end moments are considered
positive when in the counterclockwise direction, whereas the moments
acting on the joints are considered positive when they act in the clock-
wise direction.
To express member end moments in terms of the applied mo-
ment M, we rst rewrite Eq. (17.18) in terms of the relative bending
stinesses of members as
P
M 4EKBA KBC KBD y 4E KB y
from which
M
y P (17.19)
4E KB
By substituting Eq. (17.19) into Eqs. (17.15) through (17.17), we obtain
 
KBA
MBA  P M (17.20)
KB
 
KBC
MBC  P M (17.21)
KB
 
KBD
MBD  P M (17.22)
KB
From Eqs. (17.20) through (17.22), we can see that the applied moment
M is distributed to the three members
P in proportion to their relative
bending stinesses. The ratio K= KB for a member is termed the dis-
tribution factor of that member for end B, and it represents the fraction
of the applied moment M that is distributed to end B of the member.
Thus Eqs. (17.20) through (17.22) can be expressed as
MBA DFBA M (17.23)
MBC DFBC M (17.24)
MBD DFBD M (17.25)
P P
in which
P DFBA KBA = KB , DFBC KBC = KB , and DFBD
KBD = KB are the distribution factors for ends B of members AB; BC,
and BD, respectively.
For example, if joint B of the frame of Fig. 17.3(a) is subjected to a
clockwise moment of 150 k-ft (i.e., M 150 k-ft) and if L1 L2 20 ft,
L3 30 ft, and I1 I2 I3 I , so that
I
KBA KBC 0:05I
20
 
3 I
KBD 0:025I
4 30
716 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

then the distribution factors for the ends B of members AB; BC, and BD
are given by
KBA 0:05I
DFBA 0:4
KBA KBC KBD 0:05 0:05 0:025I
KBC 0:05I
DFBC 0:4
KBA KBC KBD 0:125I
KBD 0:05I
DFBD 0:2
KBA KBC KBD 0:125I
These distribution factors indicate that 40 percent of the 150-k-ft mo-
ment applied to joint B is exerted at end B of member AB, 40 percent at
end B of member BC, and the remaining 20 percent at end B of member
BD. Thus, the moments at ends B of the three members are
MBA DFBA M 0:4150 60 k-ft or 60 k-ft @
MBC DFBC M 0:4150 60 k-ft or 60 k-ft @
MBD DFBD M 0:2150 30 k-ft or 30 k-ft @
Based on the foregoing discussion, we can state that, in general, the
distribution factor (DF) for an end of a member that is rigidly con-
nected to the adjacent joint equals the ratio of the relative bending sti-
ness of the member to the sum of the relative bending stinesses of all
the members framing into the joint; that is,

K
DF P (17.26)
K

Furthermore, the moment distributed to (or resisted by) a rigidly con-

nected end of a member equals the distribution factor for that end times
the negative of the moment applied to the adjacent joint.

Fixed-End Moments
The xed-end moment expressions for some common types of loading
conditions as well as for relative displacements of member ends are
given inside the back cover of the book for convenient reference. In the
moment-distribution method, the eects of joint translations due to sup-
port settlements and sidesway are also taken into account by means of
xed-end moments.
Consider the xed beam of Fig. 17.4(a). As shown in this gure, a
small settlement D of the left end A of the beam with respect to the right
end B causes the beams chord to rotate counterclockwise by an an-
gle c D=L. By writing the slope-deection equations (Eq. (16.9)) for
the two end moments with c D=L and by setting yA ; yB , and xed-end
 SECTION 17.2 Basic Concept of the Moment-Distribution Method 717

FIG. 17.4

moments FEMAB and FEMBA due to external loading, equal to zero, we

obtain
6EI D
FEMAB FEMBA 
L2
in which FEMAB and FEMBA now denote the xed-end moments due to
the relative translation D between the two ends of the beam. Note that
the magnitudes as well as the directions of the two xed-end moments
are the same. It can be seen from Fig. 17.4(a) that when a relative dis-
placement causes a chord rotation in the counterclockwise direction,
then the two xed-end moments act in the clockwise (negative) direction
to maintain zero slopes at the two ends of the beam. Conversely, if the
chord rotation due to a relative displacement is clockwise, as shown in
Fig. 17.4(b), then both xed-end moments act in the counterclockwise
(positive) direction to prevent the ends of the beam from rotating.

17.2 BASIC CONCEPT OF THE MOMENT-DISTRIBUTION METHOD

The moment-distribution method is an iterative procedure, in which it is
initially assumed that all the joints of the structure that are free to rotate
are temporarily restrained against rotation by imaginary clamps applied
to them. External loads and joint translations (if any) are applied to this
hypothetical xed structure, and xed-end moments at the ends of its
members are computed. These xed-end moments generally are not in
equilibrium at those joints of the structure that are actually free to ro-
tate. The conditions of equilibrium at such joints are then satised iter-
atively by releasing one joint at a time, with the remaining joints as-
sumed to remain clamped. A joint at which the moments are not in
balance is selected, and its unbalanced moment is evaluated. The joint is
then released by removing the clamp, thereby allowing it to rotate under
the unbalanced moment until the equilibrium state is reached. The
rotation of the joint induces moments at the ends of the members
718 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

connected to it. Such member end moments are referred to as distributed

moments, and their values are determined by multiplying the negative of
the unbalanced joint moment by the distribution factors for the member
ends connected to the joint. The bending of these members due to the
distributed moments causes carryover moments to develop at the far
ends of the members, which can easily be evaluated by using the mem-
ber carryover factors. The joint, which is now in equilibrium, is re-
clamped in its rotated position. Next, another joint with an unbalanced
moment is selected and is released, balanced, and reclamped in the same
manner. The procedure is repeated until the unbalanced moments at all
the joints of the structure are negligibly small. The nal member end
moments are obtained by algebraically summing the xed-end moment
and all the distributed and carryover moments at each member end.
This iterative process of determining member end moments by succes-
sively distributing the unbalanced moment at each joint is called the
moment-distribution process.
With member end moments known, member end shears, member
axial forces, and support reactions can be determined through equili-
brium considerations, as discussed in Chapter 16.
To illustrate the moment-distribution method, consider the three-span
continuous beam shown in Fig. 17.5(a). This structure was previously
analyzed in Section 16.2 by the slope-deection method. It is usually con-
venient to carry out the moment-distribution analysis in a tabular form, as
shown in Fig. 17.5(a). Note that the table, which is sometimes referred to
as a moment-distribution table, consists of six columns, one for each
member end of the structure. All the computations for a particular mem-
ber end moment are recorded in the column for that member end.

Distribution Factors
The rst step in the analysis is to calculate the distribution factors at
those joints of the structure that are free to rotate.
As discussed in Section 17.1 (Eq. (17.26)), the distribution factor for
an end of a member is equal to the relative bending stiness of the
member divided by the sum of the relative bending stinesses of all the
members connected to the joint. From Fig. 17.5(a), we can see that only
joints B and C of the continuous beam are free to rotate. The dis-
tribution factors at joint B are
KBA I =20
DFBA 0:5
KBA KBC 2I =20
KBC I =20
DFBC 0:5
KBA KBC 2I =20
Similarly, at joint C,
 SECTION 17.2 Basic Concept of the Moment-Distribution Method 719

FIG. 17.5
720 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. 17.5 (contd.)

 SECTION 17.2 Basic Concept of the Moment-Distribution Method 721

KCB I =20
DFCB 0:429
KCB KCD I =20 I =15
KCD I =15
DFCD 0:571
KCB KCD I =20 I =15
Note that the sum of the distribution factors at each joint must always
equal 1. The distribution factors are recorded in boxes directly beneath
the corresponding member ends on top of the moment-distribution
table, as shown in Fig. 17.5(a).

Fixed-End Moments
Next, by assuming that joints B and C are restrained against rotation by
imaginary clamps applied to them (Fig. 17.5(b)), we calculate the xed-
end moments that develop at the ends of each member. By using the
xed-end moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book,
we obtain
1:520 2
FEMAB 50 k-ft or 50 k-ft
12
FEMBA 50 k-ft @ or 50 k-ft
3020
FEMBC 75 k-ft or 75 k-ft
8
FEMCB 75 k-ft @ or 75 k-ft
FEMCD FEMDC 0
Note that in accordance with the moment-distribution sign convention,
the counterclockwise xed-end moments are considered to be positive.
The xed-end moments are recorded on the rst line of the moment-
distribution table, as shown in Fig. 17.5(a).

Balancing Joint C
Since joints B and C are actually not clamped, we release them, one at a
time. We can release either joint B or joint C; let us begin at joint C.
From Fig. 17.5(b), we can see that there is a 75-k-ft (clockwise) xed-
end moment at end C of member BC, whereas no moment exists at
end C of member CD. As long as joint C is restrained against rotation
by the clamp, the 75-k-ft unbalanced moment is absorbed by the
clamp. However, when the imaginary clamp is removed to release the
joint, the 75-k-ft unbalanced moment acts at the joint, as shown in
Fig. 17.5(c), causing it to rotate in the counterclockwise direction until
it is in equilibrium (Fig. 17.5(d)). The rotation of joint C causes the
722 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

distributed moments, DMCB and DMCD , to develop at ends C of mem-

bers BC and CD, which can be evaluated by multiplying the negative of
the unbalanced moment (i.e., 75-k-ft) by the distribution factors DFCB
and DFCD , respectively. Thus
DMCB 0:42975 32:2 k-ft
DMCD 0:57175 42:8 k-ft
These distributed moments are recorded on line 2 of the moment-
distribution table (Fig. 17.5(a)), and a line is drawn beneath them to
indicate that joint C is now balanced. Note that the sum of the three
moments above the line at joint C is equal to zero (i.e., 75 32:2
42:8 0).
The distributed moment at end C of member BC induces a carry-
over moment at the far end B (Fig. 17.5(d)), which can be determined
by multiplying the distributed moment by the carryover factor of the
member. Since joint B remains clamped, the carryover factor of member
BC is 12 (Eq. (17.13)). Thus, the carryover moment at the end B of
member BC is
1
COMBC COFCB DMCB 32:2 16:1 k-ft
2
Similarly, the carryover moment at the end D of member CD is com-
puted as
1
COMDC COFCD DMCD 42:8 21:4 k-ft
2
These carryover moments are recorded on the same line of the moment-
distribution table as the distributed moments, with a horizontal arrow
from each distributed moment to its carryover moment, as shown in
Fig. 17.5(a).
The total member end moments at this point in the analysis are
depicted in Fig. 17.5(e). It can be seen from this gure that joint C is
now in equilibrium, because it is subjected to two equal, but opposite,
moments. Joint B, however, is not in equilibrium, and it needs to be
balanced. Before we release joint B, an imaginary clamp is applied to
joint C in its rotated position, as shown in Fig. 17.5(e).

Balancing Joint B
Joint B is now released. The unbalanced moment at this joint is ob-
tained by summing all the moments acting at the ends B of members
AB and BC, which are rigidly connected to joint B. From the moment-
distribution table (lines 1 and 2), we can see that there is a 50-k-ft
xed-end moment at end B of member AB, whereas the end B of
member BC is subjected to a 75-k-ft xed-end moment and a
16.1-k-ft carryover moment. Thus the unbalanced moment at joint B is
 SECTION 17.2 Basic Concept of the Moment-Distribution Method 723

UMB 50 75 16:1 41:1 k-ft

This unbalanced moment causes joint B to rotate, as shown in Fig.
17.5(f ), and induces distributed moments at ends B of members AB and
BC. As discussed previously, the distributed moments are evaluated by
multiplying the negative of the unbalanced moment by the distribution
factors:
DMBA 0:541:1 20:6 k-ft
DMBC 0:541:1 20:6 k-ft
These distributed moments are recorded on line 3 of the moment-
distribution table, and a line is drawn beneath them to indicate that
joint B is now balanced. One-half of the distributed moments are then
carried over to the far ends A and C of members AB and BC, re-
spectively, as indicated by horizontal arrows on line 3 of the table. Joint
B is then reclamped in its rotated position.

Balancing Joint C
With joint B now balanced, we can see from the moment-distribution
table (line 3) that, due to the carryover eect, there is a 10.3-k-ft un-
balanced moment at joint C. Recall that the moments above the hori-
zontal line at joint C were balanced previously. Thus we release joint C
again and distribute the unbalanced moment to ends C of members BC
and CD as (Fig. 17.5(g))
DMCB 0:42910:3 4:4 k-ft
DMCD 0:57110:3 5:9 k-ft
These distributed moments are recorded on line 4 of the moment-
distribution table, and one-half of these moments are carried over to the
ends B and D of members BC and CD, respectively, as indicated on the
table. Joint C is then reclamped.

Balancing Joint B
The 2.2-k-ft unbalanced moment at joint B (line 4 of the moment-
distribution table) is balanced in a similar manner. The distributed and
the carryover moments thus computed are shown on line 5 of the table.
Joint B is then reclamped.
It can be seen from line 5 of the moment-distribution table that the
unbalanced moment at joint C has now been reduced to only 0.6 k-ft.
Another balancing of joint C produces an even smaller unbalanced
moment of 0.2 k-ft at joint B, as shown on line 6 of the moment-
distribution table. Since the distributed moments induced by this un-
balanced moment are negligibly small, we end the moment-distribution
724 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

process. The nal member end moments are obtained by algebraically

summing the entries in each column of the moment-distribution table.
The nal moments thus obtained are recorded on line 8 of the table and
are shown on the free-body diagrams of the members in Fig. 17.5(h).
Note that the nal moments satisfy the equations of moment equili-
brium at joints B and C.
With the member end moments known, member end shears and
support reactions can now be determined by considering the equilibrium
of the free bodies of the members and joints of the continuous beam, as
discussed in Section 16.2. The shear and bending moment diagrams can
then be constructed in the usual manner by using the beam sign con-
vention (see Fig. 16.3).

Practical Application of the Moment-Distribution Process

In the foregoing discussion, we determined the member end moments by
successively balancing one joint of the structure at a time. Although this
approach provides a clearer insight into the basic concept of the mo-
ment-distribution process, from a practical viewpoint, it is usually more
convenient to use an alternative approach in which all the joints of the
structure that are free to rotate are balanced simultaneously in the same
step. All the carryover moments that are induced at the far ends of the
members are then computed simultaneously in the following step, and
the process of balancing the joints and carrying over moments is re-
peated until the unbalanced moments at the joints are negligibly small.
To illustrate this alternative approach, consider again the three-
span continuous beam of Fig. 17.5(a). The moment-distribution table
used for carrying out the computations is shown in Fig. 17.5(i). The
previously computed distribution factors and xed-end moments are re-
corded on the top and the rst line, respectively, of the table, as shown
in the gure. The moment-distribution process is started by balancing
joints B and C. From line 1 of the moment-distribution table (Fig.
17.5(i)), we can see that the unbalanced moment at joint B is
UMB 50 75 25 k-ft
As discussed previously, the balancing of joint B induces distributed
moments at ends B of the members AB and BC, which can be evaluated
by multiplying the negative of the unbalanced moment by the dis-
tribution factors. Thus,
DMBA 0:525 12:5 k-ft
DMBC 0:525 12:5 k-ft
Joint C is then balanced in a similar manner. From line 1 of the
moment-distribution table, we can see that the unbalanced moment at
joint C is
UMC 75 k-ft
 SECTION 17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 725

Thus, the balancing of joint C induces the following distributed mo-

ments at ends C of members BC and CD, respectively:
DMCB 0:42975 32:2 k-ft
DMCD 0:57175 42:8 k-ft
The four distributed moments are recorded on line 2 of the moment-
distribution table, and a line is drawn beneath them, across the entire
width of the table, to indicate that all the joints are now balanced.
In the next step of the analysis, the carryover moments that develop
at the far ends of the members are computed by multiplying the dis-
tributed moments by the carryover factors:
1 1
COMAB DMBA 12:5 6:3 k-ft
2 2
1 1
COMCB DMBC 12:5 6:3 k-ft
2 2
1 1
COMBC DMCB 32:2 16:1 k-ft
2 2
1 1
COMDC DMCD 42:8 21:4 k-ft
2 2
These carryover moments are recorded on the next line (line 3) of the
moment-distribution table, with an inclined arrow pointing from each
distributed moment to its carryover moment, as shown in Fig. 17.5(i).
We can see from line 3 of the moment-distribution table that, due to
the carryover eect, there are now 16.1-k-ft and 6.3-k-ft unbalanced
moments at joints B and C, respectively. Thus these joints are balanced
again, and the distributed moments thus obtained are recorded on line 4
of the moment-distribution table. One-half of the distributed moments
are then carried over to the far ends of the members (line 5), and the
process is continued until the unbalanced moments are negligibly small.
The nal member end moments, obtained by algebraically summing the
entries in each column of the moment-distribution table, are recorded
on line 11 of the table (Fig. 17.5(i)). Note that these nal moments are in
agreement with those determined previously in Fig. 17.5(a) and in Sec-
tion 16.2 by the slope-deection method. The small dierences between
the results obtained by dierent approaches are due to the round-o
errors.

17.3 ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Based on the discussion presented in the preceding section, the proce-
dure for the analysis of continuous beams by the moment-distribution
method can be summarized as follows:
726 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

1. Calculate distribution factors. At each joint that is free to rotate,

calculate the distribution factor for each of the members rigidly
connected to the joint. The distribution factor for a member end
is computed by dividing the relative bending stiness I =L of the
member by the sum of the relative bending stinesses of all the
members rigidly connected to the joint. The sum of all the dis-
tribution factors at a joint must equal 1.
2. Compute xed-end moments. Assuming that all the free joints are
clamped against rotation, evaluate, for each member, the xed-end
moments due to the external loads and support settlements (if any)
by using the xed-end moment expressions given inside the back
cover of the book. The counterclockwise xed-end moments are
considered to be positive.
3. Balance the moments at all the joints that are free to rotate by ap-
plying the moment-distribution process as follows:
a. At each joint, evaluate the unbalanced moment and distribute
the unbalanced moment to the members connected to the joint.
The distributed moment at each member end rigidly connected
to the joint is obtained by multiplying the negative of the un-
balanced moment by the distribution factor for the member
end.
b. Carry over one-half of each distributed moment to the opposite
(far) end of the member.
c. Repeat steps 3(a) and 3(b) until either all the free joints are
balanced or the unbalanced moments at these joints are negli-
gibly small.
4. Determine the nal member end moments by algebraically sum-
ming the xed-end moment and all the distributed and carryover
moments at each member end. If the moment distribution has been
carried out correctly, then the nal moments must satisfy the equa-
tions of moment equilibrium at all the joints of the structure that
are free to rotate.
5. Compute member end shears by considering the equilibrium of the
members of the structure.
6. Determine support reactions by considering the equilibrium of the
joints of the structure.
7. Draw shear and bending moment diagrams by using the beam sign
convention.

Beams with Simple Supports at the Ends

Although the foregoing procedure can be used to analyze continuous
beams that are simply supported at one or both ends, the analysis of
such structures can be considerably simplied by using the reduced rel-
ative bending stinesses, K 3I 4L, for spans adjacent to the simple
 SECTION 17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 727

end supports, in accordance with Eq. (17.9). When using reduced sti-
nesses, the joints at the simple end supports are balanced only once
during the moment-distribution process, after which they are left un-
clamped so that no moments can be carried over to them as the interior
joints of the structure are balanced (see Example 17.3).

Structures with Cantilever Overhangs

Consider a continuous beam with a cantilever overhang, as shown in
Fig. 17.6(a). Since the cantilever portion CD does not contribute to the
rotational stiness of joint C, the distribution factor for its end C is zero
(DFCD 0). Thus, joint C can be treated as a simple end support in the
analysis. The moment at end C of the cantilever, however, does aect
the unbalanced moment at joint C and must be included along with the
other xed-end moments in the analysis (Fig. 17.6(b)). Note that the
cantilever portion CD is statically determinate; therefore, the moment at
its end C can be easily evaluated by applying the equation of moment
equilibrium (Fig. 17.6(c)).

FIG. 17.6
728 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Example 17.1

Determine the member end moments for the two-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 17.7(a) by using the moment-
distribution method.

FIG. 17.7

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed in Example 16.1 by the slope-deection method.
Distribution Factors Only joint B is free to rotate. The distribution factors at this joint are
KBA I=25
DFBA 0:545
KBA KBC I =25 I =30
KBC I =30
DFBC 0:455
KBA KBC I =25 I =30
Note that the sum of the distribution factors at joint B is equal to 1; that is,
DFBA DFBC 0:545 0:455 1 Checks
The distribution factors are recorded in boxes beneath the corresponding member ends on top of the moment-
distribution table, as shown in Fig. 17.7(a).

Fixed-End Moments Assuming that joint B is clamped against rotation, we calculate the xed-end moments due to
the external loads by using the xed-end moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book:

continued
 SECTION 17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 729

181015 2
FEMAB 64:8 k-ft or 64:8 k-ft
25 2
1810 2 15
FEMBA 43:2 k-ft @ or 43:2 k-ft
25 2
230 2
FEMBC 150 k-ft or 150 k-ft
12
FEMCB 150 k-ft @ or 150 k-ft

These xed-end moments are recorded on the rst line of the moment-distribution table, as shown in Fig. 17.7(a).
Moment Distribution Since joint B is actually not clamped, we release the joint and determine the unbalanced
moment acting on it by summing the moments at ends B of members AB and BC:

UMB 43:2 150 106:8 k-ft

This unbalanced moment at joint B induces distributed moments at the ends B of members AB and BC, which can be
determined by multiplying the negative of the unbalanced moment by the distribution factors:

DMBA DFBA UMB 0:545106:8 58:2 k-ft

DMBC DFBC UMB 0:455106:8 48:6 k-ft

These distributed moments are recorded on line 2 of the moment-distribution table, and a line is drawn beneath them to
indicate that joint B is now balanced. The carryover moments at the far ends A and C of members AB and BC, re-
spectively, are then computed as
1 1
COMAB DMBA 58:2 29:1 k-ft
2 2
1 1
COMCB DMBC 48:6 24:3 k-ft
2 2

The carryover moments are recorded on the next line (line 3) of the moment-distribution table, with an inclined arrow
pointing from each distributed moment to its carryover moment, as shown in Fig. 17.7(a).
Joint B is the only joint of the structure that is free to rotate, and because it has been balanced, we end the moment-
distribution process.
Final Moments The nal member end moments are obtained by algebraically summing all the moments in each
column of the moment-distribution table. The nal moments thus obtained are recorded on the last line of the table in
Fig. 17.7(a). Note that these nal moments satisfy the equation of moment equilibrium at joint B. A positive answer for
an end moment indicates that its sense is counterclockwise, whereas a negative answer for an end moment implies a
clockwise sense. The nal member end moments are depicted in Fig. 17.7(b). Ans.

The member end shears and support reactions can now be determined by considering the equilibrium of the mem-
bers and joints of the continuous beam, as discussed in Example 16.1. The shear and bending moment diagrams of the
beam were also constructed in Example 16.1.
730 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Example 17.2

Determine the member end moments for the three-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 17.8(a) by the moment-
distribution method.

3 k/ft

EI = constant A D
B C

18 ft 18 ft 18 ft
Distribution Factors
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
1. Fixed-end moments +32.4 48.6 +81 81 +48.6 32.4
2. Balance joints B and C 16.2 16.2 +16.2 +16.2
3. Carryover 8.1 +8.1 8.1 +8.1
4. Balance joints B and C 4.1 4.1 +4.1 +4.1
5. Carryover 2.0 +2.0 2.0 +2.0
6. Balance joints B and C 1.0 1.0 +1.0 +1.0
7. Carryover 0.5 +0.5 0.5 +0.5
8. Balance joints B and C 0.2 0.2 +0.2 +0.2
9. Carryover 0.1 +0.1 0.1 +0.1
10. Balance joints B and C 0.05 0.05 +0.05 +0.05
11. Final moments +21.7 70.2 +70.2 70.2 +70.2 21.7

(a) Continuous-Beam and Moment-Distribution Table

3 k/ft 3 k/ft 3 k/ft

70.2 70.2
21.7
21.7 A B
70.2
B C
70.2
C D

(b) Final Member End Moments (k-ft)

FIG. 17.8

Solution
This beam was analyzed previously in Example 16.2 by using the slope-deection method.
Distribution Factors From Fig. 17.8(a), we can see that joints B and C of the beam are free to rotate. The dis-
tribution factors at joint B are
KBA I=18
DFBA 0:5
KBA KBC I =18 I =18
KBC I =18
DFBC 0:5
KBA KBC I =18 I =18
Similarly, at joint C,
continued
 SECTION 17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 731

KCB I=18
DFCB 0:5
KCB KCD I =18 I =18
KCD I =18
DFCD 0:5
KCB KCD I=18 I=18

Fixed-End Moments

318 2
FEMAB 32:4 k-ft
30
318 2
FEMBA  48:6 k-ft
20
318 2
FEMBC 81 k-ft
12
FEMCB 81 k-ft
318 2
FEMCD 48:6 k-ft
20
318 2
FEMDC  32:4 k-ft
30

Moment Distribution After recording the distribution factors and the xed-end moments in the moment-
distribution table shown in Fig. 17.8(a), we begin the moment-distribution process by balancing joints B and C. The
unbalanced moment at joint B is equal to 48:6 81 32:4 k-ft. Thus, the distributed moments at the ends B of
members AB and BC are

DMBA DFBA UMB 0:532:4 16:2 k-ft

DMBC DFBC UMB 0:532:4 16:2 k-ft

Similarly, noting that the unbalanced moment at joint C equals 81 48:6 32:4 k-ft, we determine the dis-
tributed moments at the ends C of members BC and CD to be

DMCB DFCB UMC 0:532:4 16:2 k-ft

DMCD DFCD UMC 0:532:4 16:2 k-ft

One-half of these distributed moments are then carried over to the far ends of the members, as shown on the third line
of the moment-distribution table in Fig. 17.8(a). This process is repeated, as shown in the gure, until the unbalanced
moments are negligibly small.

Final Moments The nal member end moments, obtained by summing the moments in each column of the
moment-distribution table, are recorded on the last line of the table in Fig. 17.8(a). These moments are depicted in
Fig. 17.8(b). Ans.
The member end shears, support reactions, and shear and bending moment diagrams of the beam were determined
in Example 16.2.
732 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Example 17.3

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the two-span continuous beam shown
in Fig. 17.9(a) by using the moment-distribution method.

Solution
Distribution Factors From Fig. 17.9(a), we can see that joints B and C of the continuous beam are free to rotate.
The distribution factors at joint B are

FIG. 17.9
continued
 SECTION 17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 733

FIG. 17.9 (contd.)

continued
734 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

KBA 1:5I =10

DFBA 0:6
KBA KBC 1:5I =10 I =10

KBC I =10
DFBC 0:4
KBA KBC 1:5I =10 I =10

Similarly, at joint C,
KCB 0:1I
DFCB 1
KCB 0:1I

Fixed-End Moments

8010
FEMAB 100 kN  m
8
FEMBA 100 kN  m

4010
FEMBC 50 kN  m
8

FEMCB 50 kN  m

Moment Distribution After recording the distribution factors and the xed-end moments in the moment-
distribution table shown in Fig. 17.9(b), we begin the moment-distribution process by balancing joints B and C. The
unbalanced moment at joint B is equal to 100 50 50 kN  m. Thus the distributed moments at the ends B of
members AB and BC are

DMBA DFBA UMB 0:650 30 kN  m

DMBC DFBC UMB 0:450 20 kN  m

Similarly, noting that the unbalanced moment at joint C is 50 kN  m, we determine the distributed moment at
end C of member BC to be

DMCB DFCB UMC 150 50 kN  m

One-half of these distributed moments are then carried over to the far ends of the members, as shown on the third line
of the moment-distribution table in Fig. 17.9(b). This process is repeated, as shown in the gure, until the unbalanced
moments are negligibly small.
Final Moments The nal member end moments, obtained by summing the moments in each column of the
moment-distribution table, are recorded on the last line of the table in Fig. 17.9(b). Ans.
Alternative Method Because the end support C of the continuous beam is a simple support, the analysis can be
simplied by using the reduced relative bending stiness for member BC, which is adjacent to the simple support C:
 
3 I
KBC
4 10

Note that the relative bending stiness of member AB remains the same as before. The distribution factors at joint B are
now given by
continued
 SECTION 17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 735

KBA 1:5I=10 2
DFBA
KBA KBC 1:5I=10 3I=40 3
KBC 3I =40 1
DFBC
KBA KBC 1:5I =10 3I =40 3
At joint C, DFCB KCB =KCB 1. These distribution factors, and the xed-end moments that remain the same as
before, are recorded in the moment-distribution table, as shown in Fig. 17.9(c).
Since we are using the reduced relative bending stiness for member BC, joint C needs to be balanced only once in
the moment-distribution process. Thus joints B and C are balanced and the distributed moments are computed in the
usual manner, as indicated on the second line of the moment-distribution table (Fig. 17.9(c)). However, as shown on the
third line of the table in Fig. 17.9(c), no moment is carried over to end C of member BC. Joint B is balanced once more,
and the moment is carried over to the end A of member AB (lines 4 and 5). Because both joints B and C are now bal-
anced, we can end the moment-distribution process and determine the nal moments by summing the moments in each
column of the moment-distribution table. Ans.
Member End Shears The member end shears, obtained by considering the equilibrium of each member, are shown
in Fig. 17.9(d). Ans.
Support Reactions See Fig. 17.9(e). Ans.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams See Fig. 17.9(f ) and (g). Ans.

Example 17.4

Determine the member end moments for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 17.10(a) by using the moment-distribution
method.

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed in Example 16.4 by the slope-deection method.
Distribution Factors Since the cantilever portion CD does not contribute to the rotational stiness of joint C, we
can treat joint C as a simple end support and use the reduced relative bending stiness of member BC in the analysis:
 
I 3 I I
KBA and KBC
6 4 9 12
At joint B,
I =6 2
DFBA
I=6 I =12 3
I =12 1
DFBC
I =6 I =12 3

continued
736 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. 17.10

At joint C,
DFCB 1

Fixed-End Moments Using the xed-end moment expressions and Fig. 17.10(b), we obtain

FEMAB FEMBA 0

FEMBC 67:5 kN  m FEMCB 67:5 kN  m

FEMCD 304 120 kN  m

Moment Distribution The moment distribution is carried out as shown on the moment-distribution table in
Fig. 17.10(c).

Final Moments See the moment-distribution table and Fig. 17.10(d). Ans.
 SECTION 17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 737

Example 17.5

Determine the member end moments for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 17.11(a) due to a settlement of 20
mm at support B. Use the moment-distribution method.

B C D
A

8m 8m 8m
E = 70 GPa I = 800 (106) mm4
(a) Continuous Beam

A
0.02 m D

C
B
(b) Fixed-End Moments Due to Support Settlement

AB BA BC CB CD DC
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
+105 +105 105 105
+52.5 +52.5
+26.3 +26.3
13.1 13.1
6.6 6.6
+3.3 +3.3
+1.6 +1.6
0.8 0.8
0.4 0.4
+0.2 +0.2
+0.1 +0.1
0.05 0.05
+ 98 + 91.1 91 56 +56 +28

(c) Moment-Distribution Table

91 91 28

98 A B B C C D
56 56
(d) Final Member End Moments (kN . m)

FIG. 17.11
continued
738 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Solution
This beam was analyzed previously in Example 16.5 by using the slope-deection method.

Distribution Factors At joint B,

I =8
DFBA 0:5
I=8 I =8
I =8
DFBC 0:5
I =8 I =8
At joint C,
I =8
DFCB 0:5
I =8 I=8
I =8
DFCD 0:5
I =8 I =8
Fixed-End Moments A qualitative deected shape of the continuous beam with all joints clamped against rotation
and subjected to the specied support settlement is depicted in Fig. 17.11(b) using an exaggerated scale. It can be
seen from this gure that the relative settlements for the three members are DAB DBC 0:02 m, and DCD 0.
By using the xed-end moment expressions, we determine the xed-end moments due to the support settlement
to be
6EI D 6708000:02
FEMAB FEMBA 2 105 kN  m
L 8 2
6EI D 6708000:02
FEMBC FEMCB   105 kN  m
L 2
8 2
FEMCD FEMDC 0
Moment Distribution The moment distribution is carried out in the usual manner, as shown on the moment-
distribution table in Fig. 17.11(c).
Final Moments See the moment-distribution table and Fig. 17.11(d). Ans.

Example 17.6

Determine the member end moments for the three-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 17.12(a) due to the uniformly
distributed load and due to the support settlements of 58 in. at B, 112 in. at C, and 34 in. at D. Use the moment-distribution
method.

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed in Example 16.6 by the slope-deection method.

continued
 SECTION 17.3 Analysis of Continuous Beams 739

FIG. 17.12 continued

740 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Distribution Factors At joint A,

DFAB 1

At joint B,
3I =80
DFBA 0:429
3I=80 I =20

I =20
DFBC 0:571
3I =80 I =20

At joint C,
I =20
DFCB 0:571
3I =80 I =20

3I =80
DFCD 0:429
3I=80 I=20

At joint D,
DFDC 1

Fixed-End Moments A qualitative deected shape of the continuous beam with all joints clamped against rotation
and subjected to the specied support settlements is depicted in Fig. 17.12(b) using an exaggerated scale. It can be
seen from this gure that the relative settlements for the three members are DAB 58 in:, DBC 112  58 78 in:, and
DCD 112  34 34 in: By using the xed-end-moment expressions, we determine the xed-end moments due to the sup-
port settlements to be
 
5
629;0007;800
6EI D 8
FEMAB FEMBA 2 2 3
L 20 12

1;227:2 k-ft
 
7
629;0007;800
8
FEMBC FEMCB 1;718:1 k-ft
20 2 12 3
 
3
629;0007;800
4
FEMCD FEMDC  1;472:7 k-ft
20 2 12 3

The xed-end moments due to the 2-k/ft external load are

220 2
FEMAB FEMBC FEMCD 66:7 k-ft
12

FEMBA FEMCB FEMDC 66:7 k-ft

Thus, the total xed-end moments due to the combined eect of the external load and the support settlements are

continued
 SECTION 17.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway 741

FEMAB 1;293:9 k-ft FEMBA 1;160:5 k-ft

FEMBC 1;784:8 k-ft FEMCB 1;651:4 k-ft
FEMCD 1;406 k-ft FEMDC 1;539:4 k-ft
Moment Distribution The moment distribution is carried out in the usual manner, as shown on the moment-
distribution table in Fig. 17.12(c). Note that the joints A and D at the simple end supports are balanced only once and
that no moments are carried over to these joints.

Final Moments See the moment-distribution table and Fig. 17.12(d). Ans.

17.4 ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITHOUT SIDESWAY

The procedure for the analysis of frames without sidesway is similar to
that for the analysis of continuous beams presented in the preceding
section. However, unlike the continuous beams, more than two members
may be connected to a joint of a frame. In such cases, care must be taken
to record the computations in such a manner that mistakes are avoided.
Whereas some engineers like to record the moment-distribution compu-
tations directly on a sketch of the frame, others prefer to use a tabular
format for such purposes. We will use a tabular form for calculations, as
illustrated by the following example.

Example 17.7

Determine the member end moments for the frame shown in Fig. 17.13(a) by using the moment-distribution method.

Solution
This frame was analyzed in Example 16.8 by the slope-deection method.
Distribution Factors At joint C,
   
800 1600
20 30
DFCA     0:429 DFCD     0:571
800 1600 800 1600

20 30 20 30
DFCA DFCD 0:429 0:571 1 Checks

continued
742 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. 17.13 continued

 SECTION 17.4 Analysis of Frames without Sidesway 743

At joint D,
 
800
20
DFDB        0:3
800 1600 3 1600

20 30 4 30
 
1600
30
DFDC        0:4
800 1600 3 1600

20 30 4 30
  
3 1600
4 30
DFDE        0:3
800 1600 3 1600

20 30 4 30
DFDB DFDE DFDC 20:3 0:4 1 Checks

At joint E,

DFED 1

Fixed-End Moments By using the xed-end moment expressions, we obtain

FEMAC 100 k-ft FEMCA 100 k-ft

FEMBD FEMDB 0
FEMCD FEMDE 150 k-ft FEMDC FEMED 150 k-ft

Moment Distribution The moment-distribution process is carried out in tabular form, as shown in Fig.
17.13(b). The table, which is similar in form to those used previously for the analysis of continuous beams, contains
one column for each member end of the structure. Note that the columns for all member ends, which are connected
to the same joint, are grouped together, so that any unbalanced moment at the joint can be conveniently distributed
among the members connected to it. Also, when the columns for two ends of a member cannot be located adjacent
to each other, then an overhead arrow connecting the columns for the member ends may serve as a reminder to
carry over moments from one end of the member to the other. In Fig. 17.13(b), such an arrow is used between the
columns for the ends of member BD. This arrow indicates that a distributed moment at end D of member BD
induces a carryover moment at the far end B. Note, however, that no moment can be carried over from end B to
end D of member BD, because joint B, which is at a xed support, will not be released during the moment-
distribution process.
The moment distribution is carried out in the same manner as discussed previously for continuous beams. Note
that any unbalanced moment at joint D must be distributed to the ends D of the three members connected to it in ac-
cordance with their distribution factors.
Final Moments The nal member end moments are obtained by summing all the moments in each column of
the moment-distribution table. Note that the nal moments, which are recorded on the last line of the moment-
distribution table and are depicted in Fig. 17.13(c), satisfy the equations of moment equilibrium at joints C and D
of the frame.
Ans.
744 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

17.5 ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITH SIDESWAY

Thus far, we have considered the analysis of structures in which the
translations of the joints were either zero or known (as in the case of
support settlements). In this section, we apply the moment-distribution
method to analyze frames whose joints may undergo both rotations and
translations that have not been prescribed. As discussed in Section 16.4,
such frames are commonly referred to as frames with sidesway.
Consider, for example, the rectangular frame shown in Fig. 17.14(a).
A qualitative deected shape of the frame for an arbitrary loading is
also shown in the gure using an exaggerated scale. While the xed
joints A and B of the frame are completely restrained against rotation as
well as translation, the joints C and D are free to rotate and translate.
However, since the members of the frame are assumed to be inextensible
and the deformations are assumed to be small, the joints C and D dis-
place by the same amount, D, in the horizontal direction only, as shown
in the gure.

FIG. 17.14
 SECTION 17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 745

The moment-distribution analysis of such a frame, with sidesway, is

carried out in two parts. In the rst part, the sidesway of the frame is
prevented by adding an imaginary roller to the structure, as shown in
Fig. 17.14(b). External loads are then applied to this frame, and member
end moments are computed by applying the moment-distribution proc-
ess in the usual manner. With the member end moments known, the re-
straining force (reaction) R that develops at the imaginary support is
evaluated by applying the equations of equilibrium.
In the second part of the analysis, the frame is subjected to the
force R, which is applied in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig.
17.14(c). The moments that develop at the member ends are deter-
mined and superimposed on the moments computed in the rst part
(Fig. 17.14(b)) to obtain the member end moments in the actual frame
(Fig. 17.14(a)). If M; MO , and MR denote, respectively, the member end
moments in the actual frame, the frame with sidesway prevented, and
the frame subjected to R, then we can write (see Fig. 17.14(a), (b),
and (c))
M M O MR (17.27)
An important question that arises in the second part of the analysis
is how to determine the member end moments MR that develop when
the frame undergoes sidesway under the action of R (Fig. 17.14(c)).
Since the moment-distribution method cannot be used directly to com-
pute the moments due to the known lateral load R, we employ an in-
direct approach in which the frame is subjected to an arbitrary known
joint translation D0 caused by an unknown load Q acting at the location
and in the direction of R, as shown in Fig. 17.14(d). From the known
joint translation, D0 , we determine the relative translation between the
ends of each member, and we calculate the member xed-end moments
in the same manner as done previously in the case of support settle-
ments. The xed-end moments thus obtained are distributed by the
moment-distribution process to determine the member end moments
MQ caused by the yet-unknown load Q. Once the member end moments
MQ have been determined, the magnitude of Q can be evaluated by the
application of equilibrium equations.
With the load Q and the corresponding moments MQ known, the
desired moments MR due to the lateral load R can now be determined
easily by multiplying MQ by the ratio R=Q; that is,
 
R
MR MQ (17.28)
Q
By substituting Eq. (17.28) into Eq. (17.27), we can express the member
end moments in the actual frame (Fig. 17.14(a)) as
 
R
M MO MQ (17.29)
Q

This method of analysis is illustrated by the following examples.

746 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Example 17.8

Determine the member end moments for the frame shown in Fig. 17.15(a) by using the moment-distribution method.

Solution
This frame was analyzed in Example 16.10 by the slope-deection method.
Distribution Factors At joint C,
I =7
DFCA DFCD 0:5
2I =7

FIG. 17.15
continued
 SECTION 17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 747

FIG. 17.15 (contd.)

continued
748 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. 17.15 (contd.)

continued
 SECTION 17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 749

FIG. 17.15 (contd.)

At joint D,
I =7
DFDC 0:417
I =7 I =5
I =5
DFDB 0:583
I =7 I =5
DFDC DFDB 0:417 0:583 1 Checks
Part I: Sidesway Prevented In the rst part of the analysis, the sidesway of the frame is prevented by adding an
imaginary roller at joint C, as shown in Fig. 17.15(b). Assuming that joints C and D of this frame are clamped against
rotation, we calculate the xed-end moments due to the external load to be
FEMCD 39:2 kN  m FEMDC 29:4 kN  m
FEMAC FEMCA FEMBD FEMDB 0
The moment-distribution of these xed-end moments is then performed, as shown on the moment-distribution table in
Fig. 17.15(c), to determine the member end moments MO in the frame with sidesway prevented.
To evaluate the restraining force R that develops at the imaginary roller support, we rst calculate the shears at the
lower ends of the columns AC and BD by considering the moment equilibrium of the free bodies of the columns shown

continued
750 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

in Fig. 17.15(d). Next, by considering the equilibrium of the horizontal forces acting on the entire frame (Fig. 17.15(e)),
we determine the restraining force R to be

P
! FX 0 R 5:14  7:2 0

R 2:06 kN !

Note that the restraining force acts to the right, indicating that if the roller would not have been in place, the frame
would have swayed to the left.

Part II: Sidesway Permitted Since the actual frame is not supported by a roller at joint C, we neutralize the
eect of the restraining force by applying a lateral load R 2:06 kN in the opposite direction (i.e., to the left) to
the frame, as shown in Fig. 17.15(f ). As discussed previously, since the moment-distribution method cannot be
used directly to compute member end moments MR due to the lateral load R 2:06 kN, we use an indirect ap-
proach in which the frame is subjected to an arbitrary known joint translation D0 caused by an unknown load Q
acting at the location and in the direction of R, as shown in Fig. 17.15(g). Assuming that the joints C and D of the
frame are clamped against rotation, as shown in Fig. 17.15(h), the xed-end moments due to the translation D0 are
given by

6EI D0 6EI D0
FEMAC FEMCA  
7 2 49

6EI D0 6EI D0
FEMBD FEMDB  2

5 25

FEMCD FEMDC 0

in which negative signs have been assigned to the xed-end moments for the columns, because these moments must act
in the clockwise direction, as shown in Fig. 17.15(h).
Instead of arbitrarily assuming a numerical value for D0 to compute the xed-end moments, it is usually more
convenient to assume a numerical value for one of the xed-end moments, evaluate D0 from the expression of that xed-
end moment, and use the value of D0 thus obtained to compute the remaining xed-end moments. Thus, we arbitrarily
assume the xed-end moment FEMAC to be 50 kN  m; that is,

6EI D0
FEMAC FEMCA  50 kN  m
49

By solving for D0 , we obtain

408:33
D0
EI

continued
 SECTION 17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 751

By substituting this value of D0 into the expressions for FEMBD and FEMDB , we determine the consistent values of these
moments to be

6408:33
FEMBD FEMDB  98 kN  m
25

The foregoing xed-end moments are then distributed by the usual moment-distribution process, as shown in
Fig. 17.15(i), to determine the member end moments MQ caused by the yet-unknown load Q.
To evaluate the magnitude of Q that corresponds to these member end moments, we rst calculate shears at the
lower ends of the columns by considering their moment equilibrium (Fig. 17.15( j)) and then apply the equation of
equilibrium in the horizontal direction to the entire frame:
P
! FX 0

Q 10:97 23:44 0

Q 34:41 kN

which indicates that the moments MQ computed in Fig. 17.15(i) are caused by a lateral load Q 34:41 kN. Since the
moments are linearly proportional to the magnitude of the load, the desired moments MR due to the lateral load
R 2:06 kN must be equal to the moments MQ (Fig. 17.15(i)) multiplied by the ratio R=Q 2:06=34:41.
Actual Member End Moments The actual member end moments, M, can now be determined by algebraically
summing the member end moments MO computed in Fig. 17.15(c) and 2:06=34:41 times the member end moments
MQ computed in Fig. 17.15(i). Thus
 
2:06
MAC 12 42:3 14:5 kN  m Ans.
34:41
 
2:06
MCA 24 34:5 26:1 kN  m Ans.
34:41
 
2:06
MCD 23:9 34:3 26 kN  m Ans.
34:41
 
2:06
MDC 24 45:4 21:3 kN  m Ans.
34:41
 
2:06
MDB 24 45:4 21:3 kN  m Ans.
34:41
 
2:06
MBD 12 71:8 7:7 kN  m Ans.
34:41

These moments are depicted in Fig. 17.15(k).

752 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Example 17.9

Determine the reactions for the nonprismatic beam shown in Fig. 17.16(a) by using the moment-distribution method.

Solution
Since the stiness and carryover relationships derived in Section 17.1 as well as the expressions of xed-end moments
given inside the back cover of the book are valid only for prismatic members, we will analyze the given nonprismatic
beam as if it were composed of two prismatic members, AB and BC, rigidly connected at joint B. Note that joint B is
free to rotate as well as translate in the vertical direction, as shown in Fig. 17.16(a).
Distribution Factors The distribution factors at joint B are

I =30
DFBA 0:231
I =30 2I =18
2I =18
DFBC 0:769
I =30 2I =18

Part I: Joint Translation Prevented In this part of the analysis, the translation of joint B is prevented by an imagi-
nary roller, as shown in Fig. 17.16(b). The xed-end moments due to the external load are

FEMAB 150 k-ft FEMBA 150 k-ft

FEMBC 54 k-ft FEMCB 54 k-ft

The moment distribution of these xed-end moments is performed, as shown in Fig. 17.16(b), to determine the member
end moments MO . The restraining force R at the imaginary roller support is then evaluated by considering the equili-
brium of members AB and BC and of joint B as shown in Fig. 17.16(c). The restraining force is found to be
R 53:04 k "

Part II: Joint Translation Permitted Since the actual beam is not supported by a roller at joint B, we neutralize its
restraining eect by applying a downward load R 53:04 k to the beam, as shown in Fig. 17.16(d). To determine the
member end moments MR due to R, we subject the beam to an arbitrary known translation D0 , as shown in Fig.
17.16(e). The xed-end moments due to D0 are given by (see Fig. 17.16(f ))

6EI D0 EI D0
FEMAB FEMBA 2

30 150

6E2I D0 EI D0
FEMBC FEMCB  2

18 27

If we arbitrarily assume that

EI D0
FEMBC FEMCB  100 k-ft
27

continued
 SECTION 17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 753

FIG. 17.16

continued
754 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. 17.16 (contd.) continued

 SECTION 17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 755

then
EI D0 2;700
and, therefore,
2;700
FEMAB FEMBA 18 k-ft
150
These xed-end moments are distributed by the moment-distribution process, as shown in Fig. 17.16(g), to de-
termine the member end moments MQ . The load Q at the location and in the direction of R that corresponds to these
moments can now be evaluated by considering equilibrium of members AB and BC and of joint B, as shown in Fig.
17.16(h). The magnitude of Q is found to be
Q8k#
Thus, the desired moments MR due to the vertical load R 53:04 k (Fig. 17.16(d)) must be equal to the moments MQ
(Fig. 17.16(g)) multiplied by the ratio R=Q 53:04=8 6:63.
Actual Member End Moments The actual member end moments, M, can now be determined by algebraically
summing the member end moments MO computed in Fig. 17.16(b) and 6.63 times the member end moments MQ com-
puted in Fig. 17.16(g).
MAB 161:1 6:6327:5 343:4 k-ft Ans.
MBA 127:8 6:6336:9 116:8 k-ft Ans.
MBC 127:8 6:6336:9 116:8 k-ft Ans.
MCB 17:1 6:6368:5 471:2 k-ft Ans.
The member end shears obtained by applying equations of equilibrium are shown in Fig. 17.16(i).
Support Reactions See Fig. 17.16( j). Ans.
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.

Example 17.10

Determine the member end moments and reactions for the frame shown in Fig. 17.17(a) by using the moment-dis-
tribution method.

Solution
Distribution Factors At joint C,
I =20
DFCA DFCD 0:5
2I=20

continued
756 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. 17.17
continued
 SECTION 17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 757

FIG. 17.17 (contd.)

continued
758 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. 17.17 (contd.)

At joint D,
I =20
DFDC 0:49
I=20 3=4I=14:42
3=4I =14:42
DFDB 0:51
I=20 3=4I=14:42
Member End Moments Due to an Arbitrary Sidesway D0 Since no external loads are applied to the members of the
frame, the member end moments MO in the frame restrained against sidesway will be zero. To determine the member
end moments M due to the 30-k lateral load, we subject the frame to an arbitrary known horizontal translation D0 at
joint C. Figure 17.17(b) shows a qualitative deected shape of the frame with all joints clamped against rotation and
subjected to the horizontal displacement D0 at joint C. The procedure for constructing such deected shapes was
discussed in Section 16.5. Note that, since the frame members are assumed to be inextensible and deformations are as-
sumed to be small, an end of a member can translate only in the direction perpendicular to the member. From this g-
ure, we can see that the relative translation DAC between the ends of member AC in the direction perpendicular to the
member can be expressed in terms of the joint translation D0 as
5
DAC CC 0 D0 1:25D0
4
Similarly, the relative translations for members CD and BD are given by
2 3
DCD D1 D 0 D0 D0 1:417D0
3 4
p
13 0
DBD DD 0 D 1:202D0
3
The xed-end moments due to the relative translations are
6EI 1:25D0
FEMAC FEMCA
20 2
6EI 1:417D0
FEMCD FEMDC 
20 2
6EI 1:202D0
FEMBD FEMDB
14:42 2
continued
 SECTION 17.5 Analysis of Frames with Sidesway 759

in which, as shown in Fig. 17.17(b), the xed-end moments for members AC and BD are counterclockwise (positive),
whereas those for member CD are clockwise (negative). If we arbitrarily assume that
6EI 1:202D0
FEMBD FEMDB 100 k-ft
14:42 2
then
EI D0 2;883:2
and, therefore,
FEMAC FEMCA 54:1 k-ft
FEMCD FEMDC 61:3 k-ft
These xed-end moments are distributed by the moment-distribution process, as shown in Fig. 17.17(c), to de-
termine the member end moments MQ .
To determine the magnitude of the load Q that corresponds to the member end moments computed in Fig.
17.17(c), we rst calculate the shears at the ends of the girder CD by considering the moment equilibrium of the free
body of the girder shown in Fig. 17.17(d). The girder shears (5.58 k) thus obtained are then applied to the free bodies of
the inclined members AC and BD, as shown in the gure. Next, we apply the equations of moment equilibrium to
members AC and BD to calculate the horizontal forces at the lower ends of these members. The magnitude of Q can
now be determined by considering the equilibrium of horizontal forces acting on the entire frame as (see Fig. 17.17(d))
P
! Fx 0
Q  11:17  8:32 0
Q 19:49 k !

Actual Member End Moments The actual member end moments, M, due to the 30-k lateral load can now be
evaluated by multiplying the moments MQ computed in Fig. 17.17(c) by the ratio 30=Q 30=19:49:
30
MAC 55:3 85:1 k-ft Ans.
19:49
30
MCA 56:5 87 k-ft Ans.
19:49
30
MCD 56:4 86:8 k-ft Ans.
19:49
30
MDC 55:2 85 k-ft Ans.
19:49
30
MDB 55:2 85 k-ft Ans.
19:49

MBD 0 Ans.

Member End Forces See Fig. 17.17(e).

Support Reactions See Fig. 17.17(f ). Ans.
Equilibrium Check The equilibrium equations check.
760 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Analysis of Multistory Frames

The foregoing procedure can be extended to the analysis of structures
with multiple degrees of freedom of sidesway. Consider the two-story
rectangular frame shown in Fig. 17.18(a). The moment-distribution
analysis of this frame is carried out in three parts. In the rst part, the
sidesway of both oors of the frame is prevented by adding imaginary
rollers at the oor levels, as shown in Fig. 17.18(b). Member end mo-
ments MO that develop in this frame due to the external loads are com-
puted by the moment-distribution process, and the restraining forces R1
and R 2 at the imaginary supports are evaluated by applying the equa-
tions of equilibrium. In the second part of the analysis, the lower oor
of the frame is allowed to displace by a known amount D01 while the
sidesway of the upper oor is prevented, as shown in Fig. 17.18(c). The
xed-end moments caused by this displacement are computed and dis-
tributed to obtain the member end moments MQ1 . With the member end

FIG. 17.18
 Summary 761

moments known, the forces Q11 and Q21 at the locations of the roller
supports are determined from the equilibrium equations. Similarly, in
the third part of the analysis, the upper oor of the frame is allowed to
displace by a known amount D02 , as shown in Fig. 17.18(d), and the
corresponding member end moments MQ2 , and the forces Q12 and Q22 ,
are evaluated. The member end moments M in the actual frame (Fig.
17.18(a)) are determined by superposition of the moments computed in
the three parts as
M MO c1 MQ1 c2 MQ2 (17.30)
in which c1 and c2 are the constants whose values are obtained by solv-
ing the equations of superposition of horizontal forces at the locations
of the imaginary supports. By superimposing the horizontal forces
shown in Fig. 17.18(a) through (d) at joints D and F , respectively, we
obtain
R1 c1 Q11  c2 Q12 0
R 2  c1 Q21 c2 Q22 0
By solving these equations simultaneously, we obtain the values of the
constants c1 and c2 , which are then used in Eq. (17.30) to determine the
desired member end moments, M.
As the foregoing discussion indicates, the analysis of multistory
frames by the moment-distribution method can be quite tedious and
time consuming. Therefore, the analysis of such structures is performed
today on computers using the matrix formulation of the displacement
method presented in Chapter 18.

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have studied a classical formulation of the displace-
ment (stiness) method, called the moment-distribution method, for the
analysis of beams and frames.
The procedure for the analysis of continuous beams and frames
without sidesway essentially involves computing xed-end moments due
to the external loads by assuming that all the free joints of the struc-
ture are temporarily restrained against rotation and balancing the
moments at free joints by the moment-distribution process. In the
moment-distribution process, at each free joint of the structure, the un-
balanced moment is evaluated and distributed to the member ends con-
nected to it. Carryover moments induced at the far ends of the members
are then computed, and the process of balancing the joints and carrying
over moments is repeated until the unbalanced moments are negligibly
small. The nal member end moments are obtained by algebraically
summing the xed-end moment and all the distributed and carryover
moments at each member end.
762 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

The analysis of frames with a single degree of freedom of sidesway is

carried out in two parts. In the rst part, the sidesway is prevented by the
addition of an imaginary roller to the structure. Member end moments
that develop in this restrained frame, due to the external loads, are
computed by the moment-distribution process; and the restraining force
R at the imaginary roller is evaluated by the application of the equations
of equilibrium. In the second part of the analysis, to calculate the mem-
ber moments due to the force R applied in the opposite direction, the
structure is allowed to displace by an arbitrarily assumed known amount;
and the member moments and the corresponding force Q at the location
of R are evaluated as before. The actual member end moments are de-
termined by algebraically summing the moments computed in the rst
part and R=Q times the moments computed in the second part.
Once member end moments are known, member end shears, mem-
ber axial forces, and support reactions can be evaluated through equili-
brium considerations.

PROBLEMS
Section 17.3
17.1 through 17.5 Determine the reactions and draw the
shear and bending moment diagrams for the beams shown
in Figs. P17.1P17.5 by using the moment-distribution
method.

FIG. P17.3

25 kN/m

A C
B
FIG. P17.1
8m 8m
E = 70 GPa I = 1,300 (106) mm4
20 k
3 k/ft FIG. P17.4, P17.7
1.5 k/ft

A C 3 k/ft
B
A C
B
15 ft 15 ft 20 ft 25 ft 15 ft
2I I
E = 29,000 ksi I = 1,650 in.4 E = 29,000 ksi I = 2,500 in.4

FIG. P17.2, P17.6 FIG. P17.5

 Problems 763

17.6 Solve Problem 17.2 for the loading shown in Fig. 120 kN 120 kN 150 kN
P17.2 and a settlement of 12 in. at support B. A C E
G
17.7 Solve Problem 17.4 for the loading shown in Fig. P17.4 B D F
and the support settlements of 50 mm at B and 25 mm at C.
17.8 through 17.14 Determine the reactions and draw the 6m 4m 6m 4m 4m 4m
shear and bending moment diagrams for the beams shown
I 2I I
in Figs. P17.8P17.14 by using the moment-distribution
method. E = 200 Gpa I = 500 (106) mm4

FIG. P17.12, P17.16

1.5 k/ft

A D
B C
25 ft 20 ft 25 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P17.8

FIG. P17.13

FIG. P17.9, P17.15

FIG. P17.14

17.15 Solve Problem 17.9 for the loading shown in Fig.

P17.9 and a settlement of 25 mm at support C.
17.16 Solve Problem 17.12 for the loading shown in
FIG. P17.10 Fig. P17.12 and the support settlements of 10 mm at A,
65 mm at C, 40 mm at E, and 25 mm at G.

35 k
1 k/ft 2 k/ft

E
A B C D

10 ft 10 ft 10 ft 20 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P17.11
764 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

Section 17.4 30 kN/m

17.17 through 17.20 Determine the member end moments
and reactions for the frames shown in Figs. P17.17P17.20 C D
by using the moment-distribution method.

8m

A B

10 m

EI = constant

FIG. P17.17, P17.21 FIG. P17.20

17.21 Solve Problem 17.17 for the loading shown in Fig.

P17.17 and a settlement of 50 mm at support D.
17.22 Solve Problem 17.18 for the loading shown in Fig.
P17.18 and a settlement of 14 in. at support A.
17.23 Determine the member end moments and reactions
for the frame of Fig. P17.23 for the loading shown in the
gure and the support settlements of 1 in. at A and 112 in. at
D. Use the moment-distribution method.

FIG. P17.18, P17.22

FIG. P17.23

Section 17.5
17.24 through 17.31 Determine the member end moments
and reactions for the frames shown in Figs. P17.24P17.31
FIG. P17.19 by using the moment-distribution method.
 Problems 765

2 k/ft

25 k C
B

20 ft

FIG. P17.27

15 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P17.24

FIG. P17.28

FIG. P17.25
3 k/ft
40 k
C D

15 ft

A B

30 ft
EI = constant
FIG. P17.26 FIG. P17.29
766 CHAPTER 17 Moment-Distribution Method

FIG. P17.31

FIG. P17.30
 18
Introduction to Matrix
Structural Analysis
18.1 Analytical Model
18.2 Member Stiffness Relations in Local Coordinates
18.3 Coordinate Transformations
18.4 Member Stiffness Relations in Global Coordinates
18.5 Structure Stiffness Relations
18.6 Procedure for Analysis
Summary
Problems

Analytical Model of the

Superstructure of the Anaheim
Arena, California
Courtesy of Thornton-Tomasetti, Inc.

In this text we have focused our attention on the classical methods of

structural analysis. Although a study of classical methods is essential for
developing an understanding of structural behavior and the principles of
structural analysis, the analysis of large structures by using these hand-
calculation methods can be quite time consuming. With the availability
of inexpensive, yet powerful, microcomputers, the analysis of structures
in most design oces is routinely performed today on computers using
software based on matrix methods of structural analysis.
The objective of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the excit-
ing and still-growing eld of matrix structural analysis. However, only
the basic concepts of matrix analysis are presented herein. For a more
detailed study, the reader should refer to one of the many textbooks de-
voted entirely to the subject of matrix structural analysis.
Matrix methods do not involve any new fundamental principles;
but the fundamental relationships of equilibrium, compatibility, and
member force-displacement relations are now expressed in the form of
matrix equations, so that the numerical computations can be eciently
performed on a computer. Therefore, familiarity with the basic oper-
ations of matrix algebra is a prerequisite to understanding matrix struc-
tural analysis. A review of the concepts of matrix algebra necessary for
formulating the matrix methods of structural analysis is presented in
Appendix B for the convenience of the reader.

767
768 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Although both the exibility (force) and the stiness (displacement)

methods can be expressed in matrix form, the stiness method is more
systematic and can be more easily implemented on computers. Thus,
most of the commercially available computer programs for structural
analysis are based on the stiness method. In this chapter, we will con-
sider only the matrix stiness (displacement) method of structural anal-
ysis. This method can be used to analyze statically determinate as well
as indeterminate structures.
We begin by discussing the process of preparing an analytical model
of the structure to be analyzed. We also dene global and local coor-
dinate systems and explain the concept of degrees of freedom. Next we
derive member force-displacement relations in local coordinates. We
consider the transformation of member end forces and end displace-
ments from local to global coordinates and vice versa, and develop the
member stiness relations in global coordinates. We formulate the sti-
ness relations for the entire structure by combining the member stiness
relations and, nally, develop a step-by-step procedure for the analysis
of trusses, continuous beams, and frames by the matrix stiness method.

18.1 ANALYTICAL MODEL

In the matrix stiness method of analysis, the structure is considered to
be an assemblage of straight members connected at their ends to joints.
A member is dened as a part of the structure for which the member force-
displacement relations to be used in the analysis are valid. In other words,
given the displacements of the ends of a member, one should be able
to determine the forces and moments at its ends by using the force-
displacement relations. Such relations for prismatic members will be
derived in the following section. A joint is dened as a structural part of
innitesimal size to which the member ends are connected. The members
and joints of structures are also referred to as elements and nodes,
respectively.
Before proceeding with the analysis, an analytical model of the
structure must be prepared. The model is represented by a line diagram
of the structure, on which all the joints and members are identied by
numbers. Consider, for example, the frame shown in Fig. 18.1(a). The
analytical model of the frame is shown in Fig. 18.1(b), in which the joint
numbers are enclosed within circles to distinguish them from the mem-
ber numbers, which are enclosed within rectangles. As shown in this
gure, the frame is considered to be composed of four members and ve
joints for the purpose of analysis. Note that, since the member force-
displacement relations to be used in the analysis are valid for prismatic
members only, the vertical column of the frame has been subdivided
into two members, each with constant cross-sectional properties (I and
A) along its length.
 SECTION 18.1 Analytical Model 769

FIG. 18.1

Global and Local Coordinate Systems

In the stiness method, the overall geometry and behavior of the struc-
ture are described with reference to a Cartesian or rectangular global (or
structural) coordinate system. The global coordinate system used in this
chapter is a right-handed XYZ coordinate system, with the plane struc-
ture lying in the XY plane, as shown in Fig. 18.1(b).
Since it is usually convenient to derive the basic force-displacement
relations in terms of the forces and displacements in the directions along
and perpendicular to members, a local (or member) coordinate system is
dened for each member of the structure. The origin of the local xyz
coordinate system for a member may be arbitrarily located at one of the
ends of the member, with the x axis directed along the centroidal axis of
770 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

the member. The positive direction of the y axis is chosen so that the
coordinate system is right-handed, with the local z axis pointing in the
positive direction of the global Z axis. In Fig. 18.1(b), the positive di-
rection of the x axis for each member is indicated by drawing an arrow
along each member on the line diagram of the structure. For example,
this gure indicates that the origin of the local coordinate system for
member 1 is located at its end connected to joint 1, with the x1 axis di-
rected from joint 1 to joint 2. The joint to which the member end with
the origin of the local coordinate system is connected is referred to as
the beginning joint for the member, whereas the joint adjacent to the
opposite end of the member is termed the end joint. For example, in
Fig. 18.1(b), member 1 begins at joint 1 and ends at joint 2, whereas
member 2 begins at joint 2 and ends at joint 3, and so on. Once the local
x axis is dened for a member, the corresponding y axis can be estab-
lished by applying the right-hand rule. The local y axes thus obtained
for the members of the frame under consideration are shown in Fig.
18.1(c). Note that, for each member, if we curl the ngers of our right
hand from the direction of the x axis toward the direction of the corre-
sponding y axis, then our extended thumb points out of the plane of the
page, which is the positive direction of the global Z axis.

Degrees of Freedom
The degrees of freedom of a structure are the independent joint displace-
ments (translations and rotations) that are necessary to specify the de-
formed shape of the structure when subjected to an arbitrary loading.
Consider again the plane frame of Fig. 18.1(a). The deformed shape of
the frame, for an arbitrary loading, is depicted in Fig. 18.1(d) using an
exaggerated scale. Unlike in the case of the classical methods of analysis
considered previously, it is usually not necessary to neglect member ax-
ial deformations when analyzing frames by the matrix stiness method.
From Fig. 18.1(d), we can see that joint 1, which is located at the hinged
support, can rotate, but it cannot translate. Thus joint 1 has only one
degree of freedom, which is designated as d1 in the gure. Since joint 2
of the frame is not attached to a support, three displacementsthe
translations d2 and d3 in the X and Y directions, respectively, and the
rotation d4 about the Z axisare needed to completely specify its de-
formed position 2 0 . Thus joint 2 has three degrees of freedom. Similarly,
joints 3 and 4, which are also free joints, have three degrees of freedom
each. Finally, joint 5, which is attached to the xed support, can neither
translate nor rotate; therefore, it does not have any degrees of freedom.
Thus, the entire frame has a total of ten degrees of freedom. As shown
in Fig. 18.1(d), the joint displacements are dened relative to the global
coordinate system, with joint translations considered as positive when in
the positive directions of the X and Y axes and joint rotations consid-
ered as positive when counterclockwise. Note that all the joint displace-
 SECTION 18.1 Analytical Model 771

ments are shown in the positive sense in Fig. 18.1(d). The joint dis-
placements of the frame can be collectively written in matrix form as
2 3
d1
6 d2 7
6 7
6 . 7
d 6 .
6 . 7
7
6 7
4 d9 5
d10
in which d is termed the joint displacement vector of the structure.
When applying the stiness method, it is not necessary to draw the
deformed shape of the structure, as shown in Fig. 18.1(d), to identify
its degrees of freedom. Instead, the degrees of freedom can be directly
specied on the line diagram of the structure by drawing arrows at the
joints, as shown in Fig. 18.1(b). As indicated in this gure, the degrees
of freedom are numbered by starting at the lowest joint number and
proceeding sequentially to the highest joint number. In the case of more
than one degree of freedom at a joint, the translation in the X direction
is numbered rst, followed by the translation in the Y direction, and
then the rotation.
In continuous beams subjected to lateral loads, the axial deforma-
tions of members are zero. Therefore, it is not necessary to consider the
joint displacements in the direction of the beams centroidal axis in the
analysis. Thus a joint of a plane continuous beam can have up to two
degrees of freedom, namely, a translation perpendicular to the beams
centroidal axis and a rotation. For example, the continuous beam of
Fig. 18.2(a) has four degrees of freedom, as shown in Fig. 18.2(b).
Since the joints of trusses are assumed to be frictionless hinges, they
are not subjected to moments; therefore, their rotations are zero. Thus,
when analyzing plane trusses, only two degrees of freedom, namely,
translations in the global X and Y directions, need to be considered for
each joint. For example, the truss of Fig. 18.3(a) has three degrees of
freedom, as shown in Fig. 18.3(b).

FIG. 18.2
772 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

FIG. 18.3

18.2 MEMBER STIFFNESS RELATIONS IN LOCAL COORDINATES

In the matrix stiness method of analysis, the joint displacements of the
structure are determined by solving a system of simultaneous equations,
which is expressed in the form
P Sd (18.1)
in which d denotes the joint displacement vector, as discussed pre-
viously; P represents the eects of external loads at the joints of the
structure; and S is called the structure stiness matrix. As will be dis-
cussed in Section 18.5, the stiness matrix for the entire structure, S, is
obtained by assembling the stiness matrices for the individual members
of the structure. The stiness matrix for a member is used to express the
forces at the ends of the member as functions of the displacements of the
members ends. Note that the terms forces and displacements are used
here in the general sense to include moments and rotations, respectively.
In this section, we derive stiness matrices for the members of plane
frames, continuous beams, and plane trusses in the local coordinate
systems of the members.

Frame Members
To establish the stiness relationships for the members of plane frames,
let us focus our attention on an arbitrary prismatic member m of the
frame shown in Fig. 18.4(a). When the frame is subjected to external
loads, member m deforms and internal forces are induced at its ends.
The undeformed and deformed positions of the member are shown
in Fig. 18.4(b). As indicated in this gure, three displacements
translations in the x and y directions and rotation about the z axisare
needed to completely specify the deformed position of each end of the
 SECTION 18.2 Member Stiffness Relations in Local Coordinates 773

FIG. 18.4
774 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

FIG. 18.4 (contd.)

 SECTION 18.2 Member Stiffness Relations in Local Coordinates 775

member. Thus the member has a total of six end displacements or de-
grees of freedom. As shown in Fig. 18.4(b), the member end displace-
ments are denoted by u1 through u6 , and the corresponding member end
forces are denoted by Q1 through Q6 . Note that these end displace-
ments and forces are dened relative to the local coordinate system of
the member, with translations and forces considered as positive when in
the positive directions of the local x and y axes, and rotations and mo-
ments considered as positive when counterclockwise. As indicated in
Fig. 18.4(b), the member end displacements and forces are numbered by
beginning at the member end b, where the origin of the local coordinate
system is located, with the translation and force in the x direction num-
bered rst, followed by the translation and force in the y direction, and
then the rotation and moment. The displacements and forces at the op-
posite end e of the member are then numbered in the same sequential
order.
Our objective here is to determine the relationships between the
member end forces and end displacements in terms of the external loads
applied to the member. Such relationships can be conveniently estab-
lished by subjecting the member, separately, to each of the six end dis-
placements and external loads, and by expressing the total member end
forces as the algebraic sums of the end forces required to cause the in-
dividual end displacements and the forces caused by the external loads.
Thus, from Fig. 18.4(b) through (i), we can see that

Q1 k11 u1 k12 u2 k13 u3 k14 u4 k15 u5 k16 u6 Qf 1 (18.2a)

Q2 k21 u1 k22 u2 k23 u3 k24 u4 k25 u5 k26 u6 Qf 2 (18.2b)

Q3 k31 u1 k32 u2 k33 u3 k34 u4 k35 u5 k36 u6 Qf 3 (18.2c)

Q4 k41 u1 k42 u2 k43 u3 k44 u4 k45 u5 k46 u6 Qf 4 (18.2d)

Q5 k51 u1 k52 u2 k53 u3 k54 u4 k55 u5 k56 u6 Qf 5 (18.2e)

Q6 k61 u1 k62 u2 k63 u3 k64 u4 k65 u5 k66 u6 Qf 6 (18.2f )

in which kij represents the force at the location and in the direction of Qi
required, along with other end forces, to cause a unit value of the dis-
placement uj while all other end displacements are zero. These forces per
unit displacement are referred to as stiness coecients. Note that a
double-subscript notation is used for stiness coecients, with the rst
subscript identifying the force and the second subscript identifying the
displacement. The last terms on the right sides of Eqs. (18.2) represent
the xed-end forces due to external loads (Fig. 18.4(i)), which can be
determined by using the expressions for xed-end moments given in-
side the back cover of the book and by applying the equations of
equilibrium.
By using the denition of matrix multiplication, Eqs. (18.2) can be
expressed in matrix form as
776 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis
2 3 2 32 3 2 3
Q1 k11 k12 k13 k14 k15 k16 u1 Qf 1
6 7 6 76 7 6 7
6 Q2 7 6 k21 k22 k23 k24 k25 k26 76 u2 7 6 Qf 2 7
6 7 6 76 7 6 7
6 Q3 7 6 k31 k36 76 7 6 7
6 7 6 k32 k33 k34 k35 76 u3 7 6 Qf 3 7
6 Q4 7 6 k41 k42 k43 k44 k45 76 7 6
k46 76 u4 7 6 Qf 4 7
(18.3)
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 76 7 6 7
4 Q5 5 4 k51 k52 k53 k54 k55 k56 54 u5 5 4 Qf 5 5
Q6 k61 k62 k63 k64 k65 k66 u6 Qf 6

or, symbolically as

Q ku Qf (18.4)

in which Q and u are the member end force and member end displace-
ment vectors, respectively, in local coordinates; k is called the member
stiness matrix in local coordinates, and Qf is the member xed-end force
vector in local coordinates.
The stiness coecients, kij , can be evaluated by subjecting the
member, separately, to unit values of each of the six end displacements.
The member end forces required to cause the individual unit displace-
ments are then determined by using the principles of mechanics of ma-
terials and the slope-deection equations (Chapter 16) and by applying
the equations of equilibrium. The member end forces thus obtained
represent the stiness coecients for the member.
Let us evaluate the stiness coecients corresponding to a unit
value of the displacement u1 at end b of the member, as shown in Fig.
18.4(c). Note that all other displacements of the member are zero. Re-
calling from mechanics of materials that the axial deformation u1 of a
member caused by an axial force Q1 is given by u1 Q1 L=EA, we de-
termine the force k11 that must be applied at end b of the member (Fig.
18.4(c)) to cause a displacement u1 1 to be
EA
k11
L
The axial force k41 at the far end e of the member can now be obtained
by applying the equation of equilibrium:
P
! Fx 0 k11 k41 0
EA
k41 k11 
L
in which the negative sign indicates that this force acts in the nega-
tive x direction. Since the imposition of end displacement u1 1 does
not cause the member to bend, no moments or forces in the y direction
develop at the member ends. Therefore,
k21 k31 k51 k61 0
Similarly, the end forces required to cause an axial displacement
u 4 1 at end e of the member are (Fig. 18.4(f ))
 SECTION 18.2 Member Stiffness Relations in Local Coordinates 777

EA EA
k14  k44 k24 k34 k54 k64 0
L L
The deformed shape of the beam due to a unit value of displace-
ment u2 while all other displacements are zero is shown in Fig. 18.4(d).
The end moments required (along with end forces in the y direction)
to cause this deected shape can be determined by using the slope-
deection equations derived in Section 16.1. By substituting MAB k32 ,
MBA k62 , yA yB 0, c 1=L, and FEMAB FEMBA 0 into
Eqs. (16.8), we obtain
6EI
k32 k62
L2
The end forces in the y direction can now be obtained by applying the
following equilibrium equations:
 
P 6EI
Me 0 2  k22 L 0
L2
12EI
k22
L3
P 12EI
" Fy 0 k52 0
L3
12EI
k52 
L3
Since no axial deformations are induced in the member, the axial forces
at the member ends are zero; that is,
k12 k42 0

The member end forces required to cause a displacement u5 1

(Fig. 18.4(g)) can be determined in a similar manner:

12EI 6EI 12EI

k15 k45 0 k25  k35 k65  k55
L3 L2 L3

The deformed shape of the member due to a rotation u3 1, with

u1 u2 u4 u5 u6 0, is shown in Fig. 18.4(e). By substituting
MAB k33 , MBA k63 , yA 1, and yB c FEMAB FEMBA 0
into the slope-deection equations (Eqs. (16.8)), we obtain the member
end moments to be
4EI 2EI
k33 k63
L L
By applying the equations of equilibrium, we determine
6EI 6EI
k23 k53 
L2 L2
778 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Proceeding in the same manner, the stiness coecients correspond-

ing to the unit displacement u6 1 are found to be (Fig. 18.4(h))
6EI 2EI 4EI
k16 k46 0 k26 k56 k36 k66
L2 L L
Substitution of the foregoing values of the stiness coecients into
Eq. (18.3) yields the following stiness matrix for the members of plane
frames in local coordinates:
2 3
AL 2 AL 2
6 I 0 0  0 0 7
6 I 7
6 7
6 0 12 6L 0 12 6L 7
6 7
EI 6 0 6L 4L 2 0 6L 2L 2 7
k 36 7 (18.5)
L 66  AL
2
AL 2 7
7
6 0 0 0 0 7
6 I I 7
6 7
4 0 12 6L 0 12 6L 5
0 6L 2L 2 0 6L 4L 2
Note that the ith column of the member stiness matrix consists of the
end forces required to cause a unit value of the displacement ui while all
other displacements are zero. For example, the second column of k
consists of the six end forces required to cause the displacement u2 1,
as shown in Fig. 18.4(d), and so on. From Eq. (18.5), we can see that the
stiness matrix k is symmetric; that is, kij kji . It can be shown by us-
ing Bettis law (Section 7.8) that stiness matrices for linearly elastic
structures are always symmetric.

Continuous Beam Members

Since the axial deformations of the members of continuous beams sub-
jected to lateral loads are zero, we do not need to consider the degrees of
freedom in the direction of the members centroidal axis in the analysis.
Thus, only four degrees of freedom need to be considered for the members
of plane continuous beams. The degrees of freedom and the correspond-
ing end forces for a continuous beam member are shown in Fig. 18.5.

FIG. 18.5
 SECTION 18.2 Member Stiffness Relations in Local Coordinates 779

The stiness relations expressed in symbolic or condensed matrix

form in Eq. (18.4) remain valid for continuous beam members. How-
ever, Q; u, and Qf are now 4  1 vectors, and the member stiness ma-
trix in local coordinates, k, is given by
2 3
12 6L 12 6L
EI 66 6L 4L
2
6L 2L 2 7
7
k 36 7 (18.6)
L 4 12 6L 12 6L 5
6L 2L 2 6L 4L 2
Note that the foregoing 4  4 k matrix is obtained by deleting the rst
and fourth columns and the rst and fourth rows from the correspond-
ing matrix for frame members derived previously (Eq. (18.5)).

Truss Members
A member of a truss is subjected to only axial forces, which can be de-
termined from the displacements of the members ends in the direction
of the centroidal axis of the member. Thus only two axial degrees of
freedom need to be considered for the members of plane trusses. The
degrees of freedom and the corresponding end forces for a truss member
are shown in Fig. 18.6.
The stiness relationships for truss members in local coordinates are
expressed as
Q ku (18.7)
Note that Eq. (18.7) is obtained from Eq. (18.4) by setting Qf 0. This
is because the members of trusses are not subjected to any external loads
and, therefore, the member xed-end forces are zero. In Eq. (18.7), Q
and u are 2  1 vectors consisting of the member end forces and end
displacements, respectively (Fig. 18.6); and k is the member stiness
matrix in local coordinates, which is given by
 
EA 1 1
k (18.8)
L 1 1
The foregoing stiness matrix for truss members can either be derived
directly by using the procedure discussed previously (see Fig. 18.4(c) and
(f )) or it can be obtained by deleting columns 2, 3, 5, and 6 and rows 2,
3, 5, and 6 from the corresponding matrix for frame members (Eq.
18.5)).

FIG. 18.6
780 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

18.3 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS

When members of a structure are oriented in dierent directions, it be-
comes necessary to transform the stiness relations for each member
from the members local coordinate system to a common global coor-
dinate system. The member stiness relations in global coordinates thus
obtained are then combined to establish the stiness relations for the
entire structure. In this section, we discuss the transformation of mem-
ber end forces and end displacements from local to global coordinates,
and vice versa, for the members of plane frames, continuous beams, and
plane trusses. Coordinate transformation of the stiness relationships is
considered in the following section.

Frame Members
Consider an arbitrary member m of the frame shown in Fig. 18.7(a).
The orientation of the member with respect to the global XY coordinate
system is dened by an angle y measured counterclockwise from the
positive direction of the global X axis to the positive direction of the
local x axis, as shown in the gure. The stiness relations derived in
the preceding section are valid only for member end forces Q and end
displacements u described with reference to the local xy coordinate sys-
tem of the member, as shown in Fig. 18.7(b).
Now, suppose that the member end forces and end displacements
are specied relative to the global XY coordinate system (Fig. 18.7(c))
and we wish to determine the equivalent system of end forces and end
displacements, in local xy coordinates, that has the same eect on the
member. As shown in Fig. 18.7(c), the member end forces in global co-
ordinates are denoted by F1 through F6 , and the corresponding member
end displacements are denoted by v1 through v6 . These global member
end forces and end displacements are numbered by beginning at the
member end b, where the origin of the local coordinate system is lo-
cated, with the force and translation in the X direction numbered rst,
followed by the force and translation in the Y direction and then the
moment and rotation. The forces and displacements at the opposite
end e of the member are then numbered in the same sequential order.
A comparison of Fig. 18.7(b) and (c) indicates that at the end b of
the member, the local force Q1 must be equal to the algebraic sum of the
components of the global forces F1 and F2 in the direction of the local x
axis. Thus
Q1 F1 cos y F2 sin y (18.9a)

In a similar manner, the local force Q2 equals the algebraic sum of the
components of F1 and F2 in the direction of the local y axis; that is,

Q2 F1 sin y F2 cos y (18.9b)

 SECTION 18.3 Coordinate Transformations 781

FIG. 18.7
782 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Since the local z axis and the global Z axis are in the same direction
that is, directed out of the plane of the pagethe local end moment Q3
is equal to the global end moment F3 . Thus
Q3 F3 (18.9c)
By using a similar procedure at end e of the member, we express the
local forces in terms of the global forces as
Q4 F4 cos y F5 sin y (18.9d)
Q5 F4 sin y F5 cos y (18.9e)
Q6 F6 (18.9f )
Equations (18.9a) through (18.9f ) can be written in matrix form as
2 3 2 32 3
Q1 cos y sin y 0 0 0 0 F1
6 7 6 76 7
6 Q2 7 6 sin y cos y 0 0 0 0 76 F2 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 Q3 7 6 0 07 6 7
6 7 6 0 1 0 0 76 F3 7
6 Q4 7 6 0 0 76
7 7 (18.10)
6 7 6 0 0 cos y sin y 6 F4 7
6 7 6 76 7
4 Q5 5 4 0 0 0 sin y cos y 0 54 F5 5
Q6 0 0 0 0 0 1 F6

or symbolically as
Q TF (18.11)
in which
2 3
cos y sin y 0 0 0 0
6 7
6 sin y cos y 0 0 0 07
6 7
6 0 0 1 0 0 07
T 6
6 0
7 (18.12)
6 0 0 cos y sin y 077
6 7
4 0 0 0 sin y cos y 05
0 0 0 0 0 1

is referred to as the transformation matrix. The members direction

cosines, necessary for the evaluation of T, can be easily determined by
using the relationships

Xe  Xb Xe  Xb
cos y q (18.13a)
L
Xe  Xb 2 Ye  Yb 2
Ye  Yb Ye  Yb
sin y q (18.13b)
L
Xe  Xb 2 Ye  Yb 2

in which Xb and Yb represent the global coordinates of the beginning

joint b for the member; Xe and Ye denote the global coordinates of the
end joint e; and L is the length of the member.
 SECTION 18.3 Coordinate Transformations 783

Like end forces, the member end displacements are vectors which
are dened in the same directions as the corresponding forces. There-
fore, the transformation matrix T developed for the case of end forces
(Eq. (18.12)) can also be used to transform member end displacements
from global to local coordinates:

u Tv (18.14)

Next, we determine the transformations of member end forces and

end displacements from local to global coordinates. From Fig. 18.7(b)
and (c), we observe that at end b of the member, the global force F1
must be equal to the algebraic sum of the components of the local forces
Q1 and Q2 in the direction of the global X axis. Thus
F1 Q1 cos y  Q2 sin y (18.15a)
Similarly, the global force F2 equals the algebraic sum of the compo-
nents of Q1 and Q2 in the direction of the global Y axis; that is,
F2 Q1 sin y Q2 cos y (18.15b)
and, as discussed previously,
F3 Q3 (18.15c)
Similarly, at end e of the member,
F4 Q4 cos y  Q5 sin y (18.15d)
F5 Q4 sin y Q5 cos y (18.15e)
F6 Q6 (18.15f )
Equations (18.15a) through (18.15f ) can be expressed in matrix form as
2 3 2 32 3
F1 cos y sin y 0 0 0 0 Q1
6 7 6 76 7
6 F2 7 6 sin y cos y 0 0 0 0 76 Q2 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 F3 7 6 0 07 6 7
6 76 0 1 0 0 76 Q3 7 (18.16)
6 F4 7 6 0 0 0 cos y sin y 0 76 Q4 7
76
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 76 7
4 F5 5 4 0 0 0 sin y cos y 0 54 Q5 5
F6 0 0 0 0 0 1 Q6

A comparison of Eqs. (18.10) and (18.16) indicates that the trans-

formation matrix in Eq. (18.16), which transforms the forces from local
to global coordinates, is the transpose of the transformation matrix T
in Eq. (18.10), which transforms the forces from global to local coordi-
nates. Thus Eq. (18.16) can be written as

F TT Q (18.17)
784 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

The matrix T T can also dene the transformation of member end

displacements from local to global coordinates; that is,
v TT u (18.18)

Continuous Beam Members

When analyzing continuous beams, the member local coordinates are
oriented so that the positive directions of the local x and y axes are the
same as the positive directions of the global X and Y axes, respectively
(Fig. 18.8). This orientation enables us to avoid coordinate transfor-
mations because the member end forces and end displacements in the
global and local coordinates are the same; that is,
FQ vu (18.19)

Truss Members
Consider an arbitrary member m of the truss shown in Fig. 18.9(a). The
end forces and end displacements for the member, in local and global
coordinates, are shown in Fig. 18.9(b) and (c), respectively. Note that at
each member end, two degrees of freedom and two end forces are
needed in global coordinates to represent the components of the mem-
ber axial displacement and axial force, respectively. Thus, in global co-
ordinates, the truss member has a total of four degrees of freedom, v1
through v4 , and four end forces, F1 through F4 , as shown in Fig. 18.9(c).

FIG. 18.8
 SECTION 18.3 Coordinate Transformations 785

FIG. 18.9

The transformation matrix T for truss members can be established

by expressing the local end forces, Q, in terms of the global end forces,
F, as (Fig. 18.9(b) and (c))
Q1 F1 cos y F2 sin y (18.20a)
Q2 F3 cos y F4 sin y (18.20b)
or in matrix form as
2 3
F1
   
Q1 cos y sin y 0 0 6 7
6 F2 7
6 7 (18.21)
Q2 0 0 cos y sin y 4 F3 5
F4
from which we obtain the transformation matrix,
 
cos y sin y 0 0
T (18.22)
0 0 cos y sin y
The transformation relations given in symbolic or condensed matrix
form in Eqs. (18.11), (18.14), (18.17), and (18.18) remain valid for a
truss member, with the vectors Q; F; u, and v now representing the end
forces and end displacements of the truss member, as shown in Figs.
18.9(b) and (c), and the matrix T representing the transformation matrix
dened in Eq. (18.22).
786 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

18.4 MEMBER STIFFNESS RELATIONS IN GLOBAL COORDINATES

By using the member stiness relations in local coordinates (Section

18.2) and the transformation relations (Section 18.3), we can now de-
velop the stiness relations for members in global coordinates.

Frame Members
To establish the member stiness relations in global coordinates, we rst
substitute the stiness relations in local coordinates Q ku Qf (Eq.
(18.4)) into the force transformation relations F T T Q (Eq. (18.17)) to
obtain
F T T Q T T ku Qf T T ku T T Qf (18.23)

Then, by substituting the displacement transformation relations u Tv

(Eq. (18.14)) into Eq. (18.23), we determine the desired relations be-
tween the member end forces, F, and end displacements, v, to be

F T T kTv T T Qf (18.24)
Equation (18.24) can be conveniently written as

F Kv Ff (18.25)

where
K T T kT (18.26)
T
Ff T Qf (18.27)
The matrix K is called the member stiness matrix in global coordinates
and Ff is the member xed-end force vector in global coordinates.

Continuous Beam Members

As stated previously, the local coordinates of the members of con-
tinuous beams are oriented so that the positive directions of the local x
and y axes are the same as the positive directions of the global X
and Y axes, respectively. Thus no transformations of coordinates are
needed, and the member stiness relations in the local and global co-
ordinates are the same.

Truss Members
The stiness relations for truss members in global coordinates are ex-
pressed as
 SECTION 18.5 Structure Stiffness Relations 787

F Kv (18.28)
Note that Eq. (18.28) is obtained from Eq. (18.25) by setting the xed-
end force vector Ff 0.
When analyzing trusses, it is usually convenient to use the explicit
form of the member stiness matrix K. By substituting Eqs. (18.8) and
(18.22) into Eq. (18.26), we write
2 3
cos y 0
6 sin y   
6 0 7 7 EA 1 1 cos y sin y 0 0
K 6 7
4 0 cos y 5 L 1 1 0 0 cos y sin y
0 sin y
By performing the matrix multiplications, we obtain
2 3
cos 2 y cos y sin y cos 2 y cos y sin y
6
EA 6 cos y sin y 2
sin y cos y sin y sin 2 y 7 7
K 6 7
L 4 cos 2 y cos y sin y cos 2 y cos y sin y 5
2
cos y sin y sin y cos y sin y sin 2 y
(18.29)
The matrix K of Eq. (18.29) could have been determined alternatively
by subjecting an inclined truss member, separately, to unit values of
each of the four global end displacements and by evaluating the end
forces in global coordinates required to cause the individual unit dis-
placements. The end forces required to cause a unit value of the dis-
placement vi while all other displacements are zero represent the ith
column of the member global stiness matrix K.

18.5 STRUCTURE STIFFNESS RELATIONS

Once the member stiness relations in global coordinates have been
determined, the stiness relations for the entire structure can be estab-
lished by writing equilibrium equations for the joints of the structure
and by applying the compatibility conditions that the displacements of
the member ends rigidly connected to joints must be the same as the
corresponding joint displacements.
To illustrate this procedure, consider the two-member frame shown
in Fig. 18.10(a). The analytical model of the frame is given in Fig.
18.10(b), which indicates that the structure has three degrees of freedom,
d1 ; d2 , and d3 . The joint loads corresponding to these degrees of freedom
are designated as P1 ; P2 , and P3 , respectively. The global end forces Fi
and end displacements vi for the two members of the frame are shown
in Fig. 18.10(c), in which the superscript i denotes the member num-
ber. Our objective is to express the joint loads P as functions of the joint
displacements d.
788 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Equilibrium Equations
P P
By applying
P the three equations of equilibrium, FX 0, FY 0,
and M 0, to the free body of joint 2 shown in Fig. 18.10(c), we
obtain the equilibrium equations
1 2
P1 F4 F1 (18.30a)
1 2
P2 F5 F2 (18.30b)
1 2
P3 F6 F3 (18.30c)

FIG. 18.10
 SECTION 18.5 Structure Stiffness Relations 789

FIG. 18.10 (contd.)

790 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Member Stiffness Relations

To express the joint loads P in terms of the joint displacements d, we
rst relate the member end forces Fi to end displacements vi , by using
the member stiness relations in global coordinates derived in the pre-
ceding section. By writing Eq. (18.25) in expanded form for member 1,
we obtain
2 3 2 32 3 2 1 3
F
1
K
1 1 1 1
K12 K13 K14 K15 K16
1 1
v
1 Ff 1
6 1 7 6 11 76 1 7 6 7
6 1 7 6 1 1 1 1 1 6
1 76 1 7 6 F 1 7
6 F2 7 6 K21 K22 K23 K24 K25 K26 76 v2 7 6 f 2 7 7
6 1 7 6 1 76 7
1 76 1 7 6 1 7
6F 7 6K K
1
K
1
K
1
K
1
K v 6 F 7
6 3 7 6 31 32 33 34 35 36 76 3 7 6 f 3 7
6 1 7 6 1 76 1 7 6 1 7
6F 7 6K 1 1 1 1 1 76 7
6 4 7 6 41 K42 K43 K44 K45 K46 76 v4 7 6 F 7
6 f4 7
6 1 7 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 76 1 7 6 1 7
6 F5 7 6 K51 K52 K53 K54 K55 K56 76 v5 7 6 F 7
4 5 4 54 5 4 f5 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F6 K61 K62 K63 K64 K65 K66 v6 Ff 6
(18.31)
from which we determine the expressions for forces at end 2 of the
member to be
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F4 K41 v1 K42 v2 K43 v3 K44 v4
1 1 1 1 1
K45 v5 K46 v6 Ff 4 (18.32a)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F5 K51 v1 K52 v2 K53 v3 K54 v4
1 1 1 1 1
K55 v5 K56 v6 Ff 5 (18.32b)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F6 K61 v1 K62 v2 K63 v3 K64 v4
1 1 1 1 1
K65 v5 K66 v6 Ff 6 (18.32c)

Similarly, by writing Eq. (18.25) for member 2, we obtain

2 3 2 32 3 2 2 3
F1
2 2 2 2 2
K11 K12 K13 K14 K15 K16
2 2
v
2 Ff 1
6 7 6 76 1 7 6 6
7
6 2 7 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 76 2 7 6 F 2 7 7
6 2 7 6 21
F K K K K K K 26 76 v 7 f 2
6 2 7 6 2 22 23 24 25
76 22 7 6 6 2
7
7
6F 7 6K 2 2 2 2 2 76 7 6
6 3 7 6 31 K32 K33 K34 K35 K36 76 v3 7 6 f 3 7 F
7

6 2 7 6 2 76 7
2 76 2 7 6 2 7
6F 7 6K 2 2 2 2
6 4 7 6 41 K42 K43 K44 K45 K46 76 v4 7 6 6
Ff 4 7
7
6 2 7 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 76 2 7 6 2 7
6 F5 7 6 K51 K52 K K K K 76 v 7 6 F 7
4 5 4 53 54 55 56 54 5 5
4 f5 5
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F6 K61 K62 K63 K64 K65 K66 v6 Ff 6
(18.33)

from which we determine the forces at end 2 of the member to be

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F1 K11 v1 K12 v2 K13 v3 K14 v4
2 2 2 2 2
K15 v5 K16 v6 Ff 1 (18.34a)
 SECTION 18.5 Structure Stiffness Relations 791

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F2 K21 v1 K22 v2 K23 v3 K24 v4
2 2 2 2 2
K25 v5 K26 v6 Ff 2 (18.34b)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F3 K31 v1 K32 v2 K33 v3 K34 v4
2 2 2 2 2
K35 v5 K36 v6 Ff 3 (18.34c)

Compatibility Equations
By comparing Fig. 18.10(b) and (c), we observe that since the lower end
1 of member 1 is rigidly connected to the xed joint 1, which can neither
translate nor rotate, the three displacements of end 1 of the member
must be zero. Similarly, since end 2 of this member is rigidly connected
to joint 2, the displacements of end 2 must be the same as the displace-
ments of joint 2. Thus, the compatibility equations for member 1 are
1 1 1 1 1 1
v1 v2 v3 0 v 4 d1 v 5 d2 v 6 d3 (18.35)
In a similar manner, the compatibility equations for member 2 are
found to be
2 2 2 2 2 2
v 1 d1 v 2 d2 v 3 d3 v4 v5 v6 0 (18.36)
By substituting the compatibility equations for member 1 (Eq.
(18.35)) into the members force-displacement relations as given by Eqs.
(18.32), we express the member end forces F1 in terms of the joint dis-
placements d as
1 1 1 1 1
F4 K44 d1 K45 d2 K46 d3 Ff 4 (18.37a)
1 1 1 1 1
F5 K54 d1 K55 d2 K56 d3 Ff 5 (18.37b)
1 1 1 1 1
F6 K64 d1 K65 d2 K66 d3 Ff 6 (18.37c)
Similarly, for member 2, substitution of Eq. (18.36) into Eqs. (18.34)
yields
2 2 2 2 2
F1 K11 d1 K12 d2 K13 d3 Ff 1 (18.38a)
2 2 2 2 2
F2 K21 d1 K22 d2 K23 d3 Ff 2 (18.38b)
2 2 2 2 2
F3 K31 d1 K32 d2 K33 d3 Ff 3 (18.38c)

Structure Stiffness Relations

Finally, by substituting Eqs. (18.37) and (18.38) into the joint equili-
brium equations (Eqs. (18.30)), we obtain the desired relationships be-
tween the joint loads P and the joint displacement d of the frame as
1 2 1 2 1 2
P1 K44 K11 d1 K45 K12 d2 K46 K13 d3
1 2
Ff 4 Ff 1 (18.39a)
792 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

1 2 1 2 1 2
P2 K54 K21 d1 K55 K22 d2 K56 K23 d3
1 2
Ff 5 Ff 2 (18.39b)
1 2 1 2 1 2
P3 K64 K31 d1 K65 K32 d2 K66 K33 d3
1 2
Ff 6 Ff 3 (18.39c)
Equations (18.39) can be conveniently expressed in condensed matrix
form as
P Sd Pf (18.40)
or

P  Pf Sd (18.41)

in which
2 3
1 2 1 2 1 2
K44 K11 K45 K12 K46 K13
6 1 7
S 6 2
4 K54 K21
1
K55 K22
2
K56 K23 7
1 2
5 (18.42)
1 2 1 2 1 2
K64 K31 K65 K32 K66 K33

is called the structure stiness matrix and

2 3
1 2
Ff 4 Ff 1
6 7
6 2 7
Pf 6 Ff1 Ff2 7
(18.43)
4 5 5
1 2
Ff 6 Ff 3

is termed the structure xed-joint force vector. The foregoing procedure

of determining the structure stiness relations by combining the member
stiness relations is often referred to as the direct stiness method [39].
The structure stiness matrix S is interpreted in a manner analogous
to the member stiness matrix; that is, a structure stiness coecient Sij
represents the force at the location and in the direction of Pi required,
along with other joint forces, to cause a unit value of the displacement dj
while all other joint displacements are zero. Thus the jth column of ma-
trix S consists of the joint loads required to cause a unit value of the
displacement dj while all other displacements are zero. For example,
the rst column of S consists of the three joint loads required to cause
the displacement d1 1, as shown in Fig. 18.10(d), and so on.
The foregoing interpretation of the structural stiness matrix S
indicates that such a matrix can, alternatively, be determined by sub-
jecting the structure, separately, to unit values of each of its joint
displacements and by evaluating the joint loads required to cause the
individual displacements. However, such a procedure cannot be easily
implemented on computers and is seldom used in practice. Therefore,
this alternative procedure is not pursued in this chapter.
 SECTION 18.5 Structure Stiffness Relations 793

Assembly of S and Pf by Using Member Code Numbers

In the preceding paragraphs, we determined the structure stiness ma-

trix S (Eq. (18.42)) and the structure xed-joint force vector Pf (Eq.
(18.43)) by substituting the member compatibility equations into the
member global stiness relations and then substituting the resulting re-
lationships into the joint equilibrium equations. This process of writing
three types of equations and then making substitutions can be quite te-
dious and time consuming for large structures.
From Eq. (18.42), we observe that the stiness of a joint in a direc-
tion equals the sum of the stinesses in that direction of the members
meeting at the joint. This fact indicates that the structure stiness ma-
trix S can be formulated directly by adding the elements of the member
stiness matrices into their proper positions in the structure matrix,
thereby avoiding the necessity of writing any equations. The technique
of directly forming a structure stiness matrix by assembling the
elements of the member global stiness matrices was introduced by
S. S. Tezcan in 1963 [38] and is sometimes referred to as the code number
technique.
To illustrate this technique, consider again the two-member frame
of Fig. 18.10. The stiness matrices in global coordinates for the mem-
bers 1 and 2 of the frame are designated as K1 and K2 , respectively (Fig.
18.10(e)). Our objective is to form the structure stiness matrix S by as-
sembling the elements of K1 and K2 . Before we can determine the posi-
tions of the elements of a member matrix K in the structure matrix S, we
need to identify, for each of the members degrees of freedom in global
coordinates, the number of the corresponding structure degree of free-
dom. If the structure degree of freedom corresponding to a member de-
gree of freedom is not dened (i.e., the corresponding joint displacement
is zero), then a zero is used for the structure degree of freedom number.
Thus by comparing the global degrees of freedom of member 1 shown
in Fig. 18.10(c) with the structure degrees of freedom given in Fig.
18.10(b), we determine the structure degree of freedom numbers for
the member to be 0; 0; 0; 1; 2; 3. Note that these numbers are in the
same order as the member degrees of freedom; for example, the fourth
1
number, 1, corresponds to the fourth degree of freedom, v4 , of the
member, and so on. In other words, the rst three numbers identify,
in order, the X translation, the Y translation, and the rotation of the
beginning joint of the member, whereas the last three numbers identify
the X translation, the Y translation, and the rotation, respectively, of
the end joint. In a similar manner, we determine the structure degree of
freedom numbers for member 2 to be 1; 2; 3; 0; 0; 0.
The structure degree of freedom numbers for a member can be used
to dene the compatibility equations for the member. For example, the
structure degree of freedom numbers, 0; 0; 0; 1; 2; 3, imply the following
compatibility equations for member 1:
794 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

1 1 1 1 1 1
v1 v2 v3 0 v4 d1 v 5 d2 v 6 d3

which are identical to those given in Eq. (18.35).

The positions of the elements of the member stiness matrix K1 in
the structure stiness matrix S can now be determined by writing the
members structure degree of freedom numbers 0; 0; 0; 1; 2; 3 on the
right side and at the top of K1 , as shown in Fig. 18.10(e). Note that
the numbers on the right side of K1 represent the row numbers of the S
matrix, whereas the numbers at the top represent the column numbers
1
of S. For example, the element K65 of K1 must be located in row 3 and
column 2 of S, as shown in Fig. 18.10(e). By using this approach, the
remaining elements of K1 , except those corresponding to zero row or
column number of S, are stored in their proper positions in the structure
stiness matrix S.
The same procedure is then repeated for member 2. When two or
more member stiness coecients are located in the same position in S,
then the coecients must be algebraically added. The completed struc-
ture stiness matrix S is shown in Fig. 18.10(e). Note that this matrix
is identical to the one obtained previously (Eq. (18.42)) by substituting
the member compatibility equations and stiness relations into the joint
equilibrium equations.
The foregoing procedure of directly forming the structure stiness
matrix by assembling member stiness coecients can be easily im-
plemented on computers. To save computer storage space, one member
stiness matrix is generated at a time; it is stored in the structure sti-
ness matrix, and the space is reused to generate the stiness matrix for
the next member, and so on.
The structure xed-joint force vector, Pf , can be assembled by using
a procedure similar to that for forming the structure stiness matrix. To
generate the Pf vector for the frame under consideration, the structure
degree of freedom numbers for member 1 are rst written on the right
side of the members xed-end force vector Ff 1 , as shown in Fig.
18.10(f ). Each of these numbers now represents the row number of Pf in
which the corresponding member force is to be stored. For example, the
1
element Ff 5 must be located in row 2 of Pf , as shown in the gure. In
a similar manner, the remaining elements of Ff 1 , except those corre-
sponding to zero row number of Pf , are stored in their proper positions
in Pf . The same procedure is then repeated for member 2. The structure
xed-joint force vector Pf thus obtained is shown in Fig. 18.10(f ). Note
that this vector is identical to that given in Eq. (18.43).
Once S and Pf have been evaluated, the structure stiness relations
(Eq. (18.41)), which now represent a system of simultaneous linear al-
gebraic equations, can be solved for the unknown joint displacements d.
With d known, the end displacements for each member can be de-
termined by applying the compatibility equations dened by its struc-
ture degree of freedom numbers; then the corresponding end forces can
be computed by using the members stiness relations.
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 795

The procedure for generating the structure stiness matrix S and

xed-joint force vector Pf , as described here for frames, can be applied
to continuous beams and trusses as well, except that in the case of
trusses Pf 0.

18.6 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Based on the discussion presented in the previous sections, we can de-

velop the following step-by-step procedure for the analysis of structures
by the matrix stiness method.
1. Prepare an analytical model of the structure as follows:
a. Draw a line diagram of the structure, on which each joint and
member must be identied by a number.
b. Select a global XY coordinate system, with the X and Y axes
oriented in the horizontal (positive to the right) and vertical
(positive upward) directions, respectively. It is usually con-
venient to locate the origin of this coordinate system at a lower
left joint of the structure, so that the X and Y coordinates of
most of the joints are positive.
c. For each member, establish a local xy coordinate system by se-
lecting one of the joints at its ends as the beginning joint and
the other as the end joint. On the line diagram of the structure,
for each member indicate the positive direction of the local x
axis by drawing an arrow along the member pointing toward
the end joint. For horizontal members, the coordinate trans-
formations can be avoided by selecting the joint at the left end
of the member as the beginning joint.
d. Identify the degrees of freedom or unknown joint displace-
ments, d, of the structure. The degrees of freedom are specied
on the structures line diagram by drawing arrows at the joints
and are numbered by starting at the lowest joint number and
proceeding sequentially to the highest joint number. In the case
of more than one degree of freedom at a joint, the X translation
is numbered rst, followed by the Y translation, and then the
rotation. Recall that a joint of a plane frame can have up to
three degrees of freedom (two translations and a rotation); a
joint of a continuous beam can have up to two degrees of free-
dom (a translation perpendicular to the beams centroidal axis
and a rotation); and a joint of a plane truss can have up to two
degrees of freedom (two translations). Note that joint trans-
lations are considered as positive when in the positive directions
of the X and Y axes; joint rotations are considered as positive
when counterclockwise.
796 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

2. Evaluate the structure stiness matrix S and xed-joint force vec-

tor Pf . For each member of the structure, perform the following
operations:
a. For trusses, go directly to step 2(d). Otherwise, compute the
member stiness matrix in local coordinates, k. Expressions
of k for the members of frames and continuous beams are given
in Eqs. (18.5) and (18.6), respectively.
b. If the member is subjected to external loads, then evaluate its
xed-end force vector in local coordinates, Qf , by using the ex-
pressions for xed-end moments given inside the back cover of
the book and by applying the equations of equilibrium (see Ex-
amples 18.2 and 18.3).
c. For horizontal members with the local x axis positive to the
right (i.e., in the same direction as the global X axis), the mem-
ber stiness relations in the local and global coordinates are
the same (i.e., K k and Ff Qf ); go to step 2(e). Otherwise,
compute the members transformation matrix T by using Eq.
(18.12).
d. Determine the member stiness matrix in global coordinates,
K T T kT (Eq. (18.26)), and the corresponding xed-end force
vector, Ff T t Qf (Eq. (18.27)). The matrix K must be sym-
metric. For trusses, it is usually more convenient to use the
explicit form of K given in Eq. (18.29). Also, for trusses, Ff 0.
e. Identify the members structure degree of freedom numbers and
store the pertinent elements of K and Ff in their proper posi-
tions in the structure stiness matrix S and the xed-joint force
vector Pf , respectively, by using the procedure described in
Section 18.5. The complete structure stiness matrix S obtained
by assembling the stiness coecients of all the members of the
structure must be symmetric.
3. Form the joint load vector, P.
4. Determine the unknown joint displacements. Substitute P; Pf , and
S into the structure stiness relations, P  Pf Sd (Eq. (18.41)),
and solve the resulting system of simultaneous equations for the
unknown joint displacements d.
5. Compute member end displacements and end forces. For each
member, do the following:
a. Obtain member end displacements in global coordinates, v,
from the joint displacements, d, by using the members struc-
ture degree of freedom numbers.
b. Determine member end displacements in local coordinates by
using the relationship u Tv (Eq. (18.14)). For horizontal
members with the local x axis positive to the right, u v.
c. Compute member end forces in local coordinates by using the
relationship Q ku Qf (Eq. (18.4)). For trusses, Qf 0.
d. Calculate member end forces in global coordinates by using
the transformation relationship F T T Q (Eq. (18.17)). For
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 797

horizontal members with the local x axis positive to the right,

F Q.
6. Determine support reactions by considering the equilibrium of the
joints located at the supports of the structure.

Computer Program
A computer program for the analysis of plane framed structures us-
ing the stiness method is available on the publishers web site
www.cengage.com/engineering for use by the reader. A brief description
of the program as well as information on how to use this program,
including an illustrative example, are presented in Appendix C.

Example 18.1

Determine the reactions and the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 18.11(a) by the matrix stiness
method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom From the analytical model of the truss shown in Fig. 18.11(b), we observe that only joint 3 is
free to translate. Thus the truss has two degrees of freedom, d1 and d2 , which are the unknown translations of joint 3 in
the X and Y directions, respectively.
Structure Stiness Matrix
Member 1 As shown in Fig. 18.11(b), joint 1 has been selected as the beginning joint and joint 3 as the end joint
for member 1. By applying Eqs. (18.13), we determine
q q
L X3  X1 2 Y3  Y1 2 15  0 2 20  0 2 25 ft
X3  X1 15
cos y 0:6
L 25
Y3  Y1 20
sin y 0:8
L 25
The member stiness matrix in global coordinates can now be evaluated by using Eq. (18.29)
2 3
0:36 0:48 0:36 0:48
29;0009 6
6 0:48 0:64 0:48 0:64 7
7
K1 6 7
2512 4 0:36 0:48 0:36 0:48 5
0:48 0:64 0:48 0:64

continued
798 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

FIG. 18.11

or
0 0 1 2
2 3
313:2 417:6 313:2 417:6 0
6 417:6 556:8 417:6 556:8 7
6 7 0 (1)
K1 6 7
4 313:2 417:6 313:2 417:6 5 1
417:6 556:8 417:6 556:8 2
continued
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 799

From Fig. 18.11(b), we observe that the displacements of the beginning joint 1 for the member are zero, whereas the
displacements of the end joint 3 are d1 and d2 . Thus the structure degree of freedom numbers for this member are
0; 0; 1; 2. These numbers are written on the right side and at the top of K1 (see Eq. (1)) to indicate the rows and columns,
respectively, of the structure stiness matrix S, where the elements of K1 must be stored. Note that the elements of K1 ,
which correspond to the zero structure degree of freedom number, are simply disregarded. Thus, the element in row 3
and column 3 of K1 is stored in row 1 and column 1 of S, as shown in Fig. 18.11(c). Similarly, the element in row 3 and
column 4 of K1 is stored in row 1 and column 2 of S. The remaining elements of K1 are stored in S in a similar manner
(Fig. 18.11(c)).
Member 2 From Fig. 18.11(b), we can see that joint 2 is the beginning joint and joint 3 is the end joint for mem-
ber 2. By applying Eqs. (18.13), we obtain
X3  X2 15  15
cos y 0
L 20

Y3  Y2 20  0
sin y 1
L 20

Thus, by using Eq. (18.29)

0 0 1 2
2 3
0 0 0 0 0
60 1;087:5 0 1;087:5 7
6 7 0
K2 6 7
40 0 0 0 5 1
0 1;087:5 0 1;087:5 2

From Fig. 18.11(b), we can see that the structure degree of freedom numbers for this member are 0, 0, 1, 2. These
numbers are used to store the pertinent elements of K2 in their proper positions in the structure stiness matrix S, as
shown in Fig. 18.11(c).
Member 3 cos y 1 sin y 0
By using Eq. (18.29),
0 0 1 2
2 3
1;450 0 1;450 0 0
6 0 0 0 07
6 7 0
K3 6 7
4 1;450 0 1;450 0 5 1
0 0 0 0 2

The structure degree of freedom numbers for this member are 0; 0; 1; 2. By using these numbers, the elements of K3 are
stored in S, as shown in Fig. 18.11(c).
Note that the structure stiness matrix S (Fig. 18.11(c)), obtained by assembling the stiness coecients of the
three members, is symmetric.
Joint Load Vector By comparing Fig. 18.11(a) and (b), we realize that
P1 100 cos 60 50 k P2 100 sin 60 86:6 k

continued
800 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Thus the joint load vector is

 
50
P (2)
86:6

Joint Displacements The stiness relations for the entire truss can be expressed as (Eq. (18.41) with Pf 0)

P Sd (3)

By substituting P from Eq. (2) and S from Fig. 18.11(c), we write Eq. (3) in expanded form as
    
50 1;763:2 417:6 d1

86:6 417:6 1;644:3 d2

By solving these equations simultaneously, we determine the joint displacements to be

d1 0:0434 in: d2 0:0637 in:
or
 
0:0434
d in:
0:0637

Member End Displacements and End Forces

Member 1 The member end displacements in global coordinates, v, can be obtained by simply comparing
the members global degree of freedom numbers with the structure degree of freedom numbers for the member, as
follows:
2 3 2 3 2 3
v1 0 0 0
6v 7 0 607 6 0 7
6 27 6 7 6 7
v1 6 7 6 76 7in: (4)
4 v3 5 1 4 d1 5 4 0:0434 5
v4 2 d2 0:0637

Note that the structure degree of freedom numbers for the member 0; 0; 1; 2 are written on the right side of v, as shown
in Eq. (4). Since the structure degree of freedom numbers corresponding to v1 and v2 are zero, this indicates that
v1 v2 0. Similarly, the numbers 1 and 2 corresponding to v3 and v4 , respectively, indicate that v3 d1 and v4 d2 .
It should be realized that these compatibility equations could have been established alternatively simply by a visual in-
spection of the line diagram of the structure (Fig. 18.11(b)). However, the use of the structure degree of freedom num-
bers enables us conveniently to program this procedure on a computer.
The member end displacements in local coordinates can now be determined by using the relationship u Tv (Eq.
(18.14)), with T as dened in Eq. (18.22):
2 3
0
   6 7  0 
u1 0:6 0:8 0 0 6 0 7
u1 6 7 in:
u2 0 0 0:6 0:8 4 0:0434 5 0:0249
0:0637

By using Eq. (18.7), we compute member end forces in local coordinates as

continued
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 801

Q ku
      
Q1 1 1 0 21:66
Q1 870 k
Q2 1 1 0:0249 21:66

Thus, as shown in Fig. 18.11(d), the axial force in member 1 is

21:66 k C Ans.
By applying Eq. (18.17), we can determine member end forces in global coordinates as
F TT Q
2 3 2 3 2 3
F1 0:6 0 13
6 F 7 6 0:8   6
6 27 6 0 7 7 21:66 6 17:33 7
7
F1 6 7 6 7 6 7k
4 F3 5 4 0 0:6 5 21:66 4 13 5
F4 0 0:8 17:33

Member 2 The member end displacements in global coordinates are given by

2 3 2 3 2 3
v1 0 0 0
6v 7 0 607 6 0 7
6 27 6 7 6 7
v2 6 7 6 76 7in:
4 v3 5 1 4 d1 5 4 0:0434 5
v4 2 d2 0:0637

By using the relationship u Tv, we determine the member end displacements in local coordinates to be
2 3
0
   6 7  0 
u1 0 1 0 0 6 0 7
u2 6 7 in:
u2 0 0 0 1 4 0:0434 5 0:0637
0:0637

Next, the member end forces in local coordinates are computed by using the relationship Q ku:
      
Q1 1 1 0 69:27
Q2 1;087:5 k
Q2 1 1 0:0637 69:27

Thus, as shown in Fig. 18.11(d), the axial force in member 2 is

69:27 k C Ans.
By using the relationship F T T Q, we calculate the member end forces in global coordinates to be
2 3 2 3 2 3
F1 0 0 0
6F 7 61  
6 27 6 077 69:27
6 69:27 7
6 7
F2 6 7 6 7 6 7k
4 F3 5 4 0 0 5 69:27 4 0 5
F4 0 1 69:27

continued
802 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Member 3
2 3 2 3 2 3
v1 0 0 0
6v 7 0 607 6 0 7
6 27 6 7 6 7
v3 6 7 6 76 7in:
4 v3 5 1 4 d1 5 4 0:0434 5
v4 2 d2 0:0637
u Tv
2 3
0
   6 7 0 
u1 1 0 0 0 6 0 7
u3 6 7 in:
u2 0 0 1 0 4 0:0434 5 0:0434
0:0637
Q ku
      
Q1 1 1 0 62:93
Q3 1;450 k
Q2 1 1 0:0434 62:93
Thus, the axial force in member 3 is (Fig. 18.11(d))
62:93 k T Ans.
T
FT Q
2 3 2 3 2 3
F1 1 0 62:93
6F 7 60   6 0 7
6 27 6 077 62:93 6 7
F3 6 7 6 7 6 7k
4 F3 5 4 0 1 5 62:93 4 62:93 5
F4 0 0 0

Support Reactions As shown in Fig. 18.11(e), the reactions at the support joints 1; 2, and 4 are equal to the forces
in global coordinates at the ends of the members connected to these joints. Ans.
Equilibrium Check Applying the equations of equilibrium to the free body of the entire structure (Fig. 18.11(e)), we obtain
P
! FX 0 13  62:93 100 cos 60 0:07 & 0 Checks
P 
" FY 0 17:33 69:27  100 sin 60 0 Checks
P
M1 0 69:2715 62:9320  100 cos 60 20  100 sin 60 15
1:39 & 0 Checks

Example 18.2

Determine the reactions and the member end forces for the three-span continuous beam shown in Fig. 18.12(a) by using
the matrix stiness method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom From the analytical model of the beam shown in Fig. 18.12(b), we observe that the structure
has two degrees of freedom, d1 and d2 , which are the unknown rotations of joints 2 and 3, respectively. Note that the
member local coordinate systems are chosen so that the positive directions of the local and global axes are the same.
continued
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 803

FIG. 18.12
continued
804 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Therefore, no coordinate transformations are needed; that is, the member stiness relations in the local and global co-
ordinates are the same.
Structure Stiness Matrix
Member 1 By substituting L 10 m into Eq. (18.6), we obtain

0 0 0 1
2 3
0:012 0:06 0:012 0:06 0
6 0:06 0:4 0:06 0:2 7 0
6 7
K1 k1 EI 6 7
4 0:012 0:06 0:012 0:06 5 0
0:06 0:2 0:06 0:4 1

By using the xed-end moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book, we evaluate the xed-end moments
due to the 80-kN load as

8064 2
Qf 2 76:8 kN  m
10 2

806 2 4
Qf 4  115:2 kN  m
10 2

The xed-end shears Qf 1 and Qf 3 can now be determined by considering the equilibrium of the free body of member 1,
shown in Fig. 18.12(c):
P
M2 0 76:8  Qf 1 10 804  115:2 0

Qf 1 28:16 kN
P
" Fy 0 28:16  80 Qf 3 0

Qf 3 51:84 kN

Thus, the xed-end force vector for member 1 is

2 3
28:16 0
6 76:8 7 0
6 7
Ff 1 Qf 1 6 7
4 51:84 5 0
115:2 1

From Fig. 18.12(b), we observe that the structure degree of freedom numbers for this member are 0; 0; 0; 1. By using
these numbers, the pertinent elements of K1 and Ff 1 are stored in their proper positions in the structure stiness matrix S
and the xed-joint force vector Pf , respectively, as shown in Fig. 18.12(d).
Member 2 By substituting L 10 m into Eq. (18.6), we obtain

0 1 0 2
2 3
0:012 0:06 0:012 0:06 0
6 0:06 0:4 0:06 0:2 7 1
6 7
K2 k2 EI 6 7
4 0:012 0:06 0:012 0:06 5 0
0:06 0:2 0:06 0:4 2

The xed-end moments due to the 24-kN/m load are

continued
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 805

2410 2
Qf 2 Qf 4 200 kN  m
12
Application of the equations of equilibrium to the free body of member 2 yields (Fig. 18.12(c))
Qf 1 Qf 3 120 kN
Thus,
2 3
120 0
6 200 7 1
6 7
Ff 2 Qf 2 6 7
4 120 5 0
200 2
By using the structure degree of freedom numbers, 0; 1; 0; 2, for this member, we store the relevant elements of K2 and
Ff 2 into S and Pf , respectively, as shown in Fig. 18.12(d).
Member 3 L 5 m:
0 2 0 0
2 3
0:096 0:24 0:096 0:24 0
6 0:24 0:8 0:24 0:4 7 2
6 7
K3 k3 EI 6 7
4 0:096 0:24 0:096 0:24 5 0
0:24 0:4 0:24 0:8 0
The elements of K3 are stored in S using the structure degree of freedom numbers 0; 2; 0; 0. Note that since member 3 is
not subjected to any external loads,
F f 3 Qf 3 0
Joint Load Vector Since no external moments are applied to the beam at joints 2 and 3, the joint load vector is
zero; that is,
P0
Joint Displacements The stiness relations for the entire continuous beam, P  Pf Sd, are written in expanded
form as
    
84:8 0:8 0:2 d1
EI
200 0:2 1:2 d2
By solving these equations simultaneously, we determine the joint displacements to be
EId1 154:09 kN  m 2 EId2 192:35 kN  m 2
or
 
1 154:09
d kN  m 2
EI 192:35

Member End Displacements and End Forces

Member 1 By using the members structure degree of freedom numbers, we obtain the member end
displacements:

continued
806 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

2 3 2 3 2 3
v1 0 0 0
6v 7 6 7 6 0 7
6 27 0 607 1 6 7
u1 v1 6 7 6 7 6 7
4 v3 5 0 4 0 5 EI 4 0 5
v4 1 d1 154:09

By using the member stiness relations Q ku Qf (Eq. (18.4)), we compute member end forces as
2 3 2 3 2 3
0:012 0:06 0:012 0:06 0 28:16
6 0:06 0:06 0:2 7 6 0 7 6 7
6 0:4 716 7 6 76:8 7
F1 Q1 EI 6 7 6 76 7
4 0:012 0:06 0:012 0:06 EI 5 4 0 5 4 51:84 5
0:06 0:2 0:06 0:4 154:09 115:2
2 3
18:91 kN
6 45:98 kN  m 7
6 7
6 7 Ans.
4 61:09 kN 5
176:84 kN  m

Member 2
2 3 2 3 2 3
v1 0 0 0
6v 7 1 6 7 1 6 7
6 27 6 d1 7 6 154:09 7
u2 v2 6 7 6 7 6 7
4 v3 5 0 4 0 5 EI 4 0 5
v4 2 d2 192:35

Q ku Qf
2 32 3 2 3
0:012 0:06 0:012 0:06 0 120
6 0:06 0:4 0:06 0:2 7 6 7 6 7
6 76 154:09 7 6 200 7
F2 Q2 6 76 76 7
4 0:012 0:06 0:012 0:06 54 0 5 4 120 5
0:06 0:2 0:06 0:4 192:35 200
2 3
122:3 kN
6 176:83 kN  m 7
6 7
6 7 Ans.
4 117:7 kN 5
153:88 kN  m

Member 3
2 3 2 3 2 3
v1 0 0 0
6v 7 2 6 d 7 1 6 192:35 7
6 27 6 27 6 7
u3 v3 6 7 6 7 6 7
4 v3 5 0 4 0 5 EI 4 0 5
v4 0 0 0

Q ku Qf
2 32 3 2 3
0:096 0:24 0:096 0:24 0 46:16 kN
6 0:24 0:8 0:24 0:4 7 6 7 6 kN  m 7
6 76 192:35 7 6 153:88 7
F3 Q3 6 76 76 7 Ans.
4 0:096 0:24 0:096 0:24 54 0 5 4 46:16 kN 5
0:24 0:4 0:24 0:8 0 76:94 kN  m

continued
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 807

The end forces for the three members of the continuous beam are shown in Fig. 18.12(e).

Support Reactions Since support joint 1 is the beginning joint for member 1, equilibrium considerations require
that the reactions at joint 1, R 1 , be equal to the upper half of F1 (i.e., the forces at end 1 of member 1).
 
18:91 kN
R1 Ans.
45:98 kN  m
in which the rst element of R 1 represents the vertical force and the second element represents the moment, as shown
in Fig. 18.12(f ). In a similar manner, since support joint 2 is the end joint for member 1 but the beginning joint for
member 2, the reaction vector at joint 2, R 2 , must be equal to the algebraic sum of the lower half of F1 and the upper
half of F2 .
     
61:09 122:3 183:39 kN
R2 Ans.
176:84 176:83 0:01 & 0
Similarly, at support joint 3, R 3 can be determined by algebraically summing the lower half of F2 and the upper
half of F3 .
     
117:7 46:16 163:86 kN
R3 Ans.
153:88 153:88 0
Finally, the reaction vector at joint 4 must be equal to the lower half of F3 :
 
46:16 kN
R4 Ans.
76:94 kN  m
The support reactions are shown in Fig. 18.12(f ). Ans.
Equilibrium Check Applying the equations of equilibrium to the entire structure (Fig. 18.12(f )), we obtain
P
" FY 0
18:91  80 183:39  2410 163:86  46:16 0 Checks
P
M4 0
45:98  18:9125 8019  183:3915
241010  163:865 76:94 0:02 & 0 Checks

Example 18.3

Determine the reactions and the member end forces for the frame shown in Fig. 18.13(a) by using the matrix stiness
method.

Solution
Degrees of Freedom From the analytical model of the frame shown in Fig. 18.13(b), we observe that while joints 1
and 3 of the structure can neither translate nor rotate, joint 2 is free to translate as well as rotate. Thus the frame has
three degrees of freedom: the translations d1 and d2 in the X and Y directions, respectively, and the rotation d3 of joint 2.

continued
808 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

FIG. 18.13
continued
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 809

FIG. 18.13 (contd.)

Structure Stiness Matrix

Member 1 Since the local xy coordinate system for this member coincides with the global XY coordinate
system, no coordinate transformations are needed; that is, the member stiness relations in the local and global coor-
dinates are the same. By substituting E 29;00012 2 ksf, I 800=12 4 ft 4 , A 16=12 2 ft 2 , and L 30 ft into Eq.
(18.5), we obtain

2 0 0 0 1 2 3 3
15;466:67 0 0 15;466:67 0 0 0
6 7
6 0 71:6 1;074:07 0 71:6 1;074:07 70
6 7
6 0 1;074:07 21;481:48 0 1;074:07 10;740:74 7 (1)
6 70
K1 k1 6 7
6 15;466:67 0 0 15;466:67 0 0 71
6 7
6 0 71:6 1;074:07 0 71:6 1;074:07 7
4 52
0 1;074:07 10;740:74 0 1;074:07 21;481:48 3

By using the xed-end moment expressions given inside the back cover of the book, we evaluate the xed-end moments
due to the 2-k/ft load as
230 2
Qf 3 Qf 6 150 k-ft
12
By applying equilibrium equations to the free body of the member, we obtain (Fig. 18.13(c))
Qf 2 Qf 5 30 k
continued
810 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

Thus,
2 3
0 0
6 30 7 0
6 7
6 7
6 150 7 0
Ff 1 Qf 1 6 7 (2)
6
6 077 1
6 7
4 30 5 2
150 3

By using the structure degree of freedom numbers, 0; 0; 0; 1; 2; 3, for this member, the pertinent elements of K1 and Ff 1
are stored in their proper positions in the structure stiness matrix S and the xed-joint force vector Pf , respectively, as
shown in Fig. 18.13(d).
Member 2 By substituting E 29;00012 2 ksf, I 400=12 4 ft 4 , A 12=12 2 ft 2 , and L 25 ft into
Eq. (18.5), we obtain
2 3
13;920 0 0 13;920 0 0
6
6 0 61:87 773:33 0 61:87 773:33 7
7
6 7
6 0 773:33 12;888:89 0 773:33 6;444:44 7
k2 6 7 (3)
6 13;920
6 0 0 13;920 0 0 7 7
6 7
4 0 61:87 773:33 0 61:87 773:33 5
0 773:33 6;444:44 0 773:33 12;888:89
Since member 2 is not subjected to any external loads,
Qf 2 0 (4)
By using the global coordinates of the beginning joint 3 and the end joint 2, we determine the direction cosines of
member 2 as (Eq. (18.13))
X2  X3 30  45
cos y 0:6
L 25
Y2  Y3 0  20
sin y 0:8
L 25
Substitution of these values into Eq. (18.12) yields the following transformation matrix for the member:
2 3
0:6 0:8 0 0 0 0
6 0:8
6 0:6 0 0 0 077
6 7
6 0 0 1 0 0 077
T2 6 (5)
6 0
6 0 0 0:6 0:8 0 7
7
6 7
4 0 0 0 0:8 0:6 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 1

To determine the member stiness matrix in global coordinates, K2 , we substitute the matrices k2 and T2 into the
relationship K T T kT (Eq. (18.26)) and carry out the necessary matrix multiplications to obtain

continued
 SECTION 18.6 Procedure for Analysis 811

0 0 0 1 2 3
2 3
5;050:8 6;651:9 618:67 5;050:8 6;651:9 618:67 0
6 7
6 6;651:9 8;931:07 464 6;651:9 8;931:07 464 70
6 7
6 618:67 464 12;888:89 618:67 464 6;444:44 7
K2 6 70 (6)
6 5;050:8 6;651:9 618:67 5;050:8 6;651:9 618:67 7
6 71
6 7
4 6;651:9 8;931:07 464 6;651:9 8;931:07 464 52
618:67 464 6;444:44 618:67 464 12;888:89 3

Note that K2 is symmetric. By using the structure degree of freedom numbers, 0; 0; 0; 1; 2; 3, for member 2, the relevant
elements of K2 are added into their positions in the S matrix, as shown in Fig. 18.13(d). Note that Ff 2 0.

Joint Load Vector By comparing Fig. 18.13(a) and (b), we write

2 3
0
6 7
P 4 05
75

Joint Displacements The stiness relations for the entire frame, P  Pf Sd, are written in expanded form as
2 3 2 3 2 32 3
0 0 20;517:47 6;651:9 618:67 d1
6 7 6 7 6 76 7
4 0 5  4 30 5 4 6;651:9 9;002:67 610:07 54 d2 5
75 150 618:67 610:07 34;370:37 d3

or
2 3 2 32 3
0 20;517:47 6;651:9 618:67 d1
6 7 6 76 7
4 30 5 4 6;651:9 9;002:67 610:07 54 d2 5
225 618:67 610:07 34;370:37 d3

By solving these equations simultaneously, we determine the joint displacements to be

2 3
0:00149 ft
6 7
d 4 0:00399 ft 5
0:0065 rad

Member End Displacements and End Forces

Member 1
2 3 2 3 2 3
v1 0 0 0
6v 7 0 607 6 0 7
6 27 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 v3 7 0 607 6 0 7
u1 v 1 6 7 6 76 7
6v 7 6 7 6 7
6 47 1 6 d1 7 6 0:00149 ft 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
4 v5 5 2 4 d2 5 4 0:00399 ft 5
v6 3 d3 0:0065 rad

continued
812 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

By substituting k1 ; Qf 1 , and u1 in the member stiness relationship Q ku Qf (Eq. (18.4)), we determine the member
end forces to be
2 3
23:05 k
6 37:27 k 7
6 7
6 7
6 224:1 k-ft 7
F1 Q1 6 7 Ans.
6 23:05 k 7
6 7
6 7
4 22:73 k 5
6:08 k-ft
Member 2
2 3 2 3 2 3
v1 0 0 0
6v 7 0 607 6 0 7
6 27 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 v3 7 0 607 6 0 7
v2 6 7 6 76 7
6v 7 6 7 6 7
6 47 1 6 d1 7 6 0:00149 ft 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
4 v5 5 2 4 d2 5 4 0:00399 ft 5
v6 3 d3 0:0065 rad
By substituting K2 ; v2 , and Ff 2 0 into the member stiness relationship in global coordinates, F Kv Ff (Eq.
(18.25)), we determine the member end forces in global coordinates to be
2 3
23:04 k
6 22:71 k 7
6 7
6 7
6 39:12 k-ft 7
F2 6 7
6 23:04 k 7
6 7
6 7
4 22:71 k 5
81 k-ft
The member end forces in local coordinates can now be evaluated by substituting F2 and T2 into the relationship
Q TF (Eq. (18.11)).
2 3
31:99 k
6 4:81 k 7
6 7
6 7
6 39:12 k-ft 7
6
Q2 6 7 Ans.
7
6 31:99 k 7
6 7
4 4:81 k 5
81 k-ft
The end forces in the local coordinates of the members are shown in Fig. 18.13(e). Ans.
Support Reactions Since support joints 1 and 3 are the beginning joints for members 1 and 2, respectively, the re-
action vectors R 1 and R 3 must be equal to the upper halves of F1 and F2 , respectively.
2 3 2 3
23:05 k 23:04 k
6 7 6 7
R 1 4 37:27 k 5; R 3 4 22:71 k 5 Ans.
224:1 k-ft 39:12 k-ft

The support reactions are shown in Fig. 18.13(f ). Ans.

continued
 Summary 813

Equilibrium Check Applying the equations of equilibrium to the entire frame (Fig. 18.13(f )), we obtain
P
! FX 0 23:05  23:04 0:01 & 0 Checks
P
" FY 0 37:27  230 22:71 0:02 & 0 Checks
P
M1 0 224:1  23015 75  23:0420 22:7145 39:12
0:63 & 0 Checks

SUMMARY
In this chapter we have studied the basic concepts of the matrix stiness
method for the analysis of plane framed structures. A block diagram
summarizing the various steps involved in the analysis is presented in
Fig. 18.14.

FIG. 18.14
814 CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Matrix Structural Analysis

PROBLEMS
Section 18.6 18.4 through 18.6 Determine the reactions and the member
18.1 through 18.3 Determine the reactions and the force in end forces for the beams shown in Figs. P18.4P18.6 by
each member of the trusses shown in Figs. P18.1P18.3 by using the matrix stiness method.
using the matrix stiness method.

FIG. P18.4

FIG. P18.1

FIG. P18.5

FIG. P18.6

18.7 through 18.9 Determine the reactions and the member

FIG. P18.2 end forces in local coordinates for the frames shown in Figs.
P18.7P18.9 by using the matrix stiness method.

FIG. P18.3 FIG. P18.7

 Problems 815

FIG. P18.9

FIG. P18.8
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A
Areas and Centroids of
Geometric Shapes

Shape Area Centroid

Right-angled triangle

bh 2b
A x
2 3

Triangle

bh ab
A x
2 3

817
818 APPENDIX A Areas and Centroids of Geometric Shapes

Shape Area Centroid

Trapezoid

bh1 h2 bh1 2h2

A x
2 3h1 h2

Semi-parabola

2bh 3b
A x
3 8

Parabolic spandrel

bh 3b
A x
3 4

Parabolic segment
2bh b
A x
3 2

Note: When the segment represents a

part of the bending moment diagram
of a member subjected to uniformly
distributed load w, then h wb2 =8.

Cubic

3bh 2b
A x
4 5
 APPENDIX A Areas and Centroids of Geometric Shapes 819

Shape Area Centroid

Cubic spandrel

bh 4b
A x
4 5

nth-degree curve
y axn , nb1

bh n 1b
A x
n1 n 2
This page intentionally left blank
 B
Review of Matrix Algebra
B.1 Definition of a Matrix
B.2 Types of Matrices
B.3 Matrix Operations
B.4 Solution of Simultaneous Equations by the Gauss-Jordan Method
Problems

In this appendix, some basic concepts of matrix algebra necessary for for-
mulating the computerized analysis of structures are briey reviewed. A
more comprehensive and mathematically rigorous treatment of these con-
cepts can be found in any textbook on matrix algebra, such as [11] and [28].

B.1 DEFINITION OF A MATRIX

A matrix is a rectangular array of quantities arranged in rows and col-
umns. A matrix containing m rows and n columns can be expressed as:
2 3
A11 A12       A1n
6A    A2 n 7
6 21 A22    7
A A 6 7ith row (B.1)
4     Aij    5

Am1 Am2        Am n
jth column mn
As Eq. (B.1) indicates, matrices are usually denoted either by boldface
letters (e.g., A) or by italic letters enclosed within brackets (e.g., [A]).
The quantities that form a matrix are referred to as the elements of the
matrix, and each element is represented by a double-subscripted letter,
with the rst subscript identifying the row and the second subscript
identifying the column in which the element is located. Thus in Eq.
(B.1), A12 represents the element located in the rst row and the second
column of the matrix A, and A21 represents the element in the second
row and the rst column of A. In general, an element located in the ith
row and the jth column of matrix A is designated as Aij . It is common
practice to enclose the entire array of elements between brackets, as
shown in Eq. (B.1).

821
822 APPENDIX B Review of Matrix Algebra

The size of a matrix is measured by its order, which refers to the

number of rows and columns of the matrix. Thus the matrix A in Eq.
(B.1), which consists of m rows and n columns, is considered to be of
order m  n (m by n). As an example, consider a matrix B given by
2 3
5 21 3 7
6 7
B 4 40 6 19 23 5
8 12 50 22
The order of this matrix is 3  4, and its elements can be symbolically
represented by Bij , with i 1 to 3 and j 1 to 4; for example, B23 19,
B31 8, B34 22, etc.

B.2 TYPES OF MATRICES

Row Matrix
If all the elements of a matrix are arranged in a single row (i.e., m 1),
then the matrix is called a row matrix. An example of a row matrix is
C 50 3 27 35

Column Matrix
A matrix with only one column of elements (i.e., n 1) is called a
column matrix. For example,
2 3
10
6 33 7
6 7
D fDg 6 7
4 6 5
15
Column matrices are also referred to as vectors and are sometimes
denoted by italic letters enclosed within braces (e.g., fDg).

Square Matrix
A matrix with the same number of rows and columns m n is called a
square matrix. An example of a 3  3 square matrix is
2 3
6 5 21 3 7
6 7
6
A 6 40 6 19 7 7 (B.2)
4 5
8 12 50
!
  
 
 Main diagonal
 B.2 Types of Matrices 823

The elements with the same subscriptsthat is, A11 ; A22 ; . . . ; Ann
form the main diagonal of the square matrix A. These elements are
referred to as the diagonal elements. As shown in Eq. (B.2), the main
diagonal extends from the upper left corner to the lower right corner
of the square matrix. The remaining elements of the matrix (i.e., Aij
with i = j) that are not along the main diagonal are termed the o-
diagonal elements.

Symmetric Matrix
If the elements of a square matrix are symmetric about its main diago-
nal (i.e., Aij Aji ), the matrix is called a symmetric matrix. An example
of a 4  4 symmetric matrix is
2 3
12 6 13 5
6 6 7 28 31 7
6 7
A 6 7
4 13 28 10 9 5
5 31 9 2

Diagonal Matrix
If all the o-diagonal elements of a square matrix are zero (i.e., Aij 0
for i = j), the matrix is referred to as a diagonal matrix. For example,
2 3
3 0 0
6 7
A 4 0 8 05
0 0 14

Unit or Identity Matrix

A diagonal matrix with all its diagonal elements equal to 1 (i.e.,
Iii 1 and Iij 0 for i = j) is called a unit, or identity, matrix. Unit
matrices usually are denoted by I or [I ]. An example of a 4  4 unit
matrix is
2 3
1 0 0 0
60 1 0 07
6 7
I 6 7
40 0 1 05
0 0 0 1
824 APPENDIX B Review of Matrix Algebra

Null Matrix
When all the elements of a matrix are zero (i.e., Oij 0), the matrix is
called a null matrix. Null matrices are commonly denoted by O or [O].
For example,
2 3
0 0 0 0
6 7
O 4 0 0 0 0 5
0 0 0 0

B.3 MATRIX OPERATIONS

Equality
Two matrices A and B are equal if they are of the same order and if
their corresponding elements are identical (i.e., Aij Bij ). Consider, for
example, the matrices
2 3 2 3
3 5 6 3 5 6
6 7 6 7
A 4 4 7 9 5 and B 4 4 7 9 5
12 0 1 12 0 1
Since both A and B are of order 3  3 and since each element of A is
equal to the corresponding element of B, the matrices are considered to
be equal to each other; that is, A B.

Addition and Subtraction

The addition (or subtraction) of two matrices A and B, which must be of
the same order, is carried out by adding (or subtracting) the corre-
sponding elements of the two matrices. Thus if A B C, then
Cij Aij Bij ; and if A  B D, then Dij Aij  Bij . For example, if
2 3 2 3
2 5 10 4
6 7 6 7
A 4 3 0 5 and B 4 6 7 5
8 1 9 2
then
2 3
12 9
6 7
A B C 4 9 75
17 3
and
2 3
8 1
6 7
A  B D 4 3 7 5
1 1
Note that matrices C and D have the same order as matrices A and B.
 B.3 Matrix Operations 825

Multiplication by a Scalar
To obtain the product of a scalar and a matrix, each element of the
matrix must be multiplied by the scalar. Thus, if
 
7 3
B and c 3
1 4

then
 
21 9
cB
3 12

Multiplication of Matrices
The multiplication of two matrices can be carried out only if the number
of columns of the rst matrix equals the number of rows of the second
matrix. Such matrices are referred to as being conformable for multi-
plication. Consider, for example, the matrices
   
1 5 2 3 6
A and B (B.3)
7 3 4 8 9

in which A is of order 2  2 and B is of order 2  3. Note that the

product AB of these matrices is dened, because the rst matrix, A, of
the sequence AB has two columns and the second matrix, B, has two
rows. However, if the sequence of the matrices is reversed, the product
BA does not exist, because now the rst matrix, B, has three columns
and the second matrix, A, has two rows. The product AB is usually re-
ferred to either as A postmultiplied by B or as B premultiplied by A.
Conversely, the product BA is referred to either as B postmultiplied by
A or as A premultiplied by B.
When two conformable matrices are multiplied, the product matrix
thus obtained will have the number of rows of the rst matrix and the
number of columns of the second matrix. Thus, if a matrix A of order
m  n is postmultiplied by a matrix B of order n  s, then the product
matrix C will be of order m  s; that is,
A B C
#
mn  equal ! n  s ms
"
2 3
 6 B1j 7  
6 7
ith row Ai1 ! Ain 6 # 7 Cij ith row
4 5
Bnj

jth column
jth column (B.4)
826 APPENDIX B Review of Matrix Algebra

As illustrated in Eq. (B.4), any element Cij of the product matrix C can
be evaluated by multiplying each element of the ith row of A by the
corresponding element of the jth column of B and by algebraically
summing the resulting products; that is,
Cij Ai1 B1j Ai2 B2j    Ain Bnj (B.5)

Equation (B.5) can be conveniently expressed as

X
n
Cij Aik Bkj (B.6)
k1

in which n represents the number of columns of the matrix A and the

number of rows of the matrix B. Note that Eq. (B.6) can be used to de-
termine any element of the product matrix C AB.
To illustrate the procedure of matrix multiplication, we compute the
product C AB of the matrices A and B given in Eq. (B.3) as
    
1 5 2 3 6 18 43 51
C AB
7 3 4 8 9 2 45 69
22 23 23

in which the element C11 of the product matrix C is obtained by multi-

plying each element of the rst row of A by the corresponding element
of the rst column of B and summing the resulting products; that is,
C11 12 54 18

Similarly, the element C21 is determined by multiplying the elements of

the second row of A by the corresponding elements of the rst column
of B and adding the resulting products; that is,

C21 72  34 2

The remaining elements of C are determined in a similar manner:

C12 13 58 43

C22 73  38 45
C13 16 59 51

C23 76  39 69

Note that the order of the product matrix C is 2  3, which equals the
number of rows of A and the number of columns of B.
A common application of matrix multiplication is to express simul-
taneous equations in compact matrix form. Consider the system of si-
multaneous linear equations:
 B.3 Matrix Operations 827

A11 x1 A12 x2 A13 x3 P1

A21 x1 A22 x2 A23 x3 P2 (B.7)
A31 x1 A32 x2 A33 x3 P3
in which x1 ; x2 , and x3 are the unknowns and As and Ps represent the
coecients and constants, respectively. By using the denition of matrix
multiplication, this system of simultaneous equations can be written in
matrix form as
2 32 3 2 3
A11 A12 A13 x1 P1
6 76 7 6 7
4 A21 A22 A23 54 x2 5 4 P2 5 (B.8)
A31 A32 A33 x3 P3
or, symbolically, as
Ax P (B.9)
Even when two matrices A and B are of such orders that both
products AB and BA can be determined, the two products are generally
not equal; that is,

AB 6 BA (B.10)

It is, therefore, necessary to maintain the proper sequential order of

matrices when computing matrix products. Although matrix multi-
plication is generally not commutative, as indicated by Eq. (B.10), it is
associative and distributive, provided that the sequential order in which
the matrices are to be multiplied is maintained. Thus
ABC ABC ABC (B.11)
and
AB C AB AC (B.12)
Multiplication of any matrix A by a conformable null matrix O
yields a null matrix; that is,
OA O and AO O (B.13)
For example,
    
0 0 5 7 0 0

0 0 9 2 0 0
Multiplication of any matrix A by a conformable unit matrix I
yields the same matrix A, that is,
IA A and AI A (B.14)
For example,
    
1 0 5 7 5 7

0 1 9 2 9 2
828 APPENDIX B Review of Matrix Algebra

and
    
5 7 1 0 5 7

9 2 0 1 9 2
As Eqs. (B.13) and (B.14) indicate, the null and unit matrices serve the
purposes in matrix algebra that are analogous to those of the numbers 0
and 1, respectively, in scalar algebra.

Inverse of a Square Matrix

The inverse of a square matrix A is dened as a matrix A1 with ele-
ments of such magnitudes that the multiplication of the original matrix
A by its inverse A1 yields a unit matrix I; that is,

A1 A AA1 I (B.15)

Consider, for example, the square matrix

 
1 2
A
3 4
The inverse of A is given by
 
2 1
A1
1:5 0:5
so that the products A1 A and AA1 satisfy Eq. (B.15):
  
1 2 1 1 2
A A
1:5 0:5 3 4
   
2 3 4  4 1 0
I
1:5 1:5 3  2 0 1
and
      
1 2 2 1 2 3 1  1 1 0
AA1 I
3 4 1:5 0:5 6 6 3  2 0 1
The operation of inversion is dened only for square matrices. The
inverse of such a matrix is also a square matrix of the same order as the
original matrix. A procedure for determining inverses of matrices is
presented in the following section. The operation of matrix inversion
serves the same purpose as the operation of division in scalar algebra.
Consider a system of simultaneous equations expressed in the matrix
form as
Ax P
in which A represents the square matrix of known coecients; x repre-
sents the vector of the unknowns; and P represents the vector of the
 B.3 Matrix Operations 829

constants. Since the operation of division is not dened in matrix alge-

bra, we cannot solve the foregoing matrix equation for x by dividing P
by A (i.e., x P=A). Instead, to determine the unknowns x, we pre-
multiply both sides of the equation by A1 to obtain
A1 Ax A1 P
Since A1 A I and Ix x, we can write
x A1 P
which indicates that a system of simultaneous equations can be solved
by premultiplying the vector of the constants by the inverse of the co-
ecient matrix.
An important property of matrix inversion is that the inverse of a
symmetric matrix is always a symmetric matrix.

Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging its corresponding
rows and columns. The transposed matrix is usually identied by the
superscript T placed on the symbol of the original matrix. Consider, for
example, the 2  3 matrix
 
6 2 4
A
1 8 3
The transpose of A is given by
2 3
6 1
6 7
AT 4 2 85
4 3
Note that the rst column of A becomes the rst row of AT . Similarly,
the second and third columns of A become, respectively, the second and
third rows of AT . The order of AT thus obtained is 3  2.
As another example, consider the 3  3 matrix
2 3
9 7 5
6 7
B 4 7 3 25
5 2 6
Since the elements of B are symmetric about the main diagonal (i.e.,
Bij Bji ), interchanging the rows and the columns of this matrix pro-
duces a matrix B T that is identical to the matrix B itself; that is,
BT B
Thus, the transpose of a symmetric matrix yields the same matrix.
Another useful property of matrix transposition is that the transpose
of a product of matrices equals the product of the transposes in reverse
order; that is,
830 APPENDIX B Review of Matrix Algebra

AB T B T AT (B.16)

Similarly,
ABC T C T B T AT (B.17)

Partitioning of Matrices
Partitioning is a process by which a matrix is subdivided into a number
of smaller matrices called submatrices. For example, a 3  4 matrix A is
partitioned into four submatrices by drawing horizontal and vertical
dashed partition lines:
2 3
3 5 1 2  
6 7 A11 A12
A 4 2 4 7 9 5 (B.18)
A21 A22
6 1 3 4
in which the submatrices are
   
3 5 1 2
A11 A12
2 4 7 9
A21 6 1 3 A22 4
Matrix operations such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication
can be preformed on partitioned matrices in the same manner as de-
scribed previously by treating the submatrices as elements, provided that
the matrices are partitioned in such a way that their corresponding sub-
matrices are conformable for the particular operation. For example,
suppose that we wish to postmultiply the 3  4 matrix A of Eq. (B.18)
by a 4  2 matrix B, which is partitioned into two submatrices as
2 3
1 8
6 7 B 
6 5 27 11
B 6 7 (B.19)
4 3 65 B21
7 1
The product AB is expressed in terms of the submatrices as
    
A11 A12 B11 A11 B11 A12 B21
AB (B.20)
A21 A22 B21 A21 B11 A22 B21

Note that the matrices A and B have been partitioned in such a way that
their corresponding submatrices are conformable for multiplication;
that is, the orders of the submatrices are such that the products
A11 B11 ; A12 B21 ; A21 B11 , and A22 B21 are dened. As shown in Eqs. (B.18)
and (B.19), this is achieved by partitioning the rows of the second
 B.4 Solution of Simultaneous Equations by the Gauss-Jordan Method 831

matrix B of the product AB in the same way that the columns of the rst
matrix A are partitioned. The products of the submatrices are given by
2 3
  1 8  
3 5 1 6 7 19 28
A11 B11 4 5 2 5
2 4 7 43 34
3 6
   
2 14 2
A12 B21 7 1
9 63 9
2 3
1 8
6 7
A21 B11 6 1 34 5 2 5 8 68
3 6
A22 B21 47 1 28 4
Substitution into Eq. (B.20) yields
2   3 2 3
19 28 14 2 5 26
6 7 6 7
AB 4 43 34 63 9 5 4 20 25 5
8 68 28 4 20 64

B.4 SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS BY THE GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD

The Gauss-Jordan elimination method is one of the most commonly
used procedures for solving simultaneous linear algebraic equations.
To illustrate the method, consider the following system of three simul-
taneous equations:
2x1  5x2 4x3 44
3x1 x2  8x3 35 (B.21a)
4x1  7x2  x3 28
To solve for the unknowns x1 ; x2 , and x3 , we begin by dividing the rst
equation by the coecient of its x1 term:
x1  2:5x2 2x3 22
3x1 x2  8x3 35 (B.21b)
4x1  7x2  x3 28
Next, the unknown x1 is eliminated from the remaining equations by
successively subtracting from each remaining equation the product of
the coecient of its x1 term and the rst equation. Thus, to eliminate
x1 from the second equation, we multiply the rst equation by 3 and
832 APPENDIX B Review of Matrix Algebra

subtract it from the second equation. Similarly, we eliminate x1 from the

third equation by multiplying the rst equation by 4 and subtracting it
from the third equation. The system of equations thus obtained is
x1  2:5x2 2x3 22
8:5x2  14x3 101 (B.21c)
3x2  9x3 60
With x1 eliminated from all but the rst equation, we now divide the
second equation by the coecient of its x2 term:
x1  2:5x2 2x3 22
x2  1:647x3 11:882 (B.21d)
3x2  9x3 60
Next, we eliminate x2 from the rst and the third equations, succes-
sively, by multiplying the second equation by 2:5 and subtracting it
from the rst equation, and then by multiplying the second equation by
3 and subtracting it from the third equation. This yields
x1  2:118x3 7:705
x2  1:647x3 11:882 (B.21e)
 4:059x3 24:354
By dividing the third equation by the coecient of its x3 term, we obtain
x1  2:118x3 7:705
x2  1:647x3 11:882 (B.21f )
x3 6
Finally, by multiplying the third equation by 2.118 and subtracting it
from the rst equation, and by multiplying the third equation by 1.647
and subtracting it from the second equation, we determine the solution
of the given system of equations (Eq. (B.21a)) to be
x1 5
x2 2 (B.21g)
x3 6
That is, x1 5, x2 2, and x3 6. To check that the solution is car-
ried out correctly, we substitute the numerical values of x1 ; x2 , and x3
back into the original equations (Eq. (B.21a)):
25  52 46 44 Checks
35  2  86 35 Checks
45  72  6 28 Checks
B.4 Solution of Simultaneous Equations by the Gauss-Jordan Method 833

As the foregoing example illustrates, the Gauss-Jordan method

essentially involves successively eliminating each unknown from all
but one of the equations of the system by performing the following
operations: (1) dividing an equation by a scalar; and (2) multiplying
an equation by a scalar and subtracting the resulting equation from
another equation. These operations, which do not change the solution of
the original system of equations, are applied repeatedly until a system
with each equation containing only one unknown is obtained.
The solution of simultaneous equations is usually carried out in
matrix form by operating on the rows of the coecient matrix and the
vector containing the constant terms of the equations. The foregoing
operations are then referred to as elementary row operations. These
operations are applied to both the coecient matrix and the vector of
the constants simultaneously, until the coecient matrix is reduced to a
unit matrix. The elements of the vector, which initially contained the
constant terms of the original equations, now represent the solution of
the original simultaneous equations. To illustrate this procedure, con-
sider again the system of three simultaneous equations given in
Eq. (B.21a). The system can be expressed in matrix form as
Ax P
2 32 3 2 3
2 5 4 x1 44
6 76 7 6 7
43 1 8 54 x2 5 4 35 5 (B.22)
4 7 1 x3 28
When applying the Gauss-Jordan method, it is usually convenient to
write the coecient matrix A and the vector of constants P as sub-
matrices of a partitioned augmented matrix:
2 3
2 5 4 44
6 7
43 1 8 35 5 (B.23a)
4 7 1 28
To determine the solution, we begin by dividing row 1 of the augmented
matrix by A11 2:
2 3
1 2:5 2 22
6 7
43 1 8 35 5 (B.23b)
4 7 1 28

Next, we multiply row 1 by A21 3 and subtract it from row 2 and then
multiply row 1 by A31 4 and subtract it from row 3. This yields
2 3
1 2:5 2 22
6 7
40 8:5 14 101 5 (B.23c)
0 3 9 60
834 APPENDIX B Review of Matrix Algebra

Divide row 2 by A22 8:5, obtaining

2 3
1 2:5 2 22
6 7
40 1 1:647 11:882 5 (B.23d)
0 3 9 60
Multiply row 2 by A12 2:5 and subtract it from row 1; then multiply
row 2 by A32 3 and subtract it from row 3. This yields
2 3
1 0 2:118 7:705
6 7
4 0 1 1:647 11:882 5 (B.23e)
0 0 4:059 24:354
Divide row 3 by A33 4:059:
2 3
1 0 2:118 7:705
6 7
4 0 1 1:647 11:882 5 (B.23f )
0 0 1 6
Multiply row 3 by A13 2:118 and subtract it from row 1; then mul-
tiply row 3 by A23 1:647 and subtract it from row 2. This yields
2 3
1 0 0 5
6 7
40 1 0 2 5 (B.23g)
0 0 1 6
Thus x1 5, x2 2, and x3 6.

Matrix Inversion
The Gauss-Jordan elimination method can also be used to determine the
inverses of square matrices. The procedure is similar to that described
previously for solving simultaneous equations, except that in the aug-
mented matrix, the coecient matrix is now replaced by the matrix A
that is to be inverted and the vector of constants P is replaced by a unit
matrix I of the same order as the matrix A. Elementary row operations
are then performed on the augmented matrix to reduce the matrix A to
a unit matrix. The matrix I, which was initially the unit matrix, now
represents the inverse of the original matrix A.
To illustrate the foregoing procedure, let us compute the inverse of
the 2  2 matrix
 
1 2
A (B.24)
3 4
The augmented matrix is given by
 
1 2 1 0
(B.25a)
3 4 0 1
 Problems 835

By multiplying row 1 by A21 3 and subtracting it from row 2, we

obtain
 
1 2 1 0
(B.25b)
0 2 3 1
Next, by dividing row 2 by A22 2, we obtain
 
1 2 1 0
(B.25c)
0 1 1:5 0:5
Finally, by multiplying row 2 by 2 and subtracting it from row 1, we
obtain
 
1 0 2 1
(B.25d)
0 1 1:5 0:5
Thus,
 
1 2 1
A
1:5 0:5
The computations can be checked by using the relationship A1 A I.
We showed in Section B.3 that the matrix A1 , as computed here, does
indeed satisfy this relationship.

PROBLEMS
Section B.3 B.5 Show that AB T B T AT by using the matrices A and
B.1 Determine the matrix C A 3B if B given here.
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
12 8 15 2 1 1 8 2 5 1 5
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
A 4 8 7 10 5 B 4 1 4 65 A 4 1 4 3 5 B 4 7 05
15 10 5 1 6 3 2 0 6 0 3

B.2 Determine the matrix C 2A  B if Section B.4

2 3 2 3
3 7 1 6 B.6 Solve the following system of simultaneous equations
6 7 6 7 by the Gauss-Jordan method.
A 4 8 45 B 4 5 15
2 2 3 4 2x1 5x2  x3 15

B.3 Determine the products C AB and D BA if 5x1  x2 3x3 27

2 3 x1 3x2 4x3 14
2
6 7
A 6 4 2 B 4 1 5 B.7 Solve the following system of simultaneous equations
5 by the Gauss-Jordan method.

B.4 Determine the products C AB and D BA if 12x1  3x2 6x3 45

    5x1 2x2  4x3 9
2 5 3 4
A B
5 3 4 1 10x1 x2  7x3 32
836 APPENDIX B Review of Matrix Algebra
2 3
B.8 Solve the following system of simultaneous equations 4 3 1
by the Gauss-Jordan method. 6 7
A 4 2 5 15
5x1  2x2 6x3 0 6 4 5

2x1 4x2 x3 3x4 18 B.10 Determine the inverse of the matrix shown using the
Gauss-Jordan method.
6x1 x2 6x3 8x4 29 2 3
4 2 0 3
3x2 8x3 7x4 11 6 2 3 4 07
6 7
A 6 7
B.9 Determine the inverse of the matrix shown using the 4 0 4 2 1 5
Gauss-Jordan method. 3 0 1 5
 C
Computer Software

A computer program for analyzing plane-framed structures is available

on the publishers website www.cengage.com/engineering. The software,
which can be used to analyze plane trusses, continuous beams, and
plane frames, is based on the matrix stiness (displacement) method
described in Chapter 18. The software is designed for use on IBM and
IBM-compatible personal computers with Microsoft Windows1 Oper-
ating Systems, and it provides an option for saving input data into les
for subsequent modication and/or execution.
Complete instructions for downloading and installing the software
are provided on the publishers website www.cengage.wadsworth.com.

STARTING THE COMPUTER SOFTWARE

To start the computer software:
1. Click the Start button on the taskbar.
2. Point to the menu title Programs and then click the menu item
Structural Analysis 4.0 by A. Kassimali; the softwares title screen
will appear as shown in Fig. C.1.

INPUTTING DATA
The computer software is interactive in the sense that the user inputs
information about the structure by responding to questions and prompts
on the screen. The software is designed so that any consistent set of units
may be used. Thus all the data must be converted into a consistent set of

837
838 APPENDIX C Computer Software

FIG. C.1 Title Screen

units before being entered into the software. For example, if we wish to
use the units of kips and feet, then the joint coordinates must be de-
ned in feet, the moduli of elasticity in k/ft 2 , the areas of cross section
in ft 2 , the moments of inertia in ft 4 , the joint forces and moments
in kips and k-ft, respectively, and the uniformly distributed member
loads in k/ft.
To start inputting data for a structure, click the menu title
Project; and then click the menu item New Project (Fig. C.2). The
input data necessary for the analysis of a structure consist of the
following:

FIG. C.2 Project Menu

 Inputting Data 839

FIG. C.3 General Structural Data Screen

1. General Structural Data Input (a) the project title, and (b) the
structure type, as shown in Fig. C.3.
2. Joint Coordinates and Supports Input the X and Y coordinates
of each joint, and restraints for each support joint, as shown in Fig. C.4.
A plot of the joint coordinates and supports will appear on the screen,
which can be used to verify that the joint coordinates and restraints have
been entered correctly (Fig. C.5).
3. Material Properties Enter the modulus of elasticity (E) for each
material (Fig. C.6).
4. Cross-Sectional Properties Enter the cross-sectional area (A)
and moment of inertia (I ) for each cross-sectional property set
(Fig. C.7). For beams, the cross-sectional areas are not needed; whereas
for trusses, the moments of inertia are not needed.
5. Member Data For each member, input (a) the beginning joint,
(b) the end joint, (c) the material number, and (d) the cross-sectional
property set number (Fig. C.8). For frames and beams, the member
releases option can be used to dene any hinges at the member ends.
The origin of the local coordinate system for a member is located at
the beginning of the member, with the x axis directed from the begin-
ning joint to the end joint. The positive direction of the local y axis is
dened by the right-hand rule, with the z axis pointing out of the plane
of the page. A plot of the structure appears on the screen, which can be
used to verify that the geometry of the structure have been entered
correctly.
840 APPENDIX C Computer Software

FIG. C.4 Joint Coordinates and Supports Screen

FIG. C.5 A Graphics Display of Joints

 Inputting Data 841

FIG. C.6 Material Properties Screen

6. Joint Loads When analyzing a frame, enter for each joint that is
loaded, the joint number, the forces in the global X and Y directions,
and the moment (Fig. C.9). In the case of a beam, input only the force
in the Y direction and the moment; whereas, for a truss, input only the

FIG. C.7 Cross-Sectional Properties Screen

842 APPENDIX C Computer Software

FIG. C.8 Member Data Screen

forces in the X and Y directions. Since the software does not consider
member concentrated loads, frame and beam members subjected to such
loads must be subdivided into elements (i.e., smaller members) con-
nected together by rigid joints at the locations of the concentrated loads,
for the purpose of analysis.
7. Uniformly Distributed Loads on Frame and Beam Members For
each member subjected to uniformly distributed loading, enter the mem-
ber number and the load intensity (w), as shown in Fig. C.10. Note that
the uniformly distributed load, w, is considered to be positive if it acts in
the direction opposite to the member local y axis.
8. Support Settlements, Temperature Changes and Fabrication
Errors These eects can be input in a manner similar to that for the
joint and member loads.
 Inputting Data 843

FIG. C.9 Joint Loads Screen

FIG. C.10 Member Loads Screen

844 APPENDIX C Computer Software

RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS

Once all the necessary data have been entered, click the menu title
Analysis of the main screen to analyze the structure (Fig. C.11). The
software will automatically compute the joint displacements, member
end forces, and support reactions by using the matrix stiness (dis-
placement) method described in Chapter 18. The results of the anal-
ysis are displayed on the screen. The input data as well as the results
of the analysis can be printed by clicking on the menu title Project
and then clicking on the menu item Print, of the main screen, as
shown in Fig. C.12.

FIG. C.11 Main Screen

 Results of the Analysis 845

FIG. C.12 Results of the Analysis

Example C.1

Analyze the two-story frame shown in Fig. C.13(a) using the computer software.

FIG. C.13 continued

846 APPENDIX C Computer Software

Solution
This frame was previously analyzed in Example 16.12 by the slope-deection method, which takes into account only the
bending deformations of structures.
The analytical model of the frame is shown in Fig. C.13(b), and the input data are shown on the screen displays
given in Figs. C.3 through C.12. The computer printout, which contains the input data and the results of the analysis, is
shown in Fig. C.14. Note that the results of the computerized analysis are in agreement with those determined pre-
viously by the slope-deection method.

FIG. C.14 Computer Printout for Two-Story Frame

continued
 Results of the Analysis 847

FIG. C.14 (contd.) continued

848 APPENDIX C Computer Software

FIG. C.14 (contd.)

 Problems 849

PROBLEMS
C.1 and C.2 Using the computer software, determine the exceed the limit of 1/360 of the span length (i.e.,
smallest cross-sectional area A for the members of the D max a L=360).
trusses shown in parts (a) through (c) of Figs. PC.1 and
PC.2, so that the maximum vertical deection does not

FIG. PC.2

C.3 Using the computer software, determine the smallest

moment of inertia I required for the frame shown, so that
the horizontal deection of its top right joint does not ex-
FIG. PC.1 ceed 1.33 inches.
850 APPENDIX C Computer Software

FIG. PC.3
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. ASCE Standard Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and 14. Holzer, S.M. (1985) Computer Analysis of Structures.
Other Structures. (2006) ASCE/SEI 7-05, American Society of Elsevier Science, New York.
Civil Engineers, Virginia.
15. International Building Code. (2006) International Code
2. Arbabi, F. (1991) Structural Analysis and Behavior. Council, Falls Church, Virginia.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
16. Kassimali, A. (1999) Matrix Analysis of Structures.
3. Bathe, K.J., and Wilson, E.L. (1976) Numerical Methods Brooks/Cole, Pacic Grove, California.
in Finite Element Analysis. Prentice Hall, Englewood Clis,
N.J. 17. Kennedy, J.B., and Madugula, M.K.S. (1990) Elastic
4. Beer, F.P., and Johnston, E.R., Jr. (1981) Mechanics of Analysis of Structures: Classical and Matrix Methods. Harper
Materials. McGraw-Hill, New York. & Row, New York.

5. Betti, E. (1872) Il Nuovo Cimento. Series 2, Vols. 7 and 8. 18. Laible, J.P. (1985) Structural Analysis. Holt, Rinehart &
Winston, New York.
6. Boggs, R.G. (1984) Elementary Structural Analysis, Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, New York. 19. Langhaar, H.L. (1962) Energy Methods in Applied Me-
chanics. Wiley, New York.
7. Chajes, A. (1990) Structural Analysis, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Clis, N.J. 20. Laursen, H.A. (1988) Structural Analysis, 3rd ed. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
8. Colloquim on History of Structures. (1982) Proceedings, In-
ternational Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, 21. Leet, K.M. (1988) Fundamentals of Structural Analysis.
Cambridge, England. Macmillan, New York.
9. Cross, H. (1930) Analysis of Continuous Frames by Dis- 22. McCormac, J. (1984) Structural Analysis, 4th ed. Harper &
tributing Fixed-End Moments. Proceedings of the American Row, New York.
Society of Civil Engineers 56, 919928.
23. McCormac, J., and Elling, R.E. (1988) Structural Analysis:
10. Elias, Z.M. (1986) Theory and Methods of Structural Anal- A Classical and Matrix Approach. Harper & Row, New York.
ysis. Wiley, New York.
24. McGuire, W., and Gallagher, R.H. (1979) Matrix Struc-
11. Gere, J.M., and Weaver, W., Jr. (1965) Matrix Algebra for tural Analysis. Wiley, New York.
Engineers. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
25. Maney, G.A. (1915) Studies in Engineering, Bulletin 1.
12. Glockner, P.G. (1973) Symmetry in Structural Mechanics. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE 99, 7189.
26. Manual for Railway Engineering. (2008) American
13. Hibbler, R.C. (1990) Structural Analysis, 2nd ed. Macmil- Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association,
lan, New York. Maryland.

851
852 Bibliography

27. Maxwell, J.C. (1864) On the Calculations of the Equili- 35. Spillers, W.R. (1985) Introduction to Structures. Ellis Hor-
brium and Stiness of Frames. Philosophical Magazine 27, wood, West Sussex, England.
294299.
36. Standard Specications for Highway Bridges, 17th ed.
28. Noble, B. (1969) Applied Linear Algebra. Prentice Hall, (2002) American Association of State Highway and Trans-
Englewood Clis, N.J. portation Ocials, Washington, D.C.
29. Norris, C.H., Wilbur, J.B., and Utku, S. (1976) Elementary 37. Tartaglione, L.C. (1991) Structural Analysis. McGraw-Hill,
Structural Analysis, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. New York.
30. Parcel, J.H., and Moorman, R.B.B. (1955) Analysis of 38. Tezcan, S.S. (1963) Discussion of Simplied Formulation
Statically Indeterminate Structures. Wiley, New York. of Stiness Matrices. by P.M. Wright. Journal of the Struc-
31. Petroski, H. (1985) To Engineer Is HumanThe Role of tural Division, ASCE 89(6), 445449.
Failure in Successful Design. St. Martins Press, New York. 39. Turner, J.J.; Clough, R.W.; Martin, H.C.; and Topp, L.J.
32. Popov, E.P. (1968) Introduction to Mechanics of Solids. (1956) Stiness and Deection Analysis of Complex Struc-
Prentice Hall, Englewood Clis, N.J. tures. Journal of Aeronautical Sciences 23(9), 805823.

33. Sack, R.L. (1989) Matrix Structural Analysis. PWS-KENT, 40. Wang, C.K. (1983) Intermediate Structural Analysis.
Boston. McGraw-Hill, New York.

34. Smith, J.C. (1988) Structural Analysis. Harper & Row, 41. West, H.H. (1989) Analysis of Structures: An Integration of
New York. Classical and Modern Methods, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York.
 Answers to Selected Problems

CHAPTER 2 3.13 Ax 37:5 kN !; Ay 100 kN"; RB 62:5 kN
3.15 For 0 a x a 20 m: Ay 45  2x kN ";
2.1 Beam CD: w 662:3 lb/ft; Girder AE: w 111:3 lb/ft;
By 5 2x kN "
PC 8;279 lb; PA PE 4;529 lb
For 20 m a x a 25 m: Ay 25  x 2 =5 kN ";
2.3 Beam BF : w 16:04 kN/m; Girder AD: w
By 625  x 2 =5 kN "
1:97kN/m; PB PC 80:2 kN; PA PD 41:85 kN
3.17 Ay 102:75 k "; Bx 0; By 20:25 k "
2.5 Beam CD: w 480 lb/ft; Girder AE: PC 6;000 lb;
PA PE 3;000 lb 3.19 Ax 200 kN ; Ay 125 kN #; By 475 kN "
2.7 Beam EF : w 180 lb/ft; Girder AG: PC 3.21 Ax 100 kN ; Ay 216:11 kN "; By 183:89 kN "
PE 1;800 lb; PA PG 900 lb; Column A: 3.23 Ay 244:07 kN "; Bx 240 kN ; By 85:93 kN "
P 2;700 lb 3.25 Ay 22:5 k "; Bx 0; By 52:5 k ";
1
2.9 Windward side: 76.7 N/m 2 and 191.7 N/m 2 ; Lee- MB 1;500 k-ft
ward side: 460.2 N/m 2 3.27 Ax 184:16 kN ; Ay 97:48 kN "; Bx
2.11 Windward wall: 13.78 psf for 0 a z a 15 ft; 15.89 psf 140:82 kN ; By 130 kN "
for z 30 ft; Leeward wall: 8.3 psf 3.29 Ax 0; Ay Dy 7:5 k "; By Cy 90 k "
2.13 0.7 kN/m2 3.31 Ax 176:67 kN !; Ay 356:67 kN "; Bx
23:33 kN !; By 3:33 kN "
3.33 Ax 55 kN ; Ay 216:11 kN "; Bx 45 kN ;
CHAPTER 3 By 183:89 kN "
3.35 Ax 8:63 k ; Ay 15:46 k "; Bx 11:37 k ;
3.1 (a) Determinate; (b) Indeterminate, ie 2; (c) In-
By 35:45 k "
determinate, ie 1; (d) Unstable
3.37 Ax 0; Ay 80 kN "; By 480 kN ";
3.3 (a) Unstable; (b) Unstable; (c) Indeterminate, ie 1; Cy 128:75 kN "; Dy 211:25 kN "
(d) Unstable
3.39 Ax 12:88 k ; Ay 18:37 k "; Bx 47:12 k ;
3.5 Ax 0; Ay 33:75 k "; By 56:25 k " By 106:63 k "
1

3.7 Ax 150 kN!; Ay 0; MA 1; 200 kN.m

3.41 Ax 52:19 k ; Ay 1:25 k #;
3.9 Ax 0; Ay 220 kN "; MA 650 kN  m
MA 421:9 k-ft ; Bx 37:81 k ;

3.11 Ay 33:67 k "; Bx 0; By 61:33 k " By 16:25 k "; MB 328:1 k-ft

853
854 Answers to Selected Problems

CHAPTER 4 4.41 FCD 102:86 k (C); FDI 6:17 k (C); FDJ

35:63 k (C)
4.1 (a) Unstable; (b) Determinate; (c) Determinate;
4.43 FCF 21:08 k (T); FCG 27:04 k (T); FEG
(d) Unstable
27:04 k (C)
4.3 (a) Indeterminate, i 2; (b) Indeterminate, i 1;
4.45 FCH FEK 67:08 k (C); FHM FKO 67:08 k (T);
(c) Indeterminate, i 1; (d) Determinate
FEF 20 k (C); FLM 20 k (T)
4.5 (a) Unstable; (b) Unstable; (c) Determinate;
4.47 FBC 45 kN (C); FBF 215 kN (C);
(d) Unstable
FEF 30 kN (T); FEI 161 kN (T)
4.7 FAB FBC 77:31 kNC; FAD 168:75 kN (T);
4.49 FEF 110 k (T); FEL 28:28 k (T); FLP 49:5 k (T);
FBD 37:5 kN (C); FCD 93:75 kN (T)
FOP 130 k (C)
4.9 FAD 197:46 kN (C); FAC 153:21 kN (T);
4.51 FAD 1:12 k (T); FBD 7:56 k (C); FCD 8:54 k (C)
FCD 117:85 kN (T); FDE 191:67 kN (C)
4.53 FAB 2:18 k (C); FAC 6:24 k (C); FAD 16:63 k (T);
4.11 FAB FBF 20 kN (T); FAF 28:28 kN (C);
FBC 8:61 k (T)
FBC FCD FCG 0; FBG 28:28 kN (T); FFG
20 kN (C) 4.55 FAB 29:17 k (T); FCD 15:83 k (C); FAE
4:12 k (T); FEF 28:33 k (T)
4.13 FBC 140 kN (C); FCF 108:17 kN (T); FCG
72:11 kN (C); FFG 110 kN (T)
4.15 FDE 195 k (C); FDJ 50 k (C); FEJ 21:21 k (T); CHAPTER 5
FJK 180 k (T)
5.1 QA 40 kN; SA 32:14 kN; MA 524:98 kN  m;
4.17 FBC 120 kN (T); FBF 60 kN (C); FBG 63:25 kN QB 0; SB 87:14 kN; MB 261:42 kN  m
(T); FFG 189:74 kN (C)
5.3 QA 86:6 kN; SA 50 kN; MA 200 kN  m;
4.19 FCD 17:85 k (T); FDI 4:71 k (C); FDJ 25:69 k QB SB MB 0
(T); FIJ 41:21 k (C)
5.5 QA 60 kN; SA 55 kN; MA 95 kN  m;
4.21 FAC FBE 62:5 kN (C); FAD 0; QB 45 kN; SB 60 kN; MB 120 kN  m
FCD 32:5 kN (C)
5.7 QA QB 0; SA 50 kN; MA 50 kN  m;
4.23 FAC FCE 26 k T; FAD 63 k (C); SB 62:5 kN; MB 150 kN  m
FBC FCD 13 k (C)
5.9 QA QB SB 0; SA 200 kN;
4.25 FGH 27 kN (C); FGM 18 kN (C); FGN MA 750 kN  m; MB 250 kN  m
33:33 kN (T); FHN 44:67 kN (C); FMN 7 kN (T)
5.11 QA 9 k; SA 12 k; MA MB 240 k-ft;
4.27 FBC 130 kN (T); FCD 190 kN (C); QB 9 k; SB 12 k
FCF 100 kN (C); FCG 300 kN (T)
5.13 For 0 < x < L=3: S 2P=3; M 2Px=3
4.29 FBC 6:1 k (T); FBE 6 k (C); FBG 5 k (T);
For L=3 < x < L: S P=3; M PL  x=3
FEG 2:625 k (C)
5.15 S wL  2x=2; M wxL  x=2
4.31 FBC 48 k-ft/h (T); FGH 36 k-ft/h (C)
5.17 S M=L
4.33 FBC 18:75 k (T); FCF 68:94 k (C); FFG 45 k (T)
For 0 < x < 2L=3: Bending Moment Mx=L
4.35 FAD 61:85 kN (C); FCD 45:34 kN (T); FCE
For 2L=3 < x < L: Bending Moment
6:87 kN (T)
Mx  L=L
4.37 FCD 113:33 kN (T); FCH 41:67 kN (C);
5.19 S wL 2  3x 2 =6L; M wxL 2  x 2 =6L
FGH 100 kN (C)
5.21 For 0 < x < 3 m: S 20; M 20x
4.39 FBC 72:39 k (T); FCH 16:25 k (C); FHI
9:24 k (T); FDE 27:25 k (T); FEK 0:14 k (C); For 3 m < x < 6 m: S 0; M 60
FKL 2:75 k (C) For 6 m < x < 9 m: S 20; M 20x 180
 Answers to Selected Problems 855

5.23 For 0 < x a 7 m: S 60; M 60x 5.47 SA; R 11.33 k; SB; L 18.67 k;
For 7 m a x < 14 m: S 101  x; M 5x 2 SB; R 16 k; SC SD; L 6 k;
10x  245 SD; R SE; L 6 k; MB 110 k-ft;
MD 60 k-ft; Mmax 64:18 k-ft, at 11.33 ft from A
5.25 For 0 < x < 20 ft: S x 2 =40  x 7:5; M
x 3 =120  x 2 =2 7:5x 5.49 SA; R 90 kN; SC; L 180 kN;
SC; R 157:5 kN; SE; L 112:5 kN;
For 20 ft < x < 30 ft: S x 2 =40  x 52:5; SE; R 157:5 kN; SF ; L 112:5 kN;
M x 3 =120  x 2 =2 52:5x  900 MC 675 kN  m; ME 337:5 kN  m;
5.27 For 0 < x a 5 m (from A to B): S 2x 2 83:33; Mmax 351:6 kN  m; at 6.25 m to the left of F
M 2x 3 =3 83:33x 5.51 SA; R 125 kN; SC; L 250 kN; SC; R 187:5 kN;
For 0 < x1 a 10 m (from C to B): S x12  66:7; SD; L 187:5 kN; SD; R 250 kN; SF ; L 125
M x13 =3 66:67x1 kN; MC MD 937:5 kN  m; Mmax 312:5
kN  m, at 5 m from A and F
5.29 SA; R SB; L 90 kN; SB; R SC; L 10 kN;
SC; R SD; L 70 kN; MB 450 kN  m; MC 5.53 (a) a 3 m; (b) SA; R SB; L 50 kN; SB; R
350 kN  m SC; L 100 kN; SC; R SD; L 150 kN; MB 450
kN  m; MC 450 kN  m
5.31 SA; R SB; L 10 k; SB; R SC; L 23:33 k;
5.55 (a) Determinate; (b) Unstable; (c) Indeterminate,
SC; R SD; L 3:33 k; SD; R SE; L 16:67 k;
i 6; (d) Indeterminate, i 5
MB 80 k-ft; MC 106:67 k-ft; MD 133:33 k-ft
5.57 Member AB: Smax 16:5 k; Mmax 247:5 k-ft;
5.33 SA; R SB; L 12 k; SB; R SC; L 24 k; SC; R
Q0
SD; L 0; SD; R SE; L 24 k; SE; R SF ; L 12 k;
MB ME 120 k-ft; MC MD 120 k-ft Member BC: Smax 12 k; Mmax 120 k-ft;
Q 8:5 k
5.35 SA; R SB; L 26 k; SB; R SC 4 k;
5.59 Member AB: Smax 48 kN; Mmax 120 kN  m;
SD; L 24 k; MA MD 0;
Qmax 104 kN
MB 156 k-ft; MC 140 k-ft
Member BC: Smax 48 kN; Mmax 96 kN  m;
5.37 SA; R SB; L 225 kN; SB; R SC 150 kN;
Q 24 kN
SD 0; MA 2;700 kN  m;
MB 1;350 kN  m; MC 450 kN  m; MD 0 5.61 Member AB: Smax 204:97 kN; Mmax
416:67 kN  m; Q 260:87 kN
5.39 SB; L 27 k; SB; R 36 k; SC; L 36 k; SC; R
Member BC: Smax 141:67 kN; Mmax
27 k; MB MC 121:5 k-ft; Mmax 94:5 k-ft,
416:67 kN  m; Q 300 kN
at 21 ft from A
5.63 Member AB: S 48 k; Mmax 1;260 k-ft; Q 24 k
5.41 SA; R 10 k; SB; L 25 k; SB; R 30 k;
SC; L 30 k; SC; R 25 k; SD; L 10 k; Member BC: Smax 30 k; Mmax 300 k-ft; Q 0
MB MC 87.5 k-ft; Mmax 62:5 k-ft, 5.65 Member AC: Smax 108 kN; Mmax 486 kN  m;
at 15 ft from A Q 7:65 kN
5.43 SA; R SB; L 8 k; SB; R 23:83 k; SC; L 21:17 Member BD: S M 0; Q 217:35 kN
k; SC; R SD 0; MB 80 k-ft; MC MD 40 Member CE: Smax 142:35 kN; Mmax
k-ft; Mmax 109:3 k-ft, at 25.89 ft from A 487:95 kN  m; Q 0
5.45 SA; R SB; L 80 kN; SB; R SC 35 kN; 5.67 Member AB: S 10 k; Mmax 200 k-ft; Q 8:83 k
SD; L 125 kN; SD; R 120 kN; Member BC: Smax 30:51 k; Mmax 225 k-ft;
MA 540 kN  m; MB 420 kN  m; Qmax 17:02 k
MD 720 kN  m
Member CD: Smax 15 k; Mmax 225 k-ft;
Q 27:17 k
856 Answers to Selected Problems

5.69 Member AB: Smax 24 k; Mmax 492 k-ft; 6.27 and 6.53 Dmax 1:92 in: #; at 15.42 ft from A
Q 30 k 6.29 and 6.55 0.0139 in. #
Member BC: Smax 30 k; Mmax 492 k-ft;

2
6.31 and 6.57 yD 0:01134 rad ; DD 2:04 in. "
Q 24 k

1
6.33 and 6.59 yB 0:0099 rad ; DB 0:86 in. #
Member CD: Smax 24 k; Mmax 192 k-ft; Q 0

2
yD 0:0084 rad ; DD 1:44 in. #
5.71 Member AC: S 1:25 k; Mmax 18:75 k-ft;
Q 10 k
CHAPTER 7
Member CE: Smax 35 k; Mmax 356:25 k-ft;
Q 23:75 k 7.1 and 7.45 DBH 0:225 in. ; DBV 1:466 in. #
Member EG: S 23:75 k; Mmax 356:25 k-ft; 7.3 and 7.47 DBH 9:6 mm !; DBV 2:13 mm "
Q 35 k 7.5 and 7.49 DBH 0:36 in. ; DBV 1:894 in. #
7.7 9.1 mm #
CHAPTER 6 7.9 23 mm !

M 7.11 3,050 mm 2
6.1 y 3x 2  6Lx 2L 2 ;
6EIL 7.13 11.91 in 2
M 7.15 11.07 in 2
y x 3  3Lx 2 2L 2 x
6EIL
  7.17 0.693 in. #
wx 2
6.3 For 0 a x a a: y a  L 2 L  ax ; 7.19 1.357 in. "
 2EI

1
wx 2 a 2  L 2 L  ax 7.21 and 7.52 yB 0:0174 rad ; DB 34:8 mm #
y  
2EI 2 3 7.23 and 7.54 373 mm #
w x3 a 3
For a a x a L: y xLx  L  ;
" 2EI # 3 3 7.25 and 7.56 0.0048 in. "
  4 4 3
w x L x a a x 7.27 559 in4
y x2L   
2EI 3 2 12 12 3

2
7.29 and 7.57 yD 0:01134 rad ; DD 2:04 in. "
wx
6.5 y x 3 6L 2 x  8L 3 ; 7.31 and 7.59 2.388 in. #
24EIL
wx 2 7.33 and 7.60 81.3 mm !
y x 3 10L 2 x  20L 3
120EIL 7.35 2.27 in. !
1

6.7 y 0:0174 rad ; y 34:8 mm # 7.37 19.2 mm #

1

6.9 and 6.35 yB 0:00703 rad ; DB 23:4 mm # 7.39 and 7.62 0.182 m !
2 2 2,225 in 4
1

6.11 and 6.37 yB Pa =2EI ; DB Pa 3L  a=6EI # 7.41

1

6.13 and 6.39 yA wL 3 =8EI ; DA 11wL 4 =120EI # 7.43 0.00386 rad

1

6.15 and 6.41 yB 0:0514 rad ; DB 180 mm #

CHAPTER 8
1

yC 0:0771 rad ; DC 373 mm #

Ay : 1 at A; 0 at C
1

6.17 and 6.43 yB 0:00304 rad ; DB 67 mm # 8.1

yC 0:0122 rad ; DC 54:8 mm # Cy : 0 at A; 1 at C
4 SB : 0 at A and C; 0.5 at BL ; 0.5 at BR
6.19 and 6.45 559 in
6 4 MB : 0 at A and C; 2.5 at B
6.21 and 6.47 9,585 (10 ) mm
6.23 and 6.49 1.72 in. # 8.3 Ay : 1 at A; 0 at C
6.25 and 6.51 Dmax 146 mm #; at 10.95 m from A Cy : 0 at A; 1 at C
 Answers to Selected Problems 857

SB : 0 at A and C; 0.75 at BL ; 0.25 at BR 8.25 SD : 0 at A, C, E, and G; 0.333 at B; 0.5 at DL ; 0.5

MB : 0 at A and C; 3.75 at B at DR ; 0.25 at F

8.5 By : 1.25 at A; 0 at D MD : 0 at A, C, E, and G; 10 at B; 15 at

D; 7.5 at F
Dy : 0.25 at A; 0 at B; 1 at D
8.27 By : 1:67 at A; 1 at B; 0 at C; D; E; F and G
SC : 0.25 at A; 0 at B and D; 0.5 at CL ; 0.5 at CR
Dy : 1:17 at A; 0 at B; F and G; 1:75 at C; 1 at D
MC : 1 at A; 0 at B and D; 2 at C
Gy : 0:5 at A; 0 at B and D; 0:75 at C; 1 and F and G
8.7 Ay : 1 at A; 0 at C

1
MG : 5 at A; 0 at B; D and G; 7:5 at C; 10 at F
Cy : 0 at A; 1 at C
8.29 Ay : 1 at A and B; 0 at D, E, and G
SA; R : 1 at A; 0 at C
Ey : 0 at A, B, and G; 1.667 at D
MB : 0 at A and C; 7.5 at B
Gy : 0 at A, B, and E; 0.667 at D; 1 at G
8.9 Ay : 1 at A and C

2
MA : 0 at A, D, E, and G; 20 at B
2

MA : 0 at A; 20 at C
SB : 0 at A and BL ; 1 at BR and C 8.31 Ay : 1 at A and C; 0 at D and F

MB : 0 at A and B; 8 at C Fy : 0 at A and C; 1 at D and F

2 2
8.11 SE : 0 at B, D, and EL ; 1 at ER and F MA : 0 at A, D, and F ; 10 at C

ME : 0 at B, D, and E; 4 at F MF : 0 at A, C, and F ; 6 at D

8.13 Ay : 1 at A; 0 at C and E 8.33 Ay : 1 at A; 0 at B; E; G and H; 0:75 at C

Ey : 0 at A; 1 at C and E By : 0 at A; E; G and H; 1:75 at C

8.35 Ax : 0 at C and E; 0.5 at D
1

ME : 0 at A and E; 8 at C
8.15 SD : 0 at A, DR , and E; 1 at C and DL Ay : 1 at C; 0 at E
MD : 0 at A, D, and E; 4 at C Bx : 0 at C and E; 0.5 at D
8.17 Ay : 1 at C; 0 at E; 0.5 at F By : 0 at C; 1 at E
By : 0 at C; 1.5 at F 8.37 Ay : 1 at B, C, and D; 0 at F
2

SD : 0 at C and E; 0.5 at DL and F ; 0.5 at DR MA : 5 at B; 0 at C and F ; 5 at D

MD : 0 at C and E; 6 at D; 6 at F Fy : 0 at B, C, and D; 1 at F
8.19 Ay : 0 at B and E; 2 at D SE : 0 at B, C, D, and F ; 0.5 at EL ; 0.5 at ER
By : 1 at B; 0 at C and E; 1 at D ME : 0 at B, C, D, and F ; 2.5 at E
Ey : 0 at B, C, and D; 1 at E 8.39 Ay : 1 at D; 0 at F and H; 0.75 at G
SD : 0 at B, C, DL , and E; 1 at DR By : 0 at D and H; 1 at F ; 1.75 at G
8.21 SC : 0:5 at A; 0 at B; D; E; F ; and G; Cy : 0 at D, F , and G; 1 at H
0:5 at CL ; 0:5 at CR SE : 0 at D, F , and H; 0.5 at EL ; 0.5 at
MC : 6 at A; 0 at B; D; E; F ; and G; 6 at C ER ; 0.75 at G
SD : 0:5 at A; 0 at B; DR ; E; F ; and G; ME : 0 at D, F , and H; 2 at E; 3 at G
0:5 at C; 1 at DL 8.41 SDE : 0:667 at A; 0 at C and F ; 0:333 at D;
8.23 Ay : 1 at A; 0 at B, C, E, F , and G 0:333 at E; 0:667 at H
Cy : 0 at A, E, and G; 1.333 at B; 0.25 at F ME : 12 at A; 0 at C and F ; 12 at E; 24 at H
Ey : 0 at A, C, and G; 0.333 at B; 1.25 at F 8.43 SBC : 1 at A and B; 0 at C, D, and E
Gy : 0 at A, B, C, E, and F ; 1 at G MC : 30 at A; 0 at C, D, and E
858 Answers to Selected Problems

8.45 FAB : 0 at A and C; 0.5 at B 9.7 Maximum Positive SD 60:417 k;

FAD : 0 at A and C; 0.707 at B Maximum Negative SD 45:833 k

FBD : 0 at A and C; 1 at B Maximum Positive MD 1;937:5 k-ft;

Maximum Negative MD 1;100 k-ft
8.47 FDH : 0 at A, B, C, and E; 1 at D
9.9 200 kC
FCD : 0 at A and E; 1 at D
9.11 Maximum Tensile FDI 220:3 k T;
FGH : 0 at A and E; 1.33 at C
Maximum Compressive FDI 80:2 k C
FCH : 0 at A and E; 0.833 at C; 0.417 at D
9.13 SB 92:5 kN; MB 487:5 kN  m
8.49 FDE : 0 at A, B, C, and D; 0.667 at E
9.15 264 k-ft
FCG : 0 at A and D; 0.401 at B and E; 0.401 at C
9.17 88.56 kN (T)
FGH : 0 at A and D; 0.889 at C; 0.889 at E
9.19 42.5 k
FBC : 0 at A and D; 0.667 at B and C; 0.667 at E
9.21 370.1 k-ft
8.51 FCD : 1.6 at A; 0 at C, D, E, F , and G
9.23 601.8 k-ft
FCI : 1.8 at A; 0 at C and E; 0.5 at D; 1 at G
FDI : 1.494 at A; 0 at C and E; 0.534 at D; 1.067 at G
FDJ : 0.333 at A and G; 0 at C and E; 0.167 at D CHAPTER 10
8.53 FAB : 0 at A and G; 1.11 at B
10.17 FAC 26:35 k (C); FBC 36:89 k (T)
FDI : 0 at A and G; 0.556 at C; 0.833 at D
10.19 FDE 195 k (C); FDJ 50 k C;
FIJ : 0 at A and G; 2 at D FEJ 21:21 k (T); FJK 180 k T
FCI : 0 at A and G; 0.333 at C; 0.5 at D 10.21 AXAD 20 kN !; AYAD 197:33 kN "; DXAD
; DYAD 197:33 kN #; MDAD 240 kN  m

1
8.55 FBC : 0 at E, F , and G; 4.123 at D 20 kN
FBF : 0 at E, F , and D; 0.5 at G 10.23 BXBG 23:75 k ; BYBG 35 k "; MBBG
2
356:25 k-ft ; GX 23:75 k !; GYBG 35 k #;
BG
FBG : 0 at E, F , and D; 2.236 at G

2
MGBG 356:25 k-ft
FFG : 0 at E and F ; 2 at G; 4 at D
8.57 FAD : 0 at C and E; 1 at D; 1 at F
FBD : 0 at C, D, and E; 1.67 at F CHAPTER 12
FCD : 1.33 at C; 0 at D, E, and F

2
12.1 SL SR 90 kN "; ML 48:6 kN  m ; MR 48:6
DB : 0 at A and C; 20.833/(EI ) at B
1

8.59 kN  m

2
8.61 DD : 0 at A and C; 175/(EI ) at D 12.3 Girder DE: SL SR 80 kN; ML 57:6 kN  m ;
1

MR 57:6 kN  m

2
CHAPTER 9 Girder EF : SL SR 50 kN; ML 22:5 kN  m ;
1

MR 22:5 kN  m
9.1 37.5 k-ft 2
12.5 Girder DE: SL SR 80 kN; ML 57:6 kN  m ;
8.344 k
1

9.3 MR 57:6 kN  m
2

9.5 Maximum Ay 75 k "; Girder HI: SL SR 60 kN; ML 64:8 kN  m ;

2

Maximum MA 1;000 k-ft

1

MR 64:8 kN  m
 Answers to Selected Problems 859

12.7 Member AD: Q 12:5 k (T); S 12:5 k; M 12.21 Member AE: Q 9:18 k (T); S 3:97 k; M
125 k-ft 31:75 k-ft
Member BE: Q 0; S 25 k; M 250 k-ft Member CG: Q 2:29 k (C); S 14:78 k; M
Member EF : Q 12:5 k (C); S 12:5 k; M 118:25 k-ft
125 k-ft Member EF : Q 17:65 k (C); S 5:65 k; M
12.9 Member AD: Q 16:67 k (C); S 15 k; M 84:75 k-ft
120 k-ft Member JK: Q 7:49 k (C); S 1:41 k; M
Member CF : Q 16:67 k (T); S 15 k; M 120 k-ft 14:1 k-ft
Member DE: Q 10 k (C); S 13:33 k; M 160 k-ft
Member HI : Q 15 k (C); S 3:33 k; M 40 k-ft CHAPTER 13

12.11 Member AD: Q 10:5 k (C); S 10 k; M 60 k-ft

2
13.1 and 13.5 Ay 99:26 kN "; MA 233:3 kN  m ; Dy
Member CF : Q 14 k (T); S 10 k; M 60 k-ft 60:74 kN "
Member DE: Q 6:25 k (C); S 8:25 k; M 13.3 and 13.7 Ay 28:13 kN "; Cy 91:87 kN "; MC

1
82:5 k-ft 307:4 kN  m
Member HI : Q 11:25 k (C); S 3 k; M 22:5 k-ft 13.9 and 13.30 Ay Ey 15:625 k "; Cy 68:75 k "
12.13 Member AE: Q 7:33 k (T); S 6:25 k; M 13.11 and 13.32 Ay Ey 15:63 k "; Cy 68:75 k "
50 k-ft 13.13 Ay 28:36 k "; Cy 85:78 k "; Dy 20:86 k "
Member CG: Q 9:67 k (C); S 12:5 k; M 100 k-ft

1
13.15 Ay 13:125 kN #; MA 91:875 kN  m ; By
Member EF : Q 12:5 k (C); S 5:33 k; M 80 k-ft 223:125 kN "
Member JK: Q 7:5 k (C); S 6 k; M 60 k-ft 13.17 Ay 13 wL=32 "; By 17 wL=16 "; Cy
12.15 Member AD: Q 12:5 k (T); S 12:5 k; M 125 k-ft
33 wL=32 "

Member BE: Q 0; S 25 k; M 250 k-ft 13.19 AX 200 kN ; AY 57:03 kN "; MA

2
820:3 kN  m ; DY 92:97 kN "
Member EF : Q 12:5 k (C); S 12:5 k; M
13.21 AX 5:7 k !; AY 50:1 k "; CX 9:3 k !;
125 k-ft
CY 24:9 k "
12.17 Member AD: Q 16:67 k (C); S 15 k; M

1
120 k-ft 13.23 AX 0; AY 8:23 kN #; MA 675:8 kN  m ;
BY 98:23 kN "
Member CF : Q 16:67 k (T); S 15 k; M

2
13.25 AX 30 k ; AY 0; MA 160:8 k-ft ;
120 k-ft
BY 2:14 k #; DY 2:14 k "
Member DE: Q 10 k (C); S 13:33 k; M
160 k-ft 13.27 Ax 10 k ; Ay 11:7 k "; Cy 41:5 k "; Dy
6:8 k "
Member HI : Q 15 k (C); S 3:33 k; M 40 k-ft
13.29 Ax 2:7 kN ; Ay 20 kN #; Bx 57:3 kN ;
12.19 Member AD: Q 12:66 k (C); S 12:06 k;
By 100 kN "
M 72:4 k-ft
13.35 FBC 119:8 kN (C); FAD 130:2 kN (T); FAC
Member CF : Q 11:51 k (T); S 8:24 k; M
162:5 kN (T); FBD 170:8 kN (C)
49:43 k-ft
2

13.37 Ay 92:8 kN "; MA 114:3 kN  m ; By

Member DE: Q 7:55 k (C); S 9:95 k; M
228:6 kN "; Cy 78:6 kN "
99:5 k-ft
13.39 Ay 29:1 kN "; Cy 138:7 kN ";
Member HI : Q 12:1 k (C); S 2:46 k; M
Ey 171 kN "; Gy 51:2 kN "
18:45 k-ft
13.41 Ay Gy 23 k "; By Fy 63 k "; Dy 48 k "
860 Answers to Selected Problems

13.43 AX 15 k !; AY 34:13 k "; EX 10 k !; 15.5 Ay : 1 at A; 0 at B and D; 0.047 at C; 0.063 at E

1
EY 30:87 k "; ME 122:4 k-ft By : 0 at A and D; 1 at B; 0.594 at C; 0.625 at E

22
13.45 AX 4:29 k ; AY 23:25 k "; MA 107:9 k-ft ; Dy : 0 at A and B; 0.453 at C; 1 at D; 1.563 at E
BX 15:71 k ; BY 36:75 k "; MB 222:1 k-ft
SC : 0 at A, B, and D; 0.453 at CL ; 0.547 at CR ;
13.47 Ax 10:04 k !; Ay 13:77 k "; Cy 6:23 k "; 0.563 at E
Dx 10:04 k ; FBD 12:16 k (T)
MC : 0 at A, B, and D; 1.81 at C; 1.75 at E

2
13.49 Ay 179:5 kN "; MA 955:5 kN  m ; Dy
15.7 FBC : 0 at C; 0.833 at D; 0.938 at E
19:5 kN #
FCD : 0 at C; 0.667 at D; 1.917 at E
13.51 Ay 39:94 k"; By 53:49 k"; Cy 26:57 k"
15.9 By : 1.643 at A; 1 at B; 0.393 at C; 0 at D and E;

2
13.53 Ay 165:2 kN "; MA 449:4 kN  m ; By
0.054 at x 20 ft
125:8 kN "; Cy 109 kN "
Dy : 0.857 at A; 0 at B and E; 0.767 at C; 1 at D;
13.55 FBC FEF 37:34 kN (C); FBF FCE 46:67 kN (T)
0.447 at x 20 ft
13.57 FAB 3:35 k (C); FAC FBC 9:46 k (T); FCD
SC : 0.643 at A; 0 at B, D, and E; 0.607 at CL ; 0.393
13:38 k (T)
at CR ; 0.054 at x 20 ft
MC : 1.79 at A; 0 at B, D, and E; 1.97 at C; 0.27
CHAPTER 14 at x 20 ft
15.11 Cy : 0 at A and D; 0.582 at B; 1 at C
14.1 Ay Ey 15:63 k "; Cy 68:75 k "
FBC : 0 at A, C, and D; 0.11 at B
14.3 Ay 28:36 k "; Cy 85:78 k "; Dy 20:86 k "
FCE : 0 at A, C, and D; 0.252 at B
1

14.4 and 14.11 Ay 13:125 kN #; MA 91:875 kN  m ;

FEF : 0 at A, C, and D; 0.203 at B
By 223:125 kN "
14.7 Ay 23:6 k"; By 66:4 k";
Cy 56:4 k"; Ey 13:6 k" CHAPTERS 16 AND 17

14.9 Ay 39:94 k"; By 53:49 k"; Cy 26:57 k"

1
16.1 and 17.1 MAC 50:6 k-ft ; MCA 58:8 k-ft ; MCE
2

1
14.13 FBC 119:8 kN (C); FAD 130:2 kN (T); FAC 58:8 k-ft ; MEC 26:9 k-ft
162:5 kN (T); FBD 170:8 kN (C)
1

1
16.3 and 17.3 MAB 100 kN  m ; MBA 200 kN  m ;
2

1
MBE 200 kN  m ; MEB 500 kN  m

1
MAB MCB 0; MBA 152:6 k-ft ;
16.5 and 17.5
CHAPTER 15
2

MBC 152:6 k-ft

2

2
15.1 and 15.2 Ay : 1 at A; 0.688 at B; 0 at C 16.7 and 17.7 MAB 449:4 kN  m ; MBA 72:3 kN  m ;
1

MA : 0 at A and C; 2.25 at B MBC 72:3 kN  m ; MCB 0

2

1
Cy : 0 at A; 0.313 at B; 1 at C 16.9 and 17.9 MAB 103:5 kN  m; MBA 113 kN  m ;
2

MBC 113 kN  m ; MCB 85 kN  m ; MCE

SB : 0 at A and C; 0.313 at BL ; 0.687 at BR
2

85 kN  m ; MEC 47:5 kN  m
MB : 0 at A and C; 1.875 at B
2
1

16.11 and 17.11 MBA 50 k-ft ; MBD 50 k-ft ; MDB

15.3 Cy : 0 at A; 0.633 at B; 1 at C; 1.375 at D
2
1

89:3 k-ft ; MDE 89:3 k-ft ; MED 55:4 k-ft

SB : 0 at A and C; 0.633 at BL ; 0.367 at BR ;
11

16.13 and 17.13 MAB MED 0; MBA MDC 57:9 kN  m ;

0.375 at D
2

MBC MDE 57:9 kN  m ; MCB 38:6 kN  m ;

2

MB : 0 at A and C; 3.164 at B; 3.125 at D MCD 38:6 kN  m

 Answers to Selected Problems 861

2 3 2 3

1
16.15 and 17.15 MAB 68:6 kN  m ; MBA 183 kN  m ; 23:26 k 15:7 k
6 7 6 7

2
MBC 183 kN  m ; MCB 29 kN  m ; MCE 6 4:3 k 7 6 23:26 k 7
6 7 6 7

1
29 kN  m ; MEC 170:2 kN  m 6 108 k-ft 7 6 21 k-ft 7
6 7 6 7
18.9 Q1 6 7Q 6 7

1
16.17 and 17.17 MAC 9:4 kN  m ; MCA 187:5 kN  m ; 6 23:26 k 7 2 6 15:7 k 7
6 7 6 7

2
MCD 187:5 kN  m ; MDC 0 6 7 6 7
4 4:3 k 5 4 36:74 k 5

2
16.19 and 17.19 MAD MCD MED 0; MDA 65 k-ft ;
21 k-ft 249 k-ft

2
1
MDC 102:5 k-ft ; MDE 37:5 k-ft
2 3

1
16.21 and 17.21 MAC 58:6 kN  m ; MCA 286 kN  m ; 36:74 k
6 7
2
MCD 286 kN  m ; MDC 0 6 15:7 k 7
6 7

2
16.23 and 17.23 MAC 0; MDE 100 k-ft ; MCA 6 222 k-ft 7
6 7
Q3 6 7
2

2
1

69:6 k-ft ; MBC 301:5 k-ft ; MCB 37 k-ft ; 6 36:74 k 7

6 7
2

1
MCD 32:1 k-ft ; MDC 100 k-ft 6 7
4 15:7 k 5
2

2
16.25 and 17.25 MAC 107:8 k-ft ; MCA 20:8 k-ft ;
249 k-ft
2

MBD 222 k-ft ; MDB 249:2 k-ft ; MCD 2

1

20:8 k-ft ; MDC 249:2 k-ft

2

2
16.27 and 17.27 MAB 127 k-ft ; MBA 103:4 k-ft ;
1

MBC 103:4 k-ft ; MCB 0 APPENDIX B

2 3
2

11
16.29 and 17.29 MAC 11:7 kN  m ; MCA 43:9 kN  m ; 18 11 18
2

MCD 43:9 kN  m ; MDC 14:7 kN  m ; 6 7

B.1 C 4 11 19 28 5
2

MDB 14:7 kN  m ; MBD 0

18 28 4
2

16.31 and 17.31 MAC MBD 119 k-ft ; MCA MDB 2 3

12 8 4
2

83:5 k-ft ; MCE MDF 23:3 k-ft ; MEC 6 7

B.3 C 26; D 4 6 4 2 5
2

MFD 44:2 k-ft ; MCD MDC 106:8 k-ft ;

30 20 10
1

MEF MFE 44:2 k-ft

 
6 27 2
CHAPTER 18 B.5 ABT BT AT
55 14 28
18.1 Q1 53:5 k (T); Q2 48 k (C) B.7 x1 7; x2 3; x3 5
2 3
18.3 Q1 102:8 kN (T); Q2 28:6 kN (C); Q3 0:42 0:22 0:04
6 7
145:4 kN B.9 A1 4 0:08 0:28 0:04 5
2 (C) 3 2 3
104:4 kN 45:6 kN 0:44 0:04 0:28
6 7 6 7
6 394 kN  m 7 6 232 kN  m 7
18.5 Q1 66 104:4 kN 7
7 Q2 6
6 45:6 kN 7
7
4 5 4 5
232 kN  m 178 kN  m APPENDIX C
2 3 2 3
9:36 k 15:28 k
6 7 6 7 C.1 (a) 9.12 in 2 ; (b) 6.33 in 2 ; (c) 8.66 in 2
6 14:72 k 7 6 9:36 k 7
6 7 6 7
6 37:65 k-ft 7 6 41:92 k-ft 7 C.3 1,257 in 4
6 7 6 7
18.7 Q1 6 7Q 6 7
6 9:36 k 7 2 6 15:28 k 7
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
4 15:29 k 5 4 10:64 k 5
41:92 k-ft 54:65 k-ft
This page intentionally left blank
 Index

A vertical loads, 475480

AASHTO Standard Specications for Highway Arches, structure of, 910
Bridges, 18, 2224 Areas of geometric shapes, 817819
Absolute maximum response, inuence lines for, ASCE Standard Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
415421 and Other Structures, 1718, 2530
Analytical models, 1216, 768772 Axial force (Q), 161167
connections for, 1416 Axial stress distribution, 497498
degrees of freedom, 770772 Axis of symmetry (s), 426432
global coordinate system, 769770, 786787
line diagrams, 1314
local coordinate system, 769770, 786787 B
matrix structural analysis, 768772 Ball-and-socket joints, 134, 136
plane structure, 1213 Ball joints, 136
space structure, 13 Beam-column structures, 910
supports for, 16 Beams, 11, 160274, 293301, 313314, 318,
Antisymmetric loadings, 434436, 446447 338367, 610631, 635672, 707741, 778779,
Applied forces, 46 784, 786
Approximate analysis, 471507 axial force (Q), 161167
assumptions for, 472475 bending moment diagrams, 248252
cantilever method for, 497504 bending moments (M), 162164, 342343,
degree of indeterminacy (i), 472473 636641
exact methods compared to, 471472 Castiglianos second theorem for, 318
forces, distribution of, 475 conjugate-beam method for, 253268
frames, 471507 continuous, 651672, 725741, 778779, 784,
inection points for, 473477, 483485 786
lateral loads, 481504 deection (
), 226274, 293301, 313314, 318
portal method for, 481497 direct integration method for, 230233
procedures for, 485497, 498504 equilibrium method for, 338353
rectangular frames, 471507 xed-end moments (FEM), 640644, 716717,
redundants, 472473 721
statically indeterminate structures, 471507 exural rigidity (EI) of, 229

863
864 Index

geometric methods for, 226274 inuence lines for, 342343, 371372

inuence lines for, 338367, 610631 qualitative elastic shapes and, 172173
internal forces, 161167 redundants, as, 531543
matrix structural analysis, 778779, 784, 786 relationships between loads and shear, 173199
member end moments, 649 shear (S) and, 160225
member end shears, 649650 Bending moments (M), (cont.)
moment-area method for, 234247 sign convention for, 162164
moment-distribution method, 707741 slope () and, 531535
Muller-Breslaus principle for, 353367, 627631 slope-deection method and, 636641
procedures for analysis of, 164167, 177179, statically determinate structures, 162163, 342343,
237247, 255268, 295301, 343353 371372
qualitative elastic shapes for, 172173 statically indeterminate structures, 531543
reactions in, 339341 three-moment equation for, 590591
relationships between loads and shear and bending Bending stiness, 709710, 713716
moments, 173199 Bending structures, 1112
shear (S), 162164, 341342 Bettis law of reciprocal deections, 325326
shear and bending moment diagrams, 167172, Bridges, 89, 2224, 92. See also Trusses
645, 651 impact factor (I ), 24
sign convention for, 162164 live loads on, 2224
slopedeection method for, 635706 railroad loads, 2324
statically determinate structures, 160274, 293301, suspension, 89
313314, 318, 338367 truck loads, 2223
statically indeterminate structures, 610631, trusses, 92
635672, 707741 Buildings, 1012, 2122, 2439
stiness (K), 708710, 712716 bending structures, 1112
strain energy (U) for, 313314 earthquake loads, 3537
superposition method for, 233234 environmental loads, classication of for, 27
supports for, 254255 exposure categories for, 27
virtual work method for, 293301 external pressure coecients (Cp) for, 2830
workenergy methods for, 293301, 313314, impact loads on, 24
318 live loads on, 2122
Bending moment diagrams, 167172, 248252 shear structures, 10
beam deection and, 248252 snow loads, 3235
cantilever parts method, 249251 wind loads, 2432
loads and, 249
shear (S) and, 167172 C
Bending moments (M), 162163, 342343, 371372, Cable structures, 89
531543, 590591, 636641 Cantilever method, 497504
axial force (Q) and, 161167 Cantilever overhangs, analysis of, 653, 727
beams, 160194, 342343, 636641 Carryover factor (COF), 711
concentrated loads and, 176 Castiglianos second theorem, 316325
consistent deformation method and, 531543 beam deection by, 318
couples or concentrated moments, 177 frame deection by, 319
exibility coecient (f ) and, 533534 procedure for analysis using, 319325
oor systems, 371372 truss deection by, 318
frames, 342343, 636641 Centroids of geometric shapes, 817819
 Index 865

Code numbers for members, 793795 trusses, 535537

Column matrix, 822 Construction material weight, 19
Column structures, 910 Continuous beams, 651672, 725741, 778779, 784,
Compatibility conditions and equations, 461462, 786
467469, 791 cantilever overhangs, 653, 727
Complex trusses, analysis of, 133134 coordinate transformations, 784
Compound trusses, analysis of, 97, 128133 global coordinate system, 786
Compression structures, 910 local coordinate system, 778779
Computer program for matrix structural analysis, 778779, 784, 786
computer results, 844848 moment-distribution method for, 725741
data input for, 837843 simple end supports, 652653, 726727
matrix structural analysis, 797, 837850 slope-deection method for, 651672
Concentrated loads, 176 Cooper E loadings, 2324
absolute maximum response to, 415417, 418420 Coordinates, 769770, 772792
inuence line applications for, 401403, 408415, continuous beams, 778779, 784, 786
415417, 418420 frames, 772778, 780784, 786
procedures for analysis of, 412415 global coordinate system, 769770, 786787
responses due to, 401403, 408415, 415417, local coordinate system, 769770, 772779
418420 member stiness matrix (K), 786787, 790792
series of moving, 408415, 418420 member stiness matrix (k), 786787, 790792
single moving, 401403, 415417 structure stiness matrix (S), 772, 791792
Concentrated moments, 177 transformation matrix (T), 780785
Conjugate-beam method, 253268 trusses, 779, 784785, 7867897
procedure for analysis using, 255268 Couple moments, 177
sign convention, 255 Couples, work (W) by, 277
supports for, 254255 Critical form, 104
Connections, 1416, 5458, 100101, 137, 197198.
See also Joints D
analytical models, 1416 Dead loads, 1720
equations of conditions for, 5458, 100101, 137, Decomposition of loading, 436443
197198 Deection (
), 226336, 389392
Consistent deformations, method of, 508585 beams, 226301, 313314, 318
bending moments (M) and, 531543 bending moment diagrams, 248252
fabrication errors and, 574575 Bettis law of reciprocal, 325326
exibility coecient (f) for, 511522, 533534, Castiglianos second theorem for, 316325
544547 conjugate-beam method for, 253268
internal forces and, 531543 dierential equation for, 227229
internally indeterminate structures, 535537 direct integration method for, 230233
multiple degrees of indeterminacy and, 544547 elastic curve for, 227228
procedures for analysis using, 515531, 547567 elastic, 226
reaction moments (MA), 513515 exural rigidity (EI), 229
redundants for, 508567 frames, 301312, 314315, 319
single degree of indeterminacy and, 509531 geometric methods for, 226274
slope () and, 531535 inuence lines for, 389392
statically indeterminate structures, 508585 Maxwells law of reciprocal, 325326, 390
support settlements and, 568574 moment-area method for, 234247
temperature changes and, 574577 plastic (inelastic), 226
866 Index

strain energy (U) and, 312315 stable structures, 5054

superposition method for, 233234 static determinacy, 5060
trusses, 282292, 312313, 318 statically determinate structures, 4388,
virtual work method for, 278312 465467
workenergy methods for, 275336 statically indeterminate structures, 466469, 646,
Degree of indeterminacy, see Indeterminacy (i) 651
Degrees of freedom, 646, 673675, 770772 superposition, principle of for, 78
Diagonal matrix, 823 two- and three-force structures, 46
Dierential equation for beam deection, unstable structures, 5358
227229 Equilibrium method, 338353
Direct integration method for beam deection, beams, 338353
230233 bending moments (M), 342343
Displacement (stiness) methods, 469470, frames, 338353
635815 inuence lines and, 338353
matrix structural analysis of, 767815 procedure for analysis using, 343353
moment-distribution method for, 707766 reactions, 339341
slope-deection method for, 635706 shear (S), 341342
statically indeterminate structures, 469470, Exposure factor (Ce), 33
635815 External forces, 46
Displacements, virtual principle of, 287279 External pressure coecient (Cp), 2830
Distribution factor (DF), 713716, 718721 External structure stability, 5058, 95
joints, determination of at, 718721
member stiness (K), 713716 F
moment-distribution method and, 713716, Fabrication errors, 283284, 464465, 574575
718721 consistent deformations method and, 574575
Dynamic pressure (q), 2425 stresses due to, 464465
trusses and, 283284
E Fixed-end moments (FEM), 640644, 716717,
Earthquake loads, 3537 721
Elastic curve, 172173, 227228 moment-distribution method,
End support, 254 716717, 721
Equilibrium, 4388, 465469, 646, 651, 788790 slope-displacement method, 640644
compatibility equations and, 467469 Fixed supports, 16, 48, 254, 592593
concurrent force systems and, 4546 Flexibility coecient (f), 326, 511522, 533534,
equations of, 4445, 466467, 646, 651, 544547
788790 bending moments (M) and, 533534
external forces and, 46 Maxwells law for, 544547
external structure stability, 5058 multiple degrees of indeterminacy and, 544547
force-deformation relations, 469 redundants and, 511522
free-body diagrams (FBD) for, 6061 Flexural rigidity (EI), 229
internal forces and, 4647 Floor systems, 1314, 21, 367377
internal structure stability, 4750 beams, 1314
matrix structural analysis, 788790 bending moments (M) in, 371372
plane structures, 4445, 4749 girders, 367377
reactions and, 4780 inuence lines for, 367378
slope-deection method and, 646, 651 live load minimums, 21
space structures, 44 panel points, 367, 368
 Index 867

procedures for analysis of, 372377 degrees of freedom, 646, 673675

reactions in, 370 displacement at joints, 681684
shear (S) in, 370371 equilibrium method for, 338353
stringers, 1314, 367370 xed-end moments (FEM), 640644
trusses, 377378 girder axial force in, 475479
Force-deformation relations, 469 global coordinate system, 786
Force (exibility) methods, 469470, 508599 inclined legs and, 684688
consistent deformations, 508585 indeterminacy (i), degree of, 197200
statically indeterminate structures, 469470, inection points for, 473477, 483485
508599 inuence lines for, 338353, 627632
three-moment equation, 586599 joints, 301312, 681684
Forces, 4547, 9495, 161167, 276277, 280282, lateral load analysis, 481504
380383, 472475. See also Loads local coordinate system, 772778
applied, 46 matrix structural analysis, 772778, 780784,
axial (Q), 161167 786
bending moment (M) from, 162163 member end moments, 649
concurrent systems, 4546 member end shears, 649650
deformable bodies, 280282 moment-distribution method for, 741761
distribution of, 474475 multistory, 688, 760761
equilibrium and, 4547 portal method for, 481497
external, 46 procedures for analysis of, 201215, 343353,
inuence lines for, 380383 485497, 498504
internal, 4647, 161167, 472473 rectangular, 471507
primary, 94 rotation () and, 301312, 648649
reactions, 46 shear and bending moments, 195215
redundants, 472473 sidesway, analysis of with, 681701, 744761
secondary, 9495 sidesway, analysis of without, 673681, 741743
shear moment (S) from, 162163 slope-deection method, for, 635351, 673706
statically determinate structures, 161167, 276277, static determinacy of, 195200
280282, 380383 statically determinate, 195215, 301312, 314315,
statically indeterminate structure, 472475 319, 338353
trusses, 9495, 380383 statically indeterminate, 471507, 627651,
virtual, principle of, 280282 673701, 741761
work (W) by, 276277 strain energy (U) for, 314315
Frames, 11, 195215, 301312, 314315, 319, vertical load analysis, 475480
338353, 471507, 627651, 673706, 741761, virtual work method for, 301312
772778, 780784, 786 workenergy methods for, 301312, 314315, 319
approximate analysis for, 471507 Free end support, 254
axial stress distribution for, 497498 Free-body diagrams (FBD), 6061, 107110
bending moments (M), 342343, 636641
cantilever method for, 497504 G
Castiglianos second theorem for, 319 Gauss-Jordan elimination method, 831835
connections, equations of conditions for, General loadings, 436443, 447
197198 Geometric analysis methods, 226274
coordinate transformations, 780784 beam deection by, 226274
deection (
), 301312, 314315, 319 bending moment diagrams, 248252
degree of indeterminacy (i), 197200, 472473 conjugate-beam, 253268
868 Index

direct integration, 230233 redundants and, 53, 197, 103, 509513

moment-area, 234247 single degrees of, 509531, 609611
superposition, 233234 Inection points, 473477
Geometric shapes, areas and centroids of, Inuence lines, 337424, 609634
817819 absolute maximum response applications,
Geometrically unstable structures, 5354 415421
Girders, 367377, 457459. See also Floor systems applications of, 401424
axial force in frames, 475479 beams, 338367, 610631
inuence lines for, 367377 bending moments (M), 342343, 371372
Global coordinate system, 769770, 786787 concentrated load applications, 401403, 408415,
analytical models, 769770 415417, 418420
continuous beams, 786 deections, 389392
Global coordinate system, (cont.) equilibrium method for, 338353
frames, 786 oor systems, 367378
matrix structural analysis, 769770, 786787 force members, 380383
member stiness matrix (K), 786787 frames, 338353, 627632
trusses, 786787 girders, 367377
Gust eect factor (G), 30 live load applications, 403408, 417418
Muller-Breslaus principle for, 353367,
627631
H
multiple degrees of indeterminacy and,
H-truck loads, 22
611613
Hinged connections (supports), 1416, 48, 254255,
procedures for analysis of, 343353, 358367,
643644
372377, 383389, 613626
conjugate beams, 254255
qualitative, 358
reactions, 48
reactions, 339341, 370, 378380
slope-deection method for, 643644
shear (S), 341342, 370371
structural use of, 1416
statically determinate structures, 337424
HS-truck loads, 2223
statically indeterminate structures, 609634
Hydrostatic pressure, 37
trusses, 377389, 610626
uniformly distributed load applications, 403408,
I 417418
Ideal truss, 9394 Inspection, analysis by, 110110
Impact factor (I), 24 Interior support, 254
Impact loads, 24 Internal forces, 4647, 161167, 472473,
Importance factor (I), 25, 27 531543
Inclined legs, frame sidesway and, 684688 axial force (Q) as, 161167
Indeterminacy (i), 53, 57, 103, 197200, 472473, consistent deformation method using, 531543
609613 procedure for analysis of, 164167
consistent deformations method using, 508531, redundants, as, 472473, 531543
544547 shear force (S) as, 161167
external (ie), 57 structural reactions to, 4647
exibility coecient (f) and, 511522, 544547 Internal hinge support, 254
frames, 197200, 472473 Internal structure stability, 4750, 9599
inuence lines for structures of, 609613 Internally indeterminate structures, 535537
multiple degrees of, 544547, 611613 International Building Code, 18
plane trusses, 103 Inverse of a matrix, 828829
 Index 869

J inuence line applications for, 403408,

Joints, 1416, 644646, 648649, 673675, 681684, 417418
717725, 768772 railroads, 2324
analytical models, 1416, 768772 responses due to, 403408, 417418
balancing, 721725 trucks, 2223
connections, 1416 uniformly distributed, 403408, 417418
coordinate systems for, 769770 Loadings, 432447
degrees of freedom, 646, 673675, 770772 antisymmetric, 434436, 446447
displacement from sidesway, 681684 components of, 432443
distribution factors (DF) at, 718721 decomposition of, 436443
elements, 768 general, 436443, 447
external reactions at, 644646 symmetric, 433434, 444446
xed-end moments (FEM) for, 721 symmetric structures and, 432447
frame analysis and, 673675, 681684 Loads, 7, 1740, 173199, 401424, 475507
hinged (exible), 1415 AASHTO Standard Specications for Highway
matrix structural analysis, 768772 Bridges, 18, 2224
moment-distribution method and, 717725 absolute maximum response, 415421
nodes, 768 approximate analysis for, 475507
rigid, 1415 ASCE Standard Minimum Design Loads
rotations (), 648649 for Buildings and Other Structures, 1718,
slope-deection method and, 644646, 648649, 2530
673675, 681684 cantilever method for, 497504
Joints, method of, 106121, 137139 combinations, 3738
free-body diagrams (FBD) for, 107110 concentrated, 176, 401403, 408415, 415417,
inspection, by, 110 418420
plane truss analysis by, 106121 construction material weight for, 19
procedure for analysis, 113114 dead, 1720
space truss analysis by, 137139 earthquake, 35
zero-force members and, 111112, 138139 environmental, 17, 2437
estimation for structural design, 7
frames (rectangular), 475507
L hydrostatic pressure, 37
Lateral loads, 481504 impact, 24
approximate analysis for, 481504 inuence line applications for responses due to,
axial stress distribution for, 497498 401424
cantilever method for, 497504 International Building Code, 18
inection points for, 483485 lateral, 481504
portal method for, 481497 live, 17, 2024, 403408, 417418
procedures for, 485497, 498504 Manual for Railroad Engineering, 18
rectangular frames, 481504 portal method for, 481497
Least work, method of, 586587, 599606 procedure for analysis of, 177179, 485497,
Link supports, 48, 136 498504
Live loads, 17, 2024, 403408, 417418 relationships between shear and bending moments,
absolute maximum response to, 415421 173199
bridges, 2224 snow, 3235
buildings, 2122 soil pressure, 37
oor minimums, 21 thermal eects, 37
870 Index

uniformly distributed, 403408, 417418 Maxwells law of reciprocal deections, 325326,

vertical, 475480 390
wind, 2432 Member end moments, 649
Local coordinate system, 769770, Member end shears, 649650
772779 Member rotation (), 708710
analytical models, 769770 Member stiness (K) relations, 772779, 786787,
continuous beams, 778779 790791
frames, 772778 global coordinates, 786787
matrix structural analysis, 769770, 772779 local coordinates, 772779
member xed-end force vector (Qf), matrix structural analysis, 772779, 786787,
776, 779 790791
member stiness matrix (k), 773779, structural stiness and, 790791
791792 Moment-area method, 234247
structure stiness matrix (S), 772 beam deection, 234247
trusses, 779 rst theorem, 234235
moment of inertia and, 237238
M procedure for analysis using, 237247
Manual for Railroad Engineering, 18 second theorem, 235236
Matrix structural analysis, 767815, 821850 tangents and, 263237
algebra for, 821836 Moment-distribution method, 707766
analytical model for, 768772 application of, 742725
code numbers for members, 793795 carryover factor (COF), 711
compatibility equations for, 791 carryover moments, 711715
computer program for, 797, 837850 concept of, 717725
computer results, 844848 continuous beams, 725741
continuous beams, 778779, 784, 786 distribution factor (DF), 713716, 718721
coordinate transformations, 780785 xed-end moments (FEM), 716717, 721
data input for, 837843 frames, 741761
degrees of freedom, 770772 joints, balancing, 717725
equilibrium equations for, 788790 sidesway and, 744761
frames, 772778, 780784, 786 sign convention for, 708
Gauss-Jordan elimination method for, stiness (K), 708710, 712716
831835 Moment of inertia, 237238
global coordinate system, 769770, 786787 Muller-Breslaus principle, 353367, 627631
joints, 768772 inuence lines construction, 353367,
local coordinate system, 769770, 772779 627631
matrix inversion, 834835 procedure for analysis, 358367
matrix operations, 824831 qualitative inuence lines and, 358, 627631
member stiness matrix (K), global, 786787 statically determinate structures, 353367
member stiness matrix (k), local, 776779 statically indeterminate structures, 627631
procedure for, 795813 Multiple degrees of indeterminacy, 544547,
stiness (k) relations, 772779, 786795 611613
structure stiness matrix (S), consistent deformations, method of for,
772, 791795 544547
transformation matrix (T), 780785 inuence lines for, 611613
trusses, 779, 784785, 786787 Multistory frames, sidesway and, 688,
types of matrices, 822824 760761
 Index 871

N R
Null matrix, 824 Railroads, live loads on, 2324
Reaction moments (MA), redundants as,
P 513515
Partitioning a matrix, 830831 Reactions, 4680, 103106, 135137, 339341, 370,
Plane structures, 1213, 4445, 4754 378380, 472473, 650
equilibrium, equations of, 4445 beams, 339341, 650
geometrically unstable, 5354 equilibrium method for, 339341
internal stability of, 5054 external forces as, 46
statically determinate, 51 external stability and, 5058
statically indeterminate, 5253 oor systems, 370
supports for, 4749 frames, 339341, 650
unstable (statically), 53 free-body diagrams (FBD) for, 6061
Plane trusses, 89133 inuence lines for, 339341, 370, 378380
assumptions for analysis, 9195 internal stability and, 4750
compound, 97, 128133 plane trusses, 103106
connections, equations of conditions for, procedure for determination of, 6078
100101 proportion method for, 7980
critical form of, 104 redundants, 472473
degree of indeterminacy (i), 103 simply supported structures, 7980
internal stability of, 9599 slope-deection method and, 650
joints, method of, 106121 space trusses, 135137
reactions, 103106 stable structures, 5054
sections, method of, 121128 static determinacy of, 5060
simple, 96, 106218 supports, 4749, 135137, 650
static determinacy of, 100106 trusses, 10316, 135137, 378380
triangular (basic) element, 9596 unstable structures, 5458
zero-force members, 111112 Redundants, 53, 103, 197, 462464, 472473,
Planning phase, 67 508567
Portal method for statically indeterminate structures, approximate analysis and, 472474
481497 bending moments (M) as, 531543
Preliminary structural design, 7 consistent deformations method and,
Pressure, 2425, 2830, 37 508567
dynamic (q), 2425 degree of indeterminacy (i) and, 53, 103,
external coecients (Cp), 2830 509513
hydrostatic, 37 Redundants, (cont.)
soil, 37 exibility coecient (f), 511522
velocity coecient (Kz), 25 frames, 197
wind loads, 2425, 2830 internal forces as, 531543
Primary beam, 509 internally indeterminate structures, 535537
Primary forces, trusses, 94 multiple degrees of indeterminacy and,
Primary structure, 508 544547
Purlins, 8991 plane trusses, 103
reaction moments (MA) as, 513515
Q restraints, 508
Qualitative elastic shapes, 172173 single degree of indeterminacy and, 509531
Qualitative inuence lines, 358, 627631 statically indeterminate structures, 462464
872 Index

Reection, concept of, 426427 inclined legs and, 684688

Reponses, 401424 joint displacement and, 681684
absolute maximum, 415421 moment-distribution method and, 741761
concentrated loads, 401403, 408415, 415417, multistory frames and, 688, 760761
418420 slope-deection method and, 673701
inuence line applications for, 401424 Simply supported structures, 7980
live loads, 403408, 417418 Slope (), 531535
uniformly distributed loads, 403408, 417418 Slope-deection method, 635706
Rigid connections, 14156 beams, 635706
Rigid frame structures, 1112, 4750 bending moments (M), 636640
Rocker supports, 48 concept of, 644651
Roller supports, 16, 48, 136 continuous beams, 651672
Roofs, 3235, 93 degrees of freedom, 646, 673675
snow loads on, 3235 equations, 641, 647648
trusses, 93 equilibrium equations for, 646, 651
Rotation (), 278280, 301312, 648649 xed-end moments (FEM), 640644
joints, 648649 frames, 635351, 673706
virtual work and, 278280, 301312 joints and, 644646, 648649, 673675,
Rotational stiness, 714715 681684
Row matrix, 822 member end moments, 649
member end shears, 649650
S one-end hinged members, 643644
Safety and serviceability checks, 7 rotations () at joints, 648649
Secondary forces, trusses, 9495 sidesway and, 681701
Sections, method of, 121128, 139140 sign convention for, 636638
plane trusses, 121128 support reactions, 650
space trusses, 139140 Slope factor (Cs), 33
Seismic response coecient (CS), 36 Snow loads, 3235
Shear (S), 160225, 341342, 370371 exposure factor (Ce) for, 33
axial force (Q) and, 161167 at roofs (pf), 3233
beams, 160194 slope factor (Cs) for, 33
bending moments (M) and, 160225 sloped roofs (ps), 3334
concentrated loads and, 176 thermal factor (Ct) for, 33
couples or concentrated moments, 177 Soil pressure, 37
diagrams, 167172 Space structures, 13, 44, 9095, 134144
equilibrium method for, 341342 assumptions for analysis, 9195
framed structures, 195215 equilibrium, equations of, 44
inuence lines for, 341342, 370371 joints, method of, 137139
procedures for analysis of, 164167, 177179 reactions, 135137
qualitative elastic shapes and, 172173 sections, method of, 139140
relationships between loads and, 173199 static determinacy of, 137
sign convention for, 162164 supports for, 136
Shear structures, 10 tetrahedron element for, 134135
Sidesway, 673701, 741761 trusses, 9095, 134144
degrees of freedom, 673675 zero-force members, 138139
frames with, 681701, 741761 Square matrix, 822823
frames without, 673681, 741743 Stable structures, 5054
 Index 873

Static determinacy, 5060, 100106, 137, force-deformation relations, 469

195200 frames, 471507, 627651, 673701, 741761
connections, equations of conditions for, 5458, inection points for, 473477, 483485
100101, 137, 197198 inuence lines for, 609634
equilibrium and, 5060 least work, method of, 586587, 599606
external determinacy, 5058 matrix structural analysis of, 767815
frames, 195200 moment-distribution method for, 707766
indeterminacy (i), degree of, 53, 57, 103, procedures for analysis of, 485497, 498504,
197200 515531, 547567
indeterminate structures, 5253 redundancies in, 462464
internal stability, 5054 slope-deection method for, 635706
plane trusses, 100106 static determinacy of, 5253
space trusses, 137 stiness of, 462463
stable structures, 5054 stresses in, 462465
unstable structures, 5358 three-moment equation, 586599
Statically determinate structures, 42458, 462465 trusses, 535537, 610626
beams, 160274, 293301, 313314, 318, Stiness (K), 462463, 708710, 712716, 772779,
338367 786795
deections, 226336, 389392 bending, 709710, 712716
equilibrium of, 4388 code numbers for members, 793795
external stability of, 5058, 95 compatibility equations for, 791
oor systems, 367378 continuous beams, 778779, 786
frames, 195215, 301312, 314315, 319, distribution factors (DF) for, 713716
338353 equilibrium equations for, 788789
geometric methods for, 226274 frames, 772778, 786
girders, 367377 global coordinate relations, 786787
indeterminate structures, comparison to, global member stiness matrix (K), 786787
462465 local coordinate relations, 772779
inuence lines, 337424 local member stiness matrix (k), 773779,
internal stability, 5054, 9599 791792
loadings and, 425458 matrix structural analysis, 772779, 786795
responses to loads, 401424 member (matrix) relations, 790791
shear and bending moments, 160225 member rotation () and, 708710
support reactions, 4788 moment-distribution method and, 708710,
symmetric, 425458 712716
trusses, 89159, 282292, 312313, 318, 377389 rotational, 714715
work-energy methods for, 275336 statically indeterminate structures, 462463,
Statically indeterminate structures, 5253, 459815 708710, 712716
analysis of, 465470 structure (matrix) relations, 791792
approximate analysis for, 471507 structure stiness matrix (S), 772, 791795
beams, 610631, 635672, 707741 trusses, 779, 786787
compatibility conditions for, 461462, 467469 Strain energy (U), 312315
consistent deformations, method of, 508585 beams, 313314
determinate structures, comparison to, 462165 conservation of energy and, 312315
displacement (stiness) methods for, 469470 deection and, 312315
equilibrium of, 465469 frames, 314315
force (exibility) methods for, 469470 trusses, 312313
874 Index

Stress, 462465, 497498 end (simple), 652653

axial, 497498 xed, 16, 48, 254, 592593
statically indeterminate structures, 462465 hinges, 1416, 48, 254255, 643644
Stringers, 13, 367370 moment-distribution method for, 726727
Structural analysis, 316, 1740, 4388, plane structures, 4749
337424, 609634. See also Matrix structural reactions, 4749, 135137, 650
analysis; settlement of statically indeterminate structures,
Statically determinate structures; 464, 568574
Statically indeterminate structures slope-deection method for, 643644, 650,
analytical models for, 1216 652653
bending structures, 1112 space trusses, 136
classication of structures, 712 stresses due to settlements, 464
compression structures, 910 structural use of, 1416, 4749
connections and, 1416 three-moment equation, 592593
engineering projects, role of in, 67 Suspension bridge structure, 89
equilibrium, 4388 Symmetric loadings, 433434, 444446
external stability, 5058 Symmetric matrix, 823
free-body diagrams (FBD) for, 6061 Symmetric structures, 425458
history of, 46 antisymmetric loadings, 434436,
inuence lines, 337424, 609634 446447
internal stability, 4750 axis of symmetry (s) for, 426432
line diagrams for, 1314 behavior of under loadings, 443447
loads, 7, 1740 decomposition of loading, 436443
performance characteristics of, 3 general loadings, 436443, 447
plane structure model, 1213 loading components of, 432443
reactions, 4680 procedure for analysis of, 447455
shear structures, 101 reection and, 426427
space structure model, 13 symmetric loadings, 433434, 444446
static determinacy, 5060
superposition, principle of for, 78 T
supports and, 16 Tangents, beam deection and, 263237
tension structures, 89 Temperature changes, 283284, 464465,
trusses, 10 574577
Structures, see Bridges; Buildings; Trusses consistent deformations method and,
Superposition, 78, 233234 574577
beam deection, method for, 233234 stresses due to, 464465
principle of, 78 trusses and, 283284
Supports, 1416, 4749, 135137, 254255, 464, Tension structures, 89
568574, 592593, 643644, 650, 652653, Tetrahedron truss element, 134135
726727 Thermal factor (Ct), 33
beams, 254255, 650, 652653, 726727 Three-moment equation, 586599
conjugate beams, 254255 application of, 592599
consistent deformations method and, 464, bending moments (M) and, 590591
568574 derivation of, 587592
continuous beam end supports, 652653, xed supports, 592593
726727 slope () continuity and, 587590
 Index 875

Topographic factor (Kzt), 25, 30 Unit (identity) matrix, 823

Transpose of a matrix, 829830 Unstable structures, 5358
Triangular (basic) truss element, 9596
Trusses, 10, 89159, 282292, 312313, 318, V
377389, 535537, 610626, 779, 784785, Velocity pressure coecient (Kz), 25
786787 Vertical loads, 475480
assumptions for analysis, 9195 approximate analysis for, 475480
bridges, 92 girder axial force in, 475479
Castiglianos second theorem for, 318 inection points for, 476477
complex, 133134 rectangular frames, 475480
compound, 97, 128133 Virtual work, 278312
consistent deformations method for, 535537 beam deection by, 293301
coordinate transformations, 784785 deection (
) by, 293312
deection, 282292, 312313, 318 displacement (
), 287279, 282312
external stability, 95 Virtual work, (cont.)
fabrication errors and, 283284 external (Wve), 287279, 281282
force members, 380383 forces (F) for deformable bodies, 280282
global coordinate system, 786787 frame deection by, 301312
ideal, 9394 internal (Wve), 281282
inuence lines for, 377389, 610626 principle of, 278282
internal stability, 9599 procedures for analysis using, 284292, 295301,
local coordinate system, 779 303312
matrix structural analysis, 779, 784785, 786787 rigid-body displacements, 287279, 301312
plane, 89133 rotation (), 278280, 301312
primary forces, 94 truss deection by, 282292
procedures for analysis of, 284292, 383389
reactions, 10316, 135137, 378380
roofs, 93 W
secondary forces, 9495 Wind directionality factor (Kd), 25, 30
simple, 96, 106218 Wind loads, 2432
space, 9095, 134144 building classications for, 27
statically determinate, 89159, 282292, 312313, dynamic pressure (q) and, 2425
318, 377389 external pressure coecients (Cp) for,
statically indeterminate, 535537, 610626 2830
strain energy (U) for, 312313 gust eect factor (G) for, 30
temperature changes and, 283284 importance factor (I), 25, 27
virtual work method for, 282292 topographic factor (Kzt), 25, 30
workenergy methods for, 282292, 312313, velocity pressure coecient (Kz), 25
318 wind directionality factor (Kd), 25, 30
wind speed (V) and, 2426
U Wind speed (V), 2426
Uniformly distributed live loads, 403408, Work (W), total, 276277
417418 Work-energy methods, 275336
absolute maximum response to, 417418 beam deection by, 293301, 313314, 318
inuence line applications for, 403408, Bettis law of reciprocal deections,
417418 325326
876 Index

Castiglianos second theorem, 316325 strain energy (U), 312315

couples, 277 total work (W), 276277
deection (
) by, 275336 truss deection by, 282292, 312313, 318
energy, conservation of, 312315 virtual work, 278312
forces and, 276277
frame deection by, 301312, 314315, 319 Z
Maxwells law of reciprocal deections, 325326 Zero-force members, 111112, 138139
 P
a
B
A
yB
x
L B

Pa

a
M
B
A
yB
x
L B

a
w
B
A
yB
x
L B

M = w2 (2ax a2 x 2)
2
wa2 for 0 x a

w B
A yB
x
B
L

M = 6a
w
(a x) 3
2
wa6 for 0 x a
 P
L L
2 2

A B
A B
ymax
x

PL
4

P
a b
A B
A B
x ymax
L

Pab
L

M
A B
A ymax B
x
L

M
 a
M
A
A B
B
x
L

M (1 a
L
)

Ma
L

A B
A B
ymax
x
L

wL2
8
M = wx
2
(L x)

a
w

A B
A B
x
L

M = wax
2L
(2L a Lx
a
)
0xa
2
M = wa2 (1 Lx )
axL

A B
A B
ymax
x
L

wL2
M = wx
6L
(L2 x 2) 9 3

L
3
 FIXED-END MOMENTS

P
L
2 w
PL PL
8 8
wL2 wL2
20 30
L
L

P
a b
Pab 2 Pa 2b
L2 L2 L
2
w
L
5wL2 5wL2
96 96

a b
Mb
L2
(b 2a) Ma
L2
(2b a)
M
L
6EI
L2

6EI
L2

w
wL2 wL2 L
12 12

a 4EI 2EI
w L L

wa 2 wa 3
12 L2
(6L2 8aL + 3a2) 12 L2
(4L 3a)

L
L